SCIENCE 9 REVIEWER

MODULE 1: RESPIRATORY AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS WORKING TOGETHER

The Respiratory system is composed of organs that help us breathe air in and out – supplying oxygen and
eliminating carbon dioxide gases. The air enters the nose (nostril), nasal cavity (passageway) to make it warm, damp,
and clean. The air moves to the pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), and trachea (windpipe). The trachea conducts
inhaled air into the lungs through the bronchi. The bronchi are divide into bronchioles which are smaller tubes and
finally to the alveoli (air sacs).
The Circulatory system, also known as cardiovascular/vascular system, transports nutrients, respiratory gases,
and metabolic products throughout a living organism which permits integration among the various tissues. The
circulation includes the intake and delivery of metabolic materials throughout the organism, and the removal of
harmful by-products and return to the environment. It is made up of heart, blood, and blood vessels (veins, arteries,
and capillaries).
The heart rate, measured using beats per minute (bpm), varies in every individual. The infants have 80-160
bpm, children have 80-130 bpm, and adults normally have 60 -100 bpm. Children 2 years and below have higher heart
rates because of a faster metabolism. The heart rate decreases as children grow. People doing heavy activities may
have three times faster than the normal rate. However, a faster heart rate may be due to more serious health
problems.

The Mechanics of Breathing

The breathing is a process that allows the movement of air in and out of the lungs. Inhalation/Inspiration takes
place when the air pressure within the alveolar spaces falls below atmospheric pressure provided that the larynx is
open. The exhalation/expiration takes place when the air pressure within the alveoli exceeds atmospheric pressure. The
airflow can be rapid or slow in proportion to the level of the pressure differences. Since atmospheric pressure remains
relatively constant, airflow is determined by how much above or below atmospheric pressure the pressure within the
lungs rises or falls.

Pathway of Air
Inhalation: nose → nasal cavity → pharynx → larynx → trachea → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli (oxygen in,
carbon dioxide out)
Exhalation: alveoli → bronchioles → bronchi → trachea → larynx → pharynx → nasal cavity → nose

Blood Flow through the Heart

The human heart pumps blood to all parts of the body. The blood provides oxygen and nutrients to the body
and removes carbon dioxide and wastes. As blood flows through the body, oxygen is used up making the blood
oxygen poor or deoxygenated.
The human heart is divided into 2 major chambers – the left and the right. The right chamber receives oxygen-
poor or deoxygenated blood and pumps it to the lungs. The left chamber receives oxygen-rich or oxygenated blood
and pumps it the other parts of the body.

Other Parts of the Body → Vena Cava (Superior Vena Cava and Inferior Vena Cava) → Right Atrium → Tricuspid Valve
→ Right Ventricle → Main Pulmonary Artery → Left and Right Pulmonary Artery → Lungs

Flow of Oxygenated or Oxygen-Rich Blood

Lungs → Left and Right Pulmonary Vein → Left Atrium → Mitral Valve → Left Ventricle → Aortic Valve → Aorta → Other
Parts of the Body

How do respiratory and circulatory systems work together?

Respiratory and circulatory systems work together to circulate the blood throughout the body. Air moves to
the lungs through the nose, nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. Oxygen diffuses to the
bloodstream and transported to the left chambers of the lungs through the pulmonary veins. The heart pumps the
blood to other parts of the body. As the oxygen diffuses to the cells, the cells use oxygen to breakdown sugar to
release energy. As a result, carbon dioxide gases are produced as waste materials in the bloodstream. The carbon
dioxide-rich blood is delivered to the right portion of the heart through superior and inferior vena cava. The heart
pumps the blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the alveoli and
travels out of the body through bronchiole, bronchi, trachea, larynx, pharynx, nasal cavity, and nose. These processes
continue as we breathe air in and out, and as the heart pumps blood. Without these coordinated functions of the
respiratory and circulatory system, humans will surely die.
Breathing is a vital function for human life to exist. It allows oxygen to enter the cells in the body for metabolic
processes. Cells deprived of oxygen for a long period affect vital functions like the beating of the heart, sending
electrical signals in the brain, or moving of air in and out of the lungs.
Breathing is divided into inhalation or inspiration, and exhalation or expiration. According to Alvarez et. al.
(2014),
“When you breathe in or inhale, the diaphragm muscle contracts. Inhaling moves the diaphragm
down and expands the chest cavity. Simultaneously, the ribs move up and increase the size of the
chest cavity. There is now more space and less air pressure in the lungs. The air pushes in from the
outside where there is higher air pressure. It pushes into the lungs where there is lower air
pressure.”
“When you breathe out or exhale, the diaphragm muscle relaxes. The diaphragm and ribs return
to their original place. The chest cavity returns to its original size. There is now less space and the
greater air pressure inside the lungs. It pushes the air outside where there is lower air pressure.”

Like the lungs of the respiratory system, the heart of the circulatory system also plays a critical function in
order to supply cells with oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide. We are now ready to move to another hands-on
activity on how the blood flows in and out of the heart.

The heart, a hollow muscular organ about the size of your fist, is located in the center of your chest between
the lungs. It serves as a pump to circulate the blood in the body. This organ is a double pump that pumps on the left
and right sides. Every side is divided into two chambers, the atrium and the ventricle, each of which has a left and
right portion, totaling to four chambers altogether. The top chamber is atrium (plural: atria). The bottom chamber is
called the ventricle. The valve acts as a one-way door, allowing blood to flow either forward into the next chamber, or
out of the heart. The left and right chambers are separated by a wall of muscle called septum to prevent the mixing of
the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the other parts of the body through vena cava. The
superior vena cava, a large vein, returns blood to the heart from the head, neck, and both upper limbs while the
inferior vena cava returns blood to the heart from the lower part of the body. Deoxygenated blood moves from the
right atrium to the right ventricle through a tricuspid valve. The right ventricle pumps the blood to the main
pulmonary artery which connects to the lungs. The left atrium receives the oxygenated blood from the lungs
through the pulmonary vein. The blood moves to the left ventricle through the mitral valve and to the aorta through
the aortic valve. The aorta is the main artery that transports blood away from the heart.

Pulmonary circulation transports blood between the heart and the lungs. It transports deoxygenated blood
to the lungs to get rid of carbon dioxide and absorbs oxygen gas. The oxygenated blood then flows back to the heart.
Systemic circulation moves blood between the heart and the rest of the body. It sends oxygen to the cells and
removes carbon dioxide. The deoxygenated blood return to the heart.

MODULE 2: PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF RESPIRATORY AND CIRCULATORY DISEASES

Cigarette smoking harms nearly every organ in the body, causing many diseases and affecting health in
general. The negative effects of smoking on circulatory system include increased heart rate and blood pressure,
coronary heart disease, arteriosclerosis, and vascular diseases. The respiratory diseases caused by smoking are chronic
bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, cough, colds, tuberculosis, lung cancer and other respiratory infections. The leading
causes of death around the world are diseases affecting the respiratory and circulatory systems. However, they can be
prevented simply by having a lifestyle that promotes wellness. Circulatory and respiratory diseases begin to develop
with unhealthy lifestyle. Symptoms of these illnesses must not be neglected and appropriate cure must be given
immediately. Depending on the respiratory and circulatory condition, medications are based on the severity of the
diseases as recommended by doctors.

EMPHYSEMA
Emphysema is a lung condition that causes shortness of breath. Emphysema and chronic bronchitis are two
conditions that make up chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of
COPD, as well as marijuana smoke, air pollution and chemical fumes and dust. A person with emphysema could be
treated using prescribed medication and supportive therapy that includes oxygen and smoking cessation therapy.
ATHEROSCLEROSIS AND ARTERIOSCLEROSIS
Atherosclerosis happens when the plaque collects and causes arteries to narrow and harden due to factors
such as smoking, high blood pressure and cholesterol in the blood. The difference between Atherosclerosis and
Arteriosclerosis is that Atherosclerosis refers to build up of fats, cholesterol and other substances that triggers to blood
clot while the Arteriosclerosis occurs when the blood vessels that carry oxygen and nutrients from the heart and to the
rest of the body thickens and hardens. A person with atherosclerosis or arteriosclerosis is advised to undergo
medication and surgical procedure and to change lifestyle.

CORONARY HEART DISEASE

Coronary heart disease develops when the major blood vessels that supply our heart with blood, oxygen and
nutrients become damaged. This disease can be caused by high cholesterol foods, diabetes, family history and
smoking. Coronary Heart Disease is commonly treated with a combination of change in lifestyle, prescribed
medication and in some cases through surgery.

BRONCHITIS
Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mucus membrane that lines the bronchial tubes. The thick mucus builds
up causing coughing, difficulty of breathing and heavy feeling in the chest. Bronchitis may be caused by bacteria,
viruses or irritants in the air. There is no cure for chronic bronchitis, but there are several medications to help relieve
symptoms. It is also important to avoid smoking and smoky environments, and to drink lots of water and get plenty of
rest.

PNEUMONIA
Pneumonia is an infection in one or both lungs which causes inflammation of the air sacs. The infection is
caused by bacteria, viruses and fungi. Treatment for pneumonia involves curing the infection and preventing
complications. People who have community-acquired pneumonia usually can be treated at home with medication
such as antibiotics and pain reliever recommended by the doctor.

ASTHMA
Asthma is a chronic respiratory disorder caused by inflammation and narrowing of the bronchial tubes. An
asthma is triggered by airborne substances, certain foods, common bacteria and viruses. Inhalers and nebulizers are
key components of asthma treatment.

TUBERCULOSIS
Tuberculosis is a disease caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The bacteria usually attack the
lungs, but they can also damage other parts of the body. The bacteria that cause tuberculosis are spread from one
person to another person through tiny droplets released into the air via coughs and sneezes. With early detection and
appropriate antibiotics, TB is treatable. Treatment for TB can vary. It may involve taking an antibiotic once a week for
12 weeks or every day for 9 months.

Prevention:
The following could help prevent diseases related to the circulatory and respiratory systems.
•Quit/stop smoking
•Eat healthy foods
•Exercise regularly
•Maintain a healthy weight
•Enough rest/sleep
•Take vitamin C to improve immune system

MODULE 3: HEREDITY: INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

Incomplete dominance is a pattern of inheritance characterized by the formation of a trait that is in between
the phenotypes of the parents. There is an absence of the expression of the complete dominant allele. It is very
common in the expression of flower color in most plants.
 Are you familiar with a pure red-flowered four o’clock plant and a pure white-flowered four o’clock plant? A
cross between the pure red and white-flowered four o’clock plant will produce all pink flowers. With incomplete
dominance, the dominant and recessive traits blend resulting the third phenotype something in the middle.

Codominance
Another non-Mendelian pattern of inheritance is codominance. This happens when the alleles of same gene
are present and both are equally expressed in the phenotype of the offspring. Have you seen a roan goat? A red goat
(RR=all red hairs) is mated with a white goat (WW=all white hairs) will result to a roan (RW=red and with white hairs).

Multiple Alleles
Alleles are alternative form of a gene that controls a certain trait. Normally, a gene is controlled by only two
alleles but there are genes that have two or more alleles. For example, in human, the ABO blood type. In this case
three alleles are controlling the blood group, wherein blood type A is codominant with blood type B and blood type O
is recessive.

Sex Related Inheritance

Another exception to Mendelian rules is the sex-related inheritance. It can be categorized into three: sex-
linked, sex-influenced, and sex-limited.

Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determination

There are 23 pairs of human chromosomes, 22 pairs are called body chromosomes and the 23rd pair refer to
as the sex chromosomes. Males have two sex chromosomes; the X and Y. Females have both X chromosomes. Humans
have a total of 46 chromosomes in each cell.

Sex-linked Traits
Genes that are present in sex chromosomes are sex-linked traits because the expression depends on the sex of
the person. X-linked genes are genes located on X chromosomes whereas Y-linked genes are those in Y chromosomes.
An example is hemophilia (bleeder’s disease), a common sex-linked recessive disorder carried by the genes in the X
chromosomes. Study the Table 4 below. Xh is hemophiliac and XH is normal.

Sex-limited traits are only present in one gender. These traits are determined by the genes in the autosomes,
which are found in both male and female. The difference is in the expression of the genes in the phenotype of the
organism. In females, for example, lactation is expressed in females but not in males. The gene for lactation is present
in both males and females, but is only expressed in females. Males never produce milk even if they possess genes for
lactation.

Sex-influenced traits are visible in both gender but more often in one gender than the other. The trait is also
carried by the autosomes and not the sex chromosomes.

MODULE 4: BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life in an area.

Diversity is a measure of the different kinds of organisms in a region or other defined area. It includes the number of
species and the distribution of individuals among the species.
Richness is the number of species in a region or specified area.
Maximum Evenness is how equally the species are distributed.
Evenness is when all types of species have the same number of individuals.
Communities with many different species (a high index of diversity) will be able to withstand environmental
changes better than communities with only a few species (a low index of diversity).
Population pertains to the number of organisms of the same species living in a certain place.

Population Size, Density, and Distribution

Communities are made up of populations of different species. In biology, a population is a group of
organisms of the same species that live in the same area. The population is the unit of natural selection and evolution.
How large a population is and how fast it is growing are often used as measures of its health. Population size is the
number of individuals in a population. For example, a population of insects might consist of 100 individual insects, or
many more. Population size influences the chances of a species surviving or going extinct.
Generally, very small populations are at greatest risk of extinction. However, the size of a population may be
less important than its density.

Population density is the average number of individuals in a population per unit of area or volume. For
example, a population of 100 insects that live in an area of 100 square meters has a density of 1 insect per square
meter. If the same population lives in an area of only 1 square meter, what is its density? Which population is more
crowded? How might crowding affect the health of a population?

Population Distribution
Population density just represents the average number of individuals per unit of area or volume. Often,
individuals in a population are not spread out evenly. Instead, they may live in clumps or some other pattern. The
pattern may reflect characteristics of the species or its environment.

Population distribution describes how the individuals are distributed, or spread throughout their habitat
● Population size is the number of individuals in a population. It varies among organisms and change
with the number of births and when they move into an ecosystem. They also change when members
die or move out of an ecosystem.
● Population density is the average number of individuals per unit of area or volume.
● The pattern of spacing of individuals in a population may be affected by the characteristics of a
species or its environment.
● Limiting factors are environmental conditions that keep a population from increasing in size and
help balance ecosystems.
● The carrying capacity is affected by changes in the environment.

Causes of Species Extinction

1. Over Harvesting
There are many historical accounts about how humans have over hunted and over harvested species, leading
to their endangerment, and often, extinction. One extinct species, the Passenger Pigeon, is a classic example of how
humans over hunted a species, leading to the extinction of the entire species.

2. Habitat loss
This is one of the biggest reasons for the steep decline of species, both in the animal world and the plant
world. Many species in our world today are becoming endangered due to a loss of their primary habitat.

3. Highly specialized species

Rarity has its own problems. Highly specialized species that have very specific habitat requirements do not fare
well when faced with a changing environment, such as a changing climate or a habitat loss.

4. Pollution
Although biologists have been unable to isolate a single cause for the recent rapid decline in numbers and
extinctions of many species, it appears that much of it is due to pollution.

5. New species introduction and competition

Invasive species are a major cause of loss of diversity of both plants and animals. When a new species arrives
with no natural predators to keep it in check, it can take over.

6. Human-wildlife conflict
Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) occurs when animals pose a direct and recurring threat to the livelihood or
safety of people, leading to the persecution of that species. Retaliation against the species blamed often ensues,
leading to conflict about what should be done to remedy the situation.

7. Disease
Diseases kill humans and animals.
8. Low birth rate
It is believed that reproduction rates are a natural way of maintaining a population equilibrium. Some species
do not reproduce very often, and they may have few offspring each time when they breed. Other species may take a
number of years to become sexually mature, thus reducing their opportunity to breed over their life.
9. High genetic vulnerability
If a population has low genetic variation, it cannot evolve on the face of changing environmental variables and
will face an increased risk of extinction.

10. A particular species is rare to begin with

Some species can be found only in certain areas. If there are only a limited number of individuals of a species
that are in existence to begin with, and the environment changes, there is a lower probability that such a species will
survive.

Local and Global Issues

A. Deforestation
It is the permanent removal of trees to make room for something besides forest. This can include clearing the
land for agriculture or grazing, or using the timber for fuel, construction or manufacturing. Forests cover more than
30% of the Earth's land surface according to the World Wildlife Fund

Major causes of Deforestation

1. Kaingin Farming
Kaingin means clearing by the cutting down and burning of trees and plant growth in an area for cultivation
purposes. Also known as widen farming in other countries, it is for cultivation purposes. It is a traditional but
considered a destructive agricultural system practiced in many parts of the world.

2. Illegal logging
Illegal logging is the harvesting, processing, transporting, buying or selling of timber in contravention of
national and international laws. It has a devastating impact on some of the world's most valuable remaining forests,
and on the people who live in them and rely on the resources that forests provide.

3. Conversion of agricultural lands to housing projects

Reclassification of agricultural land refers to the act of specifying how agricultural lands shall be utilized for
non-agricultural uses such as residential, industrial, commercial, as embodied in the land use plan, subject to the
requirements and procedure for land use conversion, undertaken by a Local Government Unit.

4. Forest fire
A fire burning in an area of land with many trees, that is difficult to control and sometimes spreads quickly:
 The forest fires were caused by a combination of lightning strikes and very dry conditions.
 This area of the interior suffered devastating forest fires last summer.
 They desperately needed deliveries of water to keep a raging forest fire at bay.

5. Typhoons
A typhoon is a type of large storm system having a circular or spiral system of violent winds, typically
hundreds of kilometres or miles in diameter. The winds spiral around a region of low atmospheric pressure.
"Typhoon" is the name of these storms that occur in the Western Pacific.

Effects of Deforestation

1. Soil erosion
Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process that affects all landforms. In agriculture, soil erosion refers to the
wearing a way of a field's topsoil by the natural physical forces of water or through forces associated with farming
activities such as tillage.

2. Floods
 A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry. Floods are an area of study in the
discipline of hydrology. They are the most common and widespread natural severe weather event. Floods can look
very different because flooding covers anything from a few inches of water to several feet.

3. Decrease in wildlife resource that will eventually lead to extinction

Climate Change is caused by a number of things. The effect that climate has on extinction is very big. The
biodiverse Earth can't keep up with the rapid changes in temperature and climate. The species are not used to severe
weather conditions and long seasons, or a changing chemical make-up of their surroundings.

4. Wildlife Depletion
Wildlife depletion is the loss of wild animals through over hunting. Most often loss of there natural habitat
due to human expansion of urbanization. 7. • a) The largest –scale killing of animals for food, trade and pleasure is one
of the many causes for the depletion of wildlife.

MODULE 5: BASIC FEATURES AND IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION

The sun is the main source of energy. The energy we get from food we eat, fossil fuels and other sources all
come from solar energy of the sun. Through this is converted of energy transformation, solar energy is converted into
different forms of energy such as chemical, light, thermal, mechanical and nuclear energy.
Solar energy is used by plants to be able to photosynthesize. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use energy
coming from the sun to produce carbohydrates or sugars. In this process, light energy is converted to chemical energy
needed by all organisms in order to sustain life. Your study will focus on how organisms obtain energy from food and
how organisms produce energy.

Chemical equation for Photosynthesis: