INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

CREDIT HOURS: 3(2-1)

COURSE DESCRIPTION:

This is an introductory course on Information and Communication

Technologies. Topics include ICT terminologies, hardware and software
components, the internet and World Wide Web, and ICT based
applications.

COURSE OUT LINE:

1. History of the computer

2. Evolution of computer
3. Brief overview of a computer
4. Primary components of a computer
5. Types of computer according to size and function.
6. Hardware: Computer Systems & Components
7. Storage Devices
8. Fundamentals of data representation
9. Software: Operating Systems,Application Software
10.Introduction to Programming, Databases and Information Systems
11.Networks
12.User accounts of computer
13.Data Communication
14.The Internet, Browsers and Search Engines
15.The Internet: Email, Collaborative Computing and Social Networking
16.The Internet: E-Commerce
17.IT Security and computer Crimes
18.Project Week
19.Review Week
History of the Computer
The computer as we know it today had its beginning with a 19th century English
mathematics professor name Charles Babbage. He designed the Analytical Engine and it
was this design that the basic framework of the computers of today are based on.

Generally speaking, computers can be classified into five generations. Each generation
lasted for a certain period of
time, and each gave us either a new and improved computer or an improvement to the
existing computer.

Evolution of computer
Computer generations

First Generation of Computers (1942-1955)

First generation computers were used during 1942-1955.These computers were large in
size and writing programs on them was difficult. Some of the computers of this
generation were:
 ENIAC: It was the first electronic computer built in 1946 at University of Pennsylvania,
USA by John Eckert and John Mauchly. It was named Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Calculator (ENIAC). The ENIAC was 30 50 feet long, weighed 30 tons, contained
18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 registers 10,000 capacitors and required 150,000 watts of
electricity. Today your favorite computer is many times as powerful as ENIAC, still size is
very small.

Advantages

 Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during those days.
 Vacuum tube technology made possible to make electronic digital computers.
 These computers could calculate data in millisecond.

Disadvantages

 The computers were very large in size.

 They consumed a large amount of energy.
 They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes.
 They were not very reliable.
 Air conditioning was required.
 Constant maintenance was required.
 Non-portable.
 Costly commercial production.
 Limited commercial use.
 Very slow speed.
 Limited programming capabilities.
 Used machine language only.
 Used magnetic drums which provide very less data storage.
 Used punch cards for input.
 Not versatile and very faulty.
Second Generation Computers (1955-1964)

The second generation computers used transistors. The scientists at Bell laboratories
developed transistor in 1947. These scientists include John Barden, William Brattain and
William Shockley. The size of the computers was decreased by replacing vacuum tubes
with transistors. The examples of second generation computers are IBM 7094 series,
IBM 1400 series and CDC 164 etc.

Advantages

 Smaller in size as compared to the first generation computers.

 The 2nd generation Computers were more reliable
 Used less energy and were not heated.
 Wider commercial use
 Better portability as compared to the first generation computers.
 Better speed and could calculate data in microseconds
 Used faster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic disks, printer etc.
 Used Assembly language instead of Machine language.
 Accuracy improved.

Disadvantages

 Cooling system was required

 Constant maintenance was required
 Commercial production was difficult
 Only used for specific purposes
 Costly and not versatile
 Punch cards were used for input.
Third Generation Computers (1964-1975)

The Third generation computers used the integrated circuits (IC). Jack Kilby developed
the concept of integrated circuit in 1958. It was an important invention in the computer
field. The first IC was invented and used in 1961. The size of an IC is about ¼ square inch.
A single IC chip may contain thousands of transistors. The computer became smaller in
size, faster, more reliable and less expensive. The examples of third generation
computers are IBM 370, IBM System/360, UNIVAC 1108 and UNIVAC AC 9000 etc.

Advantages

 Smaller in size as compared to previous generations.

 More reliable.
 Used less energy
 Produced less heat as compared to the previous two generations of computers.
 Better speed and could calculate data in nanoseconds.
 Used fan for heat discharge to prevent damage.
 Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure is rear.
 Totally general purpose
 Could be used for high-level languages.
 Good storage
 Versatile to an extent
 Less expensive
 Better accuracy
 Commercial production increased.
 Used mouse and keyboard for input.

Disadvantages
  Air conditioning was required.
 Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.

Fourth Generation Computers (1975-Present)

 The fourth generation computers started with the invention of Microprocessor. The
Microprocessor contains thousands of ICs. Ted Hoff produced the first microprocessor
in 1971 for Intel. It was known as Intel 4004. The technology of integrated circuits
improved rapidly. The LSI (Large Scale Integration) circuit and VLSI (Very Large Scale
Integration) circuit was designed. It greatly reduced the size of computer. The size of
modern Microprocessors is usually one square inch. It can contain millions of electronic
circuits. The examples of fourth generation computers are Apple Macintosh & IBM PC.

Advantages

 More powerful and reliable than previous generations.

 Small in size
 Fast processing power with less power consumption
 Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold.
 No air conditioning required.
 Totally general purpose
 Commercial production
 Cheapest among all generations
 All types of High level languages can be used in this type of computers

Disadvantages

 The latest technology is required for manufacturing of Microprocessors.

Fifth Generation Computers (Present & Beyond)

Scientists are working hard on the 5th generation computers with quite a few
breakthroughs. It is based on the technique of Artificial Intelligence (AI).Computers can
understand spoken words & imitate human reasoning. It can respond to its
surroundings using different types of sensors. Scientists are constantly working to
increase the processing power of computers. They are trying to create a computer with
real IQ with the help of advanced programming and technologies.

Brief overview of a computer

The word “Computer” comes from word compute, which means to calculate. A
computer is a programmable machine that operates on data and is used for wide range
of activities. A tool which can be used to read and write text, draw and look at images,
and send and receive e-mail.

Computer Education
Computer Education has become a prerequisite in our modern lives. Proper computer
education is required in order to become competitive in work field and make a distinct
mark in one’s career. Reservation of tickets in Air Lines and Railways, payment of
 telephone and electricity bills, deposits and withdrawals of money from banks, business
data processing, medical diagnosis, weather forecasting, etc. are some of the areas
where computer has become extremely useful.

What is computer?
Computer is an electronic device. It accepts data, processes the data and gives us the
desired output in the form of information. Therefore, we may define computer as a
device that transforms data.

Characteristics of Computers: -
1. Speed: It can calculate millions of calculation in seconds.
2. Accuracy: Computer results are highly accurate.
3. Memory: Computers have a large amount of memory to hold a very large amount of
data or information.
4. Programmed Intelligence: They are programmed in such a way that they can perform
those operations which have been fed into them.
5. Diligence: Computer is free from problems like lack of concentration, and confuse like
humans.
6. Versatility: We can perform many different types of tasks on computer.
7. Power of Remembrance: Unlike humans, computer can store things for unlimited
period of time.
8. No intelligence: It cannot take any decision on its own.

Primary components of a computer

• Input Devices: -An input device for a computer is anything that sends information to
the CPU to perform a specific function.
• Output Devices: - All those devices that we use to get information out of a computer.
Printers, monitors, speakers, and headphones are all output devices.
• CPU or Processor: - This little chip is the heart of a computer. Also referred to as the
"microprocessor," the processor does all the computations such as adding,
subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. It has the same importance as the brain to
human being. The faster the processor, the more expensive the computer. Main
parts of CPU are as below:
o Control Unit: It directs the computer system to execute stored program
instructions.
o Arithmetic Logic Unit: All the arithmetic and logical decisions are made by
ALU e.g.
 Addition, subtraction, division, multiplication.
 Comparing numbers, letters or special characters.
  Testing conditions like, equal to, less than, and greater than
conditions.
• Storage Devices: -Information and documents are stored in computer storage so
that it can be retrieved whenever they are needed later on. Computer storage is the
holding of data in an electromagnetic form for access by a computer processor.

Types of a computer: -
There are two types of computers

a. According to Work
b. According to Size

According to Work: -According to work, computer is further divided in three type’s i.e.
a. Analogue Computers
b. Digital Computers
c. Hybrid Computers

Analogue Computers: - Computers that process analogue data are called analogue computers,
analogue data is continuous, and accept analogue input and provide analogue output. It’s used
to measure the physical quantities.

Examples: Speedo meter of a car, Thermometer and weight lifting machine.

 Analogue computers doesn’t store information.

Digital Computers: - Computers that process digital data are called digital computers, digital
data is discrete, accepts only digital input and provides output in digital. It measures digital
quantities. And these are general purpose computers.
Examples: Calculator, Accounting machines

 Digital computers are accurate, store

Hybrid Computers: - Computers that process digital and analogue data are called hybrid
computers. They are special purpose computers.

Example: Radars, Telephone, Webcam, Mobiles, computer used in hospitals to measure the
heartbeat of patient.

 A hybrid computer combines the best features of both analogue and digital.

According to Size: -

• Super Computer: - Supercomputers are the largest, fastest, most powerful, and most
expensive computers supercomputers can be accessed by many individuals at the same
time. Supercomputers are used primarily for scientific applications that are
mathematically intensive. The first supercomputer was built in the 1960s for the United
States Department of Defence. Supercomputers derive much of their speed from the
use of multiple processors. It is used in · the aerospace, automotive, chemical,
electronics and petroleum industries use supercomputers extensively.
• EXAMPLE:
• Cray-1
• Cray-2
• Control Data Cyber 205
• ETA

• Mainframe Computer: -Mainframe computers are the most powerful computers after
Supercomputers. A mainframe computer may contain several microprocessors. A single
mainframe computer can be used by hundreds of people at once. Each user has his own
terminal that is connected to the mainframe. A mainframe computer system is usually
composed of several processors. Examples of mainframe computer are:

o IBM S/390
 o Amdahl 580
o Control Data Cyber 176

o Host Processor:

The host processor is responsible for controlling the other processors, all
the peripheral devices, and the mathematics operations.

o Front End processor:

A front-end processor is responsible for handling communications to and

from all the remote terminals connected to the computer system.

o Back end Processor:

Sometimes a back-end processor is used to handle data retrieval

operations. Although the host computer could perform all these
operations, it can be used more efficiently if relieved of time-consuming
chores that do not require processing speed.

Mini Computer: - Minicomputers are medium-sized computers which are more powerful than
microcomputers but not as powerful as mainframes. The "age of the mini" started in the late
1960s. Minicomputers are frequently referred to as mid-range computers. Like mainframes,
most minicomputers are multiuser systems. Mini computers are a little slower than mainframe.
 EXAMPLE:

• IBM AS/400
• IBM SYSTEM 360
• HP 3000
• PRIME 9755

Microcomputer: - It’s a single user computer; main units are input, processing, output, and
storage. We can select the programs we want to use, and we don't have to compete with other
users to gain access to the system. A single-user system is designed to meet the computing
needs of an individual. The most common type of microcomputer is a desktop computer,
which is a personal computer that fits on top of a desk. Microcomputers are the smallest and
cheapest and are used at home, in schools and in some businesses.
Computer Hardware and Software
Computer hardware is any physical device, something that you are able to touch
and software is a collection of instructions and code installed into the computer and
cannot be touched. For example, the computer monitor you are using to read this text
on and the mouse you are using to navigate this web page is computer hardware. The
Internet browser that allowed you to visit this page and the operating system that the
browser is running on is software.

Hardware is what makes a computer work. A CPU processes information and that
information can be stored in RAM or on a hard drive. A sound card can provide sound to
speakers and a video card can provide an image to a monitor. All of this is hardware.

And on the other hand an operating system, like Windows or Mac OS, is software. It
provides a graphical interface for people to use the computer and other software on the
computer. A person can create documents and pictures using software.

We discuss some of the hardware briefly

RAM: A fast CPU is useless without enough amount of RAM (Random Access memory).
RAM is usually referred to as a computer’s memory meaning it stores information that is
used by running programs or applications. More memory lets you run more applications
at the same time without degrading your system’s performance. RAM data can be
accessed randomly, like memory address 10 can be accessed as quickly as memory
address 10, 000,000.

ROM: It stands for Read-only memory, contains programs and data permanently
recorded into memory at the factory and cannot be changed by user, it is not volatile,
contents do not disappear when power is lost the programmable ROM chips that
contain some instructions on chip can be changed.

Flash Memory: It’s non- volatile, and may be used in cellular phone, digital cameras etc.

Hard Disk Drive: HDD of the computer is where permanent information is stored.
Documents, databases, spreadsheets and programs are all stored on hard disk. The
larger the hard disk, the more you can fit on the drive. The size of the HDD doesn’t
affect the speed at which a program can run, but HDD speed can affect how fast you can
access your files.

Video Card: The video card is a board that plugs into the PC motherboard to give it
display capabilities. New video cards come with their own ram and processor to help
speed up the graphics display. Many computers come with video chips built in. That
makes a separate video card unnecessary, unless the computer is going to be used for
high-end multimedia work or to play video games.
 Sound Card: Like video cards, sound cards are expansion boards used for enabling a
computer to manipulate sound. Most sound cards give you the power to plug in
speakers and a microphone.

Modem: The modem allows your computer to use a telephone line to communicate and
connect to the internet.

Network Interface Card: A network interface card allows your computer to be

connected either to other computer or to internet if you are using a fast internet
connection such as cable or DSL.

Keyboard
Keyboard is the primary input device; it is an input device that contains key, user press keys to
enter data or instructions in to the computer”. Keyboard keys consist of
• Alphabetic keys contain alphabets from A-Z & a-z
• Numerical keys contain numbers 0-9
• Symbols keys contain many symbols like,!, @, #, $, % etc.
• Functional keys contain f1-f12, design for special purposes.
• Control keys contain Esc, Alt, Ctrl, Enter etc.
• Punctuation Keys contain, “” ‘ `_-\| etc, Space etc.
• Navigational Keys contain Page Up, Page Down, Home, End, etc...

Mouse
Mouse is an input device that fits under palm of hand and Controls movement of
pointer, also called mouse.

TYPES OF MOUSE

There are three types of mouse

1. Mechanical mouse: -The mouse that contains a metal or rubber ball on it’s under
side. When the ball is rolled in any direction, sensors inside the mouse detect this
motion and move the on-screen mouse pointer in the same direction
2. Optical mouse: -An optical mouse uses a laser to detect movement relative to the
underlying surface.
3. Wireless mouse: - Wireless mouse usually work on radio frequencies commonly
referred to as RF. Wireless mouse require two components to work properly a radio
transmitter and a radio receiver.
Monitor
A computer monitor is an electronic device that shows pictures. Monitors often look
similar to televisions. The main difference between a monitor and a television is that a
monitor does not have a television tuner to change channels. Monitors often have
higher display resolution than televisions. A high display resolution makes it easier to
see smaller letters and fine graphics.

Monitors are of three types:

• CRT Monitors: CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube. These are all old model monitors. Main
disadvantages are heavy weight; occupy more place, high power consumption, and high
radiation and supports low resolution.

• LCD Monitors: LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. The main advantage of LCDs are
light weight, occupy less place, low radiation and supports high resolutions. Its looks like
we can see below:
 • LED Monitors: LED stands for Light Emitting Diode. Actually there are no differences
between LCD and LED monitors, but better picture quality in LED monitors. So now
everyone should prefer LED monitors over LCD monitors.

Projectors
Output devices that can take the display of a computer screen and project a large
version of it onto a flat surface. Projectors are often used in meetings and presentations
to help make sure everyone in the room can view the presentation.
Advantages of a projector:

 It enables a lot of people to see something even from a distance.

 Easy to install.
 Projectors generate the biggest possible image size. You can use them to create
the very large screen experience of a commercial movie theatre in your own
home.
Scanner
A scanner is an input device that scans documents such as photographs and pages of
text. When a document is scanned, it is converted into a digital format. This creates an
electronic version of the document that can be viewed and edited on a computer.

Printer
A printer is an output device that prints paper documents. This includes text documents,
images, or a combination of both. The printed output produced by a printer is often
called a hard copy, which is the physical version of an electronic document. Printers are
classified in two major groups one this called impact and second is non-impact printers.

Impact printer - Produces text and images when tiny wire pins on print head strike the ink
ribbon by physically contacting the paper, Dot-matrix printer is the example of Impact printer.

Non-impact printer - Produces text and graphics on paper without actually striking the paper,
and Inkjet printer, laser printer and thermal printer is the example of Non-Impact printer.

Types:

Dot-Matrix Printer: -A type of printer that produces characters by striking pins against
an ink ribbon to print closely spaced dots in the appropriate shape. Dot-matrix printers
are relatively expensive and do not produce high-quality output.

 Inkjet Printer: - A type of printer that works by spraying ionized ink at a sheet of
paper. Magnetized plates in the ink's path direct the ink onto the paper in the
desired shapes. Ink-jet printers are capable of producing high quality print. The price
of ink-jet printers is lower than that of laser printers. However, they are also
considerably slower. Another drawback of ink-jet printers is that they require a
special type of ink. Colour ink-jet printers provide an inexpensive way to print full-
colour documents.
 Laser Printer: - A type of printer that utilizes a laser beam to produce an image on a
drum. The light of the laser alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits.
The drum is then rolled through a reservoir of toner, which is picked up by the
charged portions of the drum. Finally, the toner is transferred to the paper through a
combination of heat and pressure. This is also the way copy machines work. One of
the chief characteristics of laser printers is their resolution.

 Thermal Printer: - A printer that uses heat to transfer an impression onto paper.
There are two kinds of thermal printers:

o Thermal wax transfer Printer

o Direct Thermal Printer

Storage Devices and Number Systems
Storage Devices

A storage device is any hardware capable of holding information. There are two types of
storage devices used in computers; a primary storage device, such as RAM, and a
secondary storage device, like a hard drive. Secondary storage can be a removable,
internal or externalstorage.

Without a storage device, your computer would not be able to save any settings or
information

Primary storage memory

Primary memory is storage where your computer stores instructions and information
about programs it is currently running. Primary storage is much faster than Secondary
Memory, but it cannot be used to store information in the long term. Primary storage is
volatile in nature as soon as the power goes it loses all of the information.

Some of the examples of Primary storage devices

Types of Primary Storage Devices

Random access memory

RAM is a volatile memory and stores that part of instructions in its memory which is
being processed. Running application on our system currently takes place in RAM. It is
like achalkboard. You can write notes, read them, and erasethem when you no longer
need them.

Processor Cache

The processor, also known as the CPU (central processing unit), processes information
on your computer. In order to do this, it needs to store the information somewhere,
which in this case is the "cache memory." The cache memory transfers data at fast
speeds so it can be processed by the cores in the processor. The cache memory holds a
lot less space than RAM. For example, a processor will usually have around 12 MB of
cache memory, whereas RAM may have up to 4 GB. However, the cache memory makes
up for that in sheer speed. For instance, RAM will have a speed of 800 Mhz, while the
cache memory can operate at 2.4 Ghz.
Processor Registers

The processor registers are the smallest and fastest of all primary storage devices. They
are primarily used by the processor to handle calculations used to operate the
programs. The larger processes involving software and operating system files are
handled by the cache memory.

Secondary storage memory

Secondary storage orauxiliary storage memory sits outside the main body of the
computer wherewe store programs and data for future use. It extends the storage
capabilities of thecomputer. We need secondary storage for two reasons.First, because
the primary storage is limited in size and it cannotalways hold all the data we need.
Second, in secondarystorage,  data  and  programs  do  not  disappear  whenpower  is
turned  off, because it is non-volatile in nature.

For example: Hard disk, floppy drive is the good example of Secondary storage memory

Types of Secondary Storage Devices

Secondary storage is defined as a storage medium that is separate from the processor and
holds data even with no power passed to it. An example is a hard drive or an optical drive.

USB Drives

A USB flash drive is a type of flash memory storage device integrated with a
universal serial bus interface. Usually portable and rewritable, some can hold up
to 300 GB.

Floppy Disks

Floppy disks are a storage medium made of a thin magnetic disk. They were
widely used from the 1970s to the 1990s. Storage capabilities ranged from 1.5
Mb to 200 MB on some versions.

CD-R

A CD-R (compact disc- recordable) is an optical secondary storage device

invented by Sony and Philips. It is also known as a WORM (write once read
many) medium. Usually has a storage capacity of 700 MB.
 DVD-R

DVD-R (Digital Video Disk- recordable) has a storage capacity of usually 4.1 GB.
There is also an 8.54-GB dual-layer version, called DVD-R DL.

Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape has been in use for more than 50 years. It is (in recent years)
packaged in cartridges/cassettes. The average amount of storage is 5 MB to 140
MB for every standard-length reel (2,400 feet).

What is virtual memory?

If your computer lacks the random access memory (RAM) needed to run a
program or operation, Windows uses virtual memory to compensate.

Units of memory
1 bit (binary digit) = the value of 0 or 1

8 bits = 1 byte

1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte

1024 kilobytes = 1 megabyte

1024 megabytes = 1 gigabyte

1024 gigabytes = 1 terabyte

1024 terabytes = 1 petabyte

Fundamentals of Data Representation

Number system
Before we jump in to world of Number system, we will review the table representing
numbers in three different number systems

Hexadecimal Binary Decimal

0 0 0
1 01 1
2 10 2
3 11 3
4 100 4
5 101 5
 6 110 6
7 111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
A 1010 10
B 1011 11
C 1100 12
D 1101 13
E 1110 14
F 1111 15

10 0001 0000 16

Binary System
Binary is the simplest kind of number system that uses only two digits of 0 and 1. By
using these digits computational problems can be solved by machines because in digital
electronics a transistor is used in two states. Those two states can be represented by 0
and 1. That is why this number system is the most preferred in modern computer
engineer, networking and communication specialists, and other professionals.

Decimal System
Decimal number system is the most commonly used and the most familiar one to the
general public. It is also known as Base 10 numbering system since it is based on 10
following symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. In decimal system, every digit has its own
position as well as the decimal point. I.e. the number 356.74 has 4 in the Hundredths
position, 7 in the Tenths position, 6 in the Units position, 5 in the Tens position, and 3 in
the Hundreds position. Decimal number system is also one of the oldest known numeral
system, which is historically related to Hindu-Arabic numeral system.

Let have an example of conversion from binary to decimal:

Convert (25) base 10 to binary system

(25) ÷ 2 = 12 | 1

(12) ÷ 2 = 6 | 0

(6) ÷ 2 = 3 | 0

(3) ÷ 2 = 1 | 1

Answer is (11001) base 2

 Now convert (11001) base 2 to Decimal system

(11001)²

Step1:11001
Step2:24 23 22 21 20
Step3:24 × 1 + 23 × 1+ 22 × 0+ 21 × 0 + 20 × 1
Step4:16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1 = 25

Bit patterns in a computer

The language that a computer understands is very simple, so simple that it only has 2
different numbers: 1 and 0. This is called Binary. Everything we see on a computer,
images, sounds, games, text, videos, spreadsheets, websites etc. Whatever it is, it will be
stored as a string of ones and zeroes.

Software
Organized information or set of instructions in the form of operating systems, utilities,
programs, and applications that enable computers to work. Software consists of carefully-
organized instructions and code written by programmers in any of various special computer
languages.It is further divided in two categories.

1. System software
Controls the basic functions of a computer and comes usually preinstalled with the
machine. E.g. BIOS, Operating system
Systems software includes the programs that are dedicated to managing the computer
itself, such as the operating system, file management utilities, and disk operating system
(or DOS). The operating system manages the computer hardware resources in addition
to applications and data. Without systems software installed in our computers we would
have to type the instructions for everything we wanted the computer to do!
 2. Application software
Application software is called the end-user programs because they enable the user to
complete tasks such as creating documents, spreadsheets, databases, and publications,
doing online research, sending email, designing graphics, running businesses, and even
playing games! Application software is specific to the task it is designed for and can be
as simple as a calculator application or as complex as a word processing
application.Browser is an application specifically designed to locate, retrieve, and display
content found on the Internet.

Operating system
An operating system is the most important software that runs on a computer. It
manages the computer's memory, processes, and all of its software and hardware
resources to make the best use of it for the user. It helps the hardware to communicate
with applications.

And after being initially loaded into the computer by a boot program, it manages all the
other programs in a computer. Objective of the OS is to provide convenience and to
make it user friendly.

Core functions of OS are as below:

1. Process Management
2. Memory Management
3. Storage Management
4. Device Management
5. Data Management

PC PLATFORM OPERATING SYSTEMS

There are various types of operating system used on different platforms. The examples
of operating systems used on PC platforms or IBM compatible computers are:
  Disk Operating System (DOS)
 Microsoft Windows XP

It is necessary for computer manufacturers to produce unique software versions for

each platform available in the market. For instance, the Apple Macintosh, PC-
compatibles, and Sun SPARC-Stations are all different platforms.

DOS is an acronym for Disk Operating System. Microsoft developed DOS in the early
1980s for personal computers. DOS used a command line interface when Microsoft first
developed it. Microsoft Windows XP’s operating environment is a Graphical User
Interface (GUI).

APPLE PLATFORM OPERATING SYSTEMS

The operating systems used on Apple platforms are:

 Mac OS
 Mac OS X

Mac OS was the first commercially successful graphical user interface released in 1984.
It was targeted for use with home desktops and workstations. Mac OS X is a multitasking
operating system and it is the latest version of the Macintosh operating system released
in 2001. It also has better security protection compared to Mac OS, for example the
integrated firewall utility.

CROSS-PLATFORM OPERATING SYSTEMS

Cross-platforms operating systems are:

 UNIX
 LINUX

UNIX is a multitasking operating system developed in the early 1970s by scientists at the
Bell Laboratories. Some versions of UNIX have a command line interface but most
versions of UNIX offer a graphical user interface. Linux is a popular, free, UNIX-like
graphical user interface operating system. It is open source software. Although Linux
runs on many kinds of equipment, it is best known for its support of IBM-Intel PC-based
hardware.
Introduction to Programming
Writing software, computer programs, is a lot like writing down the steps it takes to do
something. Computers don't do anything without someone telling them what to do. To
make the computer do something useful, you must give it instructions in either of the
following two ways:

 Write a program that tells a computer what to do, step by step, much as you
write out a recipe.

 Buy a program that someone else has already written that tells the computer
what to do.

Ultimately, to get a computer to do something useful, you (or somebody else) must
write a program.

A program does nothing more than tell the computer how to accept some type of input,
manipulate that input, and spit it back out again in some form that humans find useful.

Programmers write instructions in various programming languages, some directly

understandable by computers and other requiring translation steps. Hundreds of
computer languages are in use today. These may be divided into three types:

 Machine Languages
 Assembly Languages
 High Level Languages

Any computer can directly understand only its own Machine Language. Machine
Language is the natural (native) language of a computer. Machine languages generally
consist of strings of numbers (ultimately reduce to 1s & 0s) that instruct computers to
perform their most elementary operations. Machine languages are machine dependent.

Machine-language programming was too slow, boring & error prone for most
programmers. Instead of using Machine language, programmer began using English-like
abbreviation (called mnemonics) to represent elementary operations. Translator
 programs called assemblers were developed to convert assembly languages to machine
languages.

To speed up the programming purpose, high level languages were developed in which
single statements could be written to complete large tasks. High level languages allow
programmers to write instruction in everyday English and contain commonly used
Mathematical notations. Translator program called compiler used to convert High level
languages into Intermediate language to be accepted by assembler which further
converts it into binary form we call it Machine language.

Database and Database management system

A database is a collection of organized data and the system that manages a
collection of databases is called a Database Management System. The database
holds the records, fields and cells of data. The DBMS is the tool used to manipulate
the data inside the database. However, the term database is increasingly used as
shorthand for Database Management System. To make the distinction simple,
consider and operating system and the individual files stored in the system. Just like
you need an operating system to access and modify files in the system, you need a
DBMS to manipulate databases stored in the database system.

Management Information system

A combination of hardware, software, infrastructure and trained personnel
organized to facilitate planning, control, coordination, and decision making in an
organization.
 If we look a glance at the figure above it shows that from different layers the
information is helping an organization to go for some decisions.

Integrated set of components (mentioned in definition) for collecting, storing, and

processing data and for delivering information, knowledge and digital products.
Business firms and other organizations rely on information systems to carry out and
manage their operations, interact with their customers and suppliers, and compete in
the marketplace. Management information systems are used by organizations to track,
store, manipulate and distribute information to the appropriate people when
necessary.It supports business decision-making by providing management with critical
data.It enhances the organization's communication, reduce human labor, support short-
and long-term business goals and distribute complex information.Information systems
have significantly transformed the way business is conducted. Some of the advantages
of the management and information system are as below:

1. Increased Efficiency

2. Streamlining of Processes

3. Better Profitability Levels

Difference between data and Information?

Data refers to unprocessed information, it is raw material and unorganized facts that
need to be processed. When data are processed, organized, structured or presented in a
given context so as to make them useful, they are called Information. Data in
themselves are fairly useless. But when these data are interpreted and processed to
 determine its true meaning, they become useful and can be called Information. Data is
the computer's language. Information is our translation of this language.

User accounts of computer

A user is someone who uses a computer. A user account defines what a user can do
using Windows XP. In Windows XP, there are three types of user accounts.

Administrator account. The administrator can do everything with the computer and can
go anywhere he or she desires—essentially giving that person control over the entire
computer, including other accounts. The administrator account can never be disabled or
deleted.
Standard account. Users with standard accounts can install programs and hardware,
change pictures and related personal data, and create, change, or remove passwords.

Guest account. A guest account doesn't require a password, can't add or remove
programs from the computer, and is disabled by default. This account type is ideal for
kids and students.

Networking
In early ages it was really very difficult to share data and resources among computers,
one had to physically take the data from one computer to another in some storage
device and then put that data to the desired computer. If there were 3 computers in a
room and 1 printer, in that situation only one computer could use the printer on which
it was installed because there was no networking, so sharing resources was not easy. In
this way networking term was introduced and worked on by the professionals of the
time. So one of the reasons of motivation towards networking was resource sharing.

In the evolution process initially only two computer were connected through a wire
which was not enough if there are more computer present in the room

With the passage of time different topologies came into being. E.g.
Mesh Topology

Every device has dedicated a point-to-point link to every other device.

Dedicated: Means that the link carries traffic only between these two devices.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1. Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This topology can
withstand high traffic.
 2. Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative present. So data
transfer doesn’t get affected.
3. Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.

2. Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topologies.
3. Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the
network is tough.

Bus Topology

Bus Topology is the simplest of network topologies. In this type of topology, all the
nodes (computers as well as servers) are connected to the single cable (called bus), by
the help of interface connectors. This central cable is the backbone of the network and
is known as Bus. Every workstation communicates with the other device through this
Bus.

Advantages Bus Topology

o It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.

o Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other networks.
o Bus topology costs very less.

Disadvantages Bus Topology

o There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that can be connected.
o If the main cable (i.e. bus) encounters some problem, whole network breaks down.
o Proper termination is required to dump signals. Use of terminators is must.
o It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station.
Ring Topology

In Ring Topology, all the nodes are connected to each-other in such a way that they
make a closed loop. Each workstation is connected to two other components on either
side, and it communicates with these two adjacent neighbors. Data travels around the
network, in one direction. Sending and receiving of data takes place by the help of
token.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1)   This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data
when it receives an   empty token. This helps to reduces chances of collision. Also in ring
topology all the traffic flows in only one direction at very high speed.
2)   Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of
Bus topology.
3)   There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between
workstations.
5)   Each computer has equal access to resources.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1)   Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and
destination. This makes it slower.
2)   If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
3)   Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components.
Star Topology

In Star topology, all the components of network are connected to the central device
called “hub” which may be a hub, a router or a switch. Unlike Bus topology, where
nodes were connected to central cable, here all the workstations are connected to
central device with a point-to-point connection. So it can be said that every computer is
indirectly connected to every other node by the help of “hub”.All the data on the star
topology passes through the central device before reaching the intended destination.
Hub acts as a junction to connect different nodes present in Star Network, and at the
same time it manages and controls whole of the network.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance, signals don’t
necessarily get transmitted to all the workstations. A sent signal reaches the intended
destination after passing through no more than 3-4 devices and 2-3 links. Performance
of the network is dependent on the capacity of central hub.
2. Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology new nodes can be added easily
without affecting rest of the network. Similarly components can also be removed easily.
3. Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
4. Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network. At the same time it’s easy
to detect the failure and troubleshoot it.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Too much dependency on central device has its own drawbacks. If it fails whole network
goes down.
2. The use of hub, a router or a switch as central device increases the overall cost of the
network.
3. Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in such topology is
depended on capacity of central device.
Tree Topology

Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus Topology. Earlier we saw
how in Physical Star network Topology, computers (nodes) are connected by each other
through central hub. And we also saw in Bus Topology, work station devices are
connected by the common cable called Bus. After understanding these two network
configurations, we can understand tree topology better. In Tree Topology, the number
of Star networks is connected using Bus.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Expansion of Network is possible and easy.
2. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection and correction is easy.
5. Each segment is provided with dedicated point-to-point wiring to the central hub.
6. If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it
breaks whole network is crippled.
2. As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes
difficult.
3. Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.

Types of Networking
There are usually said to be three categories of networks these network types are a
separate concept from network topologies such as bus, ring and star.

1. LAN (local area network)

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
3. WAN (Wide Area Network)
LAN - Local Area Network

A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office
building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building.

WAN - Wide Area Network

As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest
WAN, spanning the Earth.A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs, A network
device called a router connects LANs to a WAN. A WAN differs from a LAN in several
important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization
but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and management.

Metropolitan Area Network

A network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as a
city. A MAN is typically owned and operated by a single entity such as a government
body or large corporation.

Data Communication
Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver.
The meanings of source and receiver are very simple. The device that transmits the data
is known as source and the device that receives the transmitted data is known as
receiver. Data communication aims at the transfer of data and maintenance of the data
during the process.

Components of data communication system

A Communication system has following components:

1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text,

numbers, pictures, sound or video or any combination of these.
2. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message.
3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The location of
receiver computer is generally different from the sender computer. The distance
between sender and receiver depends upon the types of network used in between.
 4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from
sender to the receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable,
fiber-optic cable or wireless like laser, radio waves, and microwaves.
5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices. Both
sender and receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.

The Internet, Browsers and Search Engines

The Internet
The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system of computer
networks - a network of networks in which users at any one computer can, get
information from any other computer. It was conceived by the Advanced Research
Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. government in 1969 and was first known as the
ARPANet. The original aim was to create a network that would allow users of a research
computer at one university to "talk to" research computers at other universities. A user
of a computer can access internet, by using an application software called browser, after
ensuring that his/her computer is connected to internet provided by the ISP (Internet
service provider)

Browsers
A software program that allows a person to explore the Internet in an easy way.
Navigating the Internet through a series of hyperlinks we can browse the Internet.
Examples of popular browsers are Chrome, Internet Explorer, Firefox, Safari, and Opera.
If we need to explore anything on internet we open the browser and type the address of
the website like e.g.

http://www.google.com every segment in this link has a particular purpose

Now let’s try to understand what are http, www, google, and com

HTTP: Stands for "Hypertext Transfer Protocol." This is the protocol used to transfer
data over the World Wide Web. That's why all Web site addresses begin with "http://".
Whenever you type a URL into your browser and hit Enter, your computer sends an
HTTP request to the appropriate Web server. The Web server, which is designed to
handle HTTP requests, then sends to you the requested HTML page.

WWW: A technical definition of the World Wide Web is: all the resources and users on
the Internet that are using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
 GOOGLE: This part of the URL denotes the name of the website to which we want to
access using our browser and HTTP protocol.

COM: Each website has a domain name that serves as an address, which is used to
access the website.Domain names are relatively cheap to register, though they must be
renewed every year or every few years. The good news is that anyone can register a
domain name, so you can purchase a unique domain name for your blog or website. The
bad news is that nearly all domain names with common words have already been
registered. Therefore, if you want to register a custom domain name, you may need to
think of a creative variation. Once you decide on a domain name and register it, the
name is yours until you stop renewing it. When the renewal period expires, the domain
name becomes available for others to purchase.

Email, Collaborative Computing and Social Networking

Email
Email, short for "electronic mail," is one of the most widely used features of the
Internet, along with the web. It allows you to send and receive messages to and from
anyone with an email address, anywhere in the world.We can attach pictures and
document. And to send email we have to put the email address of the receiver, we can
also send a copy of the mail by putting the email address of the receiver in CC (Carbon
copy field) or BCC (Blind carbon copy)

Email uses multiple protocols within the TCP/IP suite. For example, SMTP is used to send
messages, while the POP or IMAP protocols are used to retrieve messages from a mail
server.

Collaborative Computing
An interactive multimedia conferencing application that enables multiple parties to
collaborate on textual and graphic documents. Through special software, each party to
the call can contribute to such documents, working together with the other parties.
During such a collaborative session, the original text document is saved, while each
party contributes changes that are identifiable as such, by contributor. When the parties
agree to the collaborative edits and enhancements, the entire text file is refreshed and
saved. Similarly, a design or a concept can be developed graphically and on a
collaborative basis through white boarding, much as the parties would do on a physical
whiteboard in a face-to face meeting. Typically, each party to the conference has access
to a special whiteboard pad and stylus, which is used to draw. Each party can modify the
initial drawing, with each individual's contribution identified by separate color. Again,
 and once the group has agreed on the final graphic rendition, the graphic is saved and
all screens are refreshed.

Social Networking
Social networking websites allow users to be part of a virtual community. The two most
popular sites are currently Facebook and MySpace. These websites provide users with
simple tools to create a custom profile with text and pictures. A typical profile includes
basic information about the user, at least one photo, and possibly a blog or other
comments published by the user. Advanced profiles may include videos, photo albums,
online applications (in Facebook), or custom layouts (in MySpace). After creating a
profile, users can add friends, send messages to other users, and leave comments
directly on friends' profiles. These features provide the building blocks for creating
online communities.

These websites also provide an important linking element between users that allows
friends to communicate directly with each other. Because people often have friends
from different places and different times in their lives, social networking sites provide an
opportunity to keep in touch with old friends and to meet new people as well. Of
course, this means that people you don't know may also be able to view your profile
page. Therefore, if you join a social networking website, it is a good idea to review the
privacy settings for your account. And more importantly, remember to always use
discretion in what you publish on your profile.

E-Commerce
E-commerce (electronic-commerce) refers to business over the Internet. Web sites such
as Amazon.com, Buy.com, and eBay are all e-commerce sites.
E-commerce facilitates the growth of online business. It is categorized as follows:

1. Online marketing
2. Online advertising
3. Online sales
4. Product delivery
5. Product service
6. Online billing
7. Online payments
IT Security and computer Crimes
IT Security
Information security (IS) is designed to protect the confidentiality, integrity and availability of
computer data from those with malicious intentions. Sensitive information must be kept - it
cannot be changed, altered or transferred without permission. For example, a message
could be modified during transmission by someone intercepting it before it reaches the
intended recipient.

Computer Crimes
Any illegal activities are committed through the use of a computer and the Internet is
called cybercrime or computer crime.
• Hacking: The activity of breaking into a computer system to gain an
unauthorized access is known as hacking.
• Phishing: Phishing is the act of attempting to acquire sensitive information like
usernames, passwords and credit card details by disguising as a trustworthy
source.
• Computer Viruses: Computer viruses are computer programs that can replicate
themselves and harm the computer systems on a network without the
knowledge of the system users.
• Cyber stalkers: Often target the users by means of chat rooms, online forums
and social networking websites to gather user information and harass the users
on the basis of the information gathered.
• Identity Theft: This is one of the most serious frauds as it involves stealing
money and obtaining other benefits through the use of a false identity. It is the
act of pretending to be someone else by using someone else's identity as one's
own.

What is a computer virus?

A computer virus is a program or piece of code that is loaded onto your

computer without your knowledge and runs against your wishes. Viruses can
also replicate themselves. All computer viruses are man-made. A simple virus
that can make a copy of itself over and over again is relatively easy to produce.
Even such a simple virus is dangerous because it will quickly use all available
memory and bring the system to a halt. An even more dangerous type of virus is
one capable of transmitting itself across networks and bypassing security
systems.