4-Basic Electricity Daugherty

George Rowley School of
On-Site Power Generation
Basic Electricity
INSTRUCTOR
Herb Daugherty
EGSA
1
Questions??
• Please feel free to ask questions at any time

during this presentation.
• Please turn your cell phone to silent mode, or

better yet- turn it off!
2
• We will discuss the basics of electricity and
start at the beginning…
• ‘This must be distinctly understood, or

nothing wonderful can come of the story I am
going to relate…’
Charles Dickens
3
Objectives
• Explore theses topics:
– Direct Current (D.C.)

– Alternating Current (A.C.)
– Opposition to current flow
– Magnetism
– Power
Walter Chrysam – Basic Electricity 4

SI units
• This stands for “International System of Units”
(Systeme International D’Unites)
• This is the metric-based system used exclusively

by scientists and to a great extent in electrical
applications.
• It allows for international exchange without the

need to convert units. (eg pounds to kilograms)
Unit prefixes
• In the power generation Prefix Multiplier
one 1
industry we use certain
kilo 1000
prefixes to express large mega 1000000
numbers easily giga 1000000000
An example would be a 500,000

watt genset, which is one that can
produce 500 kilowatts
6
Electrons
These guys and their

movement make our
modern world what it is
today.
7
ELECTRIC CURRENT
The movement of these

electrons within a
closed circuit is caused
by the difference of
electrical pressure
across the circuit.
• Very much like the flow

of water.
8
Conventional
Benjamin Franklin considered electric current to
be the flow of positive charges from a point of
high pressure (Positive) to one of lower
pressure (Negative).
+ -
Our schematic symbols and circuit diagrams
depict conventional current flow today.
9
Unconventional
Unfortunately, it was later discovered that the
opposite was true.
+ -
Electron Flow is actually from negative to

positive.
10
Basic Electricity
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
11
DEFINITIONS
AMPERE:
• Measure for current flow
• The Ampere (Amp) named for André-Marie
Ampère
One Amp = 6.24 × 1018 electrons moving past a
given point in 1 second.
That’s 62,400,000,000,000,000,000 electrons!!!!

(62.4 quintillion)
12
DEFINITIONS
Ammeter:
Device measuring the amount of current flowing in
a conductor.
• Inserted in series, so that all current flows through it
13
DEFINITIONS
• VOLT:
• Measure of ElectroMotive Force (EMF)
• Named for Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio
Anastasio Volta
• 1 Volt causes one ampere to flow in a circuit
with a resistance of one Ohm.
(We’ll go back Ohm in a bit…)
EGSA assumes no responsibility for my bad puns…
14
DEFINITIONS
• 1 Volt is the EMF in a circuit that causes one

ampere of current flow and dissipates one
watt.
• Voltage is also referred to as potential, and

the voltage across a circuit is sometimes
referred to as potential difference.
15
DEFINITIONS
VOLTMETER:
A voltmeter measures the voltage
(potential difference) across any two
points in an electrical circuit.
16
DEFINITIONS
CONDUCTOR:
•A substance or body that allows an electric

current to pass continuously along it.
•A conductor may be bare or insulated.
17
DEFINITIONS
Copper is a good
conductor because free
electrons are available.
This ready availability of

free electrons applies to
silver, aluminum, gold,
and other metals having
good conductivity.
18
DEFINITIONS
• INSULATION and
INSULATORS:
• Materials which, under
normal circumstances,
will not allow the
passage of an electric
current.
19
DEFINITIONS
Electrical Circuit:
A conductor, or system of conductors, through
which an electric current is intended to flow.
• May also be a system for transferring

electrical energy from a point of origin to the
point of usage.
DEFINITIONS
Open Circuit:
• Will not allow current to

flow.
DEFINITIONS
Closed (Completed) Circuit:
Allows current to flow from the source all the

way back.
Greatly enlarged to
show electrons…
DEFINITIONS
KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:

Principle that states “The sum of all current
coming toward a junction must be equal to
the sum of all the current leaving that same
junction.”
DEFINITIONS
3 amps
12 amps
1 amp
8 amps
12 = 8 + 1 + 3
BASIC ELECTRICITY
TYPES OF ELECTRIC CURRRENT

TYPES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
There are two basic types of electric current:
Direct Current (DC) Alternating Current (AC)
-Unidirectional -Bidirectional
Volts
Volts
0 0
Time Time
DC DIRECT CURRENT
Current flows in only one direction.
electron
Current flow will rise quickly to some specific level,
and remain constant at that level for a period of
time.
• Is this DC?
PULSATING DC
Current flow will rise to
some level, then decay
to zero.
Cycle repeats - current
flow from zero to peak
and back to zero.
Periods of current flow
will usually be equal.
POLARITY - DC CIRCUITS
Reversing Positive (+) and Negative (-) leads
feeding a DC circuit will reverse the polarity
(or the direction) of current flow in the circuit.
This will result in reversing the direction of

rotation of any motor on the line
-
Alternating Current
Alternating current is an electric current that

reverses its direction in regularly recurring
intervals of time.
AC current has alternately positive and negative

values.
electron
SINE WAVE
The shape of the alternating current flow is
that of a wave.
The common and most important
alternating current wave shape is that of a
sine wave (named for the graphic curve of
the trigonometric function it follows).
1 cycle is one complete alternation of current
flow.
During the cycle current will:
Ascend from Zero to Peak Positive
Decay back to Zero
Descend from Zero to Peak Negative
Decay back to Zero
Pos
Current
Neg
• There are two methods of measuring an AC
voltage sine wave:
• Root Mean Square (RMS) or Effective

Voltage.
• Average (AVG) voltage.

• RMS really equates AC with DC.
• 120 Vac RMS will have the same heating effect

as 120 Vdc.
• …Calculating the value
• For a pure sine wave, voltage RMS is equal to

70.7% of the peak (crest) value of the wave.
• Most DMMs read voltage in RMS.

• It is a bit easier to build devices that measure
average voltage.
• These simply rectify the AC sine wave, and

read out the resulting DC voltage.
– For a pure AC voltage sine wave, this value is

63.6% of the peak or crest value of the wave.
– This value is not used too much today…
• Frequency is the measure of the number of
times a cycle recurs in a period of time.
• Measured in the number of cycles recurring in

one second, or Cycles per second.
The unit of measure of frequency is the “Hertz”,

abbreviated Hz. (Formerly CPS)
One Hertz is equal to one cycle per second.
The instrument used to measure frequency is the

Frequency Meter.
PERIOD OF A CYCLE
The length of time required to complete a
single cycle.
The period of a single cycle is dictated by the

frequency of the alternating current.
PERIOD OF A CYCLE
60 Hz =1/60th of a second or 0.0166 seconds,

usually rounded to 16.7 milliseconds (ms).
50 Hz =1/50th of a second or 0.02 seconds, also

20 milliseconds (ms).
CURRENT FLOW IN AC CIRCUITS

AC Current flow is in the form of a sine wave.
Just like the electron in our example before, it
flows one direction, then reverses.
current
• There is no polarity in an AC circuit.
• Current flow reverses every half cycle.

• Three phase
• We can add two more sine waves, spaced out

evenly, and get more power.
• 1.732 times, to be exact.

• In a three-phase circuit, we add one more
wire (to the two we already have)
• This almost doubles the amount of power

available.
• Utilities the world over generate and

distribute power in 3 phase for this reason.
BASIC ELECTRICITY
RECTIFIERS AND RECTIFICATION

RECTIFIERS and RECTIFICATION
• Utility power to homes and businesses

worldwide today is in the form of Alternating
Current. (A.C.)
However…
Many devices require Direct Current (D.C.)

• Power supplies to charge batteries
• Power to certain motors
• Lifting magnets
While some devices even use A.C. and D.C.
simultaneously
• This computer
• This projector
• TV sets
• Clocks
• Radios and UPS systems are powered by an
A.C. utility but use D.C. and then…
• Make their own A.C.!!
• But I digress…
• In days of yore…
• And still in some applications…
• We can drive a D.C. generator with an A.C.

motor. (Often called an M.G. set)
Today, we have the wonders of solid state
electronics.
These devices known as ‘semiconductors’

have the ability to convert A.C. to D.C.
with no moving parts!
• How does this work??
• It all has to do with electrons.

• Certain materials* are neither good
conductors or insulators.
• We can use this to great advantage.
*specifically germanium and silicon

• The specifics of electron interaction are a bit
off course for us.
• It has to do with electrons jumping (or not).
• What is important for us to realize is the effect

we see from this electron’s choice.
A rectifier is like an “electrical check valve”.
Check valves allow fluids to flow in one direction

only.
Electrical Diode Symbol

• The symbol makes

perfect sense if you
consider it in terms
of ‘conventional’
current flow.
Forward Diodes will pass the positive half of

the sine wave, and block the negative or
reverse half.
Reverse Diodes will pass the negative half of
the sine wave, and block the positive or
forward half .
• Ideally, a diode should:
– Act like an open circuit when blocking
– Act like a short circuit when conducting
• In real life, it’s a bit more complex:

– Diodes leak current just a bit while blocking.
– Diodes drop a pretty consistent voltage while
conducting.
Amps
+ -
Small signal (Pigtail) Diode - small with lead wires on

either end.
• Usually 5 amps or less- some are very tiny
• No way to get rid of excess heat- limits ampacity

Heat sinks-
In order to make larger ampacity diodes, we
need to be able to keep them cool.
Silicon diodes drop 0.7Vdc when conducting-

this translates directly into heat, the more
current, the more heat!
Heat sinks, cont’d.
This is accomplished via a ‘heatsink’- usually an

aluminum fabrication with fins to radiate heat
away from the diode.
Many times the heatsink becomes part of the

circuit.
• Since the heatsink is
part of the circuit,
we need two
different diodes-
One for each
orientation
• Here is another
variation on the
theme…
• We can even put multiple diodes in one
housing…
This one is called a ‘bridge rectifier’

FORMS OF RECTIFICATION
Output Voltage DC is equal to:

RMS AC Voltage Input x 0.45045
DC Output Voltage is equal to:

RMS AC Input Voltage x 0.9009

Line to Line RMS AC input voltage x 0.6757

Line to Line RMS AC input voltage x 1.351
• Diodes (rectifiers) conduct in one direction,

but not the other.
• They have no way of reducing or controlling

the current through them.
• Control
• If we desire to actually control the output, we

need a new device.
• This is where we can use a Thyrister or Silicon

Controlled Rectifier (SCR).
• Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• Kind of like a diode with an on switch.

– Funny, though, it doesn’t have an off…
• The SCR does nothing until the ‘gate’ is turned
on.
• At that point, the SCR begins to conduct (in it’s

forward direction- it can’t conduct backward)
• It will continue to conduct regardless of the

gate’s input or not, until all power is removed
from it.
Basic Electricity
RESISTANCE AND RESISTORS

RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE – Symbol: R
Resistance is defined as the non-reactive
opposition (hindrance) to current flow in
an electrical circuit.
RESISTANCE
Resistance is measured in a unit called an

ohm, which has a symbol of Ω
It is the opposition to current flow in an
electrical circuit.
One Ohm of resistance will cause a one
volt drop when one ampere is flowing.
RESISTANCE
• “Electrical friction”
• Hinders movement, and causes HEAT!
• The resistance of a material will vary with
the temperature and the cross-sectional
area.
RESISTANCE
Low resistance value materials are used to
fabricate conductors.
High resistance value materials are used to

fabricate resistors.
Very high resistance value materials are used to

fabricate insulators.
RESISTANCE
As an example, a standard sample size wire

used to test for resistance of materials is
1/1000 inch in diameter (one mil), 1 foot in
length, and is tested at 68° F.
The value of resistance measured on the test
sample of each material is termed the
resistivity of the material.
Do you remember what material

has the lowest resistance?
RESISTANCE
Diameter and
Resistance of
Round Copper
and Aluminum
Wire
RESISTANCE
OHM’S LAW
The flow of current in an electrical circuit
is directly proportional to the EMF across
the circuit, and inversely proportional to
the resistance of the circuit.
OHM’S LAW
E=I×R
Where:
E = EMF measured in volts
I = Current flow measured in
Amperes (Amps)
R = Resistance measured in Ohms
OHM’S LAW
98
RESISTANCE
Resistance as a current Limiter
With a constant voltage across a circuit,

increasing the resistance in the circuit will
reduce current flow.
Ω= I
RESISTANCE
Resistance as a current Limiter
• Resistance causes the
current flow in a circuit,
whether it is AC or DC.
• Notice in this AC circuit,

the current flows in a
sine wave, just like the
voltage…
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
ON RESISTANCE
• Resistance, like friction, creates heat within a

conductor when current flows through it.
• The amount of heat generated is a function of

the amount of current flowing through the
conductor.
ON RESISTANCE
• The resistance of a conductor changes with its
temperature.
• For copper, resistance increases +0.393 percent

per degree C. (called its temperature coefficient)
• If we know the cold resistance of the conductor,

we can use its hot resistance to determine its
increase in temperature.
ON RESISTANCE
This increase in temperature is termed
“Temperature Rise”
This method of temperature measurement is

termed “Temperature Rise by Resistance”.
Temperature rise is measured in degrees Celsius
(°C) over a starting ambient temperature.
ON RESISTANCE
• Another way to do measure temperature…
• An RTD* is a wire wound resistor whose

resistance is a known linear function of it’s
temperature.
• These are very accurate and repeatable. (Get

the same reading consistently)
* Resistance Temperature Device
(or Detector)
ON RESISTANCE
RTDs are available in industry in a number of standard
elements, and are usually inserted in sets of three,
one per phase in a generator or motor stator. The
number of RTDs, and the desired metallic element
must be stated at the time of order placement. The
most frequently specified elements are:
Copper: 10 Ohms at 25°C

Nickel: 120 Ohms at Zero °C
Platinum: 100 Ohms at Zero °C
Basic Electricity
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE

CAPACITORS
• A capacitor (condenser)
is composed of two
metallic plates
separated by an
insulator.
• The metal plates form
the two terminals of the
capacitor.
In this example we’ll use air as the insulator

CAPACITORS
• It would be possible to
make a capacitor from
aluminum foil and wax
paper.
• If you’ve seen the inside of

one, that’s basically what it
is!
CAPACITORS
The principal characteristic of a capacitor is it’s

capability of storing electrons (charges),
whose movement constitutes an electric
current.
CAPACITORS
A simple DC electrical circuit with a battery as power
source, a switch, a capacitor, and a load. With the
switch open there will be no current flow in the circuit.
CAPACITORS
Using the same circuit, when we close the switch

we would again expect to see no current flow as
the insulator in the capacitor between the two
plates should block current flow.
CAPACITORS
• But what really
happens…
• When the switch is

closed, we see a large
rush of current that
quickly tapers off.
CAPACITORS
• The current we see
flow is actually
charging the
capacitor, much like
a tiny battery.
Pardon the interruption…
• Much like a battery, Important Safety Message
a capacitor can
retain it’s charge for
some time even
when removed from
the circuit.
Important Safety Message
Since capacitors maintain this voltage potential:
Be sure capacitors are discharged properly

before handling.
Important Safety Message
Back to our program…
• Once this charge has
taken place, current
flow slows and stops.
• … as long as the voltage

supplied remains the
same.
CAPACITORS
• What do you suppose
would happen if we
increased the supplied
voltage?
• Current flow would

occur again, and then
taper off. (again)
CAPACITORS
• How about if we
lowered the supplied
voltage?
• Current flow would

occur again, and then
taper off. (again)
CAPACITORS
Can be described as:
‘opposing a change in voltage’

CAPACITORS
• This opposition to voltage change can be used
to smooth out waves…
• Making choppy DC look more steady- this is
often called filtering.
CAPACITORS
• Physical size and appearance can be quite
varied:
CAPACITORS
• Unit of measure-
– Farad (named after Faraday)
• One farad requires one amp of current to

change a capacitors voltage by one volt.
• This is a bit large for most practical

applications, so you’ll usually see…
CAPACITORS
• microfarad (mƒ), or one millionth of a farad
• Capacitor regulated generators use capacitors
in the 25 to 70 microfarad range (mƒ)
• Many electronic devices use capacitors of less
than one microfarad.
– Pico, nano, etc…
CAPACITORS
• More current is required to change capacitor
voltage faster:
I = C x (Volts change per second)
Where I = Current flow in amps

C = Capacitance in farads
CAPACITORS
The action of storing electrons by a capacitor in
an AC circuit will hinder current flow.
This hindrance to current flow by storing

electrons is termed “Capacitive Reactance”,
and is given the symbol XC .
CAPACITORS
• Since capacitors oppose a change in voltage,
they will delay the voltage wave, causing the
current wave to lead.
• A purely capacitive load will cause the current

wave to lead the voltage wave by exactly 90°…
Effect of Capacitive Reactance
on Voltage and Current Waves
BASIC ELECTRICITY
MAGNETS AND MAGNETISM

MAGNETIC FIELDS
The field about a magnet consists of lines
of force or ‘flux’
These lines emanate from one end of the
magnet, travel through space, and re-
enter the magnet at the opposite end.
Iron filings and bar magnet

MAGNETIC POLES
The greatest concentration of flux lines are
at either end of the magnet (Poles)
Flux lines
The greater the concentration of flux lines
at the poles, the stronger the magnet
A bar magnet freely suspended in air will align

itself with the earth’s magnetic field.
One pole will point in the direction of the earth’s

north pole.
PROPERTIES OF A MAGNET
Strength of field
Orientation of the poles of a magnet
INTERACTION OF MAGNETS
Like Poles repel each other
Unlike poles attract each other
Unlike poles attract each other

Like poles repel each other

A piece of hard steel or other magnetic

material introduces into a strong magnetic
field will become “magnetized.”
It will exhibit properties of a magnet and, in

fact, will become a magnet.
Any material attracted to a magnet, such as

iron and steel can be magnetized.
The degree to which the material retains a

magnetic field after being removed from it is
called “retentivity”
• Once magnetized, a permanent magnet

requires no other outside influence or source
of energy to retain its magnetism.
• This magnetism cannot be controlled.

Professor Hans Orstead observed that when

an electric current flows through a conductor,
a magnetic field is created around the
conductor.
• When the wire is
connected to a battery
and suitable resistance,
small iron filings
sprinkled on the paper
will form concentric
circles of flux lines
about the conductor.
The conductor is
exhibiting
characteristics of a
magnet, and is termed
an electromagnet.
Placing a small compass
on the paper will show
the direction of the
field.
Reversing the leads
connected to the
battery will reverse the
direction of both the
current flow and the
magnetic field
If all things remain the same, but more turns are

added to the coil, the field strength increases.
• Thumb indicates
current flow direction
• Fingers indicate lines of

flux
When current is caused to flow through a conductor that
has been wound to form a coil, a magnetic field is
established about the coil.
The multiple turns reinforce

the magnetic fields- resulting
in stronger magnetic force!
EXCITATION
Excitation is the term given to the electric

current flowing in an electromagnet’s wound
coil creating the magnetic field.
Excitation is also referred to as “exciting current”,

“excitation current”, or just “excitation.”
To maintain constant polarity (pole

orientation) of an electromagnet, the
current must be Direct (DC).
Alternating (AC) input power will reverse

the polarity of the magnetism, just like the
current reverses.
If we were designing an electromagnet to

lift and transport material in a scrapyard,
would what type of current would we use?
Effect of the direction of exciting current on polarity
Magnetomotive Force (Mmf) is equal to the
product of the number of turns of conductor
comprising the coil times the current flow in
the coil.
We can therefore conclude that, as far as
magnetic effects are concerned, a 10 turn coil
carrying 50 amperes is equivalent to a 500
turn coil carrying 1 ampere of current.
• Design consideration:
– Many motors, generators and transformers are
designed to have a large amount of turns of small
wire instead of having a few turns of large wire
and very high levels of current flow.
– What is the advantage to this?

(Magnetic) PERMEABILITY
• The ease with which magnetic lines of flux
pass through a space or material.
• Soft iron is far more permeable than air.
Winding the coils of a magnet around a

soft iron core will greatly enhance the
field strength of the magnet.
RETENTIVITY
• The amount of magnetism retained in the core
of an electromagnet after the exciting current
has been removed our turned off.
• For most applications, electromagnetic core
material is selected to have little or no
magnetism retained after the exciting current
has been turned off.
SATURATION
• A condition of an electromagnet where an
increase in current flow in the magnet’s
windings does not result in an increase in
magnetic intensity.
BASIC ELECTRICITY
MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC

INDUCTION
INDUCTION
Michael Faraday
has been credited
with what is
considered to be
one of the most
important scientific
discoveries of all
time.
INDUCTION
In 1831 Michael Faraday discovered that when

lines of magnetic flux are cut by a conductor, a
voltage is created or “induced” into the
conductor.
INDUCTION
This principal is basis for all electric generator,

motor, and transformer operation.
Without electromagnetic induction, these

devices could not exist, and the world would
be a far different place!
INDUCTION
• Faraday discovered that the amount of voltage

induced in a coil is directly proportional to:
– the number of turns comprising the coil
– the number of lines of magnetic flux cut per
unit time (field strength)
INDUCTION
We can either move the conductor…
(cutting lines of flux)

INDUCTION
…Or the magnetic field.
Either way, the result is the same…

INDUCTION
Consider a bar magnet, and a coil of

conductor wire with a voltmeter across the
ends of the coil.
INDUCTION
With the bar magnet outside of the coil, the

lines of flux do not pass through the coil, and
no deflection of the meter needle will be
seen.
INDUCTION
N S
Volts DC
-1 0 +1
INDUCTION
N S
Volts DC
-1 0 +1
INDUCTION
N S
Volts DC
-1 0 +1
INDUCTION
If the movement of the bar magnet is

stopped, there will be no moving lines if
flux cutting the coil turns, and induction of
voltage will cease.
INDUCTION
Once the bar magnet has been moved through and

out of the coil, again the cutting of the turns of the
coil has ceased, and induction of voltage in the coil
will stop.
INDUCTION
If the polarity of the bar magnet is reversed,

then the direction of the induced voltage will
be reversed.
INDUCTION
From Faraday’s Law, if we consider a coil with

a fixed number of turns of conductor wire,
then the voltage induced into the coil will be
strictly a function of the number of flux lines
change (cut) per second.
INDUCTION
Further, if the strength of the field (flux

density) is held constant, by varying the speed
of the magnetic field (flux) in relationship to
the coil, the induced voltage will vary in direct
proportion to any increase or decrease in
speed (flux lines cut per second).
INDUCTION
If it takes 1 second for the magnet to pass through

the coil, the voltage induced in the coil will be of
some value.
INDUCTION
However, if the time taken to move the magnet

through the coil is doubled to 2 seconds, the value of
the induced voltage will be cut in half.
INDUCTION
From Faraday’s Law, since the turns of a coil are in

series, the voltage induced into the coil is dependant
upon the number of turns in the coil.
V = N x Flux Lines change Per Second.
BASIC ELECTRICITY
INDUCTORS AND INDUCTANCE

INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTORS
• Symbols:
• Inductors are made by winding wire in the
form of a coil.
Some have an iron

core, some do not.
• Unit of measure:
– Henry (after Joseph Henry, physicist)
• Symbol : L
• One Henry is the result of one ampere causing

a change in total flux linkages of one Weber.
• Inductors are the result of winding wire in the

form of a coil.
• A transformer is made of windings on an iron

core.
– Does a transformer have inductance?
• Inductors store energy.
• How do you suppose a coil of wire is capable

of storing energy?
• During our study of electromagnetism we saw
that the density of the magnetic flux (number
of flux lines) about a conductor was a function
of the magnitude of the current flowing in the
conductor.
• Increasing or decreasing current flow will

increase or decrease the density of the
magnetic field about the conductor.
• Further, in our studies of Faraday’s Law we
learned that one of the factors determining
the value of the voltage induced into a coil is
the rate of change in flux lines per second.
• Applying an AC voltage to a circuit will result
in a magnetic field of ever increasing intensity
being established until the wave crests in the
positive half cycle, and then diminishing at an
ever increasing rate until the wave reaches the
zero reference line.
• During the negative half of the cycle the entire
process is repeated with an opposite polarity
field being established and collapsing.
• Therefore, when we impose an AC voltage
across the terminals of a coil, the resulting
action of the magnetic field constantly
establishing, collapsing, reestablishing and
collapsing in the opposite direction will induce
an AC voltage in the coil itself!
• This voltage being induced in the coil winding

is in the opposite direction of current flow,
and will oppose (hinder) current flow.
• This hindrance to current flow in the coil by

this opposing voltage may be looked at as
being similar to a back pressure in an exhaust
system.
• This hindrance to current flow in the coil is termed

“Inductive Reactance”, and is given the symbol XL
• Just as resistance hinders current flow similar to

friction and is measured in ohms (Ω), so inductive
reactance hinders current flow similar to a back
pressure, it is also measured in ohms (Ω).
There are two features of the hindrance (opposition) to
current flow caused by Inductive Reactance that
differ from the effects of Resistance:
• 1. The induced voltage • 2. Inductive Reactance

opposing current flow is dependant on the
causes the current wave frequency.
to lag the voltage wave. • Changing the frequency
changes the value.
189
• 1. The induced voltage opposing current flow causes

the current wave to lag the voltage wave - be out of
phase or step with the voltage wave - by up to 90°.
In a purely resistive circuit both the voltage wave and

the current wave will stay “in phase”. The peaks and
zero crossings of both waves will happen at the same
time.
2. Frequency. From Faraday’s Law we saw induced

voltage is directly proportional to the rate of change of
flux lines per second. So changing the frequency of the
AC voltage will change the rate of change of flux lines
per second, and thus the value of Inductive Reactance
in direct proportion to any change in frequency.
There is nothing in the nature of resistance that is
effected by frequency.
• Inductors and capacitors have opposite effects

on an AC circuit.
• It is entirely possible to have one cancel the

effects of the other.
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
• There are three basic electrical elements that
comprise an AC circuit:
• Resistors/Resistance - R
• Inductors/Inductance - L
• Capacitors/Capacitance - C
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
• All AC electrical devices are comprised of one,
two, or a combination of all three of these
basic circuit elements.
• Each circuit element has it's own effect on

current flow in an AC circuit.
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
• Consider the coil:
• What circuit elements does it have?
– Inductance-(it’s a coil after all…)

– Resistance- the wire it is made of has a
measurable (although small) resistance…
– Capacitance- each wrap is a little capacitor…
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
• RESISTORS & RESISTANCE (R)
• Resistance may be thought of as a form of

electrical friction.
• Resistance has the same effect in both AC and
DC circuits.
• The unit of measure of resistance is the ohm

(Ω).
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
• REACTANCE (X)
• Reactance may be defined as the non-resistive
opposition to current flow in an AC circuit.
• Reactance is seen only in AC circuits.
• Since reactance like resistance hinders current

flow, it's unit of measure is also the ohm (Ω).
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
• Inductive Reactance - XL • Capacitive Reactance - XC
caused by the presence caused by the presence
of an inductor in the of a capacitor in the
circuit. circuit.
• Inductors oppose a • Capacitors oppose a
change in current. change in voltage.
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
• The higher the frequency, the higher the rate
of change.
• This means that the circuit reactance (X) is

affected by the frequency as well.
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
IMPEDANCE
(Z)
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
• In order to calculate impedance (Z) it would
appear that we could simply add together:
• Resistance – R
• Inductive Reactance – XL
• Capacitive Reactance - XC
• But there is just a bit more to it…

CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
• Inductive Reactance - XL • Since XL opposes a
caused by the presence change in current, it
of an inductor in the delays the current wave
circuit.
• Inductors oppose a • This displaces the
change in current. current to be behind the
voltage wave
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
• Inductive Reactance - XL • Capacitive Reactance - XC
caused by the presence caused by the presence
of an inductor in the of a capacitor in the
circuit. circuit.
• Inductors oppose a • Capacitors oppose a
change in current. change in voltage.
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
Inductive reactance XL causes the current wave to LAG

the voltage wave.
Capacitive reactance XC causes the current wave to
LEAD the voltage wave.
With both of these reactances in the circuit they tend
to off-set each other. To determine the net effect we
must subtract one from the other, and then add this
sub total to any resistance in the circuit to obtain the
total hindrance or Z.
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
The equation would then become:

Z = R + (XL - XC)
What happens if XC is larger than XL? We can
not have a negative hindrance, so the equation
above has been modified to take this possibility
into account as:
Z = R2 + (XL - XC)2
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
In DC circuits the only hindrance to current flow is resistance R,
and for DC circuits Ohms Law is:
E=IxR
In AC circuits we have seen that there may be as many as 3
separate hindrances to current, and the total hindrance to
current is Impedance Z. So, for AC circuits, Ohms Law must be
restated as:
E=IxZ
Where:
E = Voltage in volts, I = Current in amps,
R = Resistance in Ohms, and Z = Impedance in Ohms
Circuit Elements
Resistive load
Circuit Elements
Capacitive load
Resistive load
Circuit Elements
Resistive load
Inductive load
Circuit Elements
Capacitive load Inductive load

Resistive load
Circuit Elements

Resistive load
Circuit Elements

Resistive load
Circuit Elements
Capacitive load
Resistive load
Inductive load
Circuit Elements
Capacitive load
Resistive load
Inductive load
Circuit Elements
Capacitive VARs Inductive VARs

Real Power (W)
BASIC ELECTRICITY
POWER AND WORK

POWER AND WORK
THE POWER LAW

Power Equals Force
Times Rate Of
Motion (Force acting
through a distance in
a unit of time)
1 Horsepower = 550
lb-ft/Sec.
POWER AND WORK
• The new SI unit for power is the watt (W), or

kilowatt (kW).
• Horsepower is being replaced by the watt:

1 Horsepower = 746 Watts of Power
1 Watt = 0.00134 Horse Power
1 Horsepower = 0.746 Kilowatts of Power
1 Kilowatt = 1.34 Horse Power
POWER AND WORK
• The unit for power is the watt (W)

– Often used in thousands (kW)
• Named after James Watt- steam engine

developer and power measurement pioneer.
• Used to measure power in mechanical and

electrical terms…
POWER AND WORK
kWm is the descriptor for kWe is the descriptor for
kiloWatts mechanical kiloWatts electrical
• This is a measure of the • This is a measure of the

mechanical power available electrical power available
from the prime mover. from the generator.
POWER AND WORK
POWER IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

P=IxE
P = Power measured in Watts
E = Electromotive Force (EMF) measured in Volts
I = Current Flow (Intensity) measured in Amperes
*I remember it – easy as ‘P I E’
POWER AND WORK
OHM’S LAW: E = I R
Since E = I R, if we substitute IR for E in the

Power Equation P = E I, it becomes:
P=IRI
or
P= 2
IR
POWER AND WORK
P = I2R
From Ohm’s Law:
E = IR (DC circuits)
E = IZ (AC circuits)
we see that Current (I) is directly proportional to

Voltage (E), and will vary in direct proportion
to any change in voltage.
POWER AND WORK
Therefore:
Power in an electrical circuit is directly
proportional to the square of the voltage, and
will vary directly as the SQUARE of any change
in voltage imposed on the circuit.
POWER AND WORK
EXAMPLE:
If voltage across a circuit is dropped from 480
volts to 456 volts (a drop of 5%):
100% (-) 5% = 95%, or 0.95 PU. 0.952 = 0.9 PU
or 90%.
A reduction of 5% in voltage across a circuit
will result in a 10% reduction in power
demand of the circuit.
POWER AND WORK
Work Equals Power Times Time
No matter how fast the man shovels, it takes some

amount of time for him to load the truck.
POWER AND WORK
WORK IN AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
W=P×t
Where:
W = Work measured in watthours or
kilowatt hours
P = Power measured in watts or kilowatts
t = Time measured in hours
POWER AND WORK
POWER AND WORK
If a water heater If a water heater requires
requires I kilowatt of 60 kilowatts of power
power for one hour to for 1 minute to raise the
raise the temperature temperature to the
to the proper level, same level, total energy
total energy input will input again will be 1
be 1 kilowatt-hour. kilowatt-hour.
1 kilowatt × 1 hour = 60 kW ÷ 60 minutes per

1 kilowatt-hour. hour = 1 kilowatt hour.
POWER AND WORK
WORK Equals POWER Times TIME
Whether it’s a large amount in a short time, or a

small amount over a long time.
POWER AND WORK
A Prime Mover is an engine, motor or other mechanical

device used to rotate the shaft of an electric generator
HP = Horsepower
HPD = HP required of a Prime Mover to drive a generator
kWm = Kilowatts of mechanical power (Sometimes
termed Metric HP)
kWe = Kilowatts of electrical power
PU = Per Unit (Percentage or any ratio expressed in
Decimal Form: % ÷ 100)
POWER AND WORK
Kilowatts of Mechanical Power (kWm)
kWm = HP × 0.746
or
kWm = HPD × 0.746
POWER AND WORK
Kilowatts of Electrical Power (kWe)
kWe = HPD × 0.746 × PU Generator

Efficiency
kWe = kWm × PU Generator efficiency
POWER AND WORK
HORSEPOWER (HP)
kWm
HP =
0.746
POWER AND WORK
HORSEPOWER REQUIRED OF A
GENERATOR’S PRIME MOVER
kWe
HPD =
PU Generator Efficiency × 0.746
POWER AND WORK
This Concludes the Basic

Electricity Module
Thank you for your

Attention

4-Basic Electricity Daugherty

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

4-Basic Electricity Daugherty

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

4-Basic Electricity Daugherty

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

George Rowley School of

On-Site Power Generation

• Please feel free to ask questions at any time

• Please turn your cell phone to silent mode, or

• ‘This must be distinctly understood, or

– Direct Current (D.C.)

Walter Chrysam – Basic Electricity 4

• This is the metric-based system used exclusively

• It allows for international exchange without the

An example would be a 500,000

These guys and their

The movement of these

• Very much like the flow

Electron Flow is actually from negative to

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

That’s 62,400,000,000,000,000,000 electrons!!!!

• 1 Volt is the EMF in a circuit that causes one

• Voltage is also referred to as potential, and

•A substance or body that allows an electric

•A conductor may be bare or insulated.

This ready availability of

• May also be a system for transferring

• Will not allow current to

Allows current to flow from the source all the

KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:

TYPES OF ELECTRIC CURRRENT

This will result in reversing the direction of

Alternating current is an electric current that

AC current has alternately positive and negative

• Root Mean Square (RMS) or Effective

• Average (AVG) voltage.

• RMS really equates AC with DC.

• 120 Vac RMS will have the same heating effect

• For a pure sine wave, voltage RMS is equal to

• Most DMMs read voltage in RMS.

• These simply rectify the AC sine wave, and

– For a pure AC voltage sine wave, this value is

• Measured in the number of cycles recurring in

The unit of measure of frequency is the “Hertz”,

One Hertz is equal to one cycle per second.

The instrument used to measure frequency is the

The period of a single cycle is dictated by the

60 Hz =1/60th of a second or 0.0166 seconds,

50 Hz =1/50th of a second or 0.02 seconds, also

CURRENT FLOW IN AC CIRCUITS

• There is no polarity in an AC circuit.

• Current flow reverses every half cycle.

• We can add two more sine waves, spaced out

• 1.732 times, to be exact.

• This almost doubles the amount of power

• Utilities the world over generate and

RECTIFIERS AND RECTIFICATION

• Utility power to homes and businesses

Many devices require Direct Current (D.C.)

• Make their own A.C.!!

• And still in some applications…

• We can drive a D.C. generator with an A.C.

These devices known as ‘semiconductors’

• It all has to do with electrons.

*specifically germanium and silicon