Unit II

Curriculum versus Syllabus

Overview

I
n this unit, we shall examine the differences between a syllabus and
a curriculum and explore their use in the mathematics classroom.

Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

1. Define a syllabus.

2. Define a curriculum.

3. State the differences between a syllabus and a curriculum.

4. State the components of a curriculum.

5. State some factors that impact the intended, delivered and

achieved curricula.

6. State the components of a mathematics curriculum.

7. Describe a mathematics examination syllabus.

8. Compare a mathematics examination syllabus and a mathematics

curriculum.

9. State the advantages/disadvantages of using a mathematics

syllabus as a mathematics curriculum.

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 10. Discuss the impact of teachers' belief on the implementation
of a mathematics curriculum.

Readings

Your readings for this unit are as follows:

Armstrong, D. (2003). Curriculum today. New Jersey: Pearson.

Ernest. P. (1989). The impact of beliefs on the teaching of

mathematics. Retrieved November 16, 2008 from
http://people.exeter.ac.uk/PErnest/impact.htm

Gates, P. (2006). Issues in mathematics teaching. New York: Routledge.

Goulding, M. (2002). Learning to teach mathematics. London: David

Fulton Publishers Ltd.

Marsh, C. (2004). Key concepts for understanding curriculum, 3rd ed.

Chp 1 and Chp. 7. New York: Routledge

Massachusetts Mathematics Curriculum Framework. Retrieved November 16,

2008 from www.doe.mass.edu/framework/math/2000/final.pdf

Saskatchewan Learning. Retrieved November 16, 2008 from

www.saskworkguide.ca/docs/maths_curricula/g:_math_curr_2007.pdf

Thompson, A. (1992). Teachers' beliefs and conceptions: A synthesis of

the research. In Grouws, D. (2006). Handbook of research on mathematics
teaching and learning.

Walker, D., and Soltis, J. (1997). Curriculum and aims. New York:
Teachers College Press

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EDMA3205 Page 18
Session 2.1

Syllabus and Curriculum

In Unit 1, we noted that in preparing students for high-stakes tests,

some teachers focus their teaching on both the test items and the
content that are regularly tested and in such situations, the test
items can drive curriculum and instruction. What exactly is a
curriculum? What is instruction? What is a syllabus? Is there a
difference between a syllabus and a curriculum?

Before we begin our discussion on the topic, here are a few questions
for you to think about and to reflect upon.

Reflections

1. How do you know what to teach to each grade level or group of

students?

2. How do you know the scope of each topic for each grade level?

3. How do you know the sequence of topics for each grade level?

4. How do you know the strategies to use in teaching the various

topics?

5. How do you assess your students?

6. Do you reflect on your teaching?

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At your school, what type of document do you prepare your teaching
from? Is it a document with an outline of topics only or one with
topics and additional information for teaching?

There are basically two types of document that teachers use as guides
to prepare their lessons; a syllabus and a curriculum. A syllabus may
be described as a document that gives an outline of the topics (and
sometimes the objectives) to be covered over a given period of time
with one or more grade levels. Do you recall using a syllabus to
prepare your lessons? If so, were there challenges in writing your
lesson plans? If the answer is yes, what were those challenges? A
curriculum, on the other hand, gives a detailed account of what
teachers and students are expected to do in their classes and what
learners are expected to achieve. You will often find that the term
'curriculum' is used in tandem with 'instruction'. According to
Armstrong (2003 p. 4), instruction focuses on the specific means of
achieving the purposes of the overall plan reflected in the curriculum.
He suggested that we think of curriculum as the grand strategy and
instruction as the tactics you use to achieve the ends implied by the
strategy. A curriculum is thus a syllabus and more. Let us discuss
curriculum in more details.

The term curriculum is used broadly and so at this point, it may be

best for us to explore the many definitions of curriculum and confirm
the ones that will be used in this course. Consider the following
definitions of curriculum offered by Marsh (2004 p. 4):

 'Permanent' subjects that embody essential knowledge. In

other words, content that individuals ought to know.

 Those subjects that are most useful in contemporary

living.

 All planned learnings for which the school is

responsible.

 The totality of learning experiences so that students

can attain general skills and knowledge at a variety of
learning sites.

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 ACTIVITY 2.1

Discuss, with your colleagues in the Discussion

Forum”

1. Your understanding of each definition and

2. Any limitations you note in the

definitions, in a contemporary society
that is dynamic and constantly changing.

Here are some detailed definitions of curriculum:

 A curriculum is the planned and guided learning experiences and

intended outcomes, formulated through the systemic reconstruction
of knowledge and experience under the auspices of the school
(Tanner, 1980).

 A curriculum refers to decision-making processes and products

that focus on preparation and assessment of plans designed to
influence students' development of insights related to specific
knowledge and skills. (Smith (2001) cited by Armstrong (2003))

 A curriculum is a series of planned instruction that is

coordinated and articulated in a manner designed to result in the
achievement by students of specific knowledge and skills and the
application of this knowledge.

(Retrieved November 15, 2008 from

www.smasd.org/pssa/html/currdevl/res1-d.htm#top)

From your readings, you may have noted that a curriculum is designed to
articulate and communicate the shared vision of persons or stakeholders
as it relates to the competencies that students are expected to develop

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with respect to a particular subject area and grade level. Also, there
may be established standards for evaluation. It is evident that there
are some fundamental questions that are borne in mind when a curriculum
is being developed. These questions include:

 What educational purposes should the school or educational system

seek to attain?

 What content matter should be taught to the students?

 What knowledge, skills and understandings should the students

develop, demonstrate and apply?

 What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to

attain the objectives?

 How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?

 How can we determine whether or not students have attained the

objectives and the level of attainment?

With regard to the above questions, it is clear that there are certain
components of any curriculum. Can you identify those components? Did
you include the following:

 Philosophy: Rationale for including the subject in the school's

curriculum or including the topic in the subject area.

 Content- Topics and subtopics to be taught

 Aims and Objectives: Learning outcomes – the knowledge, skills

and understandings that learners should be able to demonstrate or
apply at the end of the teaching period.

 Methodology: Methods, steps, procedures or approaches - means

through which learning will be facilitated.

 Resource Materials: Items that will assist in the processes of

teaching and learning.

 Evaluation: Suggested means of assessment.

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 ACTIVITY 2.2

1. Examine the documents that you use at your school

with a view to identifying their features with
respect to those listed above. Share your
findings with your colleagues in a discussion
forum.

2. In a discussion forum, share your responses to

the following questions: What do you consider to
be the advantages/disadvantages of using

i. A syllabus for math teaching and learning?

ii. A curriculum for math teaching and

learning?

CSEC examination guide

Do you regard the CSEC examination guide as a curriculum? If your

answer is yes, then you are not clear about the differences between a
syllabus and a curriculum. The CSEC examination guide that is produced
by the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) is an examination syllabus.
It gives the rationale for the examination, and the topics and sub-
topics to be addressed and their objectives. However, the sequencing of
topics (and sub-topics) and suggested strategies for teaching the
various topics (and their sub-topics) as well as formative assessment
techniques or methods are not given.

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 ACTIVITY 2.3 DISCUSSION

In a discussion forum, share your responses to the

following questions:

1. Should an examination syllabus be used as a

curriculum? Can a curriculum be developed using
an examination syllabus? Give reasons for your
responses.

2. What are some challenges that you think

teachers face in using an examination syllabus
as a curriculum guide?

In your readings, you may have come across different types of

curricula; intended (written) curriculum, delivered (implemented,
enacted or taught) curriculum, achieved (received) curriculum, textbook
curriculum, assessment curriculum, null curriculum and hidden
curriculum among others. For purposes of this course, we shall focus on
three types; the intended curriculum, the delivered curriculum and the
achieved curriculum.

The intended, the delivered and the achieved curricula

The intended or written curriculum outlines what students and teachers

are expected to engage in as part of formal instruction in the teaching
and learning of a particular subject for a given grade level. In other
words, the intended curriculum is the set of statements of what every
student should know and be able to do by some specified point in time,
with suggested instructional techniques. Can you identify a written
curriculum that is used in your country?

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The delivered (implemented, enacted or taught) curriculum refers to the
experiences that the teacher provides to the students using the written
curriculum and the achieved (or received) curriculum is that which the
students attain as a result of being taught the written curriculum.

In the ideal classroom situation, all that is stated in the written

curriculum is taught by the teacher and achieved by the students.
However, in the average classrooms, there are various factors that
influence teaching and learning and so not everything that is written
is delivered by the teachers and not everything that is taught is
achieved by the students. Are you familiar with this scenario?

ACTIVITY 2.4 REFLECTION

For this activity, share your thinking on the following in

a discussion forum

1. To what extent do your own students achieve all that

you teach?

2. Do you, at all times, cover the written curriculum?

3. What are some factors that impact your own teaching?

4. What are some factors that influence the learning of

mathematics by your own students?

Factors that impact the intended curriculum

1. Needs of society – workforce development, consumer literacy

and informed citizenry.

2. Advances – in mathematics, understanding of learning,

technology.

3. Policies – high-stakes assessment, textbook adoption,

mathematics for all.

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 4. Values and beliefs of stakeholders – about mathematics and
goals of education.

Factors that impact the implemented curriculum

1. Teachers' mathematical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge

skills.

2. Teachers' belief about the nature of mathematics, teaching and

learning.

3. Teachers' perceived needs, abilities and interests of students.

4. Access to curricular resource materials other than the textbook.

5. Availability of technological tools.

Factors that impact the achieved curriculum

1. Students' prior knowledge.

2. Students' motivation and disposition towards mathematics.

3. Teacher quality.

4. Teaching quality.

5. Support at home.

6. Classroom climate.

7. Classroom context.

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 ACTIVITY 2.5 WRITTEN WORK

In about 200 words, state whether or not you

consider teachers to be implementers of a
curriculum.

In concluding this session, it is important to note that the teacher,

the learners and the written curriculum document all influence the
quality of teaching and learning that occurs in the classroom.

Summary

We have come to the end of session 2.1 in which we explored the nature
of a syllabus and a curriculum. We have seen that a syllabus is not the
same as a curriculum. A syllabus gives the topics (and the objectives)
to be covered with one or more grade levels for a particular subject. A
curriculum is more detailed than a syllabus. It is a structured
educational programme that outlines (i) the topics (and sub-topics) to
be taught to one or more grade levels for a particular subject, (ii)
the competencies that students are expected to develop, (iii) the means
of facilitating those competencies by way of instructional techniques,
and (iv) assessment tools for measuring those competencies.

We also noted that there are different types of curricula depending on

the intentions and the outcomes. In this unit, we focused on three
curricula: the intended curriculum, the delivered curriculum and the
achieved curriculum. The intended curriculum provides a comprehensive
specification of content, activities and evaluation for the teaching
and learning of a specific subject for one or more grade levels. The
delivered curriculum is the curriculum that is presented or taught by
the teacher and the achieved curriculum refers to the knowledge, skills
and understandings that learners develop when they are taught.

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EDMA3205 Page 28
Session 2.2

The Mathematics Curriculum and

the Mathematics Examination
Syllabus

The Mathematics Curriculum

In session 2.1, we discussed syllabus and curriculum generally. In this

session we shall discuss the mathematics curriculum and the mathematics
examination syllabus and their implications for classroom practices.

Any mathematics curriculum will have the components that were discussed
in the previous session: philosophy, aims and objectives, suggested
methodology, resource materials and assessment. You will note that the
CSEC Mathematics Examination guide is a syllabus because it does not
include all those components.

The main educational goal is to prepare students with the necessary

knowledge, skills, understanding and attitudes to function effectively
in society and to meet the demands that this dynamic and ever-changing
society presents. In this globalised world that makes use of
technological advances, individuals are required to engage in high-
level thinking involving problem-solving, reasoning and decision-
making. It is well recognised that mathematics is included in the core
curriculum of any school because it facilitates the development of
these kinds of thinking skills that are required of individuals in
contemporary societies. Mathematics is taught not only for its
utilitarian purposes but also for the level of empowerment that it
offers to students and for the intellectual excitement, delight and
wonder it can create for students.

To facilitate students in developing the competencies that are required

of them in this twenty-first century, it is indeed clear that

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mathematics curricula need to be designed that reflect certain
features. What are those features? Let us first define a mathematics
curriculum before we begin to discuss those features.

ACTIVITY 2.6 DISCUSSION

How would you define or describe 'mathematics

curriculum' to a non-mathematician? Share your
definition with your colleagues in a discussion
forum.

Definition of Mathematics Curriculum

Gates (2006) defines a mathematics curriculum as that which describes

the mathematical knowledge that is to be taught to the children in our
schools and the ways in which this knowledge is ordered as it is
presented to pupils in schools. The definition offered by the
committee members of Saskatchewan Learning (2007) is more detailed.
They define a mathematics curriculum as that which defines the outcomes
to be attained by students. In addition, a mathematics curriculum is
designed to support teachers in providing students with learning
opportunities to develop appropriate mathematics knowledge,
understandings and abilities within a learning environment that
supports the students' development of positive attitudes and beliefs
towards mathematics. Indicators are included for each outcome to
clarify the breadth and depth of the intended learning outcome.

Now back to our discussion of the features of a mathematics curriculum.

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 ACTIVITY 2.7 DISCUSSION

As a teacher of mathematics, what are some

features that you would want to see included in
a math curriculum document? Discuss with your
colleagues.

Features of a mathematics curriculum

The general features or components of a mathematics curriculum are as

follows:

 Philosophy, rationale, goals

 Content topics and subtopics within strands

 Learning outcomes/attainment targets

 Specific objectives

 Sample lesson plans

 Suggested teaching strategies/tasks/activities

 Evaluation -assessment tools/methods

You may recall from the course ED22Q that the initiative to reform
mathematics education grew out of a concern of the traditional
approaches to teaching that promoted passive and superficial learning.
Studies indicate that students learn mathematics when they are actively
engaged in doing the subject; discussing mathematical ideas and
applying mathematics in interesting thought-provoking situations. The
practices that are promoted in a reform-based mathematics classroom
include the following:

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  Teaching to facilitate learning.

 Teaching in context.

 Catering to diverse students with varying needs, interests,

abilities, multiple intelligences and learning styles.

 Organising the content in scope and sequence.

 Engaging learners in mathematical thinking.

 Teaching for conceptual learning.

 Developing mathematical understandings.

 Making mathematics relevant to the interests and experiences of

the learners.

 Making use of available technological tools in the mathematics

classroom.

 Developing reasoning skills, critical thinking skills and

problem-solving skills by students.

 Making use of diverse assessments.

According to Massachusetts Mathematics Curriculum Framework (2000),

students need to understand mathematics deeply and use it effectively.
The students' understanding is further developed through on-going
reflections about cognitively demanding and worthwhile tasks. On the
matter of tasks, these should be designed to challenge students in
multiple ways. Short and long term investigations that connect
procedure and skills with conceptual understandings are integral
components of an effective mathematics programme. Students learn to
value and appreciate mathematics when an authentic learning environment
is created for them in which they manipulate objects and ideas and
apply mathematical knowledge in varying contexts. In an era that
promotes reform processes, the mathematics curriculum is intended to
stimulate a spirit of enquiry within the context of mathematical
thinking and reasoning.

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 You should have noted from session 2.1, that teachers play an important
role in delivering the (mathematics) curriculum with regard to the
kinds of experiences that they provide for students. There is a growing
body of research that indicates that a teacher's beliefs influence
his/her classroom practices (Thompson, 1992). It may be your own
experience that some teachers are reluctant to change their ways of
teaching even though there is evidence to suggest that there are other
successful strategies. Ernest (1989) was of the view that the kinds of
learning experiences that students are provided with in the mathematics
classroom depends on the teacher's views and beliefs relating to (i)
the nature of mathematics, (ii) the nature of learning, and (iii) the
nature of teaching. Ernest (1989) identified three different types of
teaching based on the teacher's belief system. These are summarised in
Table 2.1, which is self-explanatory.

Table 2.1 The impact of belief about the nature of

mathematics on classroom practices

View of the Teacher's role Intended outcome Learning model Use of curricular
nature of of instruction materials
mathematics

Instrumentalist Instructor Skills mastery with Compliant Strict adherence to

correct behaviour and text or scheme
performance mastery of skills

Platonist Explainer Conceptual Reception of Modification of the

understanding with knowledge textbook approach
unified knowledge enriched with
additional
problems and
activities

Problem-solving Facilitator Confident problem Active Use of non-routine

posing and solving construction of problems
understanding

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 ACTIVITY 2.8 DISCUSSION

What are your views about the ideas expressed by

Ernest (1989) as shown in Table 2.1?
Into which of the three classes would you place yourself?
Why?

What are your own views about the nature of teaching and
learning school mathematics?

Implementation of the mathematics curriculum depends on the teacher's

ability to interpret the curriculum and to present it in ways that can
be understood by all the learners. It is important for students to
construct their own understanding of mathematical content as opposed to
passively receiving information that is transmitted by the teacher.

Mathematics Examination Syllabus

Quite often, a Mathematics Examination Syllabus is regarded as a

curriculum and some teachers actually use the Examination Syllabus as
the curriculum for their lesson planning and teaching. In these
classes, the teacher uses past paper questions to present mathematical
concepts, procedures and principles.

ACTIVITY 2.9 DISCUSSION

What impact do you think the continuous use of

past exam papers for introducing mathematical
ideas, procedures and principles can have on the
learning of mathematics? Share your thoughts
with your colleagues in a discussion forum.

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In concluding this session, we note that it is important for any school
programme to have mathematics curricula available for lesson planning
and teaching to all the grade levels at the school. Teachers will be
more accountable for their actions when a system is in place that
clearly outlines the philosophy of the mathematics education programme,
the content to be taught, the learning outcomes, appropriate
methodologies and effective assessment techniques. Successful
implementation of the mathematics curricula and meaningful learning of
the subject will only occur when teachers share the same views about
the nature of (i) mathematics, (ii) teaching, and (iii) learning.

In unit 1, we discussed the disadvantages of teaching to the test when

the focus, in the teaching, is on the test items/questions and on the
content that is tested. Similarly, when examination past-paper
questions are used for these purposes, such practices may be considered
poor as the students will not be exposed to all the necessary content
and they will not develop the kinds of skills and understandings that
they are expected to develop at their grade level.

Summary

In this session, we explored the mathematics curriculum, noting the

differences between a mathematics curriculum and a mathematics
examination syllabus. A mathematics curriculum may be defined as all
the experiences for students and their teacher in the mathematics
classroom with regards to specific features or conditions. These
features include (i) philosophy, rationale, goals, (ii) content topics
and subtopics within strands, (iii) learning outcomes or attainment
targets, (iv) specific objectives, (v) sample lesson plans, (vi)
suggested teaching strategies, tasks and activities and (vii)
assessment techniques. A mathematics examination syllabus is not as
detailed as a mathematics curriculum as only the topics and sub-topics
(and objectives, in some instances) are outlined. However, a
mathematics curriculum may be designed using a mathematics examination
syllabus.

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Effective implementation of the mathematics curriculum can be achieved
when teachers share the same beliefs and values concerning the nature
of mathematics, the nature of teaching and the nature of learning.
Ernest (1989) indicated that teachers' belief system about mathematics
education (teaching and learning) influence their teaching. Teachers
may be traditional in their approach, expecting students to be passive
learners and teachers to be dispensers of knowledge or they may adopt a
constructivist approach facilitating students in developing
mathematical understandings through problem-solving and investigations.
Current reform movements have proposed effective approaches for
teaching mathematics that guarantee meaningful learning of the subject.
By using these ways, students will appreciate and value mathematics and
achieve success as they solve problems, reason, make connections and
communicate their understanding.

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References

Armstrong, D. (2003). Curriculum today. New Jersey: Pearson.

Ernest. P. (1989). The impact of beliefs on the teaching of

mathematics. Retrieved November 16, 2008 from
http://people.exeter.ac.uk/PErnest/impact.htm

Gates, P. (2006). Issues in mathematics teaching. New York: Routledge.

Goulding, M. (2002). Learning to teach mathematics. London: David

Fulton Publishers Ltd.

Marsh, C. (2004). Key concepts for understanding curriculum 3rd ed. New
York: Routledge.

Massachusetts Mathematics Curriculum Framework. Retrieved November 16,

2008 from www.doe.mass.edu/framework/math/2000/final.pdf

Saskatchewan Learning. Retrieved November 16, 2008 from

www.saskworkguide.ca/docs/maths_curricula/g:_math_curr_2007.pdf

Thompson, A. (1992). Teachers' beliefs and conceptions: A synthesis of

the research. In Grouws, D. (2006). Handbook of research on mathematics
teaching and learning.

Walker, D., and Soltis, J. (1997). Curriculum and aims. New York:
Teachers College Press.

EDMA3205 Page 37