Erikson: Post- Freudian Theory ⮚ It is responsible for our being satisfied or dissatisfied not only with

our physical self but with our entire personal identity.

Erik Erikson Ego Identity

Coined the term identity crisis. ⮚ The image we have of ourselves in the variety of social roles we play.
⮚ Although adolescence is ordinarily the time when these three
Erikson vs. Freud components are changing most rapidly, alterations in body ego, ego
ideal, and ego identity can and do take place at any stage of life.
⮚ Erikson intended his theory of personality to extend rather than
repudiate Freud’s assumptions and to offer a new “way of looking at Society’s Influence
things”
⮚ His post-Freudian theory extended Freud’s infantile developmental ⮚ The ego emerges from and is largely shaped by society.
stages into adolescence, adulthood, and old age. ⮚ Erikson’s emphasis on social and historical factors was in contrast
⮚ From adolescence on, that struggle takes the form of an identity crisis with Freud’s mostly biological viewpoint.
—a turning point in one’s life that may either strengthen or weaken ⮚ To Erikson, the ego exists as potential at birth, but it must emerge
personality. from within a cultural environment.
⮚ Erikson regarded his post-Freudian theory as an extension of ⮚ Different societies, with their variations in childrearing practices, tend
psychoanalysis, something Freud might have done in time. to shape personalities that fit the needs and values of their culture.
⮚ Although he used Freudian theory as the foundation for his life-cycle
approach to personality, Erikson differed from Freud in several Pseudospecies
respects.
⮚ In addition to elaborating on psychosexual stages beyond childhood, ⮚ An illusion perpetrated and perpetuated by a particular society
Erikson placed more emphasis on both social and historical influences. that it is somehow chosen to be the human species.
⮚ In past centuries, this belief has aided the survival of the tribe, but with
The Ego in Post-Freudian Theory modern means of world annihilation, such a prejudiced perception (as
demonstrated by Nazi Germany) threatens the survival of every
Freud’s Definition of Ego nation.

⮚ The rider (ego) is ultimately at the mercy of the stronger horse (id). Epigenetic Principle
⮚ The ego has no strength of its own but must borrow its energy from
the id. “Anything that grows has a ground plan and that out of this ground plan,
⮚ Moreover, the ego is constantly attempting to balance blind the parts arise. Each part having its time of special ascendancy, until all
demands of the superego against the relentless forces of the id and parts have arisen to form a functioning whole”
the realistic opportunities of the external world.
⮚ Freud believed that, for psychologically healthy people, the ego is ⮚ That the ego develops throughout the various stages of life according
sufficiently developed to rein in the id, even though its control is to an epigenetic principle, a term borrowed from embryology.
still tenuous and id impulses might erupt and overwhelm the ego at ⮚ Epigenetic development implies a step-by-step growth of fetal
any time. organs;
⮚ The embryo does not begin as a completely formed little person,
Erikson’s Definition of Ego waiting to merely expand its structure and form.
⮚ Rather, it develops, or should develop, according to a predetermined
⮚ Held that our ego is a positive force that creates a self- identity, a rate and in a fixed sequence.
sense of “I.”
⮚ Our ego helps us adapt to the various conflicts and crises of life and For Example (Relates to Ego)
keeps us from losing our individuality to the leveling forces of
society. ⮚ If the eyes, liver, or other organs do not develop during that critical
⮚ During childhood, the ego is weak, pliable, and fragile; but by period for their development, then they will never attain proper
adolescence it should begin to take form and gain strength. maturity.
⮚ Throughout our life, it unifies personality and guards against ⮚ The ego follows the path of epigenetic development, with each stage
indivisibility. developing at its proper time.
⮚ Erikson saw the ego as a partially unconscious organizing agency ⮚ One stage emerges from and is built upon a previous stage, but it
that synthesizes our present experiences with past self-identities does not replace that earlier stage.
and also with anticipated images of self. ⮚ This epigenetic development is analogous to the physical
⮚ He defined the ego as a person’s ability to unify experiences and development of children, who crawl before they walk, walk before
actions in an adaptive manner. they run, and run before they jump.
⮚ When children are still crawling, they are developing the potential to
Three Interrelated Aspects of Ego walk, run, and jump; and after they are mature enough to jump, they
still retain their ability to run, walk, and crawl.
Body Ego ⮚ “Epigenesis means that one characteristic develops on top of another
in space and time”.
⮚ Experiences with our body; a way of seeing our physical self as
different for other people. Stages of Psychosocial Development
⮚ We may be satisfied or dissatisfied with the way our body looks and
functions, but we recognize that it is the only body we will ever 1. Growth takes place according to the epigenetic principle.
have. ⮚ That is, one component part arises out of another and has its
own time of ascendancy, but it does not entirely replace
Ego Ideal earlier components.

⮚ The image we have of ourselves in comparison with an established

ideal.

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2. In every stage of life there is an interaction of opposites—that is, a Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust
conflict between a syntonic (harmonious) element and a dystonic
(disruptive) element. ⮚ If they realize that their mother will provide food regularly, then
⮚ For example, during infancy basic trust (a syntonic tendency) is they begin to learn basic trust; if they consistently hear the
opposed to basic mistrust (a dystonic tendency). Both trust and pleasant, rhythmic voice of their mother, then they develop more
mistrust, however, are necessary for proper adaptation. basic trust; if they can rely on an exciting visual environment, then
they solidify basic trust even more.
3. At each stage, the conflict between the dystonic and syntonic elements ⮚ In other words, if their pattern of accepting things corresponds with
produces an ego quality or ego strength, which Erikson referred to culture’s way of giving things, then infants learn basic trust.
as a basic strength. ⮚ In contrast, they learn basic mistrust if they find no correspondence
⮚ For instance, from the antithesis (directly opposite) between trust between their oral-sensory needs and their environment.
and mistrust emerges hope, an ego quality that allows an infant ⮚ Basic trust is ordinarily syntonic, and basic mistrust, dystonic.
to move into the next stage. Nevertheless, infants must develop both attitudes.
⮚ Likewise, each of the other stages is marked by a basic ego ⮚ Too much trust makes them gullible and vulnerable to the vagaries
strength that emerges from the clash between the harmonious and of the world, whereas too little trust leads to frustration, anger,
the disruptive elements of that stage. hostility, cynicism, or depression.
⮚ Both trust and mistrust are inevitable experiences of infants; all
4. Too little basic strength at any one stage results in a core pathology babies who have survived have been fed and otherwise cared for and
for that stage ONLY. therefore have some reason to trust.
⮚ For example, a child who does not acquire sufficient hope during ⮚ If people successfully solve this crisis, they acquire their first basic
infancy will develop the antithesis or opposite of hope, namely, strength—hope.
withdrawal. Again, each stage has a potential core pathology.
Hope & Withdrawal: The Basic Strength and Core Pathology of
5. Although Erikson referred to his eight stages as psychosocial stages, Infancy
he never lost sight of the biological aspect of human development.
⮚ Hope emerges from the conflict between basic trust and basic
6. Events in earlier stages do not cause later personality development. mistrust. Without the antithetical relationship between trust and
⮚ Ego identity is shaped by a multiplicity of conflicts and events— mistrust, people cannot develop hope.
past, present, and anticipated. ⮚ Infants must experience hunger, pain, and discomfort as well as the
alleviation of these unpleasant conditions.
7. During each stage, but especially from adolescence forward, ⮚ By having both painful and pleasurable experiences, infants learn to
personality development is characterized by an identity crisis, expect that future distresses will meet with satisfactory outcomes.
which Erikson (1968) called “a turning point, a crucial period of ⮚ If infants do not develop sufficient hope during infancy, they will
increased vulnerability and heightened potential” demonstrate the antithesis or the opposite of hope—withdrawal, the
⮚ Thus, during each crisis, a person is especially susceptible to core pathology of infancy. With little to hope for, they will retreat
major modifications in identity, either positive or negative. from the outside world and begin the journey toward serious
⮚ Contrary to popular usage, an identity crisis is not a catastrophic psychological disturbance.
event but rather an opportunity for either adaptive or
maladaptive adjustment. Early Childhood
Infancy ⮚ A period paralleling Freud’s anal stage and encompassing
approximately the 2nd and 3rd years of life.
⮚ A period encompassing approximately the first year of life and ⮚ Freud regarded the anus as the primary erogenous zone during this
paralleling Freud’s oral phase of development. period and that during the early sadistic-anal phase, children receive
⮚ However, Erikson’s model adopts a broader focus than Freud’s oral pleasure in destroying or losing objects, while later they take
stage, which was concerned almost exclusively with the mouth. satisfaction in defecating.
⮚ A time of incorporation, with infants “taking in” not only through ⮚ Erikson took a broader view. To him, young children receive pleasure
their mouth but through their various sense organs as well. not only from mastering the sphincter muscle but also from
⮚ Through their eyes, for example, infants take in visual stimuli. mastering other body functions such as urinating, walking,
⮚ As they take in food and sensory information, infants learn to either throwing, holding, and so on.
trust or mistrust the outside world, a situation that gives them ⮚ In addition, children develop a sense of control over their
realistic hope. interpersonal environment, as well as a measure of self-control.
⮚ Infancy, then, is marked by the oral-sensory psychosexual mode, the ⮚ However, early childhood is also a time of experiencing doubt and
psychosocial crisis of basic trust versus basic mistrust, and the basic shame as children learn that many of their attempts at autonomy are
strength of hope. unsuccessful.

Oral-Sensory Mode Anal-Urethral-Muscular Mode

⮚ A phrase that includes infants’ principal psychosexual mode of ⮚ During the 2nd year of life, children’s primary psychosexual
adapting. adjustment is the anal-urethral-muscular mode.
⮚ Two modes of incorporation—receiving and accepting what is given. ⮚ At this time, children learn to control their body, especially in
⮚ Infants can receive even in the absence of other people; that is, they relation to cleanliness and mobility.
can take in air through the lungs and can receive sensory data ⮚ It is also a time of learning to walk, run, hug parents, and hold on
without having to manipulate others. to toys and other objects.
⮚ The second mode of incorporation, however, implies a social context. ⮚ With each of these activities, young children are likely to display some
Infants not only must get, but they also must get someone else to stubborn tendencies.
give. ⮚ Early childhood is a time of contradiction, a time of stubborn
⮚ This early training in interpersonal relations helps them learn to rebellion and meek compliance, a time of impulsive self-expression
eventually become givers. In getting other people to give, they learn and compulsive deviance, a time of loving cooperation and hateful
to trust or mistrust other people, thus setting up the basic resistance.
psychosocial crisis of infancy, namely, basic trust versus basic ⮚ Triggers the major psychosocial crisis of childhood—autonomy versus
mistrust. shame and doubt.
2
Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt ⮚ Erikson (1982) saw the oedipal situation as a prototype “of the
lifelong power of human playfulness”.
⮚ If early childhood is a time for self-expression and autonomy, then it ⮚ In other words, the Oedipus complex is a drama played out in the
is also a time for shame and doubt. child’s imagination and includes the budding understanding of such
⮚ As children stubbornly express their anal-urethral-muscular mode, basic concepts as reproduction, growth, future, and death.
they are likely to find a culture that attempts to inhibit some of ⮚ A child may play at being a mother, a father, a wife, or a husband; but
their self-expression. such play is an expression not only of the genital mode but also of the
⮚ Parents may shame their children for soiling their pants or for making child’s rapidly developing locomotors abilities.
a mess with their food. They may also instill doubt by questioning ⮚ A little girl may envy boys, not because boys possess a penis, but
their children’s ability to meet their standards. rather because society grants more prerogatives to children with a
⮚ The conflict between autonomy and shame and doubt becomes the penis. A little boy may have anxiety about losing something, but this
major psychosocial crisis of early childhood. anxiety refers not only to the penis but also to other body parts.
⮚ Ideally, children should develop a proper ratio between autonomy ⮚ The Oedipus complex, then, is both more than and less than what
and shame and doubt, and the ratio should be in favor of autonomy, Freud believed, and infantile sexuality is “a mere promise of things
the syntonic quality of early childhood. to come”.
⮚ Children who develop too little autonomy will have difficulties in ⮚ Unless sexual interest is provoked by cultural sex play or by adult
subsequent stages, lacking the basic strengths of later stages. sexual abuse, the Oedipus complex produces no harmful effects on
later personality development.
Shame
Engaging with Genital-Locomotor Mode
A feeling of self-consciousness, of being looked at and exposed.
⮚ They can now move with ease, running, jumping, and climbing
Doubt with no conscious effort; and their play shows both initiative and
imagination.
The feeling of not being certain, the feeling that something remains ⮚ Their rudimentary will, developed during the preceding stage, is now
hidden and cannot be seen. evolving into activity with a purpose.
⮚ Children’s cognitive abilities enable them to manufacture elaborate
Accordance to Erikson’s Epigenetic Diagrams fantasies that include Oedipal fantasies but also include imagining
what it is like to be grown up, to be omnipotent, or to be a ferocious
⮚ Autonomy grows out of basic trust; and if basic trust has been animal.
established in infancy, then children learn to have faith in ⮚ These fantasies, however, also produce guilt and thus contribute to the
themselves, and their world remains intact while they experience a psychosocial crisis of the play age, namely, initiative versus guilt.
mild psychosocial crisis.
⮚ Conversely, if children do not develop basic trust during infancy, Initiative Versus Guilt
then their attempts to gain control of their anal, urethral, and
muscular organs during early childhood will be met with a strong ⮚ As children begin to move around more easily and vigorously and as
sense of shame and doubt, setting up a serious psychosocial crisis. their genital interest awakens, they adopt an intrusive head-on mode
of approaching the world.
Will & Compulsion: The Basic Strength and Core Pathology of ⮚ Unbridled initiative, however, may lead to chaos and a lack of
Early Childhood moral principles.
⮚ On the other hand, if guilt is the dominant element, children may
⮚ Evolves from the resolution of the crisis of autonomy versus shame become compulsively moralistic or overly inhibited.
and doubt. ⮚ Inhibition, which is the antipathy of purpose, constitutes the core
⮚ This step is the beginning of free will and willpower—but only a pathology of the play age.
beginning BUT they originate in the rudimentary will that emerges
during early childhood. Purpose & Inhibition: The Basic Strength and Core Pathology
⮚ Toilet training often epitomizes the conflict of wills between adult of the Play Age
and child, but willful expression is not limited to this area.
⮚ The basic conflict during early childhood is between the child’s ⮚ The conflict of initiative versus guilt produces the basic strength of
striving for autonomy and the parent’s attempts to control the purpose.
child through the use of shame and doubt. ⮚ Children now play with a purpose- competing at games in order to
⮚ Children develop will only when their environment allows them win or to be on top.
some self-expression in their control of sphincters and other muscles. ⮚ Their genital interests have a direction, with mother or father being
When their experiences result in too much shame and doubt, children the object of their sexual desires. They set goals and pursue them
do not adequately develop this second important basic strength. with purpose.
⮚ Inadequate will is expressed as compulsion, the core pathology of ⮚ Play age is also the stage in which children are developing a
early childhood. Too little will and too much compulsivity carry conscience and beginning to attach labels such as right and wrong
forward into the play age as lack of purpose and into the school age as to their behavior.
lack of confidence. ⮚ This youthful conscience becomes the “cornerstone of morality”.

Play Age School Age

⮚ A period covering the same time as Freud’s phallic phase—roughly ⮚ Erikson’s concept of school age covers development from about age 6
ages 3 to 5 years. to approximately age 12 or 13.
⮚ Freud placed the Oedipus complex at the core of the phallic stage, ⮚ Matches the latency years of Freud’s theory.
Erikson believed that the Oedipus complex is but one of several ⮚ At this age, the social world of children is expanding beyond family
important developments during the play age. to include peers, teachers, and other adult models.
⮚ Preschool-age children are developing locomotion, language skills, ⮚ For school-age children, their wish to know becomes strong and is
curiosity, imagination, and the ability to set goals. tied to their basic striving for competence.
⮚ In normal development, children strive industriously to read and
Genital-Locomotor Mode write, to hunt and fish, or to learn the skills required by their
culture.
3
⮚ Does not necessarily mean formalized schools. ⮚ Genital maturation plays a relatively minor role in Erikson’s concept
⮚ In contemporary literate cultures, schools and professional teachers of adolescence.
play a major part in children’s education, whereas in preliterate ⮚ For most young people, genital maturation presents no major sexual
societies, adults use less formalized but equally effective methods crisis.
to instruct children in the ways of society. ⮚ Nevertheless, puberty is important psychologically because it
triggers expectations of adult roles yet ahead—roles that are
Latency essentially social and can be filled only through a struggle to attain
ego identity.
⮚ Erikson agreed with Freud that school age is a period of
psychosexual latency. Ego Identity throughout Stages
⮚ Sexual latency is important because it allows children to divert their
energies to learning the technology of their culture and the ⮚ The search for ego identity reaches a climax during adolescence as
strategies of their social interactions. young people strive to find out who they are and who they are not.
⮚ They begin to form a picture of themselves as competent or ⮚ In this search, young people draw from a variety of earlier self-images
incompetent. that have been accepted or rejected.
⮚ These self-images are the origin of ego identity—that feeling of “I” or ⮚ Thus, the seeds of identity begin to sprout during infancy and continue
“me-ness” that evolves more fully during adolescence. to grow through childhood, the play age, and the school age.
⮚ Then during adolescence, identity strengthens into a crisis as young
Industry Versus Inferiority people learn to cope with the psychosocial conflict of identity versus
identity confusion.
⮚ It is a time of tremendous social growth. ⮚ A crisis should not suggest a threat or catastrophe but rather “a
⮚ The ratio between industry and inferiority should, of course, favor turning point, a crucial period of increased vulnerability and
industry; but inferiority, like the other dystonic qualities, should not heightened potential”.
be avoided. ⮚ An identity crisis may last for many years and can result in either
greater or lesser ego strength.
Industry
Identity Versus Identity Confusion
⮚ A syntonic quality means industriousness, a willingness to remain
busy with something and to finish a job. Identity
⮚ School-age children learn to work and play at activities directed
toward acquiring job skills and toward learning the rules of ⮚ Both positively and negatively, as adolescents are deciding what
cooperation. they want to become and what they believe while also discovering
what they do not wish to be and what they do not believe. Often
Inferiority they must either repudiate the values of parents or reject those of the
peer group, a dilemma that may intensify their identity confusion.
⮚ Insufficient to accomplish their goals; dystonic quality of the school
age. Two Sources of Identity
⮚ Earlier inadequacies can also contribute to children’s feelings of
inferiority. 1. Adolescents’ affirmation or repudiation of childhood identifications.
⮚ For example, if children acquire too much guilt and too little purpose 2. Their historical and social contexts, which encourage conformity to
during the play age, they will likely feel inferior and incompetent certain standards.
during the school age.
⮚ Young people frequently reject the standards of their elders, preferring
Competence: The Basic Strength of the School Age instead the values of a peer group or gang.
⮚ In any event, the society in which they live plays a substantial role in
⮚ The confidence to use one’s physical and cognitive abilities to solve shaping their identity.
the problems that accompany school age.
⮚ Competence lays the foundation for “co-operative participation in Identity Confusion
productive adult life”.
⮚ Syndrome of problems that includes a divided self-image, an inability
Inertia: The Core Pathology of School Age to establish intimacy, a sense of time urgency, a lack of
concentration on required tasks, and a rejection of family or
⮚ If the struggle between industry and inferiority favors either inferiority community standards.
or an overabundance of industry, children are likely to give up and ⮚ As with the other dystonic tendencies, some amount of identity
regress to an earlier stage of development. confusion is both normal and necessary.
⮚ They may become preoccupied with infantile genital and Oedipal ⮚ Young people must experience some doubt and confusion about who
fantasies and spend most of their time in nonproductive play. they are before they can evolve a stable identity.
⮚ Or they may simply and quietly consider where they fit into the world
Adolescence and what values they hold dear.
⮚ Although identity confusion is a necessary part of our search for
⮚ The period from puberty to young adulthood, is one of the most identity, too much confusion can lead to pathological adjustment in
crucial developmental stages because, by the end of this period, a the form of regression to earlier stages of development.
person must gain a firm sense of ego identity. ⮚ We may postpone the responsibilities of adulthood and drift
⮚ Although ego identity neither begins nor ends during adolescence, aimlessly from one job to another, from one sex partner to
the crisis between identity and identity confusion reaches its another, or from one ideology to another.
ascendance during this stage.
⮚ Erikson (1982) saw adolescence as a period of social latency, just as Proper Ratio of Identity to Identity Confusion
he saw school age as a time of sexual latency.
⮚ Adolescence, then, is an adaptive phase of personality development, 1. Faith in some sort of ideological principle;
a period of trial and error. 2. The ability to freely decide how we should behave;
3. Trust in our peers and adults who give us advice regarding goals and
Puberty aspirations;
4
4. Confidence in our choice of an eventual occupation. ⮚ An ability and willingness to share a mutual trust.
⮚ It involves sacrifice, compromise, and commitment within a
Fidelity: The Basic Strength of Adolescence relationship of two equals.
⮚ It should be a requirement for marriage, but many marriages lack
⮚ Faith in one’s ideology. intimacy because some young people marry as part of their search for
⮚ After establishing their internal standards of conduct, adolescents are the identity that they failed to establish during adolescence.
no longer in need of parental guidance but have confidence in their
own religious, political, and social ideologies. Isolation
⮚ The trust learned in infancy is basic for fidelity in adolescence.
⮚ Young people must learn to trust others before they can have faith ⮚ “The incapacity to take chances with one’s identity by sharing true
in their own view of the future. intimacy”.
⮚ They must have developed hope during infancy, and they must follow ⮚ Some people become financially or socially successful, yet retain a
hope with the other basic strengths—will, purpose, and competence. sense of isolation because they are unable to accept the adult
responsibilities of productive work, procreation, and mature love.
Role Repudiation: Core Pathology of Adolescence ⮚ Some degree of isolation is essential before one can acquire mature
love;
⮚ Blocks one’s ability to synthesize various self-images and values ⮚ Too much togetherness can diminish a person’s sense of ego
into a workable identity. identity, which leads that person to a psychosocial regression and an
⮚ Can take the form of either diffidence or defiance. inability to face the next developmental stage.
⮚ Some amount of role repudiation, Erikson believed, is necessary, not ⮚ The greater danger, of course, is too much isolation, too little
only because it allows adolescents to evolve their personal identity, intimacy, and a deficiency in the basic strength of love.
but also because it injects some new ideas and new vitality into the
social structure. Love: The Basic Strength of Young Adulthood

Diffidence ⮚ Erikson defined love as mature devotion that overcomes basic

differences between men and women.
⮚ An extreme lack of self-trust or self-confidence and is expressed as ⮚ Although love includes intimacy, it also contains some degree of
shyness or hesitancy to express oneself. isolation, because each partner is permitted to retain a separate
identity.
Defiance ⮚ Mature love means commitment, sexual passion, cooperation,
competition, and friendship.
⮚ The act of rebelling against authority. ⮚ Enables a person to cope productively with the final two stages of
⮚ Defiant adolescents stubbornly hold to socially unacceptable beliefs development.
and practices simply because these beliefs and practices are
unacceptable to them. Exclusivity: The Core Pathology of Young Adulthood

Young Adulthood ⮚ Becomes pathological when it blocks one’s ability to cooperate,

compete, or compromise—all prerequisite ingredients for intimacy
⮚ After achieving a sense of identity during adolescence, people must and love.
acquire the ability to fuse that identity with the identity of another ⮚ Some exclusivity, however, is necessary for intimacy; that is, a person
person while maintaining their sense of individuality. must be able to exclude certain people, activities, and ideas in order
⮚ Adulthood—a time from about age 19 to 30—is circumscribed not to develop a strong sense of identity.
so much by time as by the acquisition of intimacy at the beginning
of the stage and the development of generativity at the end. Adulthood
⮚ For some people, this stage is a relatively short time, lasting perhaps
only a few years. For others, it may continue for several decades. ⮚ The seventh stage of development; people begin to take their place
⮚ Should develop mature genitality, experience the conflict between in society and assume responsibility for whatever society produces.
intimacy and isolation, and acquire the basic strength of love. ⮚ For most people, this is the longest stage of development, spanning
the years from about age 31 to 60.
Psychosexual Mode: Genitality
Procreativity
⮚ Develop only during young adulthood when it is distinguished by
mutual trust and a stable sharing of sexual satisfactions with a ⮚ Refers to more than genital contact with an intimate partner.
loved person. ⮚ Erikson’s psychosexual theory assumes an instinctual drive to
⮚ It is the chief psychosexual accomplishment of young adulthood and perpetuate the species.
exists only in an intimate relationship. ⮚ This drive is the counterpart of an adult animal’s instinct toward
procreation and is an extension of the genitality that marks young
Intimacy Versus Isolation adulthood.
⮚ It includes assuming responsibility for the care of offspring that
Intimacy result from that sexual contact.
⮚ Ideally, procreation should follow from the mature intimacy and
⮚ The ability to fuse one’s identity with that of another person love established during the preceding stage.
without fear of losing it. ⮚ Mature adulthood demands more than procreating offspring; it
⮚ Because intimacy can be achieved only after people have formed a includes caring for one’s children as well as other people’s
stable ego, the infatuations often found in young adolescents are not children.
true intimacy. ⮚ In addition, it encompasses working productively to transmit
⮚ People who are unsure of their identity may either shy away from culture from one generation to the next.
psychosocial intimacy or desperately seek intimacy through
meaningless sexual encounters. Generativity Versus Stagnation

Mature Intimacy ⮚ Defined as “the generation of new beings as well as new products
and new ideas”.
5
⮚ Concerned with establishing and guiding the next generation. ⮚ Men become more nurturant and more acceptant of the pleasures
⮚ Includes the procreation of children, the production of work, and of nonsexual relationships, including those with their grandchildren
the creation of new things and ideas that contribute to the building and great-grandchildren.
of a better world. ⮚ Women become more interested and involved in politics, finance,
⮚ People have a need not only to learn but also to instruct; this need and world affairs.
extends beyond one’s own children to an altruistic concern for other ⮚ A generalized sensual attitude, however, is dependent on one’s
young people. ability to hold things together, that is, to maintain integrity in the
⮚ Generativity grows out of earlier syntonic qualities such as intimacy face of despair.
and identity;
⮚ Intimacy calls for the ability to fuse one’s ego to that of another Integrity Versus Despair
person without fear of losing it; this unity of ego identities leads to a
gradual expansion of interests. ⮚ At the end of life, the dystonic quality of despair may prevail.
⮚ People with a strong ego identity who have learned intimacy and who
Mature Adult have taken care of both people and things, the syntonic quality of
integrity will predominate.
⮚ This motivation is not merely an obligation or a selfish need but an
evolutionary drive to make a contribution to succeeding Integrity
generations and to ensure the continuity of human society as well.
⮚ Integrity means a feeling of wholeness and coherence, an ability to
Self- Absorption and Stagnation: Antithesis of Generativity hold together one’s sense of “I-ness” despite diminishing physical
and intellectual powers.
⮚ Crippled when people become too absorbed in themselves, too self-
indulgent. Ego Integrity
⮚ Such an attitude fosters a pervading sense of stagnation. Some
elements of stagnation and self-absorption, however, are necessary. ⮚ Sometimes difficult to maintain when people see that they are losing
⮚ Creative people must, at times, remain in a dormant stage and be familiar aspects of their existence: for example, spouse, friends,
absorbed with themselves in order to eventually generate new physical health, body strength, mental alertness, independence, and
growth. social usefulness.
⮚ Under such pressure, people often feel a pervading sense of despair,
Care: The Basic Strength of Adulthood which they may express as disgust, depression, contempt for others,
or any other attitude that reveals a non-acceptance of the finite
⮚ “A widening commitment to take care of the persons, the products, boundaries of life.
and the ideas one has learned to care for”.
⮚ Care arises from each earlier basic ego strength. Despair
⮚ One must have hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, and love
in order to take care of that which one cares for. ⮚ To be without hope.
⮚ Care is not a duty or obligation but a natural desire emerging from ⮚ Once hope is lost, despair follows and life ceases to have meaning.
the conflict between generativity and stagnation or self-
absorption. Wisdom: The Basic Strength of Old Age

Rejectivity: The Core Pathology of Adulthood ⮚ “Informed and detached concern with life itself in the face of death
itself.”
⮚ The unwillingness to take care of certain persons or groups. ⮚ People with detached concern do not lack concern; rather, they
⮚ Manifested as self-centeredness, provincialism, or exhibit an active but dispassionate interest.
pseudospeciation: that is, the belief that other groups of people are ⮚ With mature wisdom, they maintain their integrity in spite of
inferior to one’s own. declining physical and mental abilities.
⮚ It is responsible for much of human hatred, destruction, atrocities, ⮚ Wisdom draws from and contributes to the traditional knowledge
and wars. passed from generation to generation. In old age, people are concerned
⮚ As Erikson said, rejectivity “has far-reaching implications for the with ultimate issues, including nonexistence.
survival of the species as well as for every individual’s psychosocial
development”. Disdain: The Core Pathology of old Age

Old Age ⮚ “A reaction to feeling (and seeing others) in an increasing state of

being finished, confused, helpless.”
⮚ The eighth and final stage of development; the period from about age ⮚ Continuation of rejectivity, the core pathology of adulthood.
60 to the end of life.
⮚ Need not mean that people are no longer generative.
⮚ Procreation, in the narrow sense of producing children, may be
absent, yet old people can remain productive and creative in other Erikson’s Methods of Investigation
ways.
⮚ They can be caring grandparents to their own grandchildren as well ⮚ Insisted that personality is a product of history, culture, and
as to other younger members of society. biology; and his diverse methods of investigation reflect this belief.
⮚ A time of joy, playfulness, and wonder; but it is also a time of ⮚ He employed anthropological, historical, sociological, and clinical
senility, depression, and despair. methods to learn about children, adolescents, mature adults, and
elderly people.
Psychosexual Mode: Generalized Sensuality
Psychohistory
⮚ Take pleasure in a variety of different physical sensations—sights,
sounds, tastes, odors, embraces, and perhaps genital stimulation. ⮚ A controversial field that combines psychoanalytic concepts with
⮚ Include a greater appreciation for the traditional lifestyle of the historical methods.
opposite sex.

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⮚ Freud (1910/1957) originated psychohistory with an investigation of Organize Knowledge
Leonardo da Vinci and later collaborated with American ambassador
William Bullitt to write a book-length psychological study of ⮚ Limited mostly to developmental stages.
American president Woodrow Wilson. ⮚ It does not adequately address such issues as personal traits or
⮚ Although Erikson (1975) deplored this latter work, he took up the motivation, a limitation that subtracts from the theory’s ability to
methods of psychohistory and refined them, especially in his study of shed meaning on much of what is currently known about human
Martin Luther. personality.
⮚ The eight stages of development remain an eloquent statement of what
Psychohistory According to Erikson the life cycle should be, and research findings in these areas usually
can be fit into an Eriksonian framework.
⮚ Erikson (1974) defined psychohistory as “the study of individual and ⮚ However, the theory lacks sufficient scope to be rated high on this
collective life with the combined methods of psychoanalysis and criterion.
history”.
⮚ He used psychohistory to demonstrate his fundamental beliefs that Guide to Action
each person is a product of his or her historical time and that those
historical times are influenced by exceptional leaders experiencing ⮚ Erikson’s theory provides many general guidelines, but offers little
a personal identity conflict. specific advice.
⮚ It ranks near the top in suggesting approaches to dealing with
Related Research middle-aged and older adults.
⮚ Erikson’s views on aging have been helpful to people in the field of
⮚ One of Erikson’s major contributions was to extend personality gerontology, and his ideas on ego identity are nearly always cited in
development into adulthood. adolescent psychology textbooks.
⮚ Erikson challenged the idea that psychological development stops ⮚ In addition, his concepts of intimacy versus isolation and generativity
with childhood. versus stagnation have much to offer to marriage counselors and
⮚ Erikson’s most influential legacy has been his theory of development others concerned with intimate relationships among young adults.
and, in particular, the stages from adolescence into old age.
⮚ He was one of the first theorists to emphasize the critical period of Internal Consistency
adolescence and the conflicts revolving around one’s search for an
identity. ⮚ High; mostly because the terms used to label the different
⮚ In contrast to most other psychodynamic theorists, Erikson stimulated psychosocial crises, basic strengths, and core pathologies are very
quite a bit of empirical research, much of it on adolescence, young carefully chosen.
adulthood, and adulthood. ⮚ They have little scientific usefulness, although they rank high in both
literary and emotional value.
Generativity and Parenting ⮚ On the other hand, Erikson’s epigenetic principle and the eloquence of
his description of the eight stages of development mark his theory
⮚ Dan McAdams and his colleagues (McAdams, 1999; McAdams & de with conspicuous internal consistency.
St. Aubin, 1992; Bauer & McAdams, 2004b) have been major figures
in research on generativity and have developed the Loyola Parsimony
Generativity Scale (LGS) to measure it.
⮚ Includes items such as “I have important skills that I try to teach ⮚ We give the theory a moderate rating.
others” and “I do not volunteer to work for a charity.” ⮚ The precision of its terms is a strength, but the descriptions of
⮚ The scale measures several aspects of generativity, including concern psychosexual stages and psychosocial crises, especially in the later
for the next generation; creating and maintaining objects and stages, are not always clearly differentiated.
things; and person narration.
⮚ Using the LGS scale, researchers have investigated the impact of Concept of Humanity
parental generativity on the development of children.
⮚ Theoretically, parents who have a high sense of generativity should Determinism vs. Free Choice
put a great deal of effort and care into raising children and therefore
produce offspring who are well-adjusted and happy. ⮚ Erikson was not as deterministic as Freud, but neither did he believe
strongly in free choice; somewhere in the middle.
Critique of Erikson ⮚ People can search for their own identities and are not completely
constrained by culture and history. Individuals, in fact, can change
⮚ Erikson built his theory largely on ethical principles and not history and alter their environment.
necessarily on scientific data.
⮚ He came to psychology from art and acknowledged that he saw the Pessimism vs. Optimism
world more through the eyes of an artist than through those of a
scientist. ⮚ Somewhat optimistic.
⮚ Nevertheless, Erikson’s theory must be judged by the standards of ⮚ Even though core pathologies may predominate early stages of
science, not ethics or art. development, humans are not inevitably doomed to continue a
pathological existence in later stages.
Generate Research ⮚ Although weaknesses in early life make it more difficult to acquire
basic strengths later on, people remain capable of changing at any
⮚ Somewhat higher than average. stage of life.
⮚ The topic of ego identity alone has generated several hundred studies, ⮚ Each psychosocial conflict consists of a syntonic and a dystonic
and other aspects of Erikson’s developmental stages, such as intimacy quality.
versus isolation and generativity. ⮚ Each crisis can be resolved in favor of the syntonic, or harmonious
element, regardless of past resolutions.
Falsifiability
Causality vs. Teleology
⮚ Erikson’s theory only average.
⮚ High in Causality.

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⮚ His view of humanity suggests that people are influenced more by
biological and social forces than by their view of the future.
⮚ People are a product of a particular historical moment and a specific
social setting.
⮚ Although we can set goals and actively strive to achieve these goals,
we cannot completely escape the powerful causal force of anatomy,
history, and culture.

Conscious vs. Unconscious Determinants

⮚ Mixed.
⮚ Prior to adolescence, personality is largely shaped by unconscious
motivation.
⮚ Psychosexual and psychosocial conflicts during the first four
developmental stages occur before children have firmly established
their identity. We seldom are clearly aware of these crises and the
ways in which they mold our personalities.
⮚ From adolescence forward, however, people ordinarily are aware of
their actions and most of the reasons underlying those actions.

Social vs. Biological

⮚ Social.
⮚ Each psychosexual mode has a clear biological component. However,
as people advance through the eight stages, social influences become
increasingly more powerful.
⮚ Also, the radius of social relations expands from the single maternal
person to a global identification with all humanity.

Uniqueness vs. Similarities

⮚ Individual differences.
⮚ Although people in different cultures advance through the eight
developmental stages in the same order, myriad differences are found
in the pace of that journey.
⮚ Each person resolves psychosocial crises in a unique manner, and each
uses the basic strengths in a way that is peculiarly theirs.

Go lang guys! Graduate tag dungan.