Introduction To Stainless Steel

Section 18: STAINLESS STEEL
Lecture 18.1:
Introduction to Stainless Steel
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To provide an overview of the basic aspects of the stainless steels. To give practical information as an
introduction to the succeeding lectures.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 18.2: Structural Behaviour and Design
Lecture 18.3: Corrosion of Stainless Steel
Lecture 18.4: Fabrication
SUMMARY
A brief history is given of the development of stainless steels. Background information on composition,
stainless properties and differences from carbon steel is provided.
A general overview of the stainless steels by grouping them into families in accordance with their metal-
lurgical structure is introduced.
The lecture continues by giving practical information on designations of alloys in the various systems
used, bolts and nuts, distinguishing the various stainless steels, reasons for their use, product forms
available, and surface finishes.
Typical applications are given to illustrate the use of stainless steel in steel construction.
1. INTRODUCTION
Stainless steels are modern materials. Ever since they became available to industry their use has con-
stantly extended into new applications. This process continues even today.
To make successful use of the stainless steels in building applications, it is necessary to know their prop-
erties, their capabilities regarding corrosion resistance, the availability of product forms and surface
finishes. It is also of interest to be aware of reference applications that prove the success of the selection
of stainless steels many years ago.
This lecture is designed to provide an overview of the stainless steels, their properties and available
product forms, which, together with the succeeding lectures, will enable successful use of them to be
made in designs that will be cost efficient in terms of corrosion resistance, maintenance and durability.
Stainless steels are friendly to the environment; they actively and passively help to keep it clean and
they are recycled to a high degree (50 - 70 %).
The making of stainless steel is a technological art requiring skill and special equipment in order to keep
critical elements within specified limits. Stainless steels contain substantial amounts of expensive ele-
ments such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum, etc. justifying their higher cost of approximately five times
that of carbon steel. However, the material costs are only part of the total cost of a structure. A good
design will take advantage of the properties of the stainless steels and result in a cost effective solution
which can be demonstrated by life cycle cost calculations.
An up-to-date design approach takes into consideration the effects of maintenance, periodic repairs,
replacement and shut downs in addition to environmental aspects.
A stainless steel structure designed on the basis of a carbon steel design results almost certainly in an
unsatisfactory solution.
2. HISTORY
It has been known for nearly 200 years that modest amounts of chromium alloyed to common steel im-
proves its corrosion resistance in air and water and that increasing amounts of chromium increased this
Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel 2357
ESDEP – European Steel Design Education Programme
resistance. These investigations were made in 1821 by Berthier in France. This knowledge however
could not be used in steel making because of limitations in technology. It was impossible at that time
to reduce the high carbon content of melts to sufficiently low levels, or to control the chromium content.
The chromium content was always either too low or too high. High carbon and/or chromium content
resulted in brittle alloys, a low chromium content in insufficient corrosion resistance.
After the turn of the century numerous researchers worked on these alloys and published papers. Gold-
schmidt in Germany found a method of producing ferro-chromium with a very low carbon content. On
the basis of this discovery A. Portevien and L. Guillet in France and W. Giesen in Germany published
papers with the results of their research on martensitic 13% and on ferritic 17% chromium steels between
1904 and 1909. L.Guillet presented a study on chromium-nickel steels with an austenitic structure in
1909.
These alloys were already similar to today's alloys and the three major metallurgical families of stainless
steels, namely the martensitic (hardenable by heat treatment), ferritic (non-hardenable) and the austenitic
(non-hardenable) steels. At the same time P. Monnartz in Germany defined the role of passivity in cor-
rosion resistance. These researches took place in laboratories and from 1910 - 1915 attempts were
made to develop larger-scale practical production for the stainless steels. This work involved melting
the alloys in greater quantities, converting the ingots into semi-finished forms, and fabricating them into
equipment. Although there were many researchers involved in the development of the first stainless
steels, credit is usually given to the following metallurgists for having made major advances and contri-
butions to the art:
• Brearley in England on martensitic steels.
• Dansitzen and Becket in the USA on ferritic steels.
• Maurer and Strauss in Germany in austenitic steels.
3. WHAT IS STAINLESS STEEL?

Ordinary steel is composed of iron (Fe) with certain other elements which result from steelmaking such
as carbon (C), manganese (Mn), silicon (Si), phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S). A typical unalloyed carbon
steel used in construction has the following chemical analysis (in % of weight):
C Mn Si P S Fe
0,17 0,60 0,25 0,045 0,045 > 98
If a minimum of 11% of chromium is added to such a steel a “stainless steel” is obtained. The chemical
analysis (again in % of weight) thus becomes:
C Mn Si P S Cr Fe
0,10 1,00 1,00 0,045 0,030 11,0 ≤ 87
Iron is still the dominant element but the addition of chromium requires also minor changes in the con-
tent of manganese and silicon to facilitate steel making, and of phosphorus and sulphur. These latter
two elements are impurities and have a detrimental influence on a number of properties of the steel,
such as the corrosion resistance and the weldability. A steel with 11% of chromium represents the
simplest form of a stainless steel. It has sufficient corrosion resistance to resist a mild aqueous environ-
ment.
The addition of chromium to a steel results in the formation of a thin, tight, adherent and ductile layer
of primarily chromium oxide on the surface of the steel provided that it is exposed to air or another oxi-
dizing environment. Since this layer conveys passivity to the steel, which means that it does not actively
corrode, it is also called a passive layer. It is responsible for the ability of the steel to resist corrosion.
The thickness of this very thin layer is of the order of 1 - 10nm (1 nanometre = 10-9 m or 0,000001 mm).
The passive layer is not inert or of a given, unchanging thickness or composition, but depends on the
composition of the steel, the treatment given to the surface and the corrosive influence of the environ-
ment it is exposed to. If changes to these conditions occur the passive layer adapts itself.
2358 Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel
Section 18: Stainless Steel
It is also possible that the passive layer is damaged by tools during manufacturing (milling, grinding,
polishing, drilling, tapping) or by accident. Under normal conditions (in the presence of air) the passive
layer forms itself anew; it is self-healing. This interesting capability of stainless steel is of great practical
importance as no special measures are needed to renew or repair the corrosion resisting layer.
Coatings, which are applied for the protection against corrosion of other materials, do not, because
of their nature, cover the surfaces entirely and are prone to damage. Damage to coating is usually
the starting point of corrosion.
The family of the stainless steels comprises a great number of different alloys. They were each developed
to meet specific needs such as higher corrosion resistance, improved mechanical properties, such as
higher strength, hardness or ductility, metallurgical stability under the influence of welding heat, and in
special cases improved machinability. Since all these steels contain at least 11% of chromium, they are
all protected by the passive layer forming spontaneously on the surface.
The designation of “rustless” or “stainless” steel goes back to the early years of metallurgical develop-
ment. Its meaning was that these novel alloys of steel would not rust or stain when exposed to the atmos-
phere or to water. This designation is still very much in use today but it can be misleading to the unin-
formed designer. A much wider interpretation that “stainless steels” are resistant to every conceivable
corrosive environment is not correct. Keeping this limitation in mind it is nevertheless a very practical
designation for the all encompassing description of the entire family of these steels.
4. WHY USE STAINLESS STEEL?

4.1 Reasons
There are a number of important reasons why stainless steels are used extensively in structures. They
are:
• Excellent atmospheric corrosion resistance
• Aesthetics
• Hygienic aspects/cleanliness
• Heat resistance
Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance and Durability
Austenitic stainless steels have a long history of successful applications in the building industry. Their
excellent corrosion resistance is the prime reason for low maintenance costs and excellent durability.
These properties are becoming increasingly important in any building project.
Aesthetics
The surface of stainless steels can be obtained in many different qualities such as mirror polished, ground
with different grit sizes, brushed, cold rolled, sand blasted, roll textured and coloured. Stainless steel
combines aesthetically with any other material without dominating it yet maintaining its timeless elegance
especially if slender (but strong) elements are used.
Hygienic Aspects and Cleanliness
Stainless steel has a hard, smooth and uniform surface that lends itself for demanding applications where
hygiene and cleanliness are important. For these reasons it finds many uses in hospitals, laboratories,
baths and swimming pools.
Heat Resistance
The stainless steels are heat resisting materials. They outperform any other conventional structural mate-
rial in fire or high temperature applications. Their use is indicated for fire escape systems, fire doors,
enclosures, cable trays, chimneys, etc. (See also Section 5.1).
4.2 Further Favourable Properties of Stainless Steel
There are a number of advantageous properties, which can be utilised in certain applications:
• strength
• high energy absorption
• ease of fabrication

• favourable life cycle costs

• recycling and protection of the environment.
Strength
Stainless steels have very interesting mechanical properties that can be varied within wide limits due
to their response to cold work. Designs that make good use of the advantageous mechanical properties
are cost efficient.
High Energy Absorption
The austenitic stainless steels are tough and ductile resulting in an exceptionally high plastic deformation
before they fail. These properties may be important in safety barriers, blast walls and for aseismic build-
ing frames.
Ease of Fabrication
The stainless steels can be fabricated just like conventional metallic materials. They can be sheared,
cut, sawn, bent, drawn, roll formed, drilled, milled, welded, extruded, ground and polished.
Favourable Life Cycle Costs
It has often been shown that the use of stainless steels results in favourable life cycle costs which take
into account all connected costs over the expected life of an application. Life cycle cost calculations are
becoming increasingly important in view of the high costs of maintenance, shut-downs, demolition and
replacement of equipment and parts. Life cycle cost calculations include such items as initial installation
costs, maintenance costs, the cost of shut-downs, repair and replacement costs, interest rates and the
effect of inflation.
Recycling and Protection of the Environment
It is not well known that the recycling of stainless steel is already developed to a high degree. Depend-
ing on economic conditions the recycling amounts to between 50% and 80%, a percentage not achieved
with most other materials. One reason for this favourable aspect is the fact that stainless steel scrap
is a valuable commodity which can be sold at any time.
Recycling involves storage, transportation and handling in different locations. Stainless steel, because
of its corrosion resistance, has absolutely no effect on the environment even if it is left exposed to the
weather for years.
Stainless steel plays also an important active part in the protection of the environment. It is used exten-
sively in vehicle exhaust systems and catalytic convertors, sewage treatment plants, chimneys, smoke
scrubbing and other such applications.
5. TYPES OF STAINLESS STEEL

It is practical to group the numerous different stainless steels in accordance with their metallurgical struc-
ture. On this basis the following groups can be distinguished:
• Martensitic stainless steels
• Ferritic stainless steels
• Austenitic stainless steels
• Austenitic/ferritic (duplex) stainless steels
• Precipitation hardening stainless steels
Figure 1 provides a graphical overview of these groups with respect to chromium and nickel content.
In structural applications, the austenitic grades are used predominately.
5.1 Austenitic Stainless Steels
The favourable corrosion resistance of austenitic stainless steels due to their chromium content is com-
bined with favourable mechanical properties (good ductility and toughness) and good weldability due
to a certain nickel content (see Figure 1).
Austenitic stainless steels contain chromium (17-20%) nickel (8-17%), and they have a low carbon con-
tent (usually less than 0,10%).

They can contain other elements such as molybdenum (2 - 6%), titanium or niobium in order to stabilize
the structure and sulphur which is added to improve machinability.
The chemical analysis of a typical austenitic stainless steel is:
C ≤ 0,10% Cr = 16,5-18,5% Ni = 10,5-13,5% Mo = 2,0-2,5% Ti ≥ 5x%C
Austenitic stainless steels in the most corrosion resisting state (solution annealed) are non-magnetic.
For higher strength they can be cold worked by rolling, bending, pressing, etc. which can make them
slightly magnetic. They are readily weldable.
Figure 1 Types of stainless steel
Typical applications are in architecture, roofing, fasteners, food processing, chemical and pharmaceu-
tical industries, hospitals, medical uses, transportation, household, chimneys, paper industry, nuclear
installations, watch casings and straps, etc.
The mechanical behaviour of austenitic stainless steel is highly influenced by the cold working process.
Data for typical steels are given in Table 1 and in Figure 2 by the stress-strain diagram. It shows also
the significant difference of the Young's modulus.
Figure 2 Stress – strain relationship of ordinary and stainless steels

5.2 Further Stainless Alloys

There are a number of stainless steels that according to their specific properties are used in special
applications. In certain cases they may also be used in building structures. They are:
• martensitic stainless steels
• ferritic stainless steels
• austenitic/ferritic stainless steels
• precipitation hardening stainless steels.
Martensitic Stainless Steels
These steel contain from 12% to 18% chromium and from 0,12% to 0,9% carbon. Due to the presence
of rather high carbon contents they can be hardened. Some of these steels contain modest amounts
of nickel (up to 2,5%) and molybdenum (up to 0,6%) in order to improve their corrosion resistance. Other
elements added can be titanium, vanadium and niobium. A high carbon content reduces the corrosion
resistance.
Martensitic stainless steels are magnetic and they are not welded as a rule.
Typical applications are in mechanical engineering for pump shafts, valves, dies, turbine blades and
roller bearings. Another area of application is for household and industrial knife blades.
Ferritic Stainless Steels
Ferritic stainless steels contain from 12% to 18% chromium just like the martensitic stainless steels but
their carbon content is usually less than 0,08% although sometimes it may be up to 0,15%. There are
special ferritic steels with a chromium content of up to 29%.
These steels can contain other elements such as molybdenum (up to 1,2%), titanium or niobium (both
these elements are used to stabilize the structure) and sulphur which is added to improve machinability.
For higher strength, nitrogen is added in small amounts, from 0,10 - 0,30%.
Ferritic steels are magnetic. With proper precautions they can be welded.
Typical applications are vehicle exhaust systems, containers, hot water tanks, dish washers, washing
machines, kitchen tools.
Austenitic/Ferritic Stainless Steels (Duplex Steels)
Duplex stainless steels have a high chromium content of 20 - 25%, a low nickel content of 5 - 9%, a
varying molybdenum content of 0,2 - 3% and a low carbon content of less than 0,06%. They contain
nitrogen in amounts of 0,07 - 0,20% to increase strength and to stabilize the duplex structure and some-
times copper of up to 2,5%.
Duplex stainless steels are magnetic and can be welded with proper precautions.
Typical applications are in the paper, chemical, oil and building industries.
Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels
Solution annealed austenitic stainless steels have a very modest 0,2% yield strength. On the other hand
their corrosion resistance and ductility (toughness) are at a maximum. Over the last 50 years many
attempts have been made to combine high mechanical strength with good corrosion resistance. The
compromise between these opposing properties resulted in a number of precipitation hardening stain-
less steels. However they require extensive experience from both the steel producer and the user to
select the appropriate alloy for a given application.
The high mechanical properties are obtained by a closely controlled heat treatment which results in in-
creased hardness, higher yield and ultimate tensile strength and improved fatigue resistance.
The martensitic and semi-austenitic precipitation hardening stainless steels are magnetic. The austenitic
steels are not magnetic.
The precipitation hardening stainless steels can be welded provided suitable procedures are followed.
Alloys with high phosphorus content are difficult to weld.
Typical applications are in aeronautical and space applications, parts for turbines, motors and compres-
sors, corrosion resisting springs, missiles, pressure vessels and highly stressed parts in research fa-
cilities.
6. DESIGNATION OF STAINLESS STEELS

There are several alternatives for designating stainless steels. They are mentioned here because they
are often found in technical descriptions.
6.1 Descriptive System
This system makes use of the elements added to the steels. It becomes cumbersome with the more
highly alloyed steels as the designations become long. The elements are referred to in descending
order of contained weight. Thus we have:
• Chromium stainless steels
• Chromium-nickel stainless steels
• Chromium-nickel-molybdenum stainless steels
In the case of a low carbon steel or a steel stabilized with titanium one would say:
• Low carbon chromium-nickel-molybdenum stainless steel.
• Chromium-nickel-titanium stainless steel.
The advantage of this system is that even a not-so-well informed reader understands readily what kind
of steel is referred to. For a more exact description it would be necessary to add the content of each
element in % of weight.
6.2 AISI System
The system introduced by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) is in general use world-wide. It
defines each grade of steel with a number and if needed with an additional letter. Examples are as
follows:
L = Low carbon C = High carbon
N = Nitrogen B = Lower carbon than C
Se = Selenium A = Lower carbon than B
Ti = Titanium F = Free machining (high sulphur content)
Cb = Columbium = Niobium Nb
Thus 304LN stainless steel means that it is an austenitic steel with low carbon content (0,03% maximum)
and nitrogen. Nominal chromium and nickel contents are 18 - 20% and 8 - 12% respectively.
The 200 and 300 series are reserved for austenitic steels, the 400 series for martensitic and ferritic steels
and the 600 series for precipitation hardened steels.
For the exact chemical composition and properties of a steel, it is necessary to refer to the standard.
Some typical designations are:
Type 201: C = 0,15% maximum Mn = 5,5-7,5%
Cr = 16-18% Ni = 3,5-5,5%
Type 304: C = 0,08% maximum
Cr = 18-20% Ni = 8-10,5%
6.3 Material Number System (Werkstoff No.)
This German system is widely used in other counties as well. Each designation consists of 5 numbers and
for details of composition and properties of the steels one has to refer to the standard. As an example,
material number 1.4306 will be considered:
The first digit is 1 and indicates that it is a steel.
The two following digits 43 signify chemically resisting steels without molybdenum, columbium or titanium.
The last two digits 06 define the exact alloy.
In addition to the designation 43 there are also the following ones:
40 without molybdenum, columbium or titanium, nickel less than 2,5%
41 with molybdenum, without columbium or titanium, nickel less than 2,5%
44 with molybdenum, without columbium or titanium, nickel more than 2,5%

45 with copper, columbium or titanium, nickel more than 2,5%
A steel to material number 1.4306 has the following composition:
C = 0,03% maximum
Cr = 18-20% Ni = 10-12,5%
It corresponds therefore to AISI type 304L stainless steel although the lower limit of nickel is higher by 2%.
6.4 Abbreviated System of Designation
This system is widely used by a number of standards. It consists of a series of letters and numbers as
in the following examples:
X 2 Cr Ni 18 11
X means that it is a highly alloyed steel
2 indicates the carbon content in 1/100th of a percent, e.g. C = 0,02%
Cr stands for chromium and 18 is the content in %
Ni stands for nickel and 11 provides an indication of the content in %.
A steel to X 2 Cr Ni 18 11 corresponds to AISI type 304L and to material number 1.4306.
6.5 Application in Standards
National standards at present make use of these systems as follows:
AISI-System: - British Standards (BSI)
- Japanese Standards (JIS)
Abbreviated System: - Italian Standards (UNI)
- German Standards (DIN)
- Spanish Standards (UNE)
- EURONORM
- ISO/DR 2604/4
- The French Standards (AFNOR) use different letters but similar numbers
(X 2 Cr Ni 18 11 = Z 2 CN 18 10)
Numbering System: - German Material Numbers
- Swedish Standards (SIS)
- ISO/DR 683/13 and DR 2604/1-75
(Swedish and ISO standards numbering systems are not explained in this lecture)
In view of this rather confusing situation it is hoped that in the near future only 2 systems will prevail:
• EURONORM making use of the abbreviated system and
• The Unified Numbering System (UNS) which is based on the AISI-System.
7. FABRICATION AND PRODUCTS

7.1 Product Forms
For special applications many of the stainless steel alloys are available in the cast form or as
forgings. Smaller parts can be produced by powder metallurgy but by far the greatest use is made of
wrought product forms that are available as follows:
• Plates, hot rolled
• Sheet, coil and strip, cold rolled
• Tubes seamless (round only)
• Tubes welded (round, square, rectangular)
• Bars, hot rolled (round, square, rectangular)

• Bars, cold rolled (round, square, rectangular)

• Hollow bars, hot rolled (round)
• Shafts, cold drawn or ground (round)
• Bars and wires, cold drawn (round)
• Concrete reinforcing bars (plain/round)
• Concrete reinforcing bars (ribbed)
• Concrete reinforcing nets
• Fasteners (screws, nuts, washers, anchor bolts, etc.)
• Sections are available in the extruded form but it is more economical to cold form them in the
brake press or by roll forming.
7.2 Cold Working
The strength of austenitic stainless steels cannot be improved by heat treatment. Higher strength levels
can be easily obtained by cold working, e.g. cold rolling, roll forming and press brake bending. Typically,
15% cold working doubles the 0,2% yield strength. It is possible to order material to the strength levels
required. Cold worked material may have a slightly reduced corrosion resistance.
For details refer to Lecture 18.4, Fabrication.
7.3 Weldability
The austenitic stainless steels can be welded with all known processes but for the other metallurgical
groups restrictions apply. Whatever the grade of stainless steel which has to be welded it is necessary
to select the most cost effective procedure.
Stainless steels for structural applications are selected primarily for their corrosion resisting properties.
It must be assured that the weld matches the properties of the base material.
Austenitic steels can be welded to structural carbon steel by observing proper precautions.
For details refer to Lecture 18.4, Fabrication.
7.4 Finishes
Numerous finishes are available for surfaces of stainless steel parts providing the architect/engineer
with a wide range of effects. Cold rolled sheet, strip, tubing and bars can be obtained with the following
finishes:
• mirror polish
• ground with different grit sizes from very fine to coarse
• brushed
• dull (pickled or grit blasted)
• as rolled.
In addition sheet is obtainable in a great number of patterned and textured surfaces produced by rolling.
Stainless steel surfaces can be coloured by a special process.
8. BOLTS AND NUTS
Screws, bolts and nuts made of various grades of stainless steel are grouped by ISO Standard 3506
on the basis of the following three metallurgical structures:
• Austenitic parts
• (F) Ferritic parts
• Martensitic parts
There are steel groups, which are identified with abbreviations as follows:
• A1, A2 and A4 for austenitic steels
• F1 for ferritic steels
• C1, C3 and C4 for martensitic steels.
For structural application only A2 and A4 should be used, since the rest of the groups have a reduced
corrosion resistance.

Table 2 summarises the designation of fastening elements.

Bolts to A2 and A4 can be obtained in 3 grades of ultimate tensile strength:
• 500 N/mm2 abbreviated as 50. The condition of the alloy is soft as obtained from a solution an-
nealing treatment resulting in the highest corrosion resistance.
• 700 N/mm2 abbreviated as 70. The condition of the alloy is moderately cold worked and the cor-
rosion resistance can be reduced to some degree. This strength class is standard and corres-
ponds to the most common commercial quality.
Stocks of suppliers are based on this strength class and the available selection is greatest.
• 800 N/mm2 abbreviated as 80. The condition of the alloy is heavily cold worked and its corrosion
resistance might be reduced in comparison with strength class 70. The possibilities of delivery
from stock are reduced.
Table 3 provides an overview of the mechanical properties of these bolts.
Nuts without indication of a strength class correspond to class 80, e.g. the highest class. The strength
classes of 70 and 50 are only marked on them if the strength test indicates that they did not correspond
to the highest class.
Without exception bolts should have rolled threads since cut or milled threads have a higher tendency
to seize which can result in lower strength of a connection. Screws of stainless steel should always be
assembled with a suitable lubricant as the frictional resistance between two parts made of stainless
steel is significantly higher as compared with carbon steel bolts.
Bolts designation in accordance with ISO 3506 (hexagonal head and hollow head cap screws) have
to be marked from size M5 and larger according to Table 4.
9. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Table 5 gives a list of structural applications of stainless steels. Some examples are given below of im-
portant applications using stainless steel products.
1. Chrysler Building, New York
Erected 1926 - 1929
The entire spire down to the first platform is covered in AISI type 304 stainless steel. It was cleaned
in 1961 and found to be in perfect condition despite the aggressive New York atmosphere and
closeness to the ocean.
2. Church of Vimodrone, Italy
Erected 1990 - 1991
The church roof, a reinforced concrete membrane, is in part supported by two hanger rods of
70 mm diameter and 18 m length. The material selected was AISI type 316LN stainless steel.
Architect: Guglielmo Giani
Structural engineers: Antonio Migliacci and Danilo Campagna
3. Church of Vimodrone, Italy
Attachment of a hanger rod to the concrete church roof described under 2 above.
4. Free standing insulated chimney made of stainless steel
Outside: AISI type 304 or 316
Inside: AISI type 321, 316 or 317
5. Planetarium, Stuttgart
Erected 1977
The roof with a total weight of 870 tonnes is carried by a spider like structure with 6 legs designed
as trusses made of tubes. The material chosen was AISI type 316.
Architect: Wilfred Beck-Erlang
Structural engineer: Ing. Büro Pieckert
Photos: Beck-Erlang, Baacke.

6. Planetarium, Stuttgart
Detail of one of the 42 suspension points for the planetarium roof of the structure described under
5 above.
7. Floor Grating
Non-slip floor grating made of stainless steel AISI type 304 or 316 as used in the chemical, phar-
maceutical, food processing, beverage, and plating industries.
8. Eurotunnel
720,000 prefabricated concrete segments for the tunnel lining were equipped with AISI type 304
stainless steel attachments for transportation, handling and positioning the segments inside the
tunnel.
9. Tower, Italy
Advertising Tower of 22m height at Calbusera in an industrial area of Milan, Italy. The tower is
covered with 500m2 of dark blue coloured stainless steel sheets to AISI type 316.
Design: Giovanni Baroni, Gerardo Genghini and Massimo Pellacini
10. CONCLUDING SUMMARY

• For structural applications, predominant use of austenitic grades of the stainless steels is
made, although the Duplex grades will make rapid advances in the near future.
• Despite higher initial costs, structures in stainless steel are often the most economic solution.
This economy can be demonstrated by life cycle cost calculations as owners of structures
take more and more interest in total costs over the life of structures.
• Economic stainless steel structures have to be designed on the basis of the specific
properties of the stainless steels.
• Higher strength levels obtained by cold forming allows weight reductions to be made. In
addition no corrosion allowance or protection is necessary.
• The dominating advantage of the stainless steels is their corrosion resistance resulting in no
requirement for a protective system, little or no maintenance over the life time and the
elimination of costs and inconvenience due to repairs, shut downs and replacement.
11. ADDITIONAL READING

[1] Les Aciers Inoxydables (1990), Les éditions de physique, F-91944 Les Ulis/Cédex A/France, ISBN
2-86883-142-7.
[2] AISI Publication No. 9014, Design Guidelines for the Selection and Use of Stainless Steel.
[3] Eurocode 3: “Design of Steel Structures”: Part 1, Annex S - The use of stainless steel, CEN (in prep.)
[4] Zulassung Nichtrostende Stähle, Institute für Bautechnik, Berlin, Feh. 1989.

Table 1 The Material Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steel, DIN

Material Minimum 0,2%
Material Abbreviated System yield strength
Number System of Designation [N/mm2]
1.4301 X 5 Cr Ni 18 10 195
1.4541 X 6 Cr Ni Ti 18 10 Solution 200
1.4401 X 5 Cr Ni Mo 17 12 2 annealed 205
1.4571 X 6 Cr Ni Mo 17 12 2 210
1.4301 X 5 Cr Ni 18 10 350
K 700 K 700
1.4541 X 6 Cr Ni Ti 18 10 Cold formed 350
K 700 K 700 to strength
1.4401 X 5 Cr Ni Mo 17 12 2 level 350
K 700 K 700 indicated
1.4571 X 6 Cr Ni Mo 17 12 2 350
K 700 K 700
Table 2 Designation of Fastening Elements made of Corrosion

Resisting Steels to ISO 3506
Division into 3 metallurgical groups:
- (A) austenitic
- (F) ferritic
- (C) martensitic
Steel group Austenitic Ferritic Austenitic
Identification
of steel groups A1 A2 A4 F1 C1 C4 C3
Strength
classes 50 70 80 45 60 50 70 80
Soft Cold Heavily Soft Cold Soft Heat Heat

worked cold worked treated treated
worked

Table 3 Mechanical Properties of Fasteners made of

Austenitic Stainless Steels (ISO 3506)
Bolts
Material Property Range of Stress at 0,2%
Grade Tensile strength1)
grade class diameter permanent strain1)
fu (N/mm2)
fyb (N/mm2)
Austenitic A1, A2, A4 50 ≤ M39 210 500
A2, A4 70 ≤ M202) 450 700
> M20 to ≤ M30 250 500
A2, A4 80 ≤ M202) 600 800
Note: Specified values for minima.
1)
All values are calculated and related to the stress cross-section of the thread.
2)
For property classes 70 and 80, values must be agreed with the manufacturer for lengths
greater than 8 diameters or for sizes greater than M30 and M20 respectively.
Table 4 Marking of Screws and Nuts

Manufacturer's Identification
A 2 - 70
Short designation of material:
A = Austenitic chromium-nickel (molybdenum) steel
Short designation of steel group:
1 = Free machining steel with sulphur
2 = Chromium-nickel steel
4 = Chromium-nickel-molybdenum steel
Short designation of strength group:
50 = 500 N/mm2
70 = 700 N/mm2
80 = 800 N/mm2

Table 5 List of structural applications

GENERIC
SPECIFIC APPLICATION PRODUCT FORMS
APPLICATION
Lattice structures - foot bridges Cold formed sections, tubulars
- roof trusses and hollow sections
- space-frames (roofs)
- power transmission masts
Cladded structures - roof and wall cladding Sheet and hot rolled sections
- stressed skins
- control rooms
- freight containers
- lorry/coach bodies
Columnar structures - high mast lighting columns Cold formed sheet or plate,
- telephone poles tubulars
- chimneys
- street furniture
General structures - staircases/stairtowers Cold formed sections, plate,
- walkways tubulars and hollow sections
- handrailing/balustrades
- balconies
- overhead gantries
- racking
- turnstiles
- bus shelters
- swimming pool accessories
- external lift guides
- silos/bunkers/chutes/hoppers
- air conditioning components
- paint shop crane rails
Building frames - seismic resistant frames Hot rolled sections
Preformed - blast walls Sheet, plate, bar and
components - floor planks extrusions
- cable trays
- ventilation louvres
- glazing bars
- heat shields
- building accessories (shelf angles,
lintels, reinforcement bar, fixings
etc).

Lecture 18.2:
Structural Behaviour and Design
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To discuss the mechanical behaviour of stainless steel and to examine how this leads to differences
in structural behaviour of members composed of stainless steel and carbon steel. Other factors that
a designer should consider are also covered.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The designer of stainless steel structures has to consider carefully the selection of material grade. The
austenitic grades are appropriate for the great majority of applications. Greater use will be made of cold
formed open sections and welded components as hot rolled sections may either be unavailable or un-
economic. The non-linear and strain hardening characteristics of stainless steel necessitates the use of
different design curves to those applicable for carbon steel and introduces difficulties for plastic global
analysis. Compared to carbon steel structures, serviceability criteria are more important with stainless
steel structures.
1. INTRODUCTION
Stainless steel has been used for over 50 years in construction, mainly in fixings, fasteners and cladding
applications. Certain industries, such as the nuclear, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, paper-making and
mining industries, impose greater demands on materials than those met in common construction. These
demands relate to durability and corrosion resistance. In many instances stainless steel can provide a
maintenance-free, cost effective, structural solution. Stainless steel can also provide exceptional ductility,
fire resistance and non-magnetic properties, all of which may be required in particular circumstances.
In addition to these advantages, stainless steel can provide extremely cleanable and hygienic surfaces.
It finds therefore wide application in food processing and preparation, and in medical fields.
Stainless steel is therefore used as a constructional material, and often has to withstand significant loads.
It is important to realise that the verification of a stainless steel structure requires similar checks to those
used for carbon steel structures. However, because of differences in material characteristics between
stainless steel and carbon steel, the design curves and formulations applicable to each material also
differ.
It is worth remarking at this stage that a greater amount of design effort can normally be justified for
stainless steel because of the relatively higher initial cost of the raw material. This applies to the design
of components (i.e. members and connections) and, in the case of structures where aesthetics are im-
portant, to the initial planning to reduce expensive finishing operations. For example, in the case of the
handrail of a balustrade, hiding the handrail splice joints in the upright members considerably reduces
any weld blending operations and leads to a much improved end product.
2. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 General
For the designer who is not familiar with stainless steel [1], there are a number of potential difficulties
and pitfalls:
Lecture 18.2: Structural Behaviour and Design 2371

i. There are apparently a bewildering number of stainless steel grades to choose from, and pos-
sible further confusion arises from the existence of the number of different designation systems
in use today. Lecture 18.1 discusses these designation systems and their variants.
ii. There is a common misconception that stainless steel does not suffer corrosion whereas in
certain adverse circumstances it may, in fact, suffer surface staining or even more severe attack.
This behaviour emphasises the need to select an appropriate grade of stainless steel.
iii. The range of hot produced stainless steel sections is smaller than that for carbon steel, particu-
larly for less commonly specified grades of stainless steel.
iv. As compared to carbon steel, the efforts of the designer in stainless steel have a greater bear-
ing on the success of fabrication operations, and indeed on whether the structure can be built
at all. In particular, this consideration applies to members and structures fabricated by welding.
2.2 Choice of Material Grade
Of the various groups of stainless steel (see Lecture 18.1) it is the austenitic steels which are the most
useful for construction. These stainless steels offer the best combination of corrosion resistance, strength,
formability, weldability and economy. In certain circumstances the more highly alloyed duplex steels
with their superior strengths and corrosion resistance, or the cheaper ferritic steels but of lower corrosion
resistance, may be considered.
To select the most appropriate grade of stainless steel the following must be taken into account:
a. the environment of the application and the degree of corrosion resistance required.
b. the fabrication route.
c. surface finish.
d. strength.
e. product availability.
f. economy.
2.3 Availability of Structural Forms
The designer should be aware that not all structural forms are available in all the various grades of stain-
less steel. This, in particular, applies to sections where it may be impossible to obtain, say, an I-beam
in the less commonly used grades. A brief overview of product availability is given below.
Sheets and Plates
These products are widely available in all grades. However there may be some restrictions for particular
high strength grades (such as the duplex grades) in very thin gauges due to the difficulty in cold rolling.
Sheet and plate products are the starting point for cold formed or welded shapes.
Tubular Products
A wide variety of seamless and welded tubular products is available in commonly specified grades, e.g.
304, 316, 304L and 316L, and in grades which are often used in process pipework, e.g. certain duplex
grades.
Bar Products
These products are widely available.
Hot Extruded Products
Hot extruded products may be suitable for large volume runs of complex cross-section, e.g. glazing bars.
Further advice should be sought.
Hot Rolled Products
They exist for the more common grades up to a maximum dimension (depth or width) of about 300mm.
In some European countries these products are difficult to obtain or are very expensive compared to
fabricated (cold formed or welded) equivalents.
Cold Drawn Products
Only very small sizes are presently available, e.g. angles up to 50x50x3mm, and then only in a small
range of grades. Such products have high yield strength properties due to the work hardening imparted
during the drawing process.
2372 Lecture 18.2: Structural Behaviour and Design

Cold Rolled/Cold Bent Products

These products are used commonly as structural sections and are supplied in all grades. They are gen-
erally cheaper than hot produced sections, cold drawn sections or sections fabricated by welding. How-
ever, because stainless steel work hardens considerably, the forming loads are greater (by about 50%
in the case of the austenitic steels) than geometrically equivalent carbon steel sections. As a result
shorter lengths of stainless steel sections can be cold bent. Allied with this is the length capacity of brake
presses. Thus, in all but small structures, there is a tendency to have more splice joints in stainless
steel than in carbon steel. The designer should liaise with the fabricator to establish potential length
limitations at an early stage in the design process.
3. MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
3.1 Stress-Strain Relationships
3.1.1 Basic stress-strain behaviour
The stress-strain behaviour of stainless steels differs from that of carbon steel in a number of respects:
a. Non-linearity
The most important difference between stainless and carbon steels is in the shape of the stress-strain
curve. Whereas carbon steel typically exhibits linear elastic behaviour up to the yield stress and a plateau
before strain hardening is encountered, stainless steel has a more rounded response with no well-de-
fined yield stress (see Figure 1). Therefore, stainless steel “yield” strengths are generally quoted in terms
of a proof strength defined for a particular offset permanent strain (conventionally the 0,2% strain) as
indicated in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Typical stress- strain curves
b. Non-symmetry of tensile and compressive behaviour

Stainless steel may exhibit quite different stress-strain behaviour in tension and compression. For the
annealed condition, the stress-strain curves tend to be (although not always) more non-linear in tension
than in compression. This behaviour does not necessarily occur for materials which have been cold
worked.
c. Anisotropy
Except perhaps for the annealed condition, stainless steel displays differences in stress-strain behaviour
for coupons aligned parallel and transversely to the rolling direction, i.e. it is anisotropic. For austenitic
grades, the strength of a tensile transverse coupon tends to be lower than that of a longitudinal coupon.
This observation is recognised by national and international codes in that transverse coupons are nor-
mally specified for proving tests.
Thus, when non-linearity, non-symmetry and anisotropy are considered, a full description of material
behaviour is characterised by four stress-strain curves.
3.1.2 Factors affecting stress-strain behaviour

a. Strain-rate
Stainless steels tend to be more sensitive to a change in testing rate than are carbon steels. Figure 2
shows some results for 304L and 316L materials for fast strain rates. Generally, an increase in strain
rate leads to higher ultimate strengths and lower ductility.
Figure 2 Strain-rate effects on 304L and 316L materials
b. Room-temperature creep
In common with some other metal alloys, although not with carbon steel, stainless steel is subject to
creep-like deformation at room temperature [2]. Figure 3 shows some results for 304 material. This facet
of behaviour may only become a design consideration where high levels of loading (i.e. near the design
limit) are applied for long periods (measured in months and years). Creep may be manifested by increased
beam deflection. If long-term deflection is an issue, it is tentatively recommended to restrict the service-
ability stresses arising from long term loading to 0,6σ0,2 where σ0,2 is the actual 0,2% proof stress of the
material. It should be noted that austenitic materials strengthened by the addition of nitrogen are more
susceptible to room temperature creep when loaded to the same proportion of their yield strength.
Figure 3 Creep elongation vs. normalized stress
3.2 Cold Working

Austenitic stainless steels, in particular, develop high mechanical strengths when cold worked. This
behaviour is due in part to a partial transformation of austenite to martensite. The degree of strength
enhancement is affected by chemical composition. Austenite stabilising elements such as nickel, manga-
nese, carbon and nitrogen tend to lower the rate of strength enhancement.
Figure 4 shows the effect of cold work on the 0,2% proof stress, the ultimate tensile strength and elon-
gation at failure for a specific cast of 304. Similar relationships apply to other austenitic materials. To

maintain a useful ductility of 15%, the amount of cold work should be restricted to 30% for the austenitic
grades.
Considerable localised cold working may arise during fabrication such as from the cold forming of cor-
ners in sections. Work has been underway to derive formulae for estimating the strength enhancement
but it has not yet advanced sufficiently to produce a design proposal.
In general anisotropy and non-symmetry increases with cold work.
It is important to remember that welding or certain heat treatments anneal, or partially so, the cold worked
material with a consequent loss of the enhanced strength.
Yield and tensile
2
strength (N/mm )
Cold work %
Figure 4 Effect of cold work on 304 material
3.3 Effects of Temperature

The austenitic stainless steels retain outstanding toughness over a wide range of temperatures; indeed,
they are used for the storage of cryogenic liquids.
Figure 5 Effect of temperature on yield strength (0,5% proof strength)
Stainless steels perform better than carbon steel under fire conditions. Figure 5 compares the yield (or
0,5% proof) strength, normalised with respect to room temperature values, of two austenitic stainless
steel grades and a carbon steel as a function of temperature. Some grades of stainless steel have been
formulated specifically for prolonged exposure at elevated temperature and are used, for instance, in
chimney linings.
3.4 Other Properties

Density
Most stainless steels have a specific mass laying in the range of 7800 to 8000kg/m3.
Thermal Expansion
Ferritic stainless steels have a coefficient of thermal expansion approximately equal to that of carbon
steel. However the austenitic stainless steels have somewhat greater values, up to about 50% more
than that of carbon steel. The effects of differential thermal expansion/contraction should be considered
in design.
Thermal Conductivity
Stainless steel has a coefficient of thermal conductivity approximately one third that of carbon steel.
Note that this low conductivity leads to steeper thermal gradients and in conjunction with greater thermal
expansion causes greater welding residual stresses and distortion (see Section 4.3).
Magnetic Properties
The austenitic stainless steels have low magnetic permeability. Heavy cold working, particularly of lean
alloyed austenitic steel, can increase magnetic permeability; subsequent annealing restores the non-
magnetic properties. It is recommended to obtain specialist advice for non-magnetic applications.
4. STRUCTURAL ELEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN
4.1 General
4.1.1 Elastic or plastic design
Elastic global analysis is recommended for establishing forces and moments in members. Although in
principle plastic global analysis could be used, there are presently certain difficulties to be addressed
in design. These difficulties are associated with the strain hardening properties of stainless steel and
in particular the moment-rotation characteristics of a stainless steel plastic hinge which likewise displays
hardening behaviour. In the formation of a plastic mechanism, plastic hinges are required to undergo
various degrees of rotation. Thus the moments at the hinges are above the nominal plastic moment
(plastic modulus times the 0,2% proof stress) by varying amounts depending on the degrees of rotation.
Therefore the calculation of the distribution of moments around a frame would involve kinematic consid-
erations.
Figure 6 Development of moments in fixed ended beam

Figure 6 shows the simple example of a fixed ended beam carrying a point load at quarter span. The
moments in the stainless steel beam are somewhat indeterminate and depend on the moment-rotation
characteristic. Connections would have to resist any additional moment.
4.1.2 Effect of material non-linearity
In describing the effect of material non-linearity on the buckling strength of members it is helpful to
consider idealised stress-strain curves. One useful idealisation is that proposed by Ramberg and
Osgood.
σ σ
ε= + 0,002( )n (1)
E fy
where: ε is the strain
σ is the stress
fy is the yield (0,2% proof) strength
E is the Young's modulus
n is an index characterising the degree of non-linearity. A low n value gives a very rounded curve
whereas high values give curves approaching the bilinear elastic-perfectly plastic relationship
of carbon steel, see Figure 7.
Figure 7 Ramberg-Osgood representation of stress-strain curves
In general terms, the effect of non-linearity (as measured by the index n) on member buckling depends
on member slenderness as described below. Figure 8 shows the effects graphically and is derived mathe-
matically later.
l / i fy
λ=
π E
Figure 8 Effect of Ramberg-Osgood index “n” on buckling
There are three regions of member slenderness:

i. At high slendernesses, i.e. when the buckling strength is low, stresses in the stainless steel
member are sufficiently small so that they fall in the linear part of the stress-strain curve. In this
range, little difference would be expected between the strengths of stainless and carbon steel
members assuming similar levels of geometric and residual stress imperfections. The limiting
slenderness beyond which similar behaviour can be expected depends on the proportional
limit and hence the n factor in the Ramberg-Osgood representation of the stress-strain curve.
This dependence can be see in Figure 8.
ii. At low slenderness, i.e. when members attain or exceed their plastic resistance, the benefits
of strain hardening become apparent. For very low slenderness, materials with higher harden-
ing rates, i.e. materials of low n factors, give superior member strengths than materials having
high n factors and in particular carbons steels. This effect too can be seen in Figure 8.
iii. At intermediate slendernesses, i.e. when the average stress in the column lies between the
limit of proportionality and the 0,2% proof strength, stainless steel is “softer” than carbon steel.
This leads to reduced strengths of stainless steel members compared to similar carbon steel
members.
In considering instability caused by member buckling, reference is made to the tangent modulus approach.
This approach is adopted by the American code for cold-formed stainless steel [3]. The approach is
based on replacing Young's modulus E (in carbon steel buckling provisions) by the tangent modulus
Et corresponding to the buckling stress in the stainless steel member. Since Et varies with stress and
the buckling stress is a function of Et the approach generally requires iterations to find the buckling stress.
An effective design line may be derived by the tangent modulus approach, the necessary iterations
having already been carried out for the designer. The derivation can be best demonstrated by way of
an example.
Suppose it is required to find the stainless steel curve corresponding to the Euler buckling stress fE for
carbon steel columns. For carbon steel (and any linear elastic material):
π 2E
fE =
(l / i ) 2
Defining non-dimensional parameters:
fE l /i fy
χc = and λc =
fy π E
1
in which the subscript c refers to carbon steel, the Euler curve becomes: χ c =
λc2
For stainless steel, E is replaced by the tangent modulus Et:
π 2 Et
fE =
(l / i ) 2
1 1 E
χs = 2 = 2 t
λs λc E
Using the Ramberg-Osgood relationship for describing the stress-strain curve, Equation (1), the tangent
modulus can be derived as
df 1 0,002n f n −1 −1
Et = =[ + ( ) ]
dε E fy fu
and therefore
Et nE f n −1 −1
= [1 + 0, 002 ( ) ]
E f y fu
But, at buckling ( f / f y ) = χ s and so
1 nE n −1 −1
χs = [1 + 0,002 χs ]
λ c
2
fy

In general, for any given function χ s = f (λc ) , an iterative approach is required to solve the equation
obtained at this stage since χs appears on both sides. In the present case the original carbon steel function
is simple enough to allow direct solution since, on rearrangement:
nE n −1/2
λc = [ χ s + 0,002 χs ]
fy
Note that a family of curves relating λc and χs can be generated for each value of n depending on the
ratio of E/fy. Some example curves are compared with the original Euler curve (for carbon steel) in Fig-
ure 8. All the designer has to do now is to calculate λ using the initial (Young's) modulus value and then
find χ directly using the appropriate curve.
As can be seen the curves with the lower n value, which implies a lower limit of proportionality, diverge
from the carbon steel curve at lower stresses than do the curves associated with the higher n value.
However, at stresses above 0,9 fy, the curves with low n value lie above those of high n; this follows
from the fact that the tangent modulus of the low n material is greater than that of the high n material
in this stress range. It may be noted that a carbon steel stress/strain curve may be closely approximated
by very high n values (say >30), in which case the Euler curve is transformed into a horizontal plateau
at yield.
The n value should be estimated as 6 for the austenitic stainless steel in the longitudinal direction. In
the transverse direction the higher n values are observed.
The E values given in material standards are usually related to the initial elastic modulus, see Figure 9.
For engineering purposes the lower values are used in some standards.
Figure 9 Stainless steel stress-strain relationship
4.2 Classification and Local Buckling

4.2.1 Classification
The classification of cross-sections according to their ability to resist local buckling and to sustain load
with deformation has proved a useful concept for the design of carbon steel members. Four classifi-
cations are recognised:
Class 1: cross-sections able to develop the plastic moment of resistance with rotation capacity.
Class 2: cross-sections able to develop the plastic moment of resistance without rotation capacity.
Class 3: cross-sections able to develop the yield moment.
Class 4: cross-sections unable to reach the yield moment due to local buckling.
The classification of a cross-section depends on the most unfavourable plate element within the cross-
section. The load/end shortening behaviour of an element is dependent on its slenderness:
b/t
λp =
28, 4ε kσ
where: b/t is the plate width to thickness ratio
235 E
ε =[ ⋅ ]%o
f y 210000
kσ is the buckling factor.
Table 1 gives the maximum width-to-thickness ratios for compression element classification, according
to Eurocode 3, Annex S [4]. However, numerical data for plate elements, Figure 10, indicate that strain
hardening materials exhibit longer plateaus and less steep unloading characteristics than non-hardening
materials such as carbon steel. Thus, if a carbon steel element may be classified as a Class 1 element,
then a stainless steel element of the same slenderness has at least as great a deformation capacity
and can likewise be classified as Class 1.
εE/fy
n = Ramberg-Osgood coefficient
Figure 10 Load / end-shortening behaviour of plate elements
Class 3 element limiting ratios are found from the slenderness at which the local buckling curve (see
below) just reaches yield. These ratios are lower for stainless steel than for carbon steel. It may be noted
that with lower Class 3 limits, but with the same Class 1 limits, a smaller range between Class 1 and 3
exists for stainless steel than for carbon steel. There even exists the possibility that Classes 1 and 2 could
collapse to a single class for stainless steel, though this potential simplification is for future research.
4.2.2 Local buckling
As with carbon steel elements, the effects of local buckling may be accounted for in design by the use
of the effective width approach. Whereas only one formulation is used in Eurocode 3 for carbon steel,
three design curves are proposed in Eurocode 3, Annex S[4] for stainless steel following a review of
available data:
beff / b = 0,83 / (λ p + 0, 29) for all internal elements such as webs or flanges bounded by pairs of webs.
beff / b = 1,09 / (λ p + 0, 45) for cold-formed outstand elements.
beff / b = 1,10 / (λ p + 0,51) for welded outstand elements.
Figure 11 shows the experimental data and design curves for cold-formed elements.
4.3 Column Design
There are two main differences between the design of hot-rolled carbon steel members and stainless
steel members:
i. The effect of material non-linearity means that slightly different design curves should be used
for stainless steel. This point has been discussed in qualitative terms in Section 4.1.2 above.
For flexural buckling of cold-formed sections a more generous design curve is recommended
in Eurocode 3 for stainless steel, see Figure 12 which also contains experimental data. The
high strength at cold-formed corners allows the use of a more generous curve. On the other
hand, austenitic stainless steel welded columns should be designed to a lower curve than that
used for carbon steel, due to the higher welding residual stresses in stainless steel, mentioned
in Section 3.4.
Figure 11 Cold-formed local buckling curves
ii. It has already been noted in Section 2.3 that greater use will be made of cold-formed sections
in stainless steel than would be usual for carbon steel. The designer will therefore more often
have to consider buckling modes other than flexural buckling, i.e. torsional and torsional-flexural
buckling. The limited evidence available does not suggest that stainless steel columns behave
any worse than carbon steel columns in these buckling modes.
Figure 12 Stainless steel and carbon steel column curves with data for columns of 304 material
4.4 Beam Design

As for columns, beam design in stainless steel uses similar checks to those used for carbon steel beams,
but different buckling curves are used for stainless steel. Thus, for lateral-torsional buckling, the next
lower buckling curve to carbon steel should be used for stainless steel.
One of the greatest differences observed between carbon steel and stainless steel concerns web shear
buckling. Figure 13 illustrates Eurocode 3 design curves for carbon steel and the recommended design
curves for stainless steel. The latter are close approximations to analytical curves derived from the carbon
steel curves by using the tangent modulus approach described in Section 4.1.2. The derived stainless
steel curves are a satisfactory lower bound to the available experimental data.
The accurate calculation of the deflections of members composed of stainless steel materials is a complex
matter. The shape of the load deflection curve is affected by the non-linear stress-strain relationship of

the material and may be influenced by local buckling effects in the compression flange. Whereas in the
case of carbon steel members the modulus is constant (i.e.equal to Young's modulus) down the beam
depth and along the length of the beam, for stainless steel members the (tangent) modulus may vary
throughout the beam according to the value of stress at each point. An accurate deflection calculation
generally requires the use of iterative techniques which are unsuitable for design. Furthermore, uncer-
tainties in end restraint, element thicknesses, material behaviour, let alone the loading, suggest that it
is unrealistic to expect or seek mathematical exactitude in estimating deflections. It is therefore appro-
priate to use approximate techniques such as replacing Young's modulus by the average of the secant
moduli in the tension and compression flanges.
0,8 d fy
λw =
kt t E
Figure 13 Shear resistance of webs
5. CONNECTIONS
5.1 General Aspects
As for the design of members, the design of stainless steel connections is very similar to the design of
carbon steel connections. Although standardised details can be advantageous for carbon steel structures,
the greater material cost of stainless steel favours a move away from uniformity of details as a way of
reducing such costs even if increased labour charges result.
Connections work, even where the assumed load path is not actually realised, because of steel's great
ductility and hence the potential for redistribution. In this respect stainless steel, and particularly the
austenitic grades, is superior to carbon steel.
All forms of connection used for carbon steel may also be used with stainless steel except for joints made
with friction grip bolts. Friction grip bolted joints are not made in stainless steel because of the low coef-
ficients of friction for stainless steel, stress relaxation in stainless steel bolts and the variable torque
characteristics of stainless steel bolts.
5.2 Bolted Connections
The ultimate limit state of stainless steel bolted connections can be obtained by reference to the provi-
sions in Eurocode 3 for carbon steel connections. However, because stainless steel has high ductility
and because ratios of material yield to ultimate strength are low, serviceability criteria are more impor-
tant for bolted connections in stainless steel than in carbon steel. There are two aspects to consider:
Bearing Resistance
The ultimate resistance in the equation for bearing resistance is obtained using fu equal to the ultimate
strength of the connected ply. However, the useful resistance of a bolted connection in stainless steel
is usually governed by serviceability criteria in which the hole elongation at serviceability loads is to be
limited. In order to avoid carrying out a separate check for serviceability it is recommended to place a
limit on hole elongation at ultimate load by using a reduced value of fu, i.e. fu ′.
To limit hole elongation at ultimate load:
f u' = 0,5 f y + 0,6 f u

Bolt Tension Resistance

This aspect particularly applies to bolts in the annealed condition, i.e. bolts of Property Class 50 - see
Lecture 18.1, because the ratio of yield to ultimate strength is low (= 0,42). Resistances determined ac-
cording to Eurocode 3[5] are based on the ultimate strength of bolts. This basis leads to bolts of Property
Class 50 being stressed above yield at working loads. It is recommended in Eurocode 3, Annex S [4]
to take the basic strength fub of a stainless steel fastener as follows:
fub = specified minimum value for the tensile strength but no more than 1,9 fyb
fyb = stress at 0,2% permanent strain.
5.3 Welded Connections
Given that appropriate consumables are selected to give weld metal yield and ultimate strengths at least
equal to those of the parent metal, then the provisions of Eurocode 3 can be applied for calculating re-
sistances of welded connections.
The potential for corrosion should be recognised and for this reason intermittent welding should preferably
be avoided. Caution should also be exercised with partial penetration butt welds due to the possibility
of capillary action and subsequent crevice corrosion occurring.
In common with other metals and alloys, stainless steel suffers from distortion on welding. The distribution
can be greater in the case of austenitic stainless steels, see Section 3.4 above. It may lead to fit up prob-
lems during assembly. Welding distortion can only be controlled, not eliminated. The following actions
may be taken by the designer and the fabricator:
a. Designer actions
- Remove the necessity to weld.
- Reduce the extent of welding.
- Reduce the area of welds. For instance in thick sections, specify double V, U or double U pre-
parations in preference to single V.
- Use symmetrical joints.
- Design to accommodate wider dimensional tolerances.
b. Fabricator actions
- Use efficient clamping jigs. If possible the jig should incorporate copper or aluminium bars to
help conduct heat away from the weld area.
- When efficient jigging is not possible, use closely spaced tack welds laid in a balanced sequence.
- Ensure that good fit up and alignment is obtained prior to welding.
- Use the lowest heat input commensurate with the selected weld process.
- Use balanced welding and appropriate sequences, e.g. backstepping and block sequences.
The essential differences in the structural behaviour of stainless steel and carbon steel are:
• The designer has to consider material selection more carefully for a stainless steel structure.
Consideration of corrosion, surface finish required and fabrication methods are necessary.
• Design verifications generally differ quantitatively but not qualitatively to those of carbon steel
structures.
• Since knowledge of the frame behaviour of stainless steel structures is not yet advanced, plastic
global analysis is not recommended as a design approach.
• The high ductility and low ratio of yield to ultimate strength of stainless steel means that service-
ability criteria are more important.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Dier, A.F., “Design Manual for Structural Stainless Steel”, EURO INOX, 1993 (in press).
[2] Tendo, M., Takeshite, T., Nakazawa, T. and Abo, H., “Room Temperature Creep Behaviour of Aus-
tenitic Stainless Steels”, Int. Conf. on Stainless Steels, June 1991, Iron and Steel Institute of Japan.
[3] ANSI/ASCE-8-90: Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Structural Members,
ASCE, 345 East 47 Street, New York 10017-2398, USA, July 1991.
[4] Eurocode 3: “Design of Steel Structures”. Part 1: Annex S: Use of Stainless Steel (in preparation).
[5] Eurocode 3: “Design of Steel Structures”: ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for build-
ings, CEN, 1992.
[1] Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Section 3. Rules for Construction of Nuclear Power Plant Compo-
nents. Division 1: Subsection NF 3000. Component Supports, ASME, New York, 1983.
Table 1 (Sheet 1). Maximum width-to thickness ratios

for compression elements
a. Webs (internal elements perpendicular to axis of bending)

tr
Axis of d d d h
bending tw tw tw tw
d = h – 3t (t = tr = tw)
Web subject
Web subject Web subject
Class to bending and
to bending to compression
compression
fy fy fy
Stress distribution
in element
ad
(compression d h d h d h
positive)
fy fy fy
when α > 0,5

d/tw ≤ 306ε/(13α-1)
1 d/tw ≤ 56,0ε d/tw ≤ 25,7ε
when α < 0,5
d/tw ≤ 28ε/α
when α > 0,5
d/tw ≤ 320ε/(13α-1)
2 d/tw ≤ 58,2ε d/tw ≤ 26,7ε
when α < 0,5
d/tw ≤ 29,1ε/α
fy fy
Stress distribution fy
in element d/2
(compression h d h d h
positive) d/2
fy ψfy
d/tw ≤ 15, 3ε√ kσ

3 d/tw ≤ 74,8ε d/tw ≤ 30,7ε For kσ see
Eurocode 3, Table
5.3.2
235 275 355
ε = 235 / f y
1,0 0,92 0.81


b. Internal flange elements (internal elements parallel to axis of bending)
b
tf
b tf b tf tf b
Axis of
bending
Section Section
Class Type
in bending in compression
fy fy
Stress distribution
fy fy
in element and across
the section
(compression positive)
Rolled hollow sections d/t ≤ 25,7ε d/t ≤ 25,7ε

1
Other d/t ≤ 25,7ε d/t ≤ 25,7ε
2
Other d/t ≤ 26,7ε d/t ≤ 26,7ε
fy fy
Stress distribution
fy fy
in element and across
the section

3
Other d/t ≤ 30,7ε d/t ≤ 30,7ε
235 E Grades according to Chapter S3
ε =[ ⋅ ]1/2
f y 210000 (Table S3.1.3) and S3.2
ε values for design using specified values (see S3.1.2 and S3.1.3)


c. Outstand flanges
c c
tf tf
tf tf c
c
Rolled sections Welded sections
Flange subject
Type of Flange subject to compression and bending
Class
section to compression
Tip in compression Tip in tension
Stress distribution αc αc
in element
c c c
Rolled c/tf ≤ 10ε c/tf ≤ 10ε/α c/tf ≤ 10ε/α3/2

1
Welded c/tf ≤ 9ε c/tf ≤ 9ε/α c/tf ≤ 9ε/α3/2
Rolled c/tf ≤ 10,4ε c/tf ≤ 10,4ε/α c/tf ≤ 10,4ε/α3/2
2
Welded c/tf ≤ 9,4ε c/tf ≤ 9,4ε/α c/tf ≤ 9,4ε/α3/2
c c c
Rolled c/tf ≤ 11,9ε c/tf ≤ 18,1ε√kσ

3
Welded c/tf ≤ 11,0ε c/tf ≤ 16,7ε√kσ
For see kσ Eurocode 3, table 5.3.3
235 E
ε =[ ⋅ ]1/2
f y 210000

d. Angles b
Refer also to
c. Outstand flanged (see sheet 3) tf
h
(Does not apply to angles in continuous contact with other components)

Class Section in compression
Stress distribution across the fy
section
3 h/t ≤ 11,9ε (b+h)/2t ≤ 9,1ε

235 E
ε =[ ⋅ ]1/2
f y 210000

Lecture 18.3:
Corrosion of Stainless Steel
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To discuss the mechanisms of corrosion in stainless steel and give guidance on selecting the appropriate
grade for the application. Guidance on good detailing practice to avoid corrosion is also given.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
This lecture describes why stainless steel may corrode, the mechanisms of corrosion in stainless steel
and grade selection to avoid corrosion. Guidance is also given on good detailing practice, storage and
handling to obtain the best properties of stainless steel, i.e. good aesthetics and stability of its appear-
ance throughout.
1. INTRODUCTION
All common structural metals form surface oxide films when exposed to dry air. The oxide formed on
mild steel is readily broken down, and in the presence of moisture, it is not repaired. Thus, a reaction
can take place between the steel (Fe), the moisture (H2O) and oxygen (O2) to form rust. The reaction
is complex but can be represented by a chemical equation of the form:
4 Fe + 2 H 2O + 3O2 = 2 Fe2O3 ⋅ H 2O
Fe2O3.H2O is what is commonly known as rust and, as it is not usually protective, the corrosion process
is not impeded.
An oxide is also formed on stainless steel. It consists of a chromium-rich oxide which is stable, non-
porous and tightly adherent to the metal. However, unlike that formed on mild steel, if it is broken down
(e.g. by scratching or cutting), it is capable of self repair in the presence of air or an oxidising environ-
ment. It is also highly resistant to chemical attack. For these reasons it is known as a “passive film”.
Although the film is very thin (approximately 10-6mm), it gives stainless steel its high corrosion
resistance properties by preventing the steel from reacting with the atmosphere.
The behaviour of the passive film depends on the composition of the steel, its surface treatment and
the corrosive nature of its environment. The stability of the layer increases as the chromium content
increases, that is, nickel that is added for making steel working easier also decreases the corrosion rate.
To enhance their corrosion resistance, some stainless steels are “low carbon content” or are stabilised
by additions of titanium and niobium, others contain extra molybdenum.
The concept of passive film formation is important because any conditions which prevent the formation
of the film or cause it to break down will also lead to loss of corrosion resistance. Corrosion in stainless
steel therefore occurs if the passive film is damaged and is not allowed to re-form.
This lecture describes why stainless steel may corrode, the mechanisms of corrosion in stainless steel
and grade selection to avoid corrosion. Guidance is also given on good detailing practice, storage and
handling to improve corrosion resistance. Further guidance can be found in [1].
Lecture 18.3: Corrosion of Stainless Steel 2387

2. BEHAVIOUR OF STAINLESS STEELS IN CORROSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

Stainless steels are generally very corrosion resistant and will perform satisfactorily in most environ-
ments. The limit of corrosion resistance of a given stainless steel depends on its alloying elements which
means that each grade has a slightly different response when exposed to a corrosive environment.
Care is therefore needed to select the most appropriate grade of stainless steel for a given application.
Generally, the higher the level of corrosion resistance required, the higher the level of alloying elements
and the greater the cost of the material.
The most common reasons for a metal to fail to live up to expectations regarding corrosion resistance are:
a) incorrect assessment of the environment or exposure to unexpected conditions, e.g. unsus-
pected contamination by chloride ions.
b) the way in which the stainless steel has been worked or treated may introduce a state not en-
visaged in the initial assessment.
Although stainless steels may be subject to discolouration and staining (often due to carbon steel con-
tamination), they are extremely durable in buildings. In aggressive industrial and marine environments,
tests have shown no indication of reduction in component resistance even where a small amount of
weight loss occurred. However, unsightly rust staining on external surfaces may still be regarded as
a failure by the user. Experience indicates that any serious corrosion problem is most likely to show
up in the first two or three years of service; problems can usually be explained by defects in bringing
stainless steels into operation. Except in the case of bad choice of grade, stainless steel can be “cleaned”
and gives good results on a very large lifetime. For instance, CHRYSLER BUILDING ROOF in New
York made in 1929 and cleaned in the 80's is still in perfect condition.
In certain aggressive environments some grades of stainless steel are susceptible to localised attack. Six
mechanisms are described below, although the last three are very rarely encountered in buildings onshore
2.1 Pitting
Pitting is a localised form of corrosion which can occur in wet conditions as a result of exposure to spe-
cific environments, most notably those containing chlorides. Pitting occurs because chloride ions pene-
trate the passive film in weak spots. A local element is formed with the penetrated area as the anode
and the surrounding passive film as the cathode. Since the anode area is small and the cathode area
large, the current density, and thereby the corrosion rate on the anode surface becomes very high. Pitting
needs wet conditions; it stops when surface is dried by sun and cannot appear if surface is kept dry.
In most structural applications, the extent of pitting is likely to be superficial and the reduction in section
of a component is negligible. However, corrosion products can stain architectural features. A less toler-
ant view of pitting should be adopted for services such as ducts, piping and containment structures. If
there is a known pitting hazard, then a molybdenum bearing stainless steel will be required.
2.2 Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a localised form of attack which is initiated by the extremely low availability of oxy-
gen in a crevice. It is only likely to be a problem in stagnant solutions where a build-up of chlorides can
occur. The severity of crevice corrosion is very dependent on the geometry of the crevice; the narrower
and deeper the crevice, the more severe the corrosion. Crevices typically occur between nuts and wash-
ers or around the thread of a screw or the shank of a bolt. Crevices can also occur in welds which fail
to penetrate and under deposits on the steel surface. To avoid crevice corrosion under deposits, periodic
cleaning is recommended; washing by rain helps considerably; however, periodic cleaning should be
part of the building maintenance. To avoid crevice corrosion under bolts etc., it is recommended to avoid
water penetration by use of plastics or rubber gaskets, or by filling crevices with adherent sealant or
mastic.
2.3 Bimetallic Corrosion
Bimetallic (galvanic) corrosion may occur when dissimilar metals are in electrical contact in a common
electrolyte (e.g. rain, condensation etc.). If current flows between the two, the less noble metal (the anode)
corrodes at a faster rate than would have occurred if the metals were not in contact.
2388 Lecture 18.3: Corrosion of Stainless Steel

The rate of corrosion also depends on the relative areas of the metals in contact, the temperature and
the composition of the electrolyte. In particular, the larger the area of the cathode in relation to that of
the anode, the greater the rate of attack. Adverse area ratios are likely to occur with fasteners and at
joints. Carbon steel bolts in stainless steel members should be avoided because the ratio of the area
of the stainless steel to the carbon steel is large and the bolts will be subject to aggressive attack.
Stainless steels usually form the cathode in a bimetallic couple and therefore do not suffer corrosion.
An exception is the couple with copper which should generally be avoided except under benign condi-
tions. Contact between austenitic stainless steels and zinc or aluminium may result in some additional
corrosion of the latter two metals. The corrosion is unlikely to be significant structurally, but the resulting
white/grey powder may be deemed unsightly.
Bimetallic corrosion may be prevented by excluding water from the detail (e.g. by painting or taping over
the assembled joint) or isolating the metals from each other (e.g. by painting the contact surfaces of
the dissimilar metals). Isolation around bolted connections can be achieved by non-conductive plastic or
rubber gaskets and nylon or teflon washers and bushes. This system is a time consuming detail to make
on site and it is not usually possible to provide the necessary level of site inspection to check that all
the washers and sleeves have been installed properly.
2.4 Stress Corrosion Cracking
The development of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) requires the simultaneous presence of tensile
stresses and specific environmental factors unlikely to be encountered in normal building atmospheres.
The stresses do not need to be very high in relation to the proof stress of the material and may be due to
loading and residual effects from manufacturing processes such as welding or bending. Caution should
be exercised when austenitic stainless steel members containing high residual stresses, e.g. due to
cold working, are used in chloride rich environments, e.g. swimming pools, marine, offshore and mainly
if the temperature of the steel can reach 50°C or more, e.g. roofing.
The likelihood of SCC increases with increasing tensile stress and with increasing temperature. Ferritic
and austeno ferritic stainless steels are in general completely proof against SCC. In austenitic stainless
steels, an extra nickel content, a molybdenum addition reduces the sensitivity to SCC.
2.5 General (Uniform) Corrosion
General corrosion is much less severe in stainless steel than in other metals. It only occurs when the
stainless steel is at a pH value which is either very low (acid environments) or very high (alkaline environ-
ments) at high temperature. In normal building applications, general acid corrosion cannot occur. Some-
times it can occur in industrial or chemical atmospheres or most commonly by contact with products
that are incompatible with stainless steels, e.g. hydrochloric acid used to “clean concrete or ceramics”.
Insurance of compatibility should be obtained from product information; reference should be made to
tables in manufacturers' literature or the advice of a corrosion engineer should be sought.
2.6 Intergranular Attack and Weld Decay
When austenitic stainless steels are subject to prolonged heating between 450-850°C, the carbon in
the steel diffuses to the grain boundaries and precipitates chromium carbide. This process removes
chromium from the solid solution and leaves a lower chromium content adjacent to the grain boundaries.
Steels in this condition are termed 'sensitised'. With a chromium level lower than 12% the grain bounda-
ries become prone to general corrosion in pickling solution or to preferential attack on subsequent ex-
posure to a corrosive environment. This phenomenon is known as weld decay when it occurs in the
heat affected zone of a weldment.
There are three ways to avoid intergranular corrosion:
• To use steel having a low carbon content.
• To use steel stabilised with titanium or niobium. These elements have a better ability to bind
carbon than chromium has, thereby reducing the risk of formation of chromium carbide.
• To use heat treatment. This method is rarely used in practice.
Experience has shown that a low carbon content (~0,05%) in most cases is sufficiently low to guard
against intergranular corrosion after welding. This is particularly so when welding is done by arc processes
(giving rapid heating and cooling), even for plate thicknesses up to 20mm.
3. GRADE SELECTION
The selection of the correct grade of stainless steel must take into account the environment of the appli-
cation, the fabrication route, surface finish and the maintenance of the structure. Although the material
has low maintenance requirements, where it is selected for use in a corrosive environment corrosion
engineering needs to take a higher profile.
The first step is to characterise the service environment. The corrosiveness of an environment is gov-
erned by a number of variables such as humidity, air temperature, presence of chemicals and their
concentration, oxygen content, etc. Moisture must be present for corrosion to occur. For example, heated
and ventilated buildings can be classified as dry and corrosion is unlikely to occur in such environments.
The risk of condensation is higher in areas such as kitchens and laundries. Coastal areas are very cor-
rosive due to the presence of high concentrations of chloride ions in the air and structures exposed to
sea spray are particularly prone to corrosive attack.
Having characterised the general environment, it is then necessary to consider the effect of the direct
surroundings on the stainless steel (e.g. elements and substances which the material is likely to come
into contact with). The surface condition, the temperature of the steel and the anticipated stress could
also be important parameters.
Consideration should then be given to mechanical properties. The different types of loading should be
defined, e.g. service loads, cyclic loads, vibrations, seismic loads. The effect of heating/cooling cycles
may also need to be quantified. Ease of fabrication, availability of product forms, surface finish and cost
also need to be considered.
Assessing the suitability of grades is best approached by referring to experience of stainless steels in
similar applications and environments. Table 1, which is extracted from [2], gives guidance for selecting
suitable grades for atmospheric environments. It is based on long term exposure of stainless steel sheet
samples at a variety of locations. Expert advice should always be sought for more specialist applications,
e.g. stainless steel immersed or in contact with chemicals.
Caution should be exercised when considering the use of “free-machining” stainless steels for fasteners.
The addition of sulphur in the composition of these steels (commonly designated 303 in the austenitic
class) renders them more liable to corrosion, especially in industrial and marine environments.
Table 1: Suggested grades for atmospheric applications

Location
Steel grade Rural Urban Industrial Marine
L M H L M H L M H L M H
430 / (/) (/) X X X X X X X X X
304, 302 (inc 304L, 321, 347) / / / / / (/) (/) (/) X / (/) X
316 (inc 316L, 316Ti) O O O O / / / / (/) / / (/)
L - Least corrosive conditions within that category, e.g. tempered by low humidity, low temperatures.
M - Fairly typical of that category.
H - Corrosion likely to be higher than typical for that category, e.g. increased by persistent high humidity, high
ambient temperatures, particularly aggressive air pollutants.
O - Potentially over-specified from a corrosion point of view.
/ - Probably the best choice for corrosion resistance and cost.
X - Likely to suffer excessive corrosion.
(/) - Worthy of consideration if precautions are taken (i.e. specifying a relatively smooth surface and if regular
washing is carried out).
Note: Special ferritic or austenoferritic stainless steels and high alloys grade could be used in very
corrosive environments. Consult manufacturers' literature.
4. DETAILING CONSIDERATIONS
The main step in preventing corrosion problems is in selecting an appropriate grade of stainless steel
with suitable fabrication procedures. As well as careful material grade selection, good detailing and work-
manship can significantly reduce the likelihood of staining and corrosion whilst poor detailing and work-
manship can be detrimental to corrosion performance. The following practical guidance of good practice
will help ensure satisfactory performance of the material; not all points would necessarily be always
applicable.
• Avoid arrangements which allow dirt entrapment or chemical concentration
• Provide clear drainage paths.
• Avoid crevices gaps, ledges and slits.
• Specify smooth contours and radii for corners.
• Avoid sharp changes in section and other stress raisers.
• Minimize fabrication stresses by careful choice of welding procedures.
• Avoid contamination from carbon steel.
• Insulate at connections to other metals.
• Avoid details which create access problems for welding and may lead to undercutting or lack
of penetration.
Figure 1 illustrates some good and poor design features to prevent corrosion.
Figure 1 Good and poor design features to prevent corrosion
5. STORAGE AND HANDLING

All stainless steel should be carefully stored so that the surfaces are protected from mechanical damage
and chemical pollution, e.g. ferrous contamination. Storage areas should be dry and clean. The use of
protective films may be beneficial for architectural applications. Further advice can be obtained from
the steelmaker.
It is necessary to avoid contamination of the surface of stainless steel components by carbon steel at
all stages of fabrication, handling, storage, transportation and erection. In particular, the fabricator should
take care to prevent contamination e.g. by quarantined work areas or specific maintenance procedures.
This is to prevent carbon steel pick-up during rolling or from grinding debris or swarf which may rust
when exposed to moisture and stain the surface. When carbon steel lifting or handling equipment such
as strapping, crane hooks, chains or rollers are being used, suitable protective material should be placed
between the stainless and carbon steel to prevent damage. Clean, heavy cardboard or light plywood
are suitable materials for this purpose. Erection tools such as spanners and drifts should be stainless
steel to ensure surface contamination does not take place. Grinders should also be reserved exclusively
for use on stainless steel.
Contact with organic contaminants such as oils, greases, dyes, glues, adhesive tape and other similar
deposits should be avoided. When they are used, their suitability should be checked with their manufac-
turer. Stainless steel can be disfigured by certain chemicals and checks should be made to ensure that
any erection marks penned on the surface can be easily removed.
The designer must specify any visual requirements so that the fabricator can take due care to protect
the particular surface.
Should components require cleaning for aesthetic reasons, soap, detergent or a solution of ammonia
may be used with scrubbing brushes. The stainless steel should be rinsed down afterwards with clean
water and then wiped dry. Inspections to detect signs of mechanical damage, surface contamination
or incipient corrosion attack are recommended for exposed architectural features.
Strong acid solutions are sometimes used to clean the masonry and tiling of buildings but they should
never be permitted to come into contact with any metal, including stainless steel., If this should happen,
the acid solution must be washed off immediately with generous amounts of water.
• Stainless steel possesses superior corrosion resistance to carbon steel. This resistance is pro-
vided by a passive film which forms on the surface of the metal and prevents it from reacting
with the environment.
• Corrosion of stainless steel can occur where a grade is used in an environment for which it is
not suited or where the stainless steel has been treated in such a way which reduces its corro-
sion resistance.
• There are a number of different corrosion mechanisms which can affect stainless steel. These
can be “designed out” by appropriate grade selection.
• Good detailing practice has an important role to play in improving corrosion resistance; bad detail-
ing can be detrimental to corrosion resistance.
• Where stainless steel is used for architectural purposes, it is important to avoid contamination
of the stainless steel surface by carbon steel which may subsequently rust and stain the surface.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Burgan, B. A., Concise guide to the structural design of stainless steel, The Steel Construction Insti-
tute, SCI-P-123, Second Edition, 1993.
[2] [2] Nickel Development Institute, An architect's guide on corrosion resistance, NiDI, 1990.

Lecture 18.4:
Fabrication
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To provide information on the processes used in the fabrication of stainless steel structures.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The lecture discusses the importance of the maintenance of the corrosion resistance of the stainless
steel during the operations of forming, machining and joining. The main characteristics of machining
and shaping techniques used to fabricate stainless steel structures are reviewed.
1. INTRODUCTION
Stainless steel is not a difficult material to work with. However, in some respects it is different from carbon
steel and should be treated accordingly. Many fabrication and joining processes are similar to those
used for carbon steel, but the different characteristics of stainless steel require special attention in a
number of areas. It is important that effective communication is established between the designer and
fabricator early in the project to ensure that appropriate fabrication practices can and will be adopted.
An overriding objective is to maintain the steel's corrosion resistance. It is essential that precautions are
taken, at all stages of storing, handling, forming and welding, to minimise mechanical or other
damage of the surface, i.e. the oxide layer. Although essential, the precautions are simple and, in
general, are a matter of good engineering practice.
It is important to preserve the good surface appearance of stainless steel throughout fabrication. Not
only are surface blemishes unsightly, but they are usually unacceptable and prove time-consuming and
expensive to correct. Whereas surface blemishes will normally be hidden by paint in carbon steel struc-
tures, this will only be rarely so in stainless steel structures.
The structural form may be dictated by the availability of materials. It should be recognised that the avail-
able range of hot rolled stainless sections is more limited than for carbon steel. This limitation results
in a greater use of cold-formed and welded members than is normally encountered. Also, because of
brake press length capabilities, only relatively short lengths are possible. As a result there is an increased
use of splices. In detailing joints, consideration should be given to clearances for bolts near bend radii
and to potential fit up problems arising from weld distortion.
Generally, greater care is required in storing and handling stainless steel than carbon steel to avoid dam-
aging the surface finish (especially bright annealed or polished finishes) and to avoid contamination by
carbon steel and iron. Storage and handling procedures should be agreed between the relevant parties
to the contract in advance of any fabrication and in sufficient detail to accommodate any special require-
ments. The procedures should cover, for instance, the following items:
• The steel should be inspected immediately after delivery for any surface damage.
• The steel may have a protective plastic or other coating. This coating should be left on as long
as possible, preferably until all fabrication work is completed.
• Storage in salt-laden humid atmospheres should be avoided. Storage racks should not have
carbon steel rubbing surfaces and should, therefore, be protected by wooden, rubber or plastic
Lecture 18.4: Fabrication 2393
battens or sheaths. Sheets and plates are preferably stacked vertically; horizontally stacked
sheets may get walked upon with a risk of iron contamination and surface damage.
• Carbon steel lifting tackle, e.g. chains, hooks and cleats, should be avoided. The use of isolating
materials will prevent iron pick-up. The forks of fork lift trucks should also be so protected.
• Contact with chemicals including undue amounts of oil and grease (which may stain some fin-
ishes) should be avoided.
• Ideally, segregated fabrication areas for carbon steel and stainless steel should be used. Only
tools dedicated to stainless steel should be employed. This particularly applies to grinding wheels
and wire brushes. Wire brushes and wire wool should be of stainless steel and generally in a
grade that is equivalent in terms of corrosion resistance, e.g. do not use ferritic stainless steel
brushes on austenitic stainless steel.
• As a precaution during fabrication and erection, it is advisable to ensure that any sharp burrs
formed during shearing operations are removed.
• Consideration should be given to any requirements needed to protect the finished fabrication
during transportation.
2. MACHINING OF STAINLESS STEEL

2.1 Cutting
Stainless steel is a expensive material compared to some other metals and particular care is needed
therefore in marking out plates and sheets to avoid wastage in cutting. More wastage may result if the
material has a polishing grain (or a unidirectional pattern) which has to be maintained in the fabrication.
The marks made by some pens/crayons are difficult to remove, or cause staining, if used directly on the
surface (rather than on any protective film). The marking pens/crayons to be used should be checked
that they are satisfactory in this respect.
Stainless steel may be cut using normal methods, e.g. shearing (Figure 1) and sawing, but power re-
quirements are greater than for similar thicknesses of carbon steel due to work hardening. Greater power
is needed for the austenitic grades in particular. If possible cutting (and machining in general) should
be carried out when the metal is in the annealed (softened) state to limit work hardening and tool wear.
Figure 1 Shearing
For cutting straight lines, shearing by guillotine is widely used. By using open ended guillotines, a con-
tinuous cut greater in length than the shear blades can be achieved although at the risk of introducing
small steps in the cut edge.
Plasma arc techniques are also used and are particularly useful for cutting thick plates and profiles and
where the cut edges are to be machined, e.g. for weld preparation. Oxyacetylene cutting is not satis-
factory for cutting stainless steel unless a powder fluxing technique is used.
2.2 Drilling and Punching
Holes may be drilled or punched. During drilling, positive cutting must be maintained to avoid work hard-
ening. For this purpose sharp bits with correct angles of rake and correct cutting speeds are required.
2394 Lecture 18.4: Fabrication
The use of a round tipped centre punch is not recommended as this work hardens the surface. A centre
drill should be used or, if a centre punch has to be used, it should be of the triangular pointed type.
Punched holes can be made in austenitic stainless steel up to about 20 mm in thickness. The minimum
diameter of hole that can be punched out is 2 mm greater than the sheet thickness. The minimum dis-
tance between punched holes should be half the hole diameter. Punched holes should be avoided in
corrosive environments due to the presence of the work hardened edge (Figure 2), unless they are
reamed after punching.
(a) Correct punching: very tight clearance

(b,c) Wrong punching: very wide clearance
with creation of flashes
Figure 2 Punching
2.3 Grinding
Particular account must be taken of the poor conductivity typical of all stainless steels and especially of
the austenitic grades. Otherwise local overheating may occur with consequent localized warping and
work hardening which may cause stress corrosion.
Moreover, on stainless steels which are neither low-carbon nor stabilized, chromium carbide precipita-
tions may occur with the danger of subsequent intergranular corrosion should the pieces come into
contact with agents which could induce it. (In practice intergranular corrosion is only a problem in acidic
environments where the stainless steel has been welded.)
The wheels consist of abrasives with an aluminium oxide and silicon carbide base and have medium-
hard and hard bonds. It is important that abrasives do not contain any iron components.
Care should be taken not to use wheels for grinding stainless steel which have already been used for
grinding carbon-steel. Otherwise the surface of the stainless steel element will be contaminated and
discoloration may result.
3. SHAPING AND JOINING OPERATIONS
3.1 Cold Forming
Stainless steel is readily shaped by commonly used cold-forming techniques such as bending, spinning,
pressing and deep drawing. For structural applications press brake bending is the most relevant technique
although, for high volume thin gauge products, roll forming may be more economic.
For these processes to be successful it is recommended that the stainless steel be in the softened state.
Furthermore it should be remembered that, given the same gauge being worked, greater force is needed
than for forming carbon-steel and lower forming speeds, especially for the austenitic grades, are needed.
In the case of extreme forming particular care must be paid to lubrication.
3.1.1 Press bending
This method is used for obtaining sections of various shapes. Presses of the type used for carbon-steel
are employed.
The best bending conditions are those when the bending axis of the sheet or strip is perpendicular to
the rolling direction to avoid cracking. However it is always possible to make bends with the axis parallel
to the rolling direction, especially with austenitic grades.
The edges of the ends of the strip and sheet must be flash-free, otherwise cracks may occur, especially
if the bending radius is small in comparison to the gauge. The springback is greater than that of carbon
steel. Thus suitable over-bend angles must be planned to obtain the required bend angles in the finished
piece.
Elastomer matrices are used successfully for folding stainless steel strip and sheet. They have the ad-
vantage over steel ones in that they give maximum protection to the surface finish and provide a guaran-
tee against contamination.
3.1.2 Roll forming
The forming of the strip is done by a continuous succession of bends around axes parallel to the rolling
direction (the worst condition). Thus it is necessary to grade the angles and the radii of curvature suitably
depending on the gauge of the strip. It is also advisable to keep the strip in tension during forming by
increasing the diameters of the rollers by about 1% at each roll stand from the entry ones of the exit
ones.
Figure 3 shows a correct forming sequence for stainless steel strip. The values of the angles and the
radiuses of curvature, phase by phase, for an austenitic grade are given.
Figure 3 Correct forming sequence of an austenitic

stainless steel cold-rolled section
3.1.3 Bending
For sheet and strip, bending is by three-roll forming, a method similar to that used for carbon steel, but
it should be remembered that the springback is greater, especially for the austenitic grades.
For cold-rolled or press bent sections, the bend is usually made by stretching and possibly also using
compression (Figure 4) to avoid puckering. Puckering can occur in stainless steels, which are generally
used with thinner gauges than carbon steel. This technique also allows the springback effects to be
reduced.
(a) Stretching (b) Stretching and compression
Figure 4 Section bending with rotary shape and stretching
For tubes, which are also generally used with thinner gauges than the carbon-steel ones, particular care
is required. The most appropriate technique is to use rotating shaper machines, preferably fitted with
a chuck, and possibly articulated for extreme bends.
In the most common case of welded pipes it is advisable, especially for the ferritic grades, to locate the
weld in correspondence with the neutral fibre. The springback is particularly great for the austenitic
grades.
3.1.4 Deep drawing
The blank has an area equal to the sum of the base and side areas of the finished elements, possibly
with the addition of a peripheral section to take account of the size of the flange required to regulate the
material flow (Figure 5). The thickness of the blank depends on that of the sides of the finished item,
bearing in mind that the final thickness can be reduced by as much as 20-30%.
D = diameter of the blank d = diameter of the punch
Figure 5 Deep drawing of cylindrical shape
The shape of the blank is circular when the finished element has cross-sections compatible with that
shape. A polygonal shape is used when the cross-sections are non-circular.
When very deep drawing is required, a suitable heat treatment to soften the material must be provided
to facilitate drawing after the material has reached its limit.
The junction radiuses and the clearances between punch and die are particularly important (Figure 6).
r = radius of die r = radius of punch e = clearance between punch and die
Figure 6 Typical geometrical parameters for deep drawing

Particular care must be taken over the choice of materials and the finish of the dies, and also in the lubri-
cation to avoid seizing.
3.2 Welding
It is necessary to be well aware of the differences in the physical properties of stainless steels and in
comparison to carbon steel.
Reference should be made to the specialized literature to determine the correct operating parameters.
In particular, in environments where intergranular corrosion could occur, it is prudent to select low carbon
or stabilized stainless steels when welding thicker material, the limiting thickness being dependent on
welding process and actual environment. All the welding techniques can be used with the austenitic
grades, but there are particular instructions for welding ferritic and martensitic grades.
Stainless steels can also be welded together with carbon steel to give hybrid structures. Appropriate
techniques should be employed, including strongly alloyed filler metal and electrodes to compensate
for the dilution of the welding pod due to the presence of carbon steel. When welding is complete, all
the carbon steel, including the weld bead, must be carefully protected with a suitable paint coating. Such
hybrid structures must be carefully designed to avoid the dangers of bi-metallic corrosion.
3.2.1 Fusion welding
These techniques involve the fusion of the edges of the parts to be joined, together with that of the filler
metal.
Normally all austenitic grades can be fusion welded. For other types of stainless steel, it is necessary
to examine each situation and select the most suitable system.
The techniques most commonly used in practice are:
• Manual metal-arc welding
Direct current welding tools should be used for preference and reverse polarity employed to ensure better
penetration (Figure 7).
(a) Direct polarity (positive piece and (b) Reverse polarity (negative piece and
negative electrode) positive electrode)
Figure 7 Polarity in direct welding
This technique can be used on gauges of not less than 1 to 1,5 mm and does not need special prepa-
ration of the edges up to a gauge of about 4mm. For joints with larger gauges special edge preparation
is needed using an appropriate caulking tool.
The pieces to be welded must be firmly held together, especially the austenitic grades, since these mate-
rials have a high thermal expansion coefficient.
• Tungsten-inert gas welding (TIG)
This technique is a much used welding system for stainless steels, particularly for the austenitic grades.
The electrode consists of a non-consumable bar of tungsten-thorium alloy and the arc is protected by
a jet of inert gas (argon with the possible addition of hydrogen). It is used with direct polarity (Figure 7).
It is not necessary to use filler rod for gauges up to 1,5 mm with suitable preparation (Figure 8), while
for larger gauges (up to 5 - 6 mm, which is the practical limit for this technique) filler metal must be used.
The edges must in all cases be well mated and well fixed together.
To achieve a proper weld, especially in the case of the thicker gauges, the inert gas protection must
also be applied to the reverse of the weld.

Figure 8 Preparation of sheet with gauges les than 1,5mm

for TIG welding without filler rod
• Metal-inert gas welding (MIG)

This technique differs from the previous one in that the electrode consists of a consumable stainless
steel wire wound on a reel. The starting gas is composed of suitable argon-based mixtures depending
on the transfer system for the filler metal during welding.
Basically, the welding systems used are: short arc (and its derivation, pulsed arc) for gauges less than
2 - 3,5mm and spray arc for thicker gauges up to about 8mm. For greater thicknesses the method is of
less interest.
• Plasma-arc welding
This is a welding technique which always operates in the presence of inert gas and which, with the “key-
hole” method, allows the weld to be made in a single pass without any special preparation of the pieces
which must be simply mated and held together. The feed uses direct polarity.
Welding speed is considerably greater than for the other systems mentioned.
The micro-plasma system can be used for gauges between 0,02 mm and 1,5 mm inclusive.
3.2.2 Resistance welding
Fusion of a small part of the materials to be joined is achieved with this technique. Filler metal is not
required and the joint at the junction point is achieved by the Joule effect.
The technique can be used for all types of stainless steels since these steels have significant electrical
resistivity.
• Spot welding
This method can be used for gauges between about 0,4 and 3 mm inclusive.
It should be remembered that it is always necessary with this type of welding to exert more force on the
electrodes than that used, given equal gauges, for carbon steel.
The other parameters do not differ much from those used for carbon steel in the case of ferritic and mart-
ensitic grades. Appropriate parameters are needed for the austenitic grades (lower current and shorter
welding time).
• Seam welding
This method allows continuous welding of gauges between about 0,5 to 4 mm.
In this case too the pressure on the electrodes must be greater than that used for carbon steel, given
equal gauges. Suitable welding parameters must be chosen for the austenitic grades, while the parame-
ters do not differ much from the carbon steel ones for the ferritic and martensitic grades.
Joints made with this system are tight for both water and gas.
3.3 Bolts, Rivets and Screws
When two stainless steel items are joined it is absolutely necessary to use elements of stainless steel
or of other materials with an equivalent resistance to corrosion.
If bolts, rivets and screws, of carbon steel or other non-noble materials were to be used they would cor-
rode rapidly due to electrolytic corrosion. The stainless steel structure would act as a large cathode and
the joining element, in this case, would act as a small anode.
When stainless steel items are joined to carbon steel structural elements the carbon steel element must
be well protected by suitable painting. Stainless steel rivets, screws and bolts must be used and the
carbon steel element must be suitably insulated from the stainless steel element (Figure 9).

Figure 9 Typical detail for connecting dissimilar materials (to avoid galvanic corrosion)
Stainless steel rivets, screws and bolts (which act as small cathodes) can be used for structures made
of other less noble materials (which act as large anodes) without any particular precautions.
It is recommended that bolting material should be in the cold-worked condition, property class 70 mini-
mum. Bolting materials should not be used in the softened condition because of the propensity for galling.
This propensity is reduced by:
• using rolled as opposed to machined threads.
• avoiding the use of fine threads and tight fitting thread forms.
• lubrication.
Lock welding of the nut to the bolt should never be allowed as materials are formulated for strength and
not fusion welding.
3.4 Adhesive Bonding
Stainless steels can be bonded to each other or to other materials to make structural joints. Many types
of adhesives can be used (cyanoacrilate resin, epoxy resin, phenolic resin, polyurethane resin, etc.)
depending on the characteristics required from the joint.
It is important to stress that, when using this type of joining technique, the joint must be properly designed
and executed.
It is not possible to use this method for joints designed to be made with welds.
4. INSPECTION
Non-destructive inspection methods to detect surface and/or internal faults in stainless steel items and
manufactured articles are related to some properties of the various types of the stainless steels.
The following methods can be used on all types of stainless steels:
• visual inspection to detect surface faults arising in fabrication.
• checks with penetrating liquids (penetrant dye) to detect surface faults, especially in the welds.
• radiographic and gammagraphic checks to investigate the presence of faults inside the piece
which are not evident on the surface, especially in welds.
• ultrasonic checks to detect faults inside the piece or in the welds. Ultrasonic methods are very
sensitive and allow the position of the fault to be identified with great precision.
• Eddy current checks (also known as “induced current”), are generally used automatically with
a high checking speed on stainless steel constructional elements to detect internal faults or those
about to appear on the surface, e.g. in welded pipes.
The following methods can only be used on ferritic and martensitic steels:
• magnetoscopic checks (magnetic particle inspection) to identify faults on the surface or
immediately below the surface. The limitation to these types of stainless steel is due to the requi-
rement that the component or structure under examination is ferro-magnetic.
5. FINISHING
The surface finish of stainless steel is an important design criterion and should be clearly specified accord-
ing to architectural or functional requirements. The finer the finish, the greater the cost. Precautions
taken during early handling and welding help substantially to reduce finishing costs. Initial planning is
important in reducing costs. For example, if the tube to tube weld in a handrail or balustrade is hidden
inside an upright, there will be a reduced finishing cost and a significant improvement in the final appear-
ance of the handrail.
The surface of steel should be restored to its corrosion resisting condition by removing all scale and con-
tamination. Pickling in an acid bath will loosen any scale, enabling it to be brushed off with a plastic or
stainless steel bristle brush, and it will also dissolve any embedded iron or carbon steel particles.
Abrasive treatments, such as grinding, finishing, polishing and buffing, produce unidirectional finishes.
Thus the blending of welds may not be easy on plates/sheets with normal rolled surfaces. A degree of
experimentation may be required to determine detailed procedures for obtaining a suitable finish.
Electrolytic polishing removes a thin surface layer. A range of finishes from dull to a bright lustre can be
produced, depending largely on the initial surface of the material.
There are other finishing processes (electroplating, tumbling, etching, colouring, and surface blackening).
These processes are rarely used for structural stainless steel and so are not mentioned further here.
It is worth noting again that the surface should be free of contaminants in the assembled structure. Par-
ticular consideration should be given to the possibility of contamination arising from work on adjacent
carbon steelwork, especially from grinding dust. The stainless steel should be protected by removable
plastic film, or final cleaning after completion of the structure should be specified.
• Stainless steel structures are not difficult to fabricate but it is necessary to take care of the product
in order to avoid costly restoration of the surface of the steel.
• Classical methods of joining can be used for stainless steel elements provided some particu-
larities of stainless steel which require special attention are taken into account.
• Cold-forming techniques are mainly used for shaping.
[1] Di Caprio, G., Gli acciai inossidabili, Hoepli, 2nd edition, Milano 1981, Los aceros inoxidables, Ebrisa,
1st edition, Barcelona 1987.
[2] Dier, A. F., Design Manual for Structural Stainless Steel, EURO INOX, 1993 (in press).
[3] Lacombe, P., Baroux, B., Beranger, G., Les aciers inoxydables, Les éditions de physique, Les Ulis
1990.
[4] Lula, R. A., Stainless Steel, ASM, Metals Park, Ohio 1986.
[5] Peckner, D., and Bernstein, I. M., Handbook of Stainless Steels, McGraw-Hill Book Comp, NY 1977
[6] Schierhold, P., Nichtrostende Stähle, Verlag Stahleisen MBH, Düsseldorf 1990.

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Introduction To Stainless Steel

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Section 18: STAINLESS STEEL

3. WHAT IS STAINLESS STEEL?

4. WHY USE STAINLESS STEEL?

Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel 2359

• favourable life cycle costs

5. TYPES OF STAINLESS STEEL

2360 Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel

Figure 1 Types of stainless steel

Figure 2 Stress – strain relationship of ordinary and stainless steels

Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel 2361

5.2 Further Stainless Alloys

6. DESIGNATION OF STAINLESS STEELS

44 with molybdenum, without columbium or titanium, nickel more than 2,5%

7. FABRICATION AND PRODUCTS

2364 Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel

• Bars, cold rolled (round, square, rectangular)

Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel 2365

Table 2 summarises the designation of fastening elements.

2366 Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel

10. CONCLUDING SUMMARY

11. ADDITIONAL READING

Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel 2367

Table 1 The Material Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steel, DIN

Table 2 Designation of Fastening Elements made of Corrosion

Soft Cold Heavily Soft Cold Soft Heat Heat

2368 Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel

Table 3 Mechanical Properties of Fasteners made of

Table 4 Marking of Screws and Nuts

Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel 2369

Table 5 List of structural applications

2370 Lecture 18.1: Introduction to Stainless Steel

Lecture 18.2: Structural Behaviour and Design 2371

2372 Lecture 18.2: Structural Behaviour and Design

Cold Rolled/Cold Bent Products

Figure 1 Typical stress- strain curves

b. Non-symmetry of tensile and compressive behaviour

3.1.2 Factors affecting stress-strain behaviour

Figure 2 Strain-rate effects on 304L and 316L materials

Figure 3 Creep elongation vs. normalized stress

3.2 Cold Working

2374 Lecture 18.2: Structural Behaviour and Design

Figure 4 Effect of cold work on 304 material

3.3 Effects of Temperature

Figure 5 Effect of temperature on yield strength (0,5% proof strength)

3.4 Other Properties

Figure 6 Development of moments in fixed ended beam

2376 Lecture 18.2: Structural Behaviour and Design

Figure 7 Ramberg-Osgood representation of stress-strain curves

Figure 8 Effect of Ramberg-Osgood index “n” on buckling

There are three regions of member slenderness:

2378 Lecture 18.2: Structural Behaviour and Design

Figure 9 Stainless steel stress-strain relationship

4.2 Classification and Local Buckling

Figure 10 Load / end-shortening behaviour of plate elements

Figure 11 Cold-formed local buckling curves

4.4 Beam Design

Lecture 18.2: Structural Behaviour and Design 2381

Figure 13 Shear resistance of webs