1) a) State the human activities that threaten an ecosystem.

 Human activities often affect whole ecosystems.

 With great advancements in the medical field, modern farming

techniques and better infrastructure, the world’s population has grown
to over 6 billion today.

 Conflicts, therefore, arise between the need to meet the immediate

human demands in the short term and the need to protect and
conserve ecosystems from long-term damage.

 Many of the problems related to the environment are the results of

human activities and human interference with the ecosystems.

 The negative effects of hasty, unplanned development and the

mismanagement of the ecosystems result in various environmental
problems such as air and water pollution, the greenhouse effect,
global warming and the depletion of natural resources.

 These problems bring about negative effects that increasingly threaten

the economic resources, health and survival of ecosystems.

 Some human activities that threaten the ecosystems are summarised

in Figure 9.1
 Figure 9.1

b) Explain the impact of the above human activities on the ecosystem

Deforestation and its effect
1) The rapid destruction of woodlands or the removal of trees from
forests is known as deforestation.

Photograph 9.1 Deforestation

2) Every year, vast areas of forests are cleared to make way for
agriculture and development.
3) Tropical rainforests have important ecological roles.
a) Rainforests are the oldest ecosystems on Earth and house almost
half of the flora and fauna of the world.
b) They contain many unique species which provide food, medicine
and other biological products. Plants from the tropical rainforests
provide about one quarter of pharmaceutical products available
today. According to the National Cancer Institute, 70% of the
plants useful in the treatment of cancer can only be found in the
tropical rainforests.
c) Rainforests regulate climate by influencing wind, rainfall, humidity
and temperature patterns.
d) Rainforests are also called the ‘carbon sink’ of the Earth because
they absorb vast amounts of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis
and at the same time release oxygen into the atmosphere.
 e) They also serve as water catchment areas.
4) Despite their importance, it has been estimated that more than 50
million acres of rainforests are destroyed or seriously degraded
every year.
5) In general, deforestation results in
a) soil erosion
b) flash floods
c) landslides
d) disruption to the carbon and nitrogen cycles
e) severe climate changes
f) the loss of biodiversity
1) Without proper development and planning, a land stripped of its vegetation is subject
to soil erosion. Soil erosion is the removal and thinning of the soil layer due to
physical and climatic processes, such as high rainfalls.

2) The absence of plant root systems makes the soil structure unstable.

3) When there are heavy rains for a long period of time, the top layer of the soil
crumbles and this leads to landslides on steep hillsides.

4) The eroded soil is then carried by moving water and deposited at the bottom of rivers.

5) This, together with depletion of water catchment areas, causes flash floods during the
rainy seasons.

6) Soil erosion causes the land to be depleted of minerals and natural resources, making
the land infertile.

Deforestation causes soil erosion, landslides and flash floods

Photograph 9.2 Landslide
 Photograph 9.3 Flash flood

Deforestation results in the loss of biodiversity

1) Deforestation has a devastating effect on the biodiversity in tropical rainforests.
The destruction of millins of hectares of forests by human activities means:

a) the removal of the bases of numerous food webs

b) the loss of habitats of many species of flora and fauna

c) the extinction of countless species and varieties of plants and animals. The
extinction of flora and fauna species reduces the biodiversity. Biodiversity can be
rich source of food and priceless medicines to mankind.
Deforestation disrupts the carbon and nitrogen cycles

1) The removal of plants in the rainforests disrupts the natural cycle of nutrients.

2) The level of atmospheric carbon dioxide rises as less carbon dioxide in the air is
removed by plants during photosynthesis.

3) The level of atmospheric oxygen drops as less oxygen is released by plants during
photosynthesis.

4) The recycling of nitrates and other ions slow down

5) Tree roots bind soil particles together, and the tree canopy reduces the force of
rain beating down on the soil. Deforestation, therefore, causes the loss of nutrients
through leaching and run-offs.

Deforestation causes climatic changes

 1) Deforestation disrupts the normal weather patterns, creating hotter, drier
weather and causing global climatic changes.

2) The removal of trees reduces transpiration, rainfall and the rate at which plants
absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during photosynthesis.

3) This leads to an increase in the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere. High
levels of carbon dioxide prevent heat from escaping fdrom the atmosphere. This
is known as the greenhouse effect which is believed to lead to global warming.

4) Forest cleaning and burning of wood result in air pollution and release more
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

5) Burning of trees in the tropics adds about 25% more carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere.

Burning of fossil fuels and its effects

1) The burning of fossil fuels adds about 75% of carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere.
2) An increase in carbon dioxide level is associated with the greenhouse
effect and global warming.

Intensive farming and its effects

1) Excessive use of land for intensive farming decreases the space and
resources available for other species.
2) In intensive farming, farmers often use inorganic fertilisers, which
contain nitrates, phosphates and potassium ions, to improve crop
yields.
3) Since nitrate and ammonium ions are highly soluble, they do not
remain in the soil for long and are quickly leached into the
surrounding rivers and lakes.
4) This leads to eutrophication. Eutrophication is discussed later in the
section on water pollution.

The effects of an increase in domestic waste and industrial waste

1) An increase in human population generates an increase in both
domestic and industial waste.
2) The dumping of waste in landfills poses a great danger to living
organisms as toxic substances and other pollutants from the
dumpsites leak into the ground and eventually pollute the nearby
water sources.
Pollution
1) Pollution can be defined as any undesirable change in the physical,
chemical or biological characteristics of the natural environment. It is
the result of harmful substances or energy released through human
activities.
2) There are four types of pollution: air, water, thermal and noise
pollution.

2) a) Explain the different types of pollution and their sources.

Air pollution
1) Burning of fossil fuels is the main source of air pollution. Fossil fuels
are burnt in power stations using coal, petroleum and natural gas, in
domestic and industrial boilers, and in the internal combustion
engines of vehicles.

2) When fossil fuels are burnt, the elements in the fuels are oxidised,
formaing various air pollutants.

3) These include carbon dioxide (CO 2), sulphur dioxide ( SO2), oxides of
nitrogen ( NO 2 ,∧NO ) and fine particulate matter.
 Table 9.1 The sources of air pollutants

Pollutants Sources
Carbon monoxide (CO)  Incomplete combustion of
 Colourless, odourless gas fossil fuels
 The exhausts of vehicles
 Factories

Sulphur dioxide ( SO2)  Combustion of fossil fuels,

 Pungent, colourless gas particularly in heat and
 Sulphur dioxide is formed power generation facilities.
when sulphuric compounds  Volcanic gases
react with oxygen during  Lage industrial boilers
combustion.  Factories
Oxides of nitrogen  Vehicles exhausts
 Nitrogen monoxide (NO)  Action of bacteria on
 Nitrogen dioxide ( NO 2) fertilisers
 Combustion of fossil fuels
 Factories
Lead (Pb)  Combustion of fossil fuels
Lead compounds are added to  Vehicle exhaust fumes
petrol to prevent the inefficient
burning of the petrol-air mixture.
Carbon dioxide (CO 2)  Open burning
An acidic, colourless and  Combustion of fossil fuels
odourless gas

Fine particulate matter  Incomplete combustion of

 A complex mixture of very fossil fuels, for example,
fine liquid droplets or solid bonfires, open burning, the
particles in the air, such as burning of oil wells and the
dust, smoke and exhaust burning of dried paddy
 fumes. stalks.
 Smoke contains tiny carbon  Motorised vehicles (exhaust
particles called soot. fumes)
 Haze is formed when smoke,  Quarries, sawmills and
dirt and particulate matter asbestos factories
combine with water vapour
in the atmosphere.
 When there is no wind,
smoke may be trapped by fog
to form smog.

Photograph 9.4 Toxic gases are released by industries lead to air pollution

Acid rain
1) Causes of acid rain
a) The combustion of fossil fuels (coal, air and gas) in power stations,
factories, domestic boilers and internal combustion engines
releases large quantities of sulphur dioxide ( SO2) and oxides of
nitrogen (NO and NO 2).
b) Both sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen combine with water
vapour in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid and nitric acid
respectively.
 c) Then they fall to Earth as acid rain.
d) Rain is naturally acidic, with a pH of about 5.6. this acidity is due
to the carbon dioxide in the air, which dissolves in rain to form
carbonic acid.
e) However, the pH of acid rain is less than 5.0.

Water pollution
1) Water sources are the most easily polluted as they are most affected
by human activities.
2) Industrial, domestic and agricultural activities produce waste which
pollutes water.
3) The sources of water pollution are summarised in Table 9.2.

Table 9.2 The sources of water pollution

Sources Pollutants
Agricultural run-offs and waste Nitrates and Herbicide and
from oil palm and rubber phosphates (in pesticide
processing mills fertilisers) residues
Untreated sewage consisting Suspended Nitrates and
mainly of human faeces and solids phosphates
domestic waste
Domestic waste includes Detergents
detergents and food waste.
Animal waste form farms Microorganisms such as bacteria
and protozoa
Effluents from industries Heavy metals such as copper,
 Electronics and mercury, zinc and chromium
 electroplating plants
 Food and beverage
processing industry
 Rubber product processing
industry
Underground pipes Lead

Eutrophication
1) Eutrophication is the artificial nutrient enrichment of an aquatic
system with organic material or inorganic nutrients, causing an
excessive growth of aquatic plant life.

Thermal pollution
In thermal pollution, the temperature of a body of water is
unintentionally raised as a result of human activities.
Causes of thermal pollution
1) Hot water is discharged into nearby lakes and rivers from the
effluents of industrial processes and the cooling towers of electrical
power stations which use water as a cooling agent.
2) The excess heat that is released into the environment leads to thermal
pollution.
3) Thermal pollution causes the temperature in a body of water to rise
above the normal value. The increase in temperature can be between
5℃ and 10℃ .
Noise pollution
1) Noise from cars, motorcycles, aeroplanes, construction sites,
agricultural and industrial machinery can be a form of pollution.
2) The noise level of residential areas should not exceed 55 decibels
(dB).
3) According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), prolonged
exposure to noise levels at or above 80 decibels (dB) can lead to
deafness.

2) b) Describe the effects of pollution on living things and the environment.

The effects of air pollution

Table 9.3 The effects of air pollution
 Pollutants Effects
Carbon monoxide (CO) Health:
 Colourless, odourless gas  Combines readily with
haemoglobin and affects
the transport of oxygen to
body cells
 Impairs alertness, causes
fatigue and headaches
Sulphur dioxide ( SO2) Health:
 Pungent, colourless gas  Irritates the eyes
 Sulphur dioxide is formed  Damages respiratory
when sulphuric passages
compounds react with  Causes bronchitis
oxygen during combustion.  Causes wheezing, a
shortness of breath and
coughing
 Causes asthmatic attacks
Climate:
 Combines with rainwater
to form acid rain
Agriculture:
 Contributes to acid rain
which damages
photosynthesis tissues
 Acid rain lowers pH of
soil, rivers and lakes
Buildings:
 Acid rain corrodes iron,
limestone and stonework,
and destroys buildings
Oxides of nitrogen Health:
 Nitrogen monoxide (NO)  Irritate lungs, nose, throat
 Nitrogen dioxide ( NO 2) and eyes
  Cause respiratory
infections
 Cause bronchitis
 Dissolved in rainwater to
form acid rain
Agriculture:
 Contributes to acid rain
which lowers pH of soil,
making it unsuitable for
cultivation of crops
 Damage leaves and roots
Buildings:
 Acid rain corrodes metal
and destroys stonework on
buildings.
Lead (Pb) Health:
Lead compounds are added to  Retards mental
petrol to prevent the inefficient development and damages
burning of the petrol-air the liver
mixture.  Can result in coma or
death

Carbon dioxide (CO 2) Health:

An acidic, colourless and  Affects respiration
odourless gas Climate:
 Leads to greenhouse effect
and global warming
 Results in an increase in
the atmospheric
temperature
 Climatic changes
Fine particulate matter Health:
 A complex mixture of very  Irritates the eyes, nose and
fine liquid droplets or solid lungs
 particles in the air, such as  Damages respiratory
dust, smoke and exhaust passages and lungs
fumes.  Haze can cause
 Smoke contains tiny conjunctivitis, sore throat,
carbon particles called influenza, asthma and lead
soot. to bronchitis
 Haze is formed when  Dust from quarries,
smoke, dirt and particulate sawmills and asbestos
matter combine with water factories can cause lung
vapour in the atmosphere. diseases.
 When there is no wind,  Haze leads to reduced
smoke may be trapped by visibility.
fog to form smog. Agriculture:
 Smoke particles (soot)
deposit on leaves and
block stomata. This
prevents gaseous
exchange.
 Both lower the
photosynthesis rate of
plants which subsequently
reduces crop yields.
Climate:
 Contributes to the
formation of haze and
smog
 Smoke and haze can
reduce visibility.
Buildings:
 Soot darkens buildings.

The effects of acid rain

a) Agriculture:

 The soil becomes very acidic and unsuitable for the cultivation of
crops.
 Acid rain causes the leaching of minerals such as potassium,
calcium and magnesium. This affects the growth of crops.
b) Aquatic ecosystem:

 Acid rain causes insoluble aluminium ions to accumulate in lakes

and rivers. The concentration of aluminium ions eventually reaches
a toxic level which can kill aquatic organisms such as fish and
invertebrates.
 Increased acidity in the aquatic ecosystems also kills
phytoplankton which changes the food chain.
 Photosynthetic tissues are destroyed. Plant leaves turn yellow and
fall off. The roots are damaged and cannot absorb minerals.
c) Health:

 Acidic soil releases the ions of certain heavy metals such as

cadmium, lead and mercury which may contaminate the supply of
drinking water
d) Buildings:

 Metal railings and bridges corrode.

 Limestone, stonework and marble monuments are eroded due to
chemical weathering.
 Figure 9.2 The formation and effects of acid rain

The effects of water pollution

Table 9.4 The effects of water pollution

Pollutants and their effects

Nitrates and phosphates (in Herbicide and pesticide residues
fertilisers)  Accumulation of pesticides
 Excess nitrates and and herbicides may have
phosphates lead to toxic affects on organisms in
eutrophication. the water and humans if the
water is used as drinking
water
 The pesticide levels
accumulate as they pass
through the food chains.
  High concentrations of
pesticides may accumulate in
the tissues of final consumers
which are mainly carnivores.
The pesticides may kill the
carnivores or may affect their
metabolism.
 Studies have also shown that
pesticides have led to lower
sperm counts, decreased
ovulation, the inability to
conceive and birth defects.
Suspended solids Nitrates and phosphates
 Reduced light penetration  Lead to eutrophication
 If suspended solids are
biodegradable, and this
process requires a high
demand for oxygen
Detergents
 ‘Hard’ detergents create foam which reduces the supply of oxygen
to organisms living in water.
 ‘Soft’ detergents are biodegradable but may contain high levels of
phosphates which can lead to eutrophication.
Microorganisms such as bacteria and protozoa
 If the water is used for drinking, it must be properly treated or it
may cause water-borne diseases such as cholera.
Heavy metals such as copper, mercury, zinc and chromium
 Highly toxic and accumulate in the organisms via food chains
 Mercury can cause acute nervous disorders in humans.
Oil, grease, and suspended solids
Waste water contains numerous contaminants, including hydrogen
sulphide.
Lead
 Lead is a highly toxic heavy metal which can accumulate in the
 tissues of living organisms.
 Lead can impair the mental ability of children.

The effects of eutrophication

1) Eutrophication can be caused by:
a) the leaching of inorganic fertilisers, especially nitrates and
phosphates, from agricultural lands
b) the input of untreated sewage as well as discharge from sewage
treatment plants
c) run-offs containing animal wastes from pastures and farmlands into
lakes, rivers or ponds
The effects of thermal pollution
1) Water temperature can affect the level of dissolved oxygen. When the
temperature of water increases, oxygen becomes less soluble in water.
2) a) For some species, a sudden increase in temperature can lead to
instant death because many aquatic species can only survive
within a certain range of temperature.
b) The death of these species may have a negative effect on the food
chain, causing the entire ecosystem to collapse.
3) For other species, for example, algae, an increase in temperature
actually encourages their rapid growth which, in turn, leads to a
higher BOD value.
4) If the temperature increase continues over a long period, this may
result in permanent changes in the species composition of the aquatic
ecosystem.
The effects of noise pollution
1) Excessive exposure to high levels of noise is considered a health risk
because noise can contribute to stress-related problems such as high
blood pressure, coronary disease, ulcers, depression and headaches.
2) Loud noise can cause an arousal response in which a seriesof
reactions occurs in the body. Adrenaline is released into the
bloodstream. A person’s heartbeat rate, blood pressure, and
respiration rate are likely to increase. The blood vessels constrict and
the muscles become tense.

2) c) Explain the ways to overcome problems related to pollution.

The ways to overcome air pollution

Table 9.5 The solution to overcome air pollution

Pollutants Solutions
Carbon monoxide (CO)
 Colourless, odourless gas

Sulphur dioxide ( SO2)  Use low sulphur content

 Pungent, colourless gas fuels.
 Sulphur dioxide is formed  Clean up emissions from
when sulphuric power stations and
compounds react with factories with scrubbers.
oxygen during
 combustion.
Oxides of nitrogen Clean up emissions from car
 Nitrogen monoxide (NO) exhausts by installing catalytic
 Nitrogen dioxide ( NO 2) converters to turn oxides of
nitrogen into harmless nitrogen
gas.

Lead (Pb)  Use unleaded petrol

Lead compounds are added to
petrol to prevent the inefficient
burning of the petrol-air
mixture.
Carbon dioxide (CO 2) Reduce the use of fossil fuels.
An acidic, colourless and
odourless gas

Fine particulate matter  More efficient burning of

 A complex mixture of very fuels in well-designed
fine liquid droplets or solid furnaces.
particles in the air, such as  Stop open burning.
dust, smoke and exhaust
fumes.
 Smoke contains tiny
carbon particles called
soot.
 Haze is formed when
smoke, dirt and particulate
matter combine with water
vapour in the atmosphere.
 When there is no wind,
smoke may be trapped by
fog to form smog.
The ways to overcome acid rain
1) Acid rain can be reduced by

 Cleaning up emissions from power stations and industrial plants

with scrubbers. This process involves the spraying of water to trap
pollutants.
 Cleaning up emissions from vehicle exhausts through the use of
catalytic conveters. The pollutants react with one another in the
catalytic converters to produce less harmful products.

The ways to overcome water pollution

Table 9.6 The solution to overcome water pollution

Pollutants Solutions
Nitrates and phosphates (in Control the use of fertilisers by
fertilisers) a) applying only when crops are
growing
b) not applying in empty fields
c) not spraying when there is a
forecast of rain
d) not disposing of them into rivers
and ponds
e) reducing the usage of excess
nitrates from fertilisers and
ammonia
Herbicide and pesticide residues  Use biodegradable pesticides
 Use biological pest control
methods
 Plant genetically modified
crops that can resist attacks
 by pests as this may reduse
the need of chemical
insecticides.
Suspended solids  Treat sewage before it enters
rivers.
 Prevent farm slurry ( liquid
manure) from entering rivers
and ponds
Nitrates and phosphates

Detergents  Use biodegradable detergents

with low phosphate content.

Microorganisms such as bacteria  Drink properly treated and

and protozoa boiled water.

Heavy metals such as copper,  Treat effluents before they

mercury, zinc and chromium are discharged into water
sources.
 Take legal action against
illegal dumping of toxic
wastes.
Lead  Use copper pipes instead of
lead pipes in plumbing

The ways to overcome thermal pollution

1) Control the amount of hot water discharged from industrial plants and
power stations into the surrounding lakes and rivers.
2) Control the amount of hot water or industrial effluents discharged into
still of slow-moving rivers.

3) Describe the phenomenon of greenhouse effect.

The greenhouse effect

1) The greenhouse effect is an effect in the atmosphere as a result of the
presence of certain gases, called the greenhouse gases (Figure 9.7)
2) Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are similar to the glass panes of a
greehouse which trap the heat and warm the greenhouse.
3) Carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane, nitrous oxide,
low level ozone, and water vapour make up the greenhouse gases.
4) With the exception of CFCs, most of the greenhouse gases occur
naturally. However, all of them are also the results of human
activities.
5) Today, data collected around the world show a steady increase in the
concentration of greenhouse gases. At the same time, there is also
rapid development and industrialisation.
6) since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric
concentrations of carbon dioxide have increased by nearly 30%, the
concentrations of methane have more than doubled, and the
concentrations of nitrous oxide ( N 2O ) have risen by about 15%.

Figure 9.3 The greenhouse effect

7) Scientists believe that the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, petroleum

and natural gas) and other human activities such as increased
deforestation and industrial production are the primary reasons for the
increased concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
8) As the concentration of greenhouse gases rises, the greenhouse effect
increases, trapping more heat in the atmosphere and raising the
average temperature on Earth.
9) This overall rise in the average temperature of the atmosphere is
known as global warming. The increase in atmospheric temperature
has been high enough to cause changes in the global climate.
10) Over the last 40 years, the average temperature on Earth has
increased by about 0.2-0.3℃ .

Figure 9.4 Mean annual temperatures in Malaysia

Figure 9.5 The increase in global temperatures parallels the increase in the
concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide
11) In Malaysia, temperatures have been rising at 0.18℃ every decade
(Figure 9.4)
12) Without emission control policies, it is projected that carbon dioxide
concentrations will be 30-150% higher than the present level. The
average temperature on Earth may rise between 1.5℃ and 4.5℃ by
2100.
13) Figure 9.5 shows the link between the increase in the average global
temperature.
Solutions to global warming
1) Below are some of the steps which can be taken to reduse the
greenhouse effect.
a) Reduce the burning of fossil fuels to conserve energy
b) Develop alternative sources of energy such as wind, solar and
geothermal energy.
c) Reduce deforestation for farming
d) Replant trees which have been cut down.
2) International cooperation as well as individual action is needed to
lessen the effect of global warming.
3) International treaties that bind countries to their commitment of
limiting and reducing the amount of carbon dioxide as well as other
greenhouse gases which are released into the atmosphere must be
implemented.
 4) Explain the thinning of the ozone layer.

The thinning of the ozone layer

1) The ozone layer is a region in the stratosphere, between 20 and 25
kilometres above the surface of the Earth.
2) The ozone layer contains high concentrations of ozone molecules (O 3)
that absorb ultraviolet (UV) radiation and shield organisms from its
damaging effects (Figure 9.6).

Figure 9.6 The ozone layer filters out UV radiation

Photograph 9.5 A satellite image of the ozone hole over the Antarctica. The
dark region on the image is actually an ozone hole.
3) a) The thinning of the ozone layer has been recorded by scientists
since the 1970s.
b) In 1985, it was reported that the stratospheric ozone over the
Antarctica had declined by 40% since 1977.
c) The atmosphere in this area has very low ozone concentrations,
resulting in the formation of an ozone hole (Photograph 9.5). An
ozone hole has now appeared above the Arctic as well.
4) Consequently, UV radiation has risen by 7% per decade in the
northern hemisphere and by 10% per decade in the southern
hemisphere.
5) This layer of ozone shields us from excessive ultraviolet radiation
from the sun.
Causes of ozone depletion
1) The destruction of the ozone layer is mainly due to the increasing
levels of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the atmosphere.
2) CFCs are very active chemicals that contain chlorine, carbon and
fluorine.
3) CFCs are used as coolants in air conditioners and refrigerators,
propellants in aerosol cans and foaming agents in the making of
styrofoam packaging.
4) CFCs are extremely stable and can remain in the environment for as
long as 75 to 100 years.
5) Once in the stratosphere, CFCs are broken down by ultraviolet rays.
6) As a result, the highly reactive chlorine radicals (Cl ) are released.
7) These chlorine radicals break down the ozone molecules (O3) in a
chain reaction.

The effects of ozone depletion

1) The consequences of ozone depletion are very severe. Prolonged
exposure to ultraviolet radiation can lead to higher risks of

 Skin cancer, such as melanoma. Ultraviolet radiation causes

mutations that can lead to skin cancer.
 Cataracts
 Sunburns
2) Ultraviolet radiation weakens the immune system and the ability of
the body to resist infectious diseases.
3) Ultraviolet radiation reduces nutrients contents and crop yields of
plants such as soya beans and peas.
4) Leaf cells and chlorophyll are easily damaged by the ultraviolet rays.
This lowers the rate of photosynthesis and reduces crop yields.
5) Ultraviolet rays kill microorganisms and phytoplankton that are at the
bottom of the marine food chain, the base on which most of the
world’s population depends for protein.
6) Ozone depletion also leads to an increase in the temperature on Earth.
7) High levels of ultraviolet radiation can damage the eggs of certain
amphibians.

Ways to reduce ozone depletion

1) Reduce or stop the use of CFCs.
2) Replace the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) with
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFs). Unlike CFCs, these gases break
down in the atmosphere and return to Earth in the form of rainwater.

5) Explain the impact of the thinning of the ozone layer and global warming on the
ecosystem.

 Global warming and the thinning of the ozone layer both have an
enormous impact on the ecosystem.
 The average increase in the Earth’s temperature could change weather
patterns and agricultural output.

 There is also convincing evidence from research carried out by

scientists that links the melting of the polar ice caps to global
warming.

 This in turn leads to a corresponding rise in sea levels.

 By absorbing most of the ultraviolet radiation, the ozone layer shields

living organisms on Earth from the damaging effects of ultraviolet
radiation.

 The consequences of the thinning of the ozone layer can be quite

severe.

 The incidence of skin cancer and cataracts among the population will
be on the increase.
6) Describe measures taken in the management of developed activities and the ecosystem
to ensure a balance of nature is maintained.

Measures taken in the management of development activities

Implementation of laws
1) The government has implemented laws to protect and govern
biological resources and the environment.
2) Many laws and regulations are designed to control pollution which
affects the quality of land, air and water. Below are some of the acts.
a) The Environmental Quality Act, 1974, 1989
This is the principal legislation that regulates and governs the
prevention and control of pollution as well as the enhancement of
environment.
b) The National Forestry Act, 1984
This act aims to protect and preserve the forests and wildlife of the
country.
c) The Protection of Wildlife Act, 1972
3) It is hoped that these legislations will protect the quality of the
environment from irresponsible person(s) or companies.

Use of technology
1) Install catalytic converters in vehicles to clean up exhaust emissions
and convert the harmful gases released during the combustion of
fossil fuels to less harmful products.
2) Use unleaded petrol to reduce the emission of lead into the
environment.
3) Treat sewage in sewage treatment plants before it is discharged to
reduce water pollution.
4) Treat toxic waste from factories before it is discharged into the
environment.
5) Use microorganisms to clean up the environment. For example,
certain bacteria are used to break down oil spills at sea.
6) Develop hydrogen-based fuel-cell vehicles to reduce the burning of
fossil fuels.
7) Use technology to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from power
plants. Liquefy the carbon dioxide and store it underground.
8) Reduce methane emissions, a by-product of cattle and other livestock
waste, and introduce batter controls on nitrous oxide emissions from
nitrogen fertilizers.

Education on the management of resources

1) The public must be educated on the importance of protecting and
caring for the environment through the mass media and various
environmental campaigns.
2) The public must be educated on the concept of the 4Rs. The 4Rs stand
for recycle, reuse, reduce and recover.
3) Recycling means collecting and segregating waste according to the
types of materials and turning this waste into new products.
a) For example, old paper and cards can be converted into pulp and
reused as recycled paper.
b) Aluminium cans, glass and metal pieces can be melted down and
made into new products.
c) Plastic containers and objects can be processed to produce new
objects such as waste-paper baskets and plastic flowerpots.
4) Reuse means use things such as old plastic containers and bottles
again for other purposes instead of throwing them away.
5) Reduce means cutting down on the use of materials. For example, the
use of plastic bags which are non-biodegradable should be reduced.
Instead, use paper bags which are biodegradable and environment
friendly.
6) Recover means to harness heat energy from the burning of materials
or refuse in factories or incineration plants. This heat energy can be
used to generate electricity.

7) Recycling is important because

a) fewer landfills will be needed to dispose of rubbish and wastes.
b) it cuts down the use of natural resources, for example, fewer trees
will be cut down to make furniture and paper.
c) it saves energy. For example, less energy is needed to melt down
scrap metal and use it again than to extract it from the ore.
 Figure 9.7 The recycle logo

Preservation and conservation of soil, water, the flora and fauna of

forests, and mangrove swamps
1) The management of natural resources in an ecosystem involves
preservation and concervation.
2) Preservation involves efforts to protect an ecosystem so that natural
resources are utilised in a sustainable manner and that the equilibrium
of the ecosystem is maintained.
3) Conservation involves efforts to return an affected ecosystem to its
natural equilibrium.
4) Sustainable agricultural development is the effective use and
preservation of soil to ensure continuous agricultural production.
a) Good farming techniques will prevent erosion and soil depletion.
b) Good agricultural practices include

 Crop rotation
 Contour farming
 Controlled grazing
 Planting cover crops
 The appropriate use of fertilisers
 Effective draining and irrigation
5) Clean water is a precious resource and commodity. As such, water
sources and water catchment areas must be preserved.
a) Rivers must not be regarded as dumping sites for domestic and
toxic wastes which can pollute the water.
b) The use of nitrates and phosphates in agriculture must be
controlled to prevent run-offs into ivers and ponds.
6) a) The Malaysian rainforests, for example, contain more than 50% of
the world’s plant and animal species.
b) If deforestation proceeds faster than afforestation (conservation of
forest areas), many of these species could become extinct before
they can be documented.
c) Therefore, the sustainable use of forests is important to strike a
balance between continual harvesting of forest products, and at the
same time maintaining the environmental services of forests.
 d) There are many reasons why forests must be conserved and
protected. Forests are a diverse storehouse of plant and animal
species which can provide useful and medicinal products for
mankind. These include fruit trees, ornamental plants, medicinal
plants, essential oil, rattan, resin, gum and tannin. Examples of
plants with medicinal value are quinine, which is used to treat
malaria, and curare which is used as a muscle relaxant in surgical
operations.
e) Rainforests play an important role in the regulation of microclimate
and the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
f) Rainforests are also important sites for research and education.
7) The following are some sustainable and planned forest projects.
a) Establishment of a level of selective harvesting. This means only
mature trees are removed.
b) Reforestation or large-scale replanting of trees. Replanting
programmes ensure that forests where logging activities have been
carried out are not damaged and that the forests continue to be
productive and are able to support the diversity of lives.
c) Implementation of restoration programmes to restore damaged
habitats so that natural resources and wildlife can be preserved.
d) Establishment of forest reserves to prevent the destruction of
existing forests and to maintain the equilibrium of the ecosystem
so that the quality of the environment is preserved. This ensures
that the diverse flora and fauna do not face the threat of extinction
and can continue to survive in their natural habitats. Forest
reserves also ensure that the genetic material of animal and plant
species will not be lost.
 e) Greater productivity from existing forests agricultural lands will
reduse the pressure to convert more forests for agricultural
purposes. In this way, farming and harvesting of timber can still be
carried out by biodiversity can be protected at the same time.
8) a) Mangrove swamps are a rich souce of biodiversity. Mangrove trees
are used as fuel, building materials and pilings. Mangrove swamps
provide food, nesting and nursery areas for many animals. The
dead leaves and twigs in the water encourage the growth of
microorganisms that provide food for young marine organisms.
b) Mangrove swamps play an important role in flood control, nutrient
retention, sediment control, and the prevention of coastal erosion.
They also act as a barrier against rising sea levels.
c) When an area of a mangrove swamp forest is cleared for
aquaculture and development, many plant and animal species are
threatened to the point of extinction.
d) Industrial waste pollution also contributes to the threat of
extinction.
e) Hence, mangrove swamps found along the coastlines must be
protected, preserved and conserved.
The practice of biological control
1) Biological control is the use of natural predators to contol the
population of pest species.
2) Some examples of biological control are

 The use of Khaki chambel (a species of ducks or itik telur) to

control the population of gold snails (siput gondang emas)
which feed on paddy stalks.
 The use of caterpillars of the species Cactoblastic cactorum to
control the prickly pear cactus which spreads quickly and
invades farming lands.
 The use of the hoverfly larvae to control aphids which feed on
crop plants.
 The use of owls to control the population of rats on oil palm
plantations.

3) Biological control is better than chemical control which involves the

use of pesticides. This is because
  The use of pesticides is indiscriminate and sometimes harmless
organisms as well as the pest species are killed.
 The effects of pesticides can be persistent and remain in the
environment for long periods
 The concentration of pesticides is amplified as they pass through
food chains (biomagnification). As a result, high concentrations of
pesticides may accumulate in the tissues of final consumers. These
pesticides can be toxic and affect the matabolism of the organisms.
 Pests develop resistance. Hence, a larger amount of pesticides may
now be required to produce a similar effect.
 The cost of using pesticides is high.
 The extensive use of pesticides pollutes the environment.

The use of renewable energy

1) Fossil fuels are a non-renewable energy souce. Hence, there is a need
to look for alternative sources of energy.
2) Renewable energy is energy flow that occurs naturally in the
environment and can be harnessed for the benefit of humans.
3) Renewable energy is inexhaustible and does not pollute the
environment.
4) Examples of renewable energy are

 Solar energy which can be converted into electricity and used in

heating.
 Wind energy which is used to operate windmills to pump water for
the irrigation of crops.
 Flowing water which is used to generate hydroelectric power.
 Wave energy- the upward and downward motion of waves is
harnessed to generate energy.
 Geothermal energy
 Biomass energy which is produced when decomposing organic
matter releases a gas consisting of 50% methane. This biogas can
be produced on a large scale in composting plants and also by
decomposing organic matter in landfills. The biogas released can
be collected and used as fuel for various purposes such as heating
or generating electricity.
 Gasohol which is the conversion of energy in biomass. The
fermentation of sugar by yeast converts the enrgy in biomass into
ethanol which can be used as fuel. An example of this fuel is
gasohol which contain 80% to 90% unleaded petroleum spirit with
10% to 20% ethanol. Gasohol can be used as fuel in motor
vehicles. Plant materials which can be used in the process of
fermentation by yeast to produce gasohol are sugar cane, sugar
beet and maize.
 Palm oil fuel
Palm oil can be converted into methyl ester which is used as fuel.
Biodiesel from crude palm oil is an environment friendly
alternative to petroleum diesel. Biodiesel can meet approximately
17% of the country’s energy requirements and thereby reduce the
country’s dependence on petroleum.
The efficient use of energy
1) Reduce the burning of coal, petroleum and other fossil fuels.

2) Substitute natural gas for coal at power plants.

3) Improve fuel efficiency in vehicles-use cars that run on energy-

efficient engines.

4) Use a cleaner fuel by reducing the content of sulphur in diesel and

switching to gas.

5) Improve energy efficiency in factories.

6) Use more hybrid cars which combine electric and gasoline engines.