5.

Heat Engine

ENGINE
An engine is a device which transforms one form of energy into another form.

HEAT ENGINE
Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy and utilizes this
thermal energy to perform useful work. Thus, thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy in a heat
engine.

Generally source of heat is combustion chamber or furnace where combustion of fuel takes place. Heat is
continuously supplied to the medium from the combustion chamber for conversion into mechanical work.

In addition to the above three elements, there is one cold body, at a lower temperature than the source is
known as heat sink.

Fig. 5.1 Elementary Heat Engine

Fig. 5.1 illustrates the basic principle of an elementary heat engine. The working fluid takes heat from heat
source and flows to the converting machine E where heat energy converts into mechanical work.

After this conversion it is discharged into the sink where it is cooled and comes to the original state. From the
heat sink working fluid is supplied to heat source by the pump P, where it is heated again and cycle is repeated.

Classification of Heat Engine:

Heat engine are divided into two broad classes:

1) External combustion engine

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2) Internal combustion engine

1) External Combustion Engine:

In this case, combustion of fuel takes place outside the cylinder as in case of steam engines where the heat of
combustion is employed to generate steam which is used to move a piston in a cylinder. Other examples of
external combustion engine are hot air engines, steam turbine and closed cycle gas turbine. These engines are
generally used to drive locomotives, ships, generation of electric power etc.

2) Internal Combustion (IC) Engine:

In this case combustion of fuel with oxygen of the air occurs within the cylinder of the engine. The internal
combustion engines group includes engines employing mixture of combustible gases and air, known as gas
engines, those using lighter liquid fuel or spirit known as petrol engines and those using heavier liquid fuels,
known as oil compression ignition or diesel engines.

Advantages of Heat Engines:

The advantages of internal combustion engines are:

1) Grater mechanical efficiency.

2) Lower weight and bulk to output ratio.
3) Lower first cost.
4) Higher overall efficiency.
5) Lesser requirement of water for dissipation of energy through cooling system.
6) The advantage of external combustion engines are:
7) Use of cheaper fuels.
8) High starting torque.
9) Higher weight and bulk to output ratio.

DEFINITIONS
Working substance
When a gas or mixture of gases or a vapour is used in engine for transferring heat, it is known as working fluid
or working substance.

Working fluids are able to absorb heat, store within them and give up heat when required. During the process
of absorbing and giving up heat, its pressure, volume, and temperature changes accordingly. Working fluid is
never destroyed or reduced in quantity during the process.

Converting machines
Any machine, which converts heat energy of the working fluid into mechanical work is called converting
machine.

Reciprocating machine
It is the machine consisting of a hollow cylinder into which a piston reciprocates by the action of a working
fluid.

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Rotary machine
It is the machine consisting of a wheel, fixed on a shaft, fitted with blades or vanes rotating due to the action
of the working fluid upon the blades.

Jet machine
It is the machine in which the fluid is discharged from the machine in the form of a jet and producing an impact
which causes the motion.

Cycle
It is defined as a series of processes performed in a definite order or sequence so that, after different and
definite number of processes, all the concerned substances are returned to their original state and condition.

Direct cycle
A heat engine, operating on a cycle produces or develops Mechanical energy or work is said to be working on
a direct cycle.

Reversed cycle
If the sequence of operation or processes in direct cycle are reversed it is said to be operating on reversed
cycle.

Heat engine cycles

Following are the various heat engine cycles which will be discussed in detail in this chapter.
(1) Carnot cycle (2) Rankine cycle (3) Otto cycle (4) Diesel cycle

Carnot Cycle
Sadi Carnot in 1824 first proposed the concept of heat engine working on reversible cycle called Carnot cycle.

According to Carnot theorem “No cycle can be more efficient than a reversible cycle operating between the
same temperature limits.”

Carnot cycle is useful to compare the efficiency of any cycle under consideration with the efficiency of any
cycle operating between the same two temperatures.

A Carnot cycle is a hypothetical cycle consisting four different processes: two reversible isothermal processes
and two reversible adiabatic (isentropic) processes.

Assumptions made in the working of the Carnot cycle

a) Working fluid is a perfect gas.

b) Piston cylinder arrangement is weightless and does not produce friction during motion.
c) The walls of cylinder and piston are considered as perfectly insulated.
d) Compression and expansion are reversible.
e) The transfer of heat does not change the temperature of sources or sink.

Fig. 5.2 shows essential elements for a Carnot cycle, P-v and T-S diagrams.

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This cycle has the highest possible efficiency and it consists four simple operations as below:

1. Isothermal Expansion (1 – 2)
2. Isentropic Expansion (2 – 3)
3. Isothermal Compression (3 – 4)
4. Isentropic Compression (4 – 1)

Fig. 5.2 P-v, T-S and schematic diagram of Carnot gas power cycle

Isothermal expansion (1 – 2):-

The source of heat (H) is applied to the end of the cylinder and isothermal reversible expansion occurs at
temperature T1. During this process Q1 heat is supplied to the system.

Adiabatic expansion (2 – 3):-

Adiabatic cover (C) is brought in contact with the cylinder head. The cylinder becomes perfect insulator
because of non-conducting walls and end. Hence no heat transfer takes place. The fluid expands adiabatically
and reversibly. The temperature falls from T1 to T3.

Isothermal compression (3 – 4):-

Adiabatic cover is removed and sink (S) is applied to the end of the cylinder. The heat, Q2 is transferred
reversibly and isothermally at temperature T3 from the system to the sink (S).

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Adiabatic compression (4 – 1):-

Adiabatic cover is brought in contact with cylinder head. This completes the cycle and system is returned to
its original state at 1. During the process, the temperature of system is raised from T3 to T1.

Efficiency of Carnot cycle:

Consider 1 kg of working substance
Heat supplied during isothermal process (1-2)
V2
Q  p V ln
1 1 1
V1
V
Q  RT ln 2 (5.1)
1 1
V1

Heat rejected during isothermal compression (3-4);

V4
Q  p V ln
2 3 3
V3
V4
Q2  RT3 ln (5.2)
V3

During adiabatic expansion (2-3) and adiabatic compression (4-1), the heat transfer from or to the system is
zero.

Work done,

W  Q1  Q2
V2 V4
W  RT ln  RT ln (5.3)
1 3
V1 V3
V2
Let, = ratio of expansion for process (1 – 2) 
V1
V4
= ratio of compression for process (3 – 4) 
V3
by substituting the value of 𝑟 in equation 5.3, we get,

W  RT1 ln r  RT3 ln r

W  R ln r(T1  T3 ) (5.4)

Thermal efficiency,
Work done Q1  Q2
η= 
Heat supplied Q1

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R ln r(T1  T3 )
 
RT1 ln r
T1  T3 T3
   1 (5.5)
T1 T1
Where,

T1  Maximum temperature of the cycle (K)

T3  Minimum temperature of cycle (K)

In equation 5.5, if temperature T3 decreases, efficiency increases and it becomes 100% if temperature T3
becomes absolute zero; which is impossible to attain.

Limitations of Carnot Gas Cycle:

a) The Carnot cycle is hypothetical.

b) The thermal efficiency of Carnot cycle depends upon absolute temperature of heat source T1 and heat
sink T3 only, and independent of the working substance.
c) Practically it is not possible to neglect friction between piston and cylinder. It can be minimized but
cannot be eliminated.
d) It is impossible to construct cylinder walls which are perfect insulator. Some amount of heat will
always be transferred. Hence perfect adiabatic process cannot be achieved.
e) The isothermal and adiabatic processes take place during the same stroke. Therefore the piston has
to move very slowly for isothermal process and it has to move very fast during remaining stoke for
adiabatic process which is practically not possible.
f) The output obtained per cycle is very small. This work may not be able to overcome the friction of the
reciprocating parts.

Rankine Cycle
The Rankine cycle is the ideal cycle for steam power plants. In a steam power plants, the heat energy of the
fuel is converted into mechanical energy or power.

The ideal Rankine cycle is shown schematically and on P-V, T-s & h-s diagram in Fig. 5.3. The liquid, vapour and
wet regions are also indicated with the help of saturation curve.

Process 4 – 1: Constant pressure heat addition in the boiler

The water is heated at constant pressure p1 in the boiler until the saturation temperature is reached, Saturated
water is converted into saturated steam at constant pressure. During 1-1’ process steam is superheated in
super heater.

Heat supplied is given by

Q s  h1  h4

Process 1 – 2: Isentropic expansion in the turbine

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High pressure and high temperature superheated, dry saturated or wet steam generated in the boiler at p1
and T1 is supplied to the steam turbine. This steam expands isentropically into steam turbine up to the
condenser pressure. Steam turbine develops mechanical work, WT due to expansion of steam.

Turbine work is given by,

W T  h1  h2

Fig. 5.3 p-V, T-s, h-s and schematic diagram of Rankine cycle

Process 2 – 3: Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser

The exhaust steam from turbine enters into condenser, where it is condensed at constant pressure by
circulating cooling water in the tubes. The heat rejected by exhaust steam is QR.

Heat rejected is given by,

QR  h2  h3

Process 3 – 4: Isentropic compression in the pump (Pumping Process)

The condensed water coming from condenser is pumped to boiler at boiler pressure with the help of feed
pump. To do so work, WP is supplied to feed pump.

Pump work is given by,

W P  h4  h3

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Efficiency of Rankine Cycle

Thermal efficiency is given by,

Net work output

Efficiency   R 
Heat supplied in boiler

W
R  Qnet (5.6)
s

Heat supplied to the working fluid in a boiler during process 4 – 1,

Q s  h1  h4 (5.7)

Turbine work during process 1 – 2,

W T  h1  h2 (5.8)

Heat rejected during condensation process 2 – 3,

Q R  h2  h3 (5.9)

Pump work during process 3 – 4,

W P  h4  h3 (5.10)

Net work output 


Wnet  WT WP 

Wnet   h1  h2    h4  h3  (5.11)

(h1  h2 )  (h4  h3 )
 R 
(h1  h4 )

(h1  h4 )  (h2  h3 )
 R 
(h1  h4 )

h2  h3
R  1 (5.12)
h1  h4

Usually pump work is very small, hence it is neglected

h1  h2
 R  (5.13)
h1  h4

Air Standard Cycles

In most of the power developing systems, such as petrol engine, diesel engine and gas turbine, the common
working fluid used is air. These devices take in either a mixture of fuel and air as in petrol engine or air and
fuel separately and mix them in the combustion chamber as in diesel engine

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The mass of fuel used compared with the mass of air is rather small. Therefore the properties of mixture can
be approximated to the properties of air.

Exact condition existing within the actual engine cylinder are very difficult to determine, but by making certain
simplifying assumptions, it is possible to approximate these conditions more or less closely. The approximate
engine cycles thus analysed are known as theoretical cycles.

The simplest theoretical cycle is called the air-cycle approximation. The air-cycle approximation used for
calculating conditions in internal combustion engine is called the air-standard cycle.

Air standard efficiency:

The efficiency of engine in which air is used as working substance is known as air standard efficiency.

The air standard efficiency is always greater than the actual efficiency of cycle.

Assumptions made for analysis of Air standard cycle:

1) The working fluid is air.

2) In the cycle, all the processes are reversible.
3) The air behaves as an ideal gas and its specific heat is constant at all temperatures.
CP  1.005 kJ / kg K, CV  0.718 kJ / kg K,   1.4
4) Mass of working fluid remains constant through entire cycle.
5) Heat is supplied from constant high temperature heat reservoir. Some heat is rejected from fluid to a
heat sink.

Otto Cycle
Nicholas-A-Otto, a German engineer developed the first
successful engine working on this cycle in 1876. This cycle is
also known as Constant volume cycle because heat is
supplied and rejected at constant volume. Mainly this cycle is
used in petrol and gas engines.

Fig. 5.4 shows the Otto cycle plotted on p – V diagram.

Adiabatic Compression Process (1 – 2):

At pt. 1 cylinder is full of air with volume V1, pressure P1 and

temp. T1.

Piston moves from BDC to TDC and an ideal gas (air) is

compressed isentropically to state point 2 through
compression ratio,
V1
r
V2

Constant Volume Heat Addition Process (2 – 3):

Heat is added at constant volume from an external heat Fig. 5.4 P-V diagram for petrol cycle.
source.

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p3
The pressure rises and the ratio rp or  
p is called expansion ratio or pressure ratio.
2

Adiabatic Expansion Process (3 – 4):

The increased high pressure exerts a greater amount of force on the piston and pushes it towards the BDC.

Expansion of working fluid takes place isentropically and work done by the system.
V4
The volume ratio is called isentropic expansion ratio.
V3

Constant Volume Heat Rejection Process (4 – 1):

Heat is rejected to the external sink at constant volume. This process is so controlled that ultimately the
working fluid comes to its initial state 1 and the cycle is repeated.

Many petrol and gas engines work on a cycle which is a slight modification of the Otto cycle.

This cycle is called constant volume cycle because the heat is supplied to air at constant volume.

Air Standard Efficiency of an Otto Cycle:

Consider a unit mass of air undergoing a cyclic change.

Heat supplied during the process 2 – 3,

q1 CV T3 T2 



Heat rejected during process 4 – 1,

q2 CV T4 T1 



Work done,

W  q1  q2

W CV T3 T2  CV T4 T1 



Thermal efficiency,

Work done W
 
Heat supplied q1 
CV T3 T2   CV T4 T1 
 
CV T3 T2  

T4 T1  
 1 (5.14)
T3 T2 
For Adiabatic compression process (1 – 2),

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T  V  1

2
 1   r 1
T1  V2 


T  T rγ1 (5.15)
2 1

For Isentropic expansion process (3 – 4),

T  V  1
 3 
4
T3  V4 

 V  1
T3  T4  4 
 V3 


γ1
V
T3  T4  1   V1 V4 , V2  V3 
 V2 


T  T
3 4  r  1 (5.16)

From equation 5.14, 5.15 & 5.16, we get,


otto  1 
T4 T1  

T4 r  1 T1r  1

  1 T4 T1 

r  1 T4 T1



otto

1
  1 (5.17)
r  1
otto

Expression 5.17 is known as the air standard efficiency of the Otto cycle.

It is clear from the above expression that efficiency increases with the increase in the value of 𝑟 (as γ is
constant).

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Fig. 5.5 Effect of compression ratio on 𝜂

Fig. 5.5 shows the variation of air standard efficiency of Otto cycle with compression ratio.

Diesel Cycle
This cycle was discovered by a German engineer Dr. Rudolph Diesel. Diesel cycle is also known as constant
pressure heat addition cycle.

The diesel cycle consists of two reversible adiabatic process, a constant pressure process and constant volume
process. (p-V) diagram of this cycle is shown in Fig. 5.6.

Fig. 5.6 p-V diagram for diesel cycle

Reversible adiabatic Compression Process (1 – 2):

V1
Isentropic (Reversible adiabatic) compression with r  .
V2

Constant Pressure Heat Addition Process (2 – 3):

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During this process heat is added to air at constant pressure. Due to heat addition volume and temperature
V
of air increases. Volume ratio 3 is known as cut-off ratio.
V2

 Heat supplied, QS  mCp (T3 T2 )

Reversible adiabatic Expansion Process (3 – 4):

V4
Isentropic expansion of air  isentropic expansion ratio.
V3

Work is developed during this process.

Constant Volume Heat Rejection Process (4 – 1):

In this process heat is rejected at constant volume. Hence pressure and temperature of air decreases to initial
value. This way cycle is complete.

This thermodynamics cycle is called constant pressure cycle because heat is supplied to the air at constant
pressure.

 Heat rejected, QR  mCv (T4  T1 )

Fig. 9 p-V diagram for diesel cycle

Efficiency of Diesel cycle: 

Net work done, Wnet  Heat supplied  Heat rejected

 mCp (T3 T2 )  mCv (T4 T1)

Net work done

Air standard efficiency, 
Heat supplied

mCp (T3  T2 )  mCv (T4  T1 )


mCp (T3  T2 )

(T4  T1 )
 1  (5.18)
 (T3  T2 )
Let,
V1
compression ratio, r 
V2
V3
Cut-off ratio,  
V2

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V4
Expansion Ratio 
V3

For process (1-2):

T  V  1
2
  1   r 1
T1  V2 


T  T  r 1 (5.19)
2 1

For process (2-3)

p2V2  p3V3

T2 T3

Since p2 = p3 (from fig. 6)

T  T  V3
3 2
V2

By substituting the value of T2 from eq. (5.19) 


T3  T1  r  1   
 (5.20)

For process (3-4):

T  V  1
  4 
3


T4  V3 

V4 V4 / V2 r  V1 V 4
V  V /V  
  


3 3 2

 1
T  r 
  3   
T4   
 

  1
T  T 
r  1
4 3

By substituting the value of T3 from eq. (5.20), we get

   1 
T4  (T1r  1
 )   1  

 r 


T   T (5.21)
4 1

By substituting the values of T2, T3 and T4 in eq. (5.18) we get,

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1 T    T 
  1  1  1 1  1 
 

T1    r  T1  r 


1   1 
  1  1   (5.22)
r    1  

It is clear from the above equation that the efficiency of diesel cycle depends upon compression ratio (r), ratio
of specific heat (γ), and cut-off ratio ρ.

Cut-off ratio ρ is always greater than 1 and γ = 1.4 for air, the quantity in bracket is always greater than one.

The efficiency of Diesel cycle is always less than Otto cycle for same compression ratio due to above reason.

Heat is added at constant volume in Otto cycle while heat is added at constant pressure in Diesel cycle.

From the eq. (5.22) it is clear that the efficiency of Diesel cycle increases with the increase of compression
ratio and with the decreases of cut-off ratio.

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