Research Methods 1

2 Research
methods 1
STEPS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL
RESEARCH
Much of what psychologists know about behaviour
and mental processes comes from psychological
research that has been conducted using a scientific
method. Scientific method is a series of systematic
and orderly steps which researchers use to plan,
conduct and report research. To be described as
‘scientific’, the research method must involve the
collection of empirical evidence. Using a scientific
method helps ensure that data (information) are
collected and analysed in an appropriate way. It Figure 2.1 Psychological research uses the scientific
also helps ensure that the conclusions drawn from method to study behaviour such as ways of reducing the
the data are valid (that is, justified by the data) and number of accidents caused by red P-plate drivers.
reliable (that is, similar data are likely to be obtained
if the research study is repeated).
American psychologist Robert Kraut and his research
Step 1: identification of
colleagues (1998) used a scientific method to study the research problem
the effects of using the internet on psychological The first step in conducting psychological research using
wellbeing. Kraut was aware that internet technology the scientific method is to identify the problem or topic
has allowed people to keep in closer touch with distant of interest to be researched. For example, a researcher
family members and friends, find information quickly might be interested in ways of reducing the number of
and to develop friendships with others from all over accidents caused by red P-plate drivers. To do this, they
the world. He wanted to know whether use of the may conduct what is known as a literature search to look
internet was beneficial to people by improving their for published research reports that have already been
psychological wellbeing. conducted on this topic. For example, they may consider
To investigate this topic, Kraut’s research team research that has been conducted on defensive driving
studied 169 people from 93 households over a programs such as the Smith System. The Smith System
two-year period. They measured the time spent by involves five rules to train the eyes to identify what is
each person on the internet, using an electronic important when driving (see figure 2.3).
recording device. They also asked each participant 1. Aim your vision high (to steer accurately and
to rate their level of social activity and emotional anticipate problems)
wellbeing on a rating scale, both at the beginning of 2. Keep your eyes moving (avoid staring and stay alert)
the research, then again after one or two years. 3. Look at the total driving picture (don’t focus your
The results of this research indicated that, as internet eyes on one area of the road)
use increased, the participants reported a decrease in 4. Look for and leave yourself a ‘way out’
both the number of social activities in which they were 5. Look for a position on the road that ensures other
involved and in the amount of social support they felt. drivers can see you.
They also reported feeling more depressed and lonely. Conducting a literature search enables the
Why would spending time on the internet affect researcher to become more familiar with their topic
people’s emotional wellbeing? According to Kraut, of research interest. It also enables them to refine
one possible reason is that time spent on the internet their ideas and propose a relevant research question
replaces important day-to-day human contact; for that can be tested, such as ‘Does training red P-plate
example, ‘a computer can’t give you a hug or laugh at drivers with the Smith System help to reduce the
your jokes’. number of accidents they cause?’
Chapter 2 Research methods 1 43

Step 1:
identification of the research problem
Does use of the internet benefit people by improving 1. Aim your vision
their psychological wellbeing? high (to steer
accurately
and anticipate
problems).
Step 2:
construction of a hypothesis
Increase in internet use (as measured by a recording
device) decreases social activity and emotional
wellbeing (as measured by self-report rating scales).
Step 3:
designing the method
Decide who the research participants will be, the 2. Keep your eyes
number to be used and how they will be selected. moving (avoid
Develop a way of accurately measuring time spent on staring and stay
the internet and obtain or construct valid and reliable alert).
rating scales to measure each participant’s estimation
of their social activity and emotional wellbeing.
Step 4:
collecting the data
Data on internet use and each participant’s ratings 3. Look at the total
of their social activity and emotional wellbeing were
driving picture
collected from 169 people in 93 households in
Pittsburgh, USA, over a two-year period. (don’t focus
your eyes on
one area of the
road).
Step 5:
analysing the data
As internet use increased, there was a decrease in
the amount of social support felt by participants and
the number of social activities they were involved in.
Participants also reported feeling more depressed
and lonely.
Step 6: 4. Look for and

interpreting the data
leave yourself a
The results support the hypothesis. Time spent on the ‘way out’.
internet may replace important day-to-day human
contact, resulting in feelings of isolation, loneliness
and depression.
Step 7:
reporting the research findings 5. Look for a
Research published in American Psychologist position on
(September 1998), Vol. 53 (9), 53–9 the road that
ensures other
drivers can see
you.
Figure 2.2 Flow chart of steps in psychological research
using a scientific method
Weblink — video on steps in Figure 2.3 the Smith System involves five rules to identify
psychological research what is important when driving.
44 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

Step 2: construction of This hypothesis is a specific prediction based
on theory and previous research findings. It also
a hypothesis has all of the other characteristics described. It
The second step in psychological research is to construct is written as a clear and precise statement, in a
a hypothesis for the research. A research hypothesis is single sentence, and is stated in a way that can
a testable prediction of the relationship between two or be tested. Furthermore, it refers to the research
more events or characteristics; for example, a prediction procedure or specific method that will be used to
about the relationship between red P-plate driver collect data.
training with the Smith System (one event) and the
number of accidents when driving (another event).
The hypothesis is essentially an educated or
Step 3: designing the method
thoughtful guess about what the results of the research The third step in psychological research is to
will be. It is usually based on knowledge of other determine how the hypothesis is best tested, although
research findings or theories on the topic being studied. this is also considered when the hypothesis is being
This is why it is often referred to as an educated guess. constructed. There are a number of different research
The hypothesis is constructed before the research methods available from which researchers can
study is conducted and provides a focus for the choose. These include experiments, observational
research. A research hypothesis usually has the studies, case studies, surveys, interviews, rating
following characteristics: scales, longitudinal studies, cross-sectional studies
• it is prepared as a carefully worded written and correlational studies. The research method used
statement (rather than a question) will depend on the specific topic and hypothesis of
• it is expressed clearly and precisely (rather than research interest.
vaguely and generally) When designing the research method, the
• it is written as a single sentence researcher must decide which participants will be
• it is stated in a way that can be tested (it matches studied, how many participants there will be, how
and reflects the procedure used to conduct the they will be selected and how they will be allocated,
research study for which it has been prepared). or assigned, to different groups that may be used in
For example, a hypothesis for the research problem the study. participants are the people who take part
on driving could be ‘red P-plate drivers who receive in the research. The responses of the participants
defensive driving training will make fewer driving form the data (results) for the research.
errors (as measured by a practical driving test in a There are advantages and disadvantages of each
driving simulator) than red P-plate drivers who have type of research method and some methods are more
not received defensive driving training (as measured suited to particular research questions or hypotheses
by the same driving test)’. than others. In some studies it is appropriate to use a
combination of research methods.
In the driving study, the psychologist may
decide to conduct an experiment using a number
of male and female red P-plate drivers with a
similar amount of driving experience and from
a range of areas across Victoria as participants
in the study. Half the participants would receive
a defensive driving training session(s) using the
Smith System method and the other half would
not. Alternatively, the researchers may decide to
conduct a survey whereby they give a questionnaire
to a number of driving instructors who have taught
young people, with and without using the Smith
System, to obtain information based on their
experience as to which of the two methods resulted
in better driving skills. Another option would be to
conduct an experiment and interview the research
participants.
Figure 2.4 research hypothesis: red p-plate drivers who

Step 4: collecting the data
receive defensive driving training willl make fewer driving
The fourth step in psychological research is to
errors than red p-plate drivers who have not received collect the required data. Based on their plans,
defensive driving training. researchers organise the participants to be
Chapter 2 research methods 1 45

involved in the research and conduct their study. Raw data are rarely included in psychological
Psychologists use a variety of data collection research reports. Instead, the data are analysed and
techniques, including participant and non- summarised in an appropriate way. This usually
participant observation, questionnaires, one-to-one involves ‘breaking down’ a large set of numbers
or group interviews, standardised tests, physiological into smaller sets (for example, presenting raw
(‘bodily’) recordings and examination of archival data summarised into a table or graph) or even a
files (‘records’) to obtain their information. These single number or two (e.g., a mean (average) or a
are summarised in table 2.1. percentage). The researcher is then able to determine
The data collection technique(s) used depends whether the hypothesis is supported or rejected on
on the research question under investigation. In the basis of the results obtained.
the driving study, if an experiment was conducted,
the data collection technique would be direct
observation, whereas if a survey were used, Step 6: interpreting the data
the data collection technique would be through Once the data have been analysed, the data need to
a questionnaire and/or an interview with the be interpreted and explained. This includes drawing a
instructor. At this stage of the research, the data conclusion from the results obtained in the research
are referred to as raw data because they have not study. A conclusion is a judgement about what the
been processed; that is, coded or summarised in a results of a research study mean.
meaningful way. One type of conclusion that is drawn relates
directly to the hypothesis used in the research. The
Table 2.1 Data collection techniques commonly used in focus of this conclusion is on whether or not the
psychological research
results support the hypothesis (rather than ‘prove’ or
Technique Behaviour ‘disprove’ it). Statistical testing involving mathematical
procedures is used by the researcher to help them
Direct observation Watching and recording behaviour as
it happens; a checklist may be used to decide what the results collected from their research
record and count the number of times mean. They allow the researcher to know what
specific behaviours occur or recording conclusion(s) can legitimately be drawn from the
devices such as videos and cassette results and what generalisations can legitimately be
tapes may be used
made about the results obtained (research findings).
Questionnaire Using a set of written questions to A generalisation is another type of conclusion.
obtain information from participants A generalisation is a judgement about how widely
about thoughts, feelings, attitudes,
the findings of a research study can be applied. A
opinions, beliefs and aspects
of behaviour researcher usually studies a relatively small number
of participants who are selected from the bigger
Interview Usually a face-to-face meeting to
group of interest; for example, 10 male and 10 female
obtain information about a participant’s
thoughts, feelings or behaviour; may red P-plate drivers aged between 18–21 years, rather
sometimes be conducted over the than all red P-plate drivers.
telephone or via the internet Of particular interest to the researcher when
Psychological test Using a scientifically developed test
considering a generalisation is whether the findings
to assess characteristics such as obtained from a limited number of cases (that is,
personality, intelligence and other the red P-plate drivers in the study) can be extended
mental abilities to apply to the entire group of red P-plate drivers,
Recording Using an instrument to detect, monitor to green P-plate drivers or even all drivers. If the
physiological responses and record a specific physiological findings can in fact be generalised more widely,
(bodily) response of a participant; for then the research study is said to have external
example, a PET scanner or electrodes validity. External validity means that the conclusion(s)
for brain activity, ECG for heart rate
made from the research can be generalised to the
Examining archival files Examining files kept by an organisation population from which the sample in the study was
(archives) such as medical, educational drawn. External validity is discussed in more detail in
and census records
Unit 2 (see chapter 7, page 283).
With reference to the driving study, if, following
Step 5: analysing the data statistical testing, the results for the experiment
indicated that the red P-plate drivers who were
Once the data have been collected, the next step trained with the Smith System made significantly
in psychological research is to summarise, organise fewer errors than the drivers who did not receive
and represent the raw data in a logical way to help the training, then the researcher would interpret
determine whether the hypothesis is supported or not the results as providing support for the hypothesis.
supported. They would conclude that using the Smith System
46 Unit 1 Introduction to psychology

to teach defensive driving techniques to
drivers reduces the likelihood of red P-plate
drivers having an accident. On the basis of this
conclusion, the researcher may also tentatively
(cautiously) conclude that the finding may be
generalisable to all red P-plate drivers.
Step 7: reporting the

research findings
The final step of psychological research involves
reporting the research findings to others who may
be interested in the research. Typically, researchers
prepare a report that is presented to other
psychologists at a conference and/or submitted to
a professional journal for publication. A journal is
a publication that contains reports of research. The
reports prepared by psychologists for publication in a
journal follow a strict format (see pages 284–5).
The report describes, in detail, the background
information of the research, the way in which the
research study was conducted, the findings (results
and conclusions) of the study, how the findings can
be interpreted and applied, any relevant problems
encountered in conducting the study which may have
affected the findings, and a list of references used in
preparing for the study and writing the report.
Reporting the research and its findings is a very
important part of the research process. It is the way
other researchers find out about research which has
been conducted and the way scientific progress is
achieved. It also enables the general public to benefit
from the findings of research.
Reporting on research places the specific study and
its research procedures under the critical eye of other
psychologists, researchers and even the general public;
for example, to check the accuracy of the findings and Figure 2.5
two of the journals in
to consider alternative conclusions that may be valid. which psychologists publish their
Importantly, reporting research in an appropriate way research reports
enables replication by other researchers.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.1

Review questions 2 What does ‘design the method’ mean?
3 What are raw data in research?
1 (a) Define the meaning of the term hypothesis when
4 What does data analysis involve?
used in a research study.
(b) When is the research hypothesis constructed? 5 (a) Explain the meaning of the term conclusion in
(c) List six characteristics of a well-constructed relation to an empirical research study.
research hypothesis. (b) What is the first type of conclusion the researcher
(d) Explain two possible limitations of the following will seek to make?
question if it were to be used as a research 6 (a) Explain the meaning of the phrase ‘generalising
hypothesis: from the research findings’.
Does excessive use of a mobile phone by (b) What does external validity mean in relation to a
teenagers cause sleep loss? research study?
(e) Rewrite the question above as a testable 7 What are two potential benefits of publishing a
hypothesis. research report in a psychology journal?

or investigation to collect data. For example, an
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.2 experiment and a survey are different research
methods. In an experiment, the researcher
Constructing research hypotheses manipulates and controls a research participant’s
Consider the following list of research topics. experiences in some way to measure whether this
1 Does use of good study techniques bring about an causes a particular predetermined response from the
improvement in grades? participant. For example, a researcher may conduct
an experiment to find out whether learning a list
2 How does the amount of sleep before an exam
affect exam performance?
of previously unseen words by repeating the words
and their definitions aloud three times improves
3 Does the number of passengers in a car driven by performance on a test of those words, compared with
a red or green P-plate driver affect the way in which
learning the words and their definitions by writing
the P-plater drives?
them down three times.
4 Does exercise reduce stress? For some research topics, the most appropriate
Choose two topics and construct a research way of collecting data may be to ask participants
hypothesis for each one. Ensure your hypotheses about their thoughts, feelings or behaviour. This is
have all the characteristics referred to in the text.
when a survey may be used. For example, a survey
would be used to ask a large number of participants
Options and variations questions about their attitudes towards school and
the reasons for their attendance and absences.
The questions may be asked using a questionnaire
for which participants respond to a written set
of questions, or by interviewing participants
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.3 and recording their verbal answers in writing or
electronically.
Visual presentation — steps In some cases it may be appropriate to use a
in psychological research combination of research methods to investigate and
collect data. For example, a researcher conducting
Select one of the following research questions
an experiment on different learning techniques
and outline the steps that could be used to
conduct psychological research on the topic in a
used by students when studying for an exam may
scientific way. also conduct a survey to find out what motivates
Present your research proposal as a flow chart, such students to study.
as that in figure 2.2. You may create fictitious results to These are just some of the many research methods
assist your explanation. available to psychologists.
The choice of research methods made by the
research questions
researcher depends on which method is most
1 Are physically attractive people more popular? appropriate for the specific topic of research interest.
2 Does hairstyle affect success in a job interview? This is not unlike the choice made by a motor
3 Are males more likely to help a female or a male in mechanic when selecting tools to repair a car engine.
need of assistance? Their selection of tools will depend on the specific
4 Does level of stress affect performance on an exam? engine problem in need of repair. Each tool will have
a specific use and way of being used. Similarly, each
5 Does the presence of other people affect how well
research method has a particular logic underlying
someone performs a task for the first time?
its use and how it is used. However, despite their
6 How influential is a friendship group in the behaviour different approaches, the various research methods
of adolescents?
have many features in common. One common
7 How well do newborn infants see? feature is they all use scientific principles (‘rules’)
and procedures. Another feature is their use of
Options and variations a sample of participants who provide data for
the research.
The different research methods that may be used
by psychologists are often classified into different
RESEARCH METHODS categories based on whether or not they involve

experimentation and/or the type of data that are
Psychologists can choose from a range of different collected. Two categories of research methods are
research methods to scientifically collect data on experimental research and descriptive research.
a topic of research interest. A research method is A third category called correlational research is
a particular way of conducting a research study considered in Unit 2.

Independent and
dependent variables
In a research study, a variable is
something that can vary (change) in
amount or kind over time. Although
characteristics of a person such
as biological sex, blood type and
ethnic background do not change, in
psychological research they are still
considered to be variables.
If the research study involved
testing whether a particular anger
management technique reduced the
incidence of road rage in people who
had previously been convicted of road
rage, the two variables being tested
would be the anger management
Figure 2.6 A motor mechanic selects the best tools to solve technique and the incidence of road rage. However,
a mechanical problem, just as a researcher chooses the best the anger management technique and the incidence
research method(s) to solve a research problem. of road rage are two different types of variables called
independent variables and dependent variables.
Experimental research includes all the different
types of experimental research designs. Each type
of experimental design involves the manipulation
Independent variable
and control of research participants’ experiences. In an experiment, one variable is manipulated or
However, the specific designs differ in terms of their changed by the experimenter to observe whether
complexity and how they are actually conducted. it affects another variable and what those effects
Descriptive research includes all the research methods are. The variable that is manipulated or changed is
that focus on studying aspects of behaviour and called the independent variable (IV). It is called an
mental processes as they occur in a given time and independent variable because the experimenter can
place, rather than by manipulating and controlling independently vary it in some way.
participants’ experiences in one or more ways. In terms of cause and effect, the IV is said to be
the cause of any changes that may result in the other
variable of research interest. For example, in the
Experimental research road rage experiment, the IV would be the anger
management technique. The experimenter would have
One of the most scientifically demanding and
control over which participants would learn the anger
controlled research methods in psychology is the
management technique and which participants would
experiment. An experiment is used to test whether
not, in order to test the effect(s) of the technique on the
one variable (or ‘thing’), influences or causes a
incidence or extent of road rage-related behaviour; that
change in another variable (or ‘thing’); for example,
is, the dependent variable.
whether talking on a hand-held mobile phone
while driving (one variable) influences or causes a
change in driver reaction time (another variable). Dependent variable
Essentially, an experiment enables the researcher The variable that is used to observe and measure the
to investigate and find out the causes of things; for effects of the IV is called the dependent variable (DV).
example, if talking on a hand-held mobile phone The dependent variable is often the response(s) made
while driving actually causes drivers to react more by a participant(s) in an experiment and it usually
slowly (and therefore increases the likelihood of an has a numerical value. It is called the dependent
accident). variable because whether or not it changes and the
There are different ways of designing an way in which it changes ‘depends’ on the effects of
experiment and some experiments have a simpler or the independent variable.
more complex design than others. All experiments, In terms of a cause–effect relationship, the DV is the
however, have a number of common features. We effect(s) caused by manipulation of or exposure to the
consider the basic characteristics of the psychological IV. In the road rage example, the DV is the measured
experiment and why the experiment can be used to change in the amount of road rage behaviour displayed
investigate causes of behaviour and links between by participants as a result of using or not using the
behaviour and mental processes. anger management technique, the IV.

Does anger management technique X reduce the incidence of road rage
in people previously convicted of road rage?
Group 1 Group 2
IV Learn anger Do not learn anger
(what is manipulated) management management
technique X technique X
DV
(what is measured) Incidence of road rage
Figure 2.7 Distinguishing between the iV and DV in experimental research investigating a way
to reduce the incidence of road rage
eLesson — experimental research

eles-0242
BOX 2.1 Experimental settings LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.4

Experiments can be conducted under strictly controlled
laboratory conditions in a laboratory setting (called a
Identifying independent and
laboratory experiment ) or outside the laboratory in a dependent variables
field setting (called a field experiment ). In a field setting,
Identify the independent variable (IV) and dependent
the conditions of the experiment are usually less strictly
variables (DV) in each of the following examples.
controlled, but it has the advantage of being able to make
observations of participants’ behaviour in a real-world 1 Listening to a radio broadcast of a sports event
environment where their behaviour occurs more naturally. while studying for a test decreases performance
on the test.
2 Thinking positively when goal shooting improves
accuracy in a match.
3 Smoking cigarettes while driving a car increases
driver alertness.
4 People will behave differently in a crowd from the
way they behave when alone.
5 Reaction time to a visual stimulus is quicker than
reaction time to a sound stimulus.
6 Daydreaming occurs more often when a person
is engaged in a simple task than when they are
performing a complex task.
(a) a laboratory setting where behaviour is observed in a 7 Marijuana use impairs performance on a
controlled situation established by the researcher memory task.
8 Drinking red cordial increases hyperactivity
in children.
9 Too much stress causes stomach ulcers.
10 Brain wave activity changes during sleep.
Extraneous variables
In an experiment to test whether sleep deprivation
causes headaches, the IV is the amount of sleep obtained
and the DV is the frequency of headaches reported. The
results of this research are described in table 2.2.
(b) a field setting where behaviour is observed in the
The results seem to suggest that the frequency of
real-world situation of a singles bar, but where less
control of conditions is possible headaches is likely to increase if people experience
Figure 2.8
six or less hours of sleep. However, what would
happen if participants who had eight or more hours

Table 2.2 Frequency of headaches reported and amount
of sleep LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.5
Frequency of headaches reported
hours of sleep never Sometimes Often Review questions
≥8 40 18 2
1 (a) What is an extraneous variable?
7 38 20 6 (b) Why do researchers minimise or control the
≤6 15 35 7 potential effects of extraneous variables?
(c) When is it best to identify potential extraneous
of sleep also took sleeping pills which reduced the variables? Explain your answer.
likelihood of headaches occurring? Or participants 2 For each of the following research topics, identify
had different definitions of what a headache is? Or the (a) IV, (b) DV and (c) three potential extraneous
participants who had six or less hours of sleep were variables that could affect the results.
also experiencing considerable stress in their lives? (a) The effect of shyness on the ability to make new
friends at school
There are many variables other than the IV
(b) Whether meditation can improve performance on
that might influence the DV in an experiment. a VCE English exam
Experimenters try to predict what these might be (c) Whether males are more aggressive than
prior to conducting their experiment. Then, they females in the schoolgrounds
design the experiment to control, or minimise (d) Whether students who have breakfast
the influence of, as many of these unwanted or concentrate better in class
extraneous variables as possible. (e) Whether having a pet in an aged-care nursing
In an experiment, an extraneous variable is a home improves happiness for elderly people
variable other than the IV that can cause a change in who live there
the DV. When one or more extraneous variables are
present in an experiment, they can make it difficult
to conclude with confidence that changes which have Experimental and
occurred in the DV have resulted because of the IV
and not because of some other variable. control groups
In the sleep study described previously, the In a simple experiment, the participants are often
extraneous variables that may have resulted in divided into two groups. One group of participants,
headaches developing or not developing could called the experimental group, is exposed to the
include the amount of stress in the person’s life, experimental condition; that is, the IV is present. A
illness (for example, a virus), eye strain, or the use second group of participants, called the control group,
of particular medication. Thus, in the group who is exposed to the control condition; that is, the IV
had six or less hours of sleep, the greater likelihood is absent.
of experiencing a headache may not have been a For example, consider an experiment to investigate
result of insufficient sleep if one or more extraneous whether alcohol consumption affects driving
variables were present. In order to conclude that the precision. In this experiment, the IV which the
frequency of headaches will increase as a result of a experimenter will manipulate is the amount of
reduction in the amount of sleep obtained, extraneous alcohol consumed by research participants and the
variables must be controlled or eliminated. DV which will be measured is driving precision.
Often, potential extraneous variables can be The experimental group would be tested on their
identified prior to the research. At other times, they driving skills in a driving simulator after having
become apparent as the experiment progresses. In consumed alcoholic drinks (the experimental
some instances, the experimenter may be totally condition) and the control group would be tested on
unaware of their influence. their driving ability in the driving simulator after
Extraneous variables may include participant having consumed non-alcoholic drinks (the control
variables (that is, individual differences in personal condition).
characteristics among research participants such as The control group provides a standard of
age, sex, religion, cultural background, intelligence, comparison against which the experimenter can
motivation, mood and so on) and experimenter compare the performance of the experimental group
variables, such as personal characteristics of the in order to determine whether the independent
experimenter. The experimenter’s age, sex, cultural variable has affected the dependent variable. If the
background, expectations, intelligence, mood, driving performance of the experimental group is
social skills, previous contact with participants significantly worse than the driving performance of
and experience in conducting an experiment are the control group, the experimenter may conclude
all examples of experimenter variables that may that the IV (consumption of alcohol) affected the DV
unintentionally affect the results. Extraneous variables (driving precision). A flow chart summary of this
are considered in more detail in Unit 2, chapter 7. experiment is shown in figure 2.9.

Hypothesis: Alcohol consumption impairs the driving ability of
university students
Participants: 100 third-year university students who responded to

an advertisement for research participants. Equal numbers of
male and female participants. Ages range from 20–40 years.
Experimental group: 50 students (25 male, IV: alcohol Control group: 50 students (25 male, 25 female)
25 female) who consumed alcoholic drinks consumption who consumed non-alcoholic drinks
Use of driving simulator to test precision of driving skills
Results: Participants who consumed alcohol made many more DV: number of
driving errors than participants who did not consume alcohol. driving errors made
Conclusion: Alcohol consumption causes more driving errors,

resulting in impaired driving ability in third-year university students.
Generalisation: Alcohol consumption causes impaired driving

ability in all drivers.
Figure 2.9 A flow chart of the experiment testing the effect of alcohol consumption on driving skills
In some experiments, all participants are conditions are necessary so that if a change occurs
required to be in both the control condition and the in the experimental group and does not occur in the
experimental condition. For example, consider an control group, the researcher can be more confident
experiment to test the effectiveness of a new study in concluding that the IV probably caused the change.
technique called ‘Supastudy’ on exam performance.
In this experiment, the IV which the experimenter
will manipulate is the use of ‘Supastudy’ and the DV Advantages and limitations
which will be measured is performance on an exam.
In the control condition, all participants would learn of experimental research
material that they have not previously seen (‘novel’ A key feature of an experiment is the researcher’s
material) using the study technique they normally attempts to control the conditions in which a
use. The participants would then complete an exam behaviour of interest or other event occurs, whether
(for instance, a set of multiple-choice questions) on the experiment occurs in a laboratory setting or in a
the material. All participants would then be taught to real-life, field setting. As well as controlling the IV,
use ‘Supastudy’. Then, in the experimental condition, the researcher also attempts to minimise or eliminate
all participants would be given additional previously the influence of unwanted extraneous variables to
unseen material to learn using ‘Supastudy’, but concentrate entirely on the effect the IV has on the
material that is similar in type and difficulty to that DV. Elimination of all extraneous variables is not
of the control condition. The participants would always possible, but control is usually greater than in
complete an exam on the material, which is also other research methods, especially if the experiment
similar in type and difficulty to that of the control is conducted in a laboratory setting. Consequently,
condition (that is, a set of multiple-choice questions). the experiment has several advantages when
The results of the two exams would then compared to other research methods.
be compared. If the exam performance of the One advantage of the experiment is that the IV can
participants when in the experimental condition is be manipulated in order to observe the effect on the DV,
significantly better than their exam performance therefore making it possible to test if there is a cause and
when in the control condition, the experimenter may effect relationship between the IV and DV. Furthermore,
conclude that the IV (use of the study technique) because controlled conditions are known conditions, the
affected the DV (exam performance of participants). experimenter can set up the experiment a second time
The experimental group and the control group need and repeat it to test (or ‘check’) the results.
to be as similar as possible in the spread of personal Alternatively, the experimenter can report the
characteristics of participants that can cause a change conditions of an experiment in such a precise way
in the DV. It is also important that both groups are that others can replicate the experiment and test the
treated the same, except for the time when the results. Replication is very important because when
experimental group is exposed to the IV. Both of these a study is repeated and similar results are obtained,

there can be greater confidence in the reliability and who didn’t attend a childcare centre. It would
validity of the results obtained. be impractical to test every preschool child who
Despite its precision, there are several limitations attended a childcare centre and every preschool
of the experiment. Although a field experiment occurs child who did not. Researchers therefore select a
in a real-life setting and therefore has a relationship sample with whom they conduct their research. If
to the real world, it is often difficult to strictly control the sample is selected in a scientific way, the results
all variables because of the unpredictability of real- obtained for the sample can then be generalised
life settings. The ability to more strictly control to the larger group of research interest, called the
variables is an advantage of the laboratory setting; population.
however, it is often artificial and too dissimilar to In experimental and any other scientific research,
real life. For example, bringing someone into the the population does not necessarily refer to all people
unfamiliar environment of a psychology laboratory (or animals) in the world, in a country, or even in
can change their behaviour to the point where it is a particular city or area. The term population refers
not appropriate to generalise or apply the observed to the entire group of research interest from which
behaviour to situations outside the laboratory. a sample is drawn. A population of interest may be
Furthermore, some things cannot be measured all preschool children, all blonde-haired females, all
in a laboratory. The researcher cannot break up VCE Psychology students, all female VCE Psychology
families, for example, to measure the effects of family students, all Catholic school educated boys, or all
separation. Nor would the laboratory be the best setting male chimpanzees born in captivity.
for testing variables such as grief, hate or love. It may A population in a study doesn’t always refer to
be difficult for participants to express these emotions living things. A population being studied could also
naturally or very realistically in a laboratory setting. be measurable things such as all community health
centres in the Goulburn Valley region, all admissions
at the Royal Melbourne Hospital, all VCE exam
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.6 results in English in 2013, all days of school missed
by year 9 students, all brands of runners, all calls to
Review questions the Kids Helpline telephone number, or any other
1 What is an experiment? Explain with reference
specific source of data.
to three key characteristics that distinguish an
experiment from other research methods. LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.7
2 Explain the main difference between the
independent variable and the dependent variable in
an experiment.
Review questions
3 (a) Distinguish between an experimental group and 1 (a) Define the terms sample and population as they
a control group. are used in research.
(b) Why is it important for the experimental (b) Draw a diagram to show the relationship
and control groups to be similar in personal between a sample and a population.
characteristics that may affect DV? 2 For the following research samples, identify two
(c) What is the purpose of using a control group in different populations from which each sample may
an experiment? have been drawn.
(d) Suggest a reason to explain why the experimental (a) 20 year 10 girls and 20 year 10 boys
group is sometimes called the ‘treatment group’. (b) 40 teachers who have been teaching for more
4 Briefly describe two advantages and two limitations than 10 years
of experimental research. (c) 100 employees on leave from work because of
stress-related reasons
(d) 30 adults diagnosed as having a type of
Sampling procedures schizophrenia

3 For the following research topics, identify a sample
Psychologists conduct experiments with people that might be used to conduct the research and a
and, in some cases, animals. The participants being population from which the sample could be drawn.
studied in an experiment, or in any type of research, (a) Are people who wear uniforms at school or work
are called the sample. A sample is a subsection, more likely to be obedient to an authority figure?
or smaller group, of research participants selected (b) Are children who regularly play violent computer
games more likely to behave aggressively?
from a larger group (called a population) of research
(c) How can people with a fear of flying be assisted
interest. For example, suppose that a researcher is to overcome their fear?
interested in conducting an experiment to find out (d) Are children born to mothers aged over 40 years
whether children who attended a childcare centre at greater risk of developing a mental illness?
during their preschool years are better at basic (e) Is it easier for men or women to give up smoking?
English and maths skills than preschool children

Selecting a sample
A sample has to be selected in a scientific
way so that the results obtained for
the sample can be legitimately applied
or generalised to the population from
which it was selected. The process of
selecting participants for a sample is
called sampling.
A key goal of sampling is to ensure
that the sample closely represents its
population. It must reflect its population
in all the personal characteristics of
participants that are important in the
research study. Personal characteristics
that are considered to be important are Population
those that can influence the results of the
Sample
study. For example, in a study on how
friendships form among adolescents,
personal characteristics of participants
such as their sex, age, type of school
attended, religion, family background
and cultural background could be
assumed to be important.
When a researcher selects a sample
that represents its population, the
sample is called a representative
sample. A representative sample
is a sample that is approximately the same as Figure 2.10 this sample is a subset of the population of
the population from which it is drawn in every people working for a particular company.
important participant characteristic.
There are several different ways of obtaining a
representative sample. Two ways are called random
sampling and stratified sampling.
Media response — sampling
for problem gambling
Read the newspaper advertisement shown on the left
and answer the following questions.
1 What is the specific topic of research interest?
2 Identify the population from which the sample will
be selected.
3 Identify an important personal characteristic of the
sample required by the researcher.
4 Is it possible that people who respond to the
advertisement and are selected to be in the sample
may behave or respond differently in the study, as
compared with participants randomly selected from
a relevant group targeted for the research study?
Explain your answer.
5 (a) What is a representative sample?
(b) How representative is the sample obtained using
the advertisement likely to be?
(c) Will the researcher be able to generalise
her results from the study described in the
advertisement? Explain your answer.

Random sampling When a large number of participants is required,
The dictionary definition of the term ‘random’ is researchers often use a computer-generated list of
something which is haphazard, unpredictable or random numbers. Each participant in the sampling
‘hit-or-miss’. However, when the term random is used frame is given a number from 1 through to however
by researchers in relation to a sample, it has the many are in the population of interest. If the first
opposite meaning. Random actually means using a number in the computer-generated list of random
planned, systematic procedure to obtain a sample. numbers is 22, then the twenty-second person in
random sampling is a sampling procedure that
the sampling frame is included in the sample; if the
ensures that every member of the population of second number in the computer-generated list is 93,
research interest has a genuinely equal chance of then the ninety-third person in the sampling frame
being selected as a participant for the research study. is selected, and so on until the required number of
This can be achieved in a number of different ways. participants have been selected.
One way is to obtain a complete list of all the people
in the population. This list is commonly called a Stratified sampling
sampling frame. For example, an electoral roll may be In some research studies it is important to ensure
used as a sampling frame, or the telephone numbers that particular groups in a population of interest
of all the people in a particular location may be used. are represented in their known proportions in that
If you were conducting a research study in your population. For example, suppose that a researcher
school, class rolls could be used, but only those with wanted to study the attitudes of adult Australians
the names of students in the population of interest. to arsonists who deliberately light bushfires. They
After the sampling frame is obtained, the could reasonably expect that attitudes may differ
researcher could obtain a random sample using depending on whether someone lives in the city or
a simple lottery procedure to select the required in a rural community. Consequently, the researcher
number of names. The lottery procedure could would want to ensure that each of these groups
involve ‘drawing names out of a box’. For example, if was represented in the sample in about the same
a sheet of paper had all the names of the people in proportions that they were known to exist in the
the population on it, the sheet would be cut up into adult population. This can be achieved by using the
slips of paper equal in size, with one name on each sampling procedure called stratified sampling.
slip of paper. The names would then be thoroughly Stratified sampling involves dividing the population
mixed in the box to help ensure their distribution to be sampled into different subgroups, or strata, then
throughout the box. Then, names of sample members selecting a separate sample from each subgroup (called
(or research participants) could be drawn out stratum) in the same proportions as they occur in the
‘blindly’, one at a time. As a result of this procedure, population of interest. Socio-cultural factors such as
the likelihood that the sample is representative of the residential area, age, sex, income level, educational
population is increased, and so is the ability of the qualifications and ethnic or cultural background are
researcher to generalise the results to the population. examples of personal characteristics that may be used
as the basis of dividing a population into strata.
The stratified sampling procedure is commonly
used to study behaviour and mental processes that
tend to vary greatly among different subgroups of a
population.
Random-stratified sampling
When random sampling is used to select a sample from
each stratum, this is called random-stratified sampling.
The resulting sample is called a random-stratified
sample. In order to obtain a random-stratified sample,
the researcher must first obtain accurate lists of all the
people within each stratum. The researcher will then
draw a random sample of proportionate size from each
of the strata.
For example, suppose you were going to undertake
a research study on attitudes of students in your
school towards teachers’ use of rewards and
Figure 2.11 the lottery procedure of drawing names
punishments. You expect that attitudes may differ
of research participants from a box is an appropriate
random sampling procedure because each member of the among students in different year levels so you want
population being sampled has a genuinely equal chance of to ensure each year level (stratum) is proportionally
being selected. represented in your sample of 20 students.

You could first obtain separate lists of the students Random allocation
in each year level and then randomly sample from The method of selecting the sample is important
each list. If, for example, about 10% of all students in ensuring it is unbiased and representative of the
in your school are enrolled in year 12 and about 15% population being studied. Equally important is the
in year 11, then your sample would consist of about way in which research participants are allocated or
10% year 12 students and about 15% year 11 students. assigned to either the experimental or control group
This would ensure students from each year level are in an experiment.
represented in about the same proportions in the In an ideal research world, everything about the
sample as they are in the population (the school). experimental and control groups would be identical
Using the random-stratified sampling procedure except for the IV. In reality, however, it is to be
would ensure that the sample is representative of expected that the participants in an experiment will
the population and therefore not biased in a way have differences in personal characteristics, abilities
you consider to be important. Figure 2.12 shows an and backgrounds that may affect the results in an
example of a stratified sample that could be obtained experiment. For example, some participants will
for the attitudes study. be more or less easygoing, anxious or motivated
than others. They will also differ in a wide range
of mental abilities such as intelligence, learning,
memory, reading comprehension and problem-
solving skills, as well as physical abilities such as
All students
in a school Population strength, athleticism, eye–hand coordination and
100% finger dexterity. Furthermore, they will differ in such
factors as sex, age, ethnicity, cultural experiences
and religious beliefs. Consequently, it is important
to ensure that personal characteristics or abilities
of participants that might affect the results of the
experiment are evenly spread in the experimental
Y12 and control groups.
Y7 10% One way of minimising differences in the
20% Y11 composition or make-up of the experimental and
15% Strata
(% in each
control groups is to randomly allocate participants
Y8 to the groups. In random allocation, also called
20% Y10 year level)
15% random assignment, participants selected for
Y9
20% the experiment are just as likely to be in the
experimental group as the control group. This
means that every person who will be a participant
in the experiment has an equal chance of being
selected in any of the groups used. This can be
4 2 achieved by using some kind of lottery method
3 in which chance alone will determine the group
Stratified sample to which each participant will be allocated. For
4 (number of participants example, drawing names out of a box or flipping
3 from each year level)
a coin are both appropriate ways of randomly
4 allocating participants to groups.
With a sufficiently large number of participants,
it is reasonable to assume that each group will end
Figure 2.12 an example of stratified sampling for an
attitude study
up with the same kind of spread of participant
characteristics, abilities and backgrounds that
may affect the results. For example, consider an
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.9 experiment on alcohol consumption and driving
ability. If the experimental group has a larger
proportion of ‘bad’ drivers than the control group
Visual presentation — and the experimental group makes significantly
comparing random sampling more driving errors in the driving simulator, it
and stratified sampling will be difficult for the researcher to isolate the
Draw two simple flow charts or diagrams that effect of alcohol (the IV) on driving ability (the
show the difference between random sampling and DV). The problem is that the participants in the
stratified sampling. experimental group may make more driving errors
than the control group even when not under the

influence of alcohol. Through random allocation of
participants to the experimental and control groups, LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.10
each group would be expected to end up with
relatively even numbers of participants who are Review questions
‘good’ and ‘bad’ drivers. 1 Define the meaning of the term sampling when used
The purpose of random allocation of participants in a research study.
is to obtain groups that are as alike as possible 2 Name and describe a procedure for obtaining a
in terms of participant characteristics before representative sample for a within-class research
introducing the IV. With random allocation of investigation.
participants to the experimental and control 3 Suggest another way of obtaining a representative
groups, researchers can more confidently conclude sample.
that if two groups responded differently in the 4 (a) What is a stratified sample?
experiment in terms of the number of driving (b) Give four examples of participant characteristics
errors, then it most likely had something to that may lead a researcher investigating parental
do with the effect of the IV. Consequently, attitudes toward using a childcare centre to
random allocation is an important means of consider using a stratified sampling procedure.
experimental control. 5 (a) What is random allocation? Why is it used in an
Random allocation is different from random experiment?
sampling. Random allocation is used to place (b) Explain the difference between random sampling
participants in groups whereas random sampling and random allocation.
is one of the methods which can be used to eLesson — random and
nparticipants for an experiment. Random sampling, stratified sampling
however, is based on the same principle as eles-0440
random allocation and helps ensure that every
member of the population of research interest
has an equal chance of being selected as a
participant. If everyone does not have an equal
chance of being selected, the sample is said to be a Practical activity — testing
biased sample. random allocation
This practical activity enables you to test whether
random allocation actually produces groups that are
Population alike in participant characteristics.
You will need to determine easily observed and
measurable characteristics of class members; for
example, sex, hair colour, eye colour and left-handed
Random sampling versus right-handed. Each class member should
describe themself in relation to each characteristic,
recording their answers on a card or sheet of paper.
Sample The descriptions are then collected and distributed
(participants) into two groups using a random allocation procedure.
The means of the different characteristics for each
group should then be calculated and a profile produced
Random allocation for each group in terms of the characteristics, so that
the ‘equivalence’ of the groups can be compared.
If your class is small in number, complete another
Experimental group Control group version of the activity using coloured lollies, such as
(IV present) (IV not present) Smarties. Start with a sample of equal numbers of
each colour, place all the Smarties in a bowl, then,
while blindfolded, draw Smarties out of the bowl one at
a time, distributing them into two different groups.
report
Measure effect Measure effect Prepare a brief report of this activity to include in your
on DV on DV folio of practical activities. Your report should contain
answers to the following questions.
1 How close were the means for each characteristic
(or colour)?
2 How ‘equivalent’ were the groups?
Is there a difference?
3 Would equivalence increase if the size of the group
Figure 2.13 a simple experimental design using random increased? Explain your answer.
sampling and random allocation

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH also learnt about behaviour in small friendship
groups by conducting case studies in which they
Sometimes the aim of psychological research is observe and record social interactions within the
to describe the thoughts, feelings or behaviour of same group of people in different situations over
an individual or group without manipulating or a period of time. An assumption is that patterns of
investigating relationships between specific variables. behaviour observed within the group may apply to
This type of research is called descriptive research. other friendship groups made up of people of similar
Descriptive research refers to the use of a research ages and backgrounds. Such case studies can also
method that focuses on studying and describing one suggest hypotheses that could be tested using other
or more aspects of thoughts, feelings or behaviour research methods.
as they occur at a given time and place. The time Sigmund Freud often used the case study method.
may be a specific moment, a day, a month, a year Freud studied his ‘patients’ in great depth. Some
or many years. The place may be a laboratory, clinic were treated for many years during which Freud
or a real life everyday setting. This type of research met with them several times a week. The detailed
provides a ‘snapshot’ of how people may be thinking, written records Freud kept on his patients were used
feeling, behaving at some particular time in a certain to develop his psychoanalytic theories of personality
situation, without necessarily explaining why they and everyday behaviour. Similarly, Swiss psychologist
may be thinking, feeling or behaving as they are. Jean Piaget developed a comprehensive theory of
A descriptive research study does not necessarily children’s thinking which was mainly based on case
use a large number of participants; for example, a studies. His case studies often involved observing,
researcher might be interested in describing the questioning and testing his own children. These case
behaviour of one particular individual. Alternatively, studies became a rich source of information from
the researcher may be interested in describing the which hypotheses were developed, then tested using
behaviour of a small group, large group or a crowd. other research methods. Many other researchers have
In some cases the researcher may study an individual also constructed hypotheses from Piaget’s descriptive
and one or more groups to make comparisons. reports. The hypotheses were subsequently tested
Unlike experimental research, descriptive research using controlled experiments to find out if Piaget’s
does not explain cause–effect. However, as with conclusions were accurate and if they could be
experimental research, descriptive research may applied more widely to other children with different
be used to study animal behaviour. For example, a backgrounds.
researcher may observe, record then describe specific Clinical psychologists and other mental health
ways in which a particular animal species behaves in professionals routinely use case studies to develop
its natural environment without interfering with the a detailed profile of a client. The case study may
environment in any way. involve a combination of data collection methods.
Descriptive research methods include case For example, the client may be interviewed at
studies, observational studies, self-reports, surveys, length. Information may also be collected through
questionnaires, interviews, rating scales, longitudinal interviews of family members, friends, and teachers
studies, cross-sectional studies, twin studies and adoption or co-workers. The client’s medical records and
studies. Each of these methods can be used on its own school reports may also be considered. Other sources
or in combination with one another. For example, a of information can include extensive psychological
case study may involve interviews and observations testing and observations of the person’s behaviour.
and a survey may involve a questionnaire made up When used in a clinical setting for therapeutic (or
of questions and rating scales. In this section, we ‘treatment’) purposes, a case study is often referred to
examine case studies and observational studies. as a case history or a clinical observation.
Case studies are often used when large numbers of
participants are not available for study; for example,
Case studies to study individuals with a rare or unusual disorder
Sometimes a researcher will collect detailed or ability. Much of what was first known about the
information on only a small number of people, role of the brain in behaviour and mental processes
perhaps an individual or a small group of two or has come from case studies.
three. When this is done, the research method used is
likely to be a case study. Case study on face agnosia
A case study is an intensive, in-depth investigation One early case study conducted by a neuropsychologist
of some behaviour or event of interest in an involved a rare disorder called face agnosia (Bodamer,
individual, small group or situation. For example, 1947). Face agnosia is the inability to recognise
many of the early language researchers started out by faces. People with this disorder have difficulty in
keeping detailed diaries on the language development recognising the faces of family and friends or famous
of only a few children. Social psychologists have personalities.

The case study involved a young female who When neuroimaging devices such as PET and
was also unable to recognise her own face. She was f MRI scans became available, neuropsychologists
referred to as S.T. in the case study report to protect were able to conduct experiments with individuals
her identity. Whenever S.T. looked in the mirror, she suffering from face agnosia. Such experiments over
saw a reflection of a stranger. However, S.T. knew the past 30 years confirmed the conclusions of early
that she was the strange looking person because case studies. They have also enabled researchers
she was the only person in front of the mirror. In to pinpoint brain areas and structures that interact
one series of tests, S.T. was asked to speak in front in facial recognition, object recognition, memory
of the mirror and make gestures such as a nod or and language.
a shrug. S.T. often recognised her own voice and
occasionally recognised gestures, but her face was Advantages and limitations of
always completely new to her. S.T. also had difficulty case studies
recognising animal faces. For example, she described Case studies provide a useful way of obtaining
a dog’s face as ‘a human face with funny hair’. detailed and valuable descriptive information on
Although unable to recognise faces, S.T. knew what behaviour and mental processes. There is usually no
a face was and could recognise and name everyday manipulation or control of variables. Consequently,
objects such as furnishings, articles of clothing, trees, case studies can provide a ‘snapshot’ of the actual
cars and so on without difficulty. This suggested that experience of one or more individuals at a particular
the area of the brain involved in facial recognition time in a particular situation. Case studies can also
was different from that involved in recognising provide insights into how others may think, feel
objects. Furthermore, the different brain areas or behave under similar circumstances. Another
probably interacted with language and memory in advantage of case studies is that they can be a
different ways. valuable source of hypotheses for further research.
However, case studies cannot be
used to test hypotheses unless
combined with the results of other
case studies of similar participants
or another research method that is
suitable for testing hypotheses.
A major limitation of case
studies is their sample size. They
are commonly based on the
experiences of only one individual
or a very limited number of
individuals. This means that they
can usually provide only weak
support for drawing scientific
conclusions. Furthermore,
generalising or applying the
results to others in the population
cannot be done with any certainty.
Generalising is a bigger problem
when the case study involves
someone with a rare or unusual
disorder or ability.
Case studies also have the
limitation of being susceptible
to biased information from the
participant or the researcher. This
Figure 2.14 Case studies are commonly used when large
can influence the accuracy of the information that
numbers of participants are not available. For example,
eccentric behaviour has been studied using the case is obtained and conclusions that may be drawn.
study method. Eccentric behaviour refers to a pattern of For example, case studies usually rely on the
human behaviour that is viewed as very odd or unusual individuals under investigation to provide a great
within the particular society or culture in which it occurs. deal of the required information. Some participants
Two American psychologists completed 1000 case
may not remember clearly what they actually
studies on eccentrics over a 10-year period and identified
characteristics common to them. They concluded that experienced, or they may intentionally change or
despite the deviant behaviour, most eccentrics are happy, omit information that they do not wish to reveal for
well-adjusted people who are ‘strange but sane’. personal reasons.

Similarly, case studies are usually conducted by responses. In all research studies, observation occurs
one researcher. It is possible that the researcher in a systematic way and is undertaken according
sees or hears what they expect or hope to see or to predetermined procedures. In contrast to the
hear. Furthermore, the researcher is also responsible term observation, the term observational study is
for deciding what to include in their descriptions used to refer to the specific approach to or way of
and what to leave out. In writing up the case, the collecting data.
researcher may select information that supports An observational study involves collection of data
key points or conclusions they wish to make, and by carefully watching and recording behaviour as
omit other points that may be just as relevant and it occurs. Psychologists use observational studies to
could have been included by another researcher collect data in research when the behaviour under
interpreting the same information. investigation is clearly visible and can be easily
recorded. For example, when investigating roles and
hierarchies (‘pecking orders’) in groups, a researcher
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.12 might ask the members of a friendship group to
discuss a controversial issue, then observe and record
Review questions who starts the discussion, who changes the topic,
1 What is descriptive research? who speaks, how often and for how long, and so on.
This study could occur in a controlled laboratory
2 In what way does descriptive research differ from
setting or in a field setting, such as a place where
experimental research?
the group normally meets and interacts (for example,
3 (a) What is a case study? the school canteen or an area of the school grounds).
(b) Give three examples of research findings or One type of observational study is called naturalistic
theories that have been derived from case
observation.
studies in psychology.
4 Describe three advantages and three limitations of
case studies when used for research purposes.
Observational studies
In our everyday lives we observe the behaviour
of other people and draw conclusions about
them from their actions. For example, if we notice
that someone is always quiet in class, prefers
to sit by themself and blushes when asked a
question, we might conclude that the person is shy,
lacking in confidence or withdrawn. Psychologists,
however, use observation in a more precise
and planned way. For example, they precisely
describe the behaviour to be observed, and do not
jump to conclusions about attitudes, personality
characteristics, motives or other factors that may
underlie the observed behaviour. Furthermore,
psychologists distinguish between observation and
an observational study.
In psychology, all research studies involve
observation. For example, in an experiment
the researcher observes the responses of their
participants, interviewers observe the spoken
responses of their participants, researchers
conducting surveys observe the written or verbal
responses of their participants, and in an analysis of
medical or school records the researcher observes
the written information with which they are working Naturalistic observation
(Banyard & Grayson, 2001). In naturalistic observation, a naturally occurring
Consequently, the term observation refers to any behaviour of interest is viewed by a researcher in
means by which a phenomenon (an observable an inconspicuous manner so that the researcher’s
event) is studied, including the data that represent a presence has no influence on the behaviour
phenomenon, such as scores and spoken or written being observed. For example, in a study on the

development of social behaviour, a researcher might regarded by the hospital staff as being a symptom of
observe children at play in a playgroup situation their mental illness (Rosenhan, 1973).
from behind a one-way mirror so the children In another obervational study, researcher Dian
are not aware that they are being observed. From Fossey used both non-participant and participant
the observations of each child’s interactions, the observation. Fossey, whose work is featured in the
researcher might make assumptions or inferences movie Gorillas in the Mist, lived among gorillas in
about children’s social behaviour. For example, the their remote African highlands habitat. After first
researcher may observe that younger children tend using non-participant observation to learn about
to play alongside other children but not actually key aspects of gorilla behaviour, Fossey changed her
interact with them, whereas older children tend to method to use participant observation and started
interact more in their play with other children. On to behave like a gorilla. The more she learnt about
the basis of these observations, the researcher may the behaviour of gorillas, the more she was able
assume that there are different types of play in which to act like them. She imitated their feeding and
children may engage and that these types of play are grooming behaviours and even attempted to copy
age-related or age-dependent. their vocalisations. By waiting for the gorillas to
approach her, by avoiding actions that might threaten
them, and by imitating their actions, Fossey gradually
Participant and non-participant became accepted by them and was able to collect
observation valuable data about their behaviour.
Sometimes, psychologists engage in participant While observational studies usually focus on
observation. They actually participate in the activity the process of behaviour, some researchers focus
being observed and may deliberately try to be on the products of behaviour. For example, in an
mistaken by the participants as being part of the experiment on learning, a researcher might observe
group or situation being observed. In one study that how many times a participant rehearsed a list of
used participant observation, the researchers had words (process) and then how many words the
themselves admitted to several different psychiatric participant remembered on a final test (product). Or
hospitals by imitating the symptoms of a severe the researcher might observe products of behaviour
mental illness. After they had been admitted, from the past, for example, personal documents,
they kept records of their observations while in such as autobiographies, letters, diaries, drawings
the hospital. Their record-keeping behaviour was and speeches.
Coder name Olive
Coding categories
Episode Proximity Contact Resistance Avoidance
Mother and baby play alone 1 1 1 1
Mother puts baby down 4 1 1 1
Stranger enters room 1 2 3 1
Mother leaves room, stranger plays with baby 1 3 1 1
Mother re-enters, greets and may comfort baby, then leaves again 4 2 1 2
Stranger tries to play with baby 1 3 1 1
Mother re-enters and picks up baby 6 6 1 2
The coding categories are:

Proximity The baby moves toward, grasps or climbs on the adult.
Maintaining contact The baby resists being put down by the adult by crying or trying to climb back up.
Resistance The baby pushes, hits or squirms to be put down from the adult’s arms.
Avoidance The baby turns away or moves away from the adult.
Figure 2.15 This checklist was used to observe and record the behaviour of 12-month-old infants in an observational study of
attachment behaviour (as indicated by responses to strangers). The infants were observed playing in a room with two adults —
the infant’s mother and a stranger. The infants’ behaviour in different situations (‘episodes’) was rated (‘coded’) on a 7-point
scale according to fear categories. A rating of 1 meant ‘The infant makes no effort to engage in the behaviour’ and a rating of
7 meant ‘The infant makes an extreme effort to engage in the behaviour’ (Ainsworth et al., 1978).

Figure 2.16 a one-way mirror allows a researcher to observe children in a playgroup situation, without the children being
aware that they are being observed.
Observations have become more accurate as new observation. When observations of behaviour are
technology permits more precise measurement. made in a field setting; that is, the usual or real-
For example, digital video cameras can be used to world surroundings in which the behaviour occurs,
record then analyse rapidly changing behaviour. psychologists will often conceal their presence
Even a single ‘frame’ within a long, action sequence by watching from the ‘sidelines’. For example, a
can be analysed. This technology can be used, for researcher might sit on a nearby bench pretending
example, in studies of the way subtle changes in to be absorbed in a book in order to observe
facial expressions of mothers and their babies become people’s reactions to a group of ‘street kids’. In other
synchronised and similar over time. situations, psychologists might use a hidden video
When researchers try to conceal their presence camera to record events.
while making observations, it is called non-participant
Figure 2.17

Advantages and limitations of be unethical to severely deprive children in
observational studies their early life in order to observe the effect
of deprivation on behaviour in the future
When studying behaviour in a laboratory setting, a
(Zimbardo, 1992).
researcher is unable to observe the long-term effects
Naturalistic observation in a field setting
that an organism’s natural environment has in
does not require the cooperation of participants
shaping complex behaviour patterns. For example,
being observed. Furthermore, the participants
Jane Goodall spent over 25 years studying patterns
usually do not know that they are being
of behaviour among chimpanzees in Africa. She
observed in any special way. This means that
believed that if she ended her research after 10 years,
the observed behaviour is likely to be more
as originally scheduled, she would not have drawn
true to life.
correct conclusions.
There is, however, a related disadvantage of this.
We would have been left with the impression Since the observer doesn’t directly influence the
that chimpanzees were far more peaceable behaviour being observed, it sometimes requires a
than humans. Because we were able lot of patience to wait for the behaviour of interest
to continue beyond the first decade, we to occur. In such circumstances, a psychologist
could document the division of a social might prefer to observe in a laboratory setting.
group and observe the violent aggression However, some behaviours cannot be realistically
that broke out between newly separated reproduced in a laboratory. You can’t, for example,
factions. We discovered that in certain expect to obtain valid information about how people
circumstances the chimpanzees may kill and usually behave when they are in love by bringing
even cannibalise individuals of their own kind a pair of participants into a laboratory situation
(Goodall, 1986). and asking them to ‘be in love’ so that observations
can be made.
Thus, naturalistic observation often enables Another problem with naturalistic observation
researchers to gain more accurate information about in a field setting is that it can be difficult to
the typical behaviours of organisms than do other determine the causes of observed behaviour,
methods of gathering data. because there are many factors which may
influence the observed behaviour in a natural
environment. For example, a researcher could not
determine why chimpanzees become aggressive
towards one another when their social group
breaks into factions, or subgroups. The aggressive
behaviour may be influenced by factors which the
researcher has no control over such as habitat,
food supply, climate, availability of partners, or a
combination of these.
A major problem relevant to any observation
procedure is observer bias. It is possible, for
example, that researchers sometimes unconsciously
distort what they see so that it resembles what
they hope to see. For example, after observing an
animal which has been deprived of food for a long
time, the observer may assume that the animal
was looking for food when the behaviour actually
observed was simply increased activity. Researchers
must be trained to observe and record accurately
in order to minimise the influence of their
personal biases.
Figure 2.18 researcher Jane Goodall used naturalistic
observation in her studies of chimpanzees. in time, she Finally, in making detailed notes as part of the
shifted from using participant observation to non-participant observation process, psychologists may neglect to
observation. record certain behaviours which they either judge
to be irrelevant or do not actually see. To overcome
Some kinds of human behaviour can only be this limitation, when using observation, researchers
studied as they naturally occur using observation may use a team of trained observers who collate
in a field setting because it would be unethical their notes. This often results in a more complete
(inappropriate) or impractical to study them and accurate set of data than one observer could
in a laboratory situation. For example, it would obtain alone.

Review questions 4 (a) Describe two advantages and two limitations of the
different types of observational studies when used
1 How is observation defined in psychology? Explain for research purposes.
with reference to examples. (b) What is observer bias? Describe two ways in which
2 What is an observational study? it may be controlled.
3 What is the main difference between participant and

non-participant observation? Give an example of
each method.

Evaluation of research — media report
part a
Use the Gender bias in bullying weblink in your eBookPLUS to access the full newspaper article on bullying, then
answer the following questions.
Gender bias in bullying

By Emily Power
stigations have found.
in the world of cyber-bullying, inve essive and girls were
Girls and boys have different tactics both sexes instigated online bullying, but boys were more aggr
a primary scho ol class found
Observation of
subtle and indirect.
1 Identify the type of research method used. If not part B

stated, suggest what the research method is Locate a newspaper, magazine or internet article that
likely to be. reports a psychological experiment, case study or
2 Briefly describe what the study is about. observational study. Make a copy of the article and then
answer the questions in part A about the article.
3 Describe the sample and sample selection procedure
(if stated).
4 What are the more important findings of the study?
Weblink — gender bias in bullying
5 What is a potential limitation of the research?
QUALITATIVE AND Qualitative data

QUANTITATIVE DATA Qualitative data are information about the ‘qualities’
or characteristics of what is being studied. They
All psychological research involves collection of may be descriptions, words, meanings, pictures,
information. In research, the information which is texts and so on. These data can describe any aspect
collected is called data. The data may be considered of a person’s mental experiences or behaviour;
as ‘evidence’ that will form the results of the study more specifically, what something is like, or how
and be the basis of the conclusions that will be made. something is experienced. They may be collected as
Data can take different forms. The type of data written or verbal statements made by participants, or
collected is determined by the specific kind of as descriptions of behaviour observed and recorded
research method used. For example, interviews often by the researcher.
provide data in the form of words, while experiments Sometimes psychologists use audio or video tapes
usually provide data in the form of numbers. to record data in research. For example, psychologists
Generally, psychologists distinguish between two studying self-esteem in young children may collect
types of data — qualitative and quantitative data. qualitative data by asking children open-ended

questions related to their self-esteem. Likewise, a five-point scale to rate their feelings on issues such as
researcher interested in learning about the factors compulsory school uniform or the persuasiveness of a
that enable some people to cope better than others particular advertisement.
with personal trauma may collect qualitative data Information about individuals’ scores on a range
through a survey involving participants’ responses of psychological tests such as intelligence tests,
about how they felt in a specific traumatic situation personality tests, career inventories and various
and how they dealt with their feelings. ability and interest tests are also provided as
quantitative data. In addition, data collected during
experiments are typically collected in a numerical
form and are therefore usually quantitative.
The use of numerical data makes it easier to
summarise and interpret information collected
through research. This is why quantitative data are
often preferred to qualitative data, although this does
not mean that qualitative data are less important or
less useful than quantitative data.
Although qualitative data are typically expressed
in the form of words, they can be converted into
a quantitative form. For example, participants’
responses to open-ended interview questions about
their thoughts and feelings when they are anxious
could be summarised as numbers based on the
frequency (‘how often’) or intensity (‘how strong’)
with which certain feelings are reported.
Figure 2.19 In this survey, the researcher is collecting

qualitative data through open-ended questions on how the
participant feels about closure of the local primary school.
Quantitative data
The majority of studies referred to in this text use
quantitative data, rather than qualitative data. This
reflects the preference for quantitative data in most
psychological research.
Quantitative data are numerical information on the
‘quantity’ or amount of what is being studied; that is,
how much of something there is. They may be raw
data that have not been analysed in any way, such
as lengths or weights of prematurely born infants, or
percentages of participants who respond with ‘Yes’ or
‘No’ to survey questions, or the mean reaction time of
participants when a light is flashed onto a screen in
an experiment, and so on.
All types of mental experiences and behaviours
can be described in quantitative terms; that Figure 2.20 In this experiment involving animal learning, an
is, as quantities or numbers. For example, in a electronic recording device is used to collect quantitative
survey, a question might ask participants to use a data on the frequency of responses made by the rat.

Review questions
1 Define the terms qualitative data and quantitative
data with reference to an example that is not used
in the text.
2 Indicate whether the data collected in each of the
following research studies are qualitative data or
quantitative data. Explain your answers.
(a) Audio recordings of a student’s description of
the effect of background noise on their ability to
learn previously unseen material
(b) A student’s ratings on a seven-point rating
scale used to assess how much background
noise affected their ability to learn previously
unseen material
(c) In a videotaped recording of a group discussion
by married couples, the number of marriages
identified as being successful as a result of
marrying at an older age as compared with
those who married at a younger age
(d) Records of whether people who wear glasses
can read more quickly than people who do not
Figure 2.21 Qualitative research may be used to study
wear glasses
life experiences of refugees and asylum seekers in a
(e) A prisoner’s description of the psychological detention centre.
effects of time in solitary confinement
(f) Age at which infants are reported by their
Experiments can produce qualitative data as well
mothers as saying a recognisable word for the
first time as numbers. For example, consider the Stanford
(g) Mothers’ descriptions of changes in their Prison Experiment conducted by Zimbardo (1972)
children’s behaviour after their children began (see pages 337–9). Zimbardo observed, described
attending child care and reported common and unusual behaviour and
verbal responses of the ‘prisoners’ and ‘guards’,
often referring to specific examples (qualitative
data). However, Zimbardo also measured the
Qualitative and extent to which the ‘prisoners’ were prepared to
quantitative research obey the demands of the ‘guards’ and reported

his observations in the form of graphs and tables
The type of data collected is used as the basis (quantitative data).
of classifying research methods into two broad Similarly, analysis of responses given by
categories called qualitative research and participants in a discussion group or in extended,
quantitative research. Qualitative research involves essay-type text can produce quantitative as well as
the collection of qualitative data; whereas, qualitative data. For example, Gilligan and Attanucci
quantitative research involves the collection of (1988) studied the difference between males and
quantitative data. females (i.e. sex differences) in responding to moral
Experiments are usually described as quantitative dilemmas. Participants were presented with various
research because participants’ responses during the moral dilemmas, including that of Heinz used by
experiment are typically measured then described Kohlberg in his research. They gave their answers to
in a numerical form. Research involving analysis of several dilemmas, explaining the reasoning behind
written information (for example, descriptions in a their answers. This provided qualitative data that
diary or responses to open-ended interview questions was useful in assessing and describing participants’
such as ‘How did you feel when you were bullied?’) thoughts and feelings in a ‘richer’ way than is
is usually described as qualitative research. However, possible through collecting only quantitative data.
describing research methods as either qualitative or However, the researchers also analysed the content
quantitative can be misleading because it suggests of different interview responses, categorised and
that certain research methods are only suitable for coded the responses, then calculated percentages of
collecting either qualitative or quantitative data or can different kinds of moral judgements that appeared in
only produce either qualitative or quantitative data the interview records, thereby also obtaining useful
(Banyard & Grayson, 2000). quantitative data.

Review questions
1 Explain the main difference between qualitative and quantitative research with reference to qualitative and
quantitative data and an example of each type of data.
2 Complete the following table by indicating whether each research design is an example of qualitative research,
quantitative research, or both.
Qualitative Quantitative
research design research research
Conducting an experiment to investigate whether having regular rest breaks during a

prolonged study session improves performance on a test
Observing the social interactions of pre-school children in a playgroup using pre-determined

items on an observation checklist
Organising a small number of participants into a discussion group to study the experience of
sexual discrimination in the workplace
Studying the behaviour of newborn infants by observing and recording their second-by-
second movements during their first 72 hours of life following birth
Using a written questionnaire with closed-ended questions (e.g. Yes/No) to survey a large
number of bushfire victims who may be experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder
Investigating the effects of observing violence by analysing and interpreting children’s

drawings after they have watched violent cartoons on television
Investigating ways in which females are portrayed in the print media by analysing newspaper
and magazine advertisements
Testing the relationship between scores on an intelligence test and scores on a personality test
Observing whether drivers conform to road rules by counting the number of drivers who
disobey a stop sign at an intersection
Observing the effects of using a treat as a reward to teach a dog to sit on command
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.17 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.18

Media response — qualitative Selecting an appropriate
and quantitative research research method
Locate one newspaper, magazine or internet article For each of the following topics, decide which
that reports psychological qualitative research and one research method — experiment, case study or
reporting quantitative research. Make a copy of each observational study — would be the most appropriate
article so that they can be presented next to each for undertaking a research study and briefly
other on an A3 sheet of paper. If required, reduce the explain why.
size of the articles through photocopying, but ensure 1 Determining why someone with great potential gave
they are still legible. up their career for a job they don’t really like so that
Writing in point form on the A3 sheet, complete the they can spend more time with their family
following tasks for each article:
2 Determining how teenagers behave on their
1 State whether the article reports qualitative research, first date
quantitative research or both.
3 Determining if watching violent cartoons on
2 Identify the specific research method and/or data television will cause aggressive behaviour in children
collection technique.
4 Determining if people would obey a person in
3 Outline what the research study is about and the authority who ordered them to hurt another person
main findings (if described).
5 Determining whether boys and girls in preschool
4 Identify a potential limitation of the research study. have different preferences for play activities

MAKING SENSE OF DATA of the aggressive behaviours on your list, you record
your observation with a tick and shift your attention
When their research study has been conducted and to another child. Of the 25 boys you observe, six
results obtained, researchers generally do three things use an aggressive act and are therefore judged as
with the results. First, the results are summarised and aggressive, and four of 16 girls observed are judged as
described so they can be interpreted. The results are aggressive.
then interpreted so they can be understood. Finally, On the basis of these results, more boys than girls
the results are explained; that is, reasons are suggested were aggressive. However, more boys than girls
about why the particular results were obtained and were also observed. In order to reach a conclusion,
what they mean. you need to work out whether 25 6
is more than or
Researchers use statistics to summarise and 4
less than 16 . This can be achieved by calculating the
interpret the results obtained from research. percentages of boys and girls who were aggressive,
Statistics are essentially mathematical procedures. then making a comparison.
Two main kinds of statistics are used in psychology — A percentage is a statistic that expresses a number
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. as a proportion (or fraction) of 100. The term per
Descriptive statistics are used for summarising and cent means ‘per hundred’, or ‘for every hundred’. It is
describing results. They include calculations such as shown using the per cent sign (%). For example, 65%
percentages and means (‘averages’), and preparation 65
is equal to 100 and means 65 parts out of 100; 100% of
of tables and graphs. Inferential statistics are used for something means all of it. A percentage is calculated
interpreting and giving meaning to results, such as using the formula
calculating the probability of results being due to the IV.
Units 1 and 2 Psychology focus on descriptive subtotal 100
%= ×
statistics. These will assist you to read and total 1
understand the descriptions of psychological research
referred to throughout this textbook. They will also It is easy to calculate a percentage when the
assist you in writing reports on investigations you original amount is 100. For example, if you complete
conduct as part of your study of VCE Psychology. We a 100 item speed and accuracy test and correctly
start with a basic descriptive statistic with which you answer 90 items within the time limit, then your
are already familiar. percentage score is:
90 (subtotal) 100 90 × 100 900

× = = = 90%
Percentages 100 (total) 1 100 100
Suppose you conduct an observational study to find For the data obtained in the observation study
out whether boys are more aggressive than girls described above:
during lunch time in the prep area of the school
grounds at a local primary school. You want to obtain 6 (subtotal) 100 6 × 100 600
boys: × = = = 24%
quantitative data, so you work out a list of observable 25 (total) 1 25 25
behaviours that you consider to be aggressive, such as
pretend fighting and intentional pushing or shoving. 4 (subtotal) 100 4 × 100 400
girls: × = = = 25%
Whenever you see a boy or girl demonstrating one 16 (total) 1 16 16
BOX 2.2 Finding percentages using a calculator

A scientific, graphics or CAS calculator can be used to calculate percentages. Two
examples using a CAS calculator are:
1 Changing a fraction to a percentage
Ensure the calculator is set in Exact or Auto mode. Type the fraction on a Calculator
page by using the fraction template. Multiply this by 100 to change it to a percentage
and press ENTER . If an approximate answer is required, press CTRL ENTER . Use
brackets with mixed numbers so that the correct order of operations is followed. The
screen at right shows 38 and 114 expressed as percentages.
2 Finding a percentage of an amount

Enter the percentage as a fraction with a denominator of 100 and multiply by the
amount. If a fraction rather than a decimal is required, then ensure your calculator
is set in either Exact or Auto mode. The screen at right shows 8% of 280 and
12.5% of 8.65.

This means that the proportion of boys
(calculated ‘out of 100’) who were aggressive in the
Tables
school grounds is slightly less than the proportion Suppose that a researcher is interested in studying
of girls. The main problem in making a comparison whether body image (a person’s ‘view’ of their
of the boys and girls based on the raw data is that body) changes during puberty and adolescence. The
the two groups were of unequal size. Calculating a researcher might give a body image rating scale to
percentage for each group overcame this problem ten 10-year-olds, ten 12-year-olds, ten 14-year-olds,
and enabled comparison of the scores for boys ten 16-year-olds, ten 18-year-olds, ten 20-year-olds
and girls. and ten 22-year-olds. Each research participant would
Percentages are commonly used in psychology be required to make a judgement about their physical
to describe data; for example, scores on a test, appearance using a rating scale ranging from 1 to
categories of scores, changes or trends in scores, the 10, with 1 being equivalent to very unattractive, 5 to
percentage of people who respond in a particular neither attractive nor unattractive and 10 to very
way (such as correct or incorrect, agree or disagree, attractive. In all, there would be 70 bits of data (that
do something or do not do something) and the is, ratings) about the body image of participants in
percentage of people in a socio-cultural group different age groups. How can the researcher make
(such as gender, age, income level, educational sense of all these different bits of information so that
qualifications and ethnicity). meaningful conclusions about body image and age
can be drawn?
The first step would be to use descriptive statistics
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.19 to organise, summarise and describe the data so
that they can be interpreted. It is difficult to draw
Calculating percentages conclusions about whether (and if so, how) body
image changes with age by looking at 70 individual
1 Calculate percentages for the following raw data. ratings. Thus, in order to compare the body image
Round your answer to the nearest whole number. ratings of the seven different age groups to determine
(a) Sixteen out of 62 participants observed in whether there is a change with age, the data for each
the library broke a rule at least once during a
group could be summarised and presented in a table.
10 minute observation period. What percentage
of participants broke a rule at least once?
This is shown in table 2.3.
(b) Survey data show that 52 out of 75 students
Table 2.3 raw data — participant ratings
watch TV before school. What percentage
of students watch TV before school? What age group
percentage do not watch TV before school? (years) participant ratings
(c) There are 498 500 Australians aged between
20 and 24 years of age. Of these, 199 400 live at 10 5 2 8 7 5 6 10 3 6 7
home with their parent(s). What percentage live
at home with their parent(s)? 12 7 3 6 7 5 4 2 8 4 1
2 A researcher gave parents a 50 item questionnaire 14 9 7 5 5 3 1 1 4 2 9
on child-rearing practices. There were 28 fathers
and 44 mothers in the sample. The raw data were 16 6 7 4 3 8 2 1 9 4 2
first organised in a table (shown below) to enable
comparison of scores achieved by fathers and 18 4 1 7 2 3 8 6 1 9 4
mothers. Complete the table by calculating each
percentage to the nearest whole number. 20 6 8 7 8 2 9 7 8 7 7
22 8 7 4 7 7 7 8 6 8 8
Fathers Mothers
raw per cent raw per cent

Scores score (%) score (%)
A table is an orderly arrangement and display of
data in columns and rows. The columns and rows
0–9 4 4 are usually identified by names (or ‘headers’) that
assist in making comparisons. Some conventions, or
10–20 9 7
standards, for tables used in psychology are:
21–30 10 10 • all tables should be numbered (e.g.,
Table 1, Table 2)
31–40 3 12
• each table should have an individual title (in
41–50 2 11 journal articles the title is in italics and each word
is italicised). The title should be a clear statement
Total 28 100% 44 100%
which explains what the table is about without
being too long.

• each column should be identified using a is plotted along the X axis. Graphs show patterns
descriptive header. The first letter of each header or trends in the data collected; for example, how
should be capitalised. often a response is made, how aspects of behaviour
• where appropriate, each row should be identified change over time or as a research participant’s
using a descriptive header. The first letter of each experience changes.
header should be capitalised. There are various types of graphs that express data
• the reader should be able to quickly work out what in different ways. The kind of graph used depends
the table is about and comparisons of data should mainly on the type of data collected. Among the
be easy to make. more commonly used kinds of graphs in psychology
Table 2.3 provides some order to the data on body are bar charts, histograms, pie charts, line graphs and
image ratings by organising the ratings into different frequency polygons.
age groups. However, comparison of ratings across As with tables, there are conventions for presenting
the age groups is still difficult because the data have graphs in psychology. These include:
been inadequately summarised. To enable the ratings • all graphs should be numbered (e.g.
of different age groups to be compared, a single Figure 1, Figure 2)
number that summarises all the data for each age • each graph should have an individual title. (In
group would be calculated. journal articles the title is italicised and each word
For this study, the researcher could calculate the is italicised) The title should be a clear statement
mean rating for each age group. The mean scores that explains what the graph is about without
could be used to describe the ‘average’ body image being too long.
rating for each age group and would enable the • both the horizontal and vertical axes must be
researcher to compare the different age groups. This labelled clearly and indicate what is plotted
is shown in table 2.4. The mean is another type of • the reader should be able to quickly work out what
descriptive statistic. This is discussed in more detail the graph is about.
in Unit 2, chapter 7.
Bar charts
Table 2.4 Mean body image ratings of each age group One type of graph is called a bar chart (or bar graph).
Age group (years) Mean scores A bar chart is a graph which uses a series of discrete
(separate) bars or rectangles adjacent (next) to, but
10 5.9 not touching one another, to enable comparisons
of different categories of data. The bars can be
12 4.7
positioned horizontally or vertically. One axis is used
14 4.6 to show the types of categories (e.g. age, sex, type of
response) and the other category is used to show the
16 4.6 frequency with which each category occurs (e.g. how
18 4.5 often, how much).
One important feature of a bar chart is that each
20 6.9 of the categories shown in the graph is separate or
distinct and there is no continuation between one
22 7.0
category and the next; for example, there would be
separate bars for data about female participants’
Graphs responses and male participants’ responses. Each bar

is the same width and has a small space between it
The saying ‘A picture is worth a thousand words’ and the next bar.
has also been applied to numbers — a graph is Figure 2.22 shows an example of a bar chart.
said by some researchers to be ‘worth a thousand Researchers who studied the type of play in which
numbers’. Pictures that present numerical data four- to five-year-old children engaged recorded
are called graphics. The most commonly used the type and amount of time children spent
picture or graphic is a graph. A graph is a pictorial participating in each type of play at a kindergarten
representation of data. over a one-week period. The type of play in which
Graphing or plotting data typically involves the children engaged was categorised according to
use of two lines (axes) drawn at right angles to American psychologist Mildred Parten’s (1932)
one another. The horizontal line is the X axis and system for classifying play behaviour. Parten
the vertical line is the Y axis. The point where the described four main types of play: solitary play,
axes intersect is called the origin (0). Generally, the when the child plays alone and independently;
frequency (for example, the number of cases or parallel play, when the child plays alone and
amount of something) is plotted on the Y axis. The independently alongside, but not with, other
unit of measurement (for example, time, weight) children; associative play, when the child plays

with other children in a similar activity, but in
their own way; and cooperative play, when the LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.20
child plays with other children at the same activity.
The researchers who were testing the relevance Representing data using a bar chart
of Parten’s theory among children today added a A researcher obtained data from a group of university
further category called unoccupied play, when the students on the relaxation techniques they found to
child did not engage in any play at all for a period be most effective for minimising anxiety experienced
of time. Results of the research are shown in the bar prior to exams. The raw data are described in
chart in figure 2.22. table 2.5 below. Present these data (a) in a table that
summarises the raw data, and (b) in a bar chart.
20 Table 2.5 types of relaxation techniques used
participant relaxation technique
15 1 Meditation
Amount of time (hours)
2 Drinking coffee
10 3 Drinking coffee
4 Listening to music
5 Exercise
5
6 Meditation
7 Sleeping
0
Solitary
play
Parallel
play
Associative
play
Cooperative
play
Unoccupied
behaviour
9 Exercise
Types of play
11 Exercise
Figure 2.22 example of a bar chart
12 Sleeping
Sometimes a bar chart is used to present values or 13 Meditation

scores for two different categories within each bar.
14 Drinking coffee
For example, figure 2.23 shows mean scores on a test
of memory (recall) obtained by males and females of 15 Exercise
different ages.
16 Exercise
20 17 Meditation
Male
18 18 Sleeping
Female
16 19 Sleeping
14 20 Listening to music
Score on test of recall
12
10 Histograms
8 Histograms look like bar charts, except the bars
touch. A histogram is a graph which shows the
6
frequency with which a particular score (or range of
4 scores) occurs in a set of data. A histogram usually
has the types of categories (for example, sex, age
2 groups) plotted on the horizontal (X) axis and the
0 frequency (how often each score occurs) plotted
10–14 15–19 70–74 75+ on the vertical (Y) axis. Rectangular bars are used
Age group to indicate the frequency of a particular score and
Figure 2.23 Scores on a test of recall obtained by males each rectangular bar is the same width, as shown in
and females of different ages figure 2.24.

100
Frequency (number of participants)
Female
Male
80
60
40
20
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Reaction time (seconds)
Figure 2.24 example of a histogram
Histograms differ from bar graphs in two main participants can be described on the same histogram
ways — first, in histograms the bars touch; second, using a different colour or pattern to identify the
the type of information or variables described on the responses of different groups, as shown in figure 2.24.
X axis is continuous and usually numerical, such
as age, time or the amount of something. Thus, the Pie charts
X axis of a histogram can be plotted as individual A pie chart, or pie graph, is a circular diagram
numbers or as intervals. that shows the proportions of values or scores for
A histogram could be used to describe data different categories of data. Each category is shown
obtained in the following research. A researcher as a ‘slice of the pie’. The different-sized ‘slices’
interested in finding out sex differences in how represent the differences between categories. As
quickly information passes from the eye to the brain shown in figure 2.25, a pie chart doesn’t use a set of
then on to the hand conducted an experiment to test axes to plot data and the data are usually shown as
reaction time; that is, how quickly male and female percentages.
participants responded to a red light appearing among A pie chart is best used to compare different
written text on a computer screen. Participants were parts of the same whole. The circle of a pie chart
asked to press the space bar on the keyboard as soon represents the whole, or 100%. Each portion (‘slice
as they saw the red light. The time taken from the of the pie’) within the circle represents a part of
appearance of the red light to pressing the space bar that 100%. In this way, it is possible to see how
was electronically recorded. Data for two groups of something is divided up according to categories.

Representing data using a histogram
The following scores were obtained by research participants on a test of problem-solving ability. Graph the data using
a histogram.
Score on test of Score on test of Score on test of

problem-solving Frequency problem-solving Frequency problem-solving Frequency
0 0 7 5 14 12
1 2 8 10 15 17
2 4 9 12 16 11
3 0 10 12 17 10
4 3 11 13 18 15
5 6 12 11 19 4
6 3 13 15 20 3

20.4
7.6 Representing data using a pie chart
The following data were obtained from a research
study on the content of dreams. The data show
activities most frequently reported in dreams. Graph
31 the data using a pie chart.
percentage
Age (years) activity (approx.)
23.8
20–24
Movement (walking, running, jumping) 34
25–34
17.2 35–44 Talking 11
55–64
Sitting 7
65 and
over Watching 7
Figure 2.25 an example of a pie chart showing the age of Socialising 6

people employed as psychologists in australia
Playing 5
A pie chart can be drawn by hand using a Manual work 4

compass to construct the circle and a protractor
for each portion of the circle. The circle is Striving 4
equivalent to 360° and each portion of the pie chart Thinking 4
is calculated as a percentage of 360°, with 1% being
equivalent to 3.6°. For example, if 20% needs to be Relationship 3
represented in the pie chart, then 20% of 360° is 72° Quarrelling 3
(or 20 × 3.6° = 72°). Within the pie chart, 72° would
be a slice equivalent to 20% of the whole area Acquiring 12
of the pie.
total 100
In figure 2.25, a key is used to indicate each
category (‘slice’) of the graph and the percentage for
each category is clearly shown. A pie chart such as
the one in figure 2.26 can more easily be constructed Line graphs
with Microsoft Excel®, or similar software, to clearly A line graph is another way of describing data. A
show each category and its respective percentage. line graph is a pictorial representation that indicates
the relationship between two factors, or two variables
in an experiment; for example, reaction time and
7.6
20.4 Age (years) a person’s age, or group size and time taken to
20–24 complete a task.
31 25–34 The horizontal, or X, axis usually has the
23.8 35–44 independent variable plotted on it, with the
55–64 numerical value of the data increasing from left
17.2
65 and to right along the axis. A line graph that describes
over the relationship between group size and time
taken to complete a task would list the group size
in terms of the number of members of the group
Figure 2.26 an example of a pie chart constructed with on the X axis, in intervals; for example, beginning
Microsoft excel software at two, then three, four people and so on. One
important feature of a line graph is that the variable
A pie chart is an effective way of showing plotted on the X axis is continuous; that is, there is
proportions of data, particularly when there is a a series of progressively increasing values that can
relatively small number of categories. However, it be listed.
is important to be aware that if one or more parts The vertical, or Y, axis usually has the dependent
of the whole are left out, the omission of data will variable (the measure of performance) plotted
artificially increase the percentage values of the other along it. A line graph that described the data from
parts that are included. the experiment on group size and time taken to

complete a task would record the amount of time Frequency polygons
taken along the Y axis, in intervals; for example, A frequency polygon is a graph showing the
beginning at zero (which is a convention or frequency (‘how often’) of data using a line graph.
‘rule’ for graphs), then one, two, three, four and Construction of a frequency polygon involves
five minutes where five minutes is slightly higher
plotting the scores on a task (or groups of scores)
than the maximum time ever taken by any group to
on the horizontal (X) axis against the frequency of
complete the task (figure 2.27).
the scores (or groups of scores) on the vertical (Y)
Various points on a line graph represent the score
axis of a graph. Dots are plotted at the intersection
on one axis that corresponds with a value on the
of the X and Y axes to indicate individual scores and
other axis. The intersecting point can represent a
a line is drawn to connect the dots and is brought
corresponding IV/DV score on the two variables
down to 0 on the X axis at either side of the polygon
by one research participant, or the mean score of a
(figure 2.28).
group of participants.
15
Y axis
5
Frequency of eye contact

12
Amount of time (minutes)
4
9
3
2 6
1 3
0 X axis
5 6 7 8 0
2 3 4 Less 5–9 10–14 15–19 20+
Group size than 5
Distance between two people (metres)
Figure 2.27 example of a line graph
Figure 2.28 example of a frequency polygon
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.23 In a frequency polygon, if groups of scores are

plotted on the X axis, the scores are represented
Representing data using a line graph on the graph by the value of the mid-point of the
range of scores. For example, if the interval of
Construct a line graph by plotting the data shown
scores ranges from 0–4, the mid-point is two. The
below. Ensure you give the line graph an appropriate
title. You may consider using Microsoft Excel software dot to indicate the score of that range would be
to assist accuracy and save time. placed in line with the score of two. Frequency
polygons graph only the frequency of particular
age (in years) number of words spoken responses (or scores). Line graphs can be used
to demonstrate a relationship between any two
1.0 3 variables being studied.
One advantage of the frequency polygon over the
1.5 22
histogram is that more than one set of data can be
2.0 272 plotted on the same graph, which makes comparison
easier. For example, suppose a researcher collected
2.5 446 data on the effects of sleep deprivation on problem-
solving ability across three different age groups
3.0 896
(15–20 years, 35–40 years, 55–60 years).
3.5 1222 These data can be presented on one graph, as
shown in figure 2.29. To identify the results of the
4.0 1540 different groups on one graph, researchers could
4.5 1870 use different kinds of lines for each set of data (such
as a solid line, a broken line and a dotted line), or
5.0 2072 different coloured lines (such as blue, purple and
orange) or different shapes to identify the point
6.0 2562
of intersection between the X and Y axes (such as
triangles, circles and squares).

15–20 years old
35–40 years old
100
55–60 years old
Mean percentage of correct responses
80
on a problem-solving task
60
40
20
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17
Sleep deprivation (hours)
Figure 2.29 Frequency polygon showing several sets of data
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.24 ETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL

Representing data using
CONDUCT IN PSYCHOLOGICAL
a frequency polygon RESEARCH
Is it appropriate for a researcher to inflict pain
A researcher collected data on maze learning by rats.
The rats were required to run through a maze to reach on a person in order to study mental experiences
a goal box which contained cheese. The researchers associated with pain? Does your answer depend
measured the animals’ learning by counting the number on the amount of pain, or is any amount of
of trials each rat took before it could run through the pain unacceptable? Does it matter if the pain
maze from start to finish without making an error (that is psychological rather than physical? Should a
is, running down a passageway that led to a deadend). participant know exactly what an experiment will
The results for 20 rats were: involve before they participate? Should a participant
6, 12, 5, 7, 10, 12, 6, 5, 7, 10, 12, be allowed to withdraw from an experiment
15, 14, 20, 18, 18, 20, 14, 15 and whenever they want to, regardless of the reason?
12 trials. What if the researcher has gone to great expense
The first 10 scores were from the offspring of a pair to conduct the research? What if the research
of rats that had superior maze-running abilities. The has important benefits for humankind? Such
second 10 scores were offspring from a pair of rats questions raise important ethical issues that need
that had inferior maze-running abilities. to be considered by researchers whenever they
1 Summarise these data as a table. undertake research.
2 Represent these data as a frequency polygon so The term ethics refers to standards that guide
that comparisons can be made between the scores individuals to identify good, desirable or acceptable
for the two groups. conduct. Essentially, ethical standards help us
3 What conclusions could be drawn from the to make judgements about which behaviours are
frequency polygon? appropriate (‘right’) and inappropriate (‘wrong’)
(NHMRC, 2007). All societies and cultures have

ethical standards that guide the behaviour
of members of that society or culture. In
addition to these standards, most professions
have their own standards of ethical conduct
that must be followed. For example, just
as it would be considered unethical for a
medical doctor to discuss a patient’s condition
with anyone apart from the patient or people
responsible for the patient, so too would it be
unethical for a psychologist to reveal information
discussed in a counselling session or the results
of a psychological test to anyone apart from the
client, or the guardians of the client if the client is a
child under a guardian’s care.
Ethical standards and considerations also apply
to experimental and other research situations. The
way human participants in experiments are to be
treated is determined by ethical guidelines. These
guidelines help ensure that the wellbeing and rights
of research participants are protected during their
involvement in psychological research and following
the research. In addition, the guidelines help Figure 2.30 the apS Code of Ethics and nhMrC
National Statement
prevent unnecessary research and promote research
that is or will be of benefit to the community or
humankind.
Ethical guidelines for psychological research
Roles and responsibilities
are described in a document called the National of the experimenter
Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research When planning research, the experimenter (or
(2007). The National Statement has been jointly researcher) must take into consideration the ethical
developed by the National Health and Medical issues involved. The experimenter is responsible for
Research Council (NHMRC), the Australian Research ensuring that the research is conducted in such a
Council and the Australian Vice-Chancellors’ manner that the wellbeing of research participants
Committee. is the main concern and that participants are not
The National Statement has been prepared to help placed at risk of injury or harm in any way. Under no
ensure researchers meet the requirements of all circumstances is the experimenter allowed to conduct
Australian Government Acts of Parliament related research which causes participants severe distress.
to research involving people. This means that all The experimenter must be aware that in all scientific
researchers are legally required to follow all ethical research with human participants, there is a need to
guidelines specified by the National Statement. balance the benefits to society from the findings of
However, the purpose of the National Statement is the investigation against any discomfort or risks to
to promote appropriate research values (‘what is the research participants.
important’) and procedures for ethical rather than
legal reasons. This ensures that participants are
provided with the respect and protection that is due
to them. It also encourages researchers to undertake
Participants’ rights
research studies that will benefit the community As well as ensuring that no psychological or physical
(NHMRC, 2007). harm is caused to participants, an experimenter
To help ensure research will be conducted must also respect and ensure participants’ rights as
ethically, the researcher must consult with colleagues individuals.
and an ethics committees as appropriate. In
universities, where most psychological research is Confidentiality
planned and conducted, there are ethics committees Participants have a right to privacy, so any
or review panels which review research proposals to information that may identify details of their
ensure ethical guidelines will be followed. involvement in a study (for example, test results or
The ethical guidelines for psychological research personal data) cannot be revealed unless their written
cover all aspects of the research, particularly the consent is obtained. The confidentiality requirement
roles and responsibilities of the experimenter and the applies to the access of research data by others,
well-being and rights of research participants. and to the storage and disposal of research data.

Balance benefits of the research and risks to participants. Take responsibility for your research.
Benefits Risks
Ensure participants’ consent is based on knowledge and Be honest with your participants.
understanding.
Use willing participants. Do not exploit your participants.
Protect participants from psychological and physical harm. Debrief your participants thoroughly.
Remove negative after-effects. Maintain and retain confidentiality.
Figure 2.31 Some important ethical guidelines that must be followed when undertaking research in psychology
Wherever possible, the procedures for establishing participate, decline to participate, or to withdraw
confidentiality must be explained to participants from a study at any time should they choose to do
before the experiment is actually conducted. so. Similarly, participants may also withdraw their
results after the research is finished. In addition, the
Voluntary participation experimenter must ensure that participants suffer
The experimenter must try to ensure that no negative consequences as a result of withdrawing
participants voluntarily consent to be involved in a from the study.
study. Participants must not be pressured to take part
in a study. The experimenter must also ensure that Informed consent procedures
prospective participants do not experience negative Wherever possible, participants must be appropriately
consequences if they choose not to be involved informed of what the study is about and the
in a study. reason(s) it is being conducted. This includes
information such as:
Withdrawal rights • the procedures to be used
The experimenter must inform participants of • clarification of possible risks or adverse effects of
procedures to be used and that they are free to the procedures to be used

• clarification of the demands and possible brings disrepute to the psychology profession, or to
disadvantages of participating scientific research. For example, they must not use
• explanation of how information will be collected a position of authority to put pressure on people to
and recorded; how, where, and for how long it will agree to participate in research.
be stored; and who will have access to the stored In addition, if psychologists are involved in
information conducting research with colleagues who are
• the right to decline to participate or to withdraw at not psychologists, such as biologists or medical
any time during the research practitioners, they have a responsibility to ensure
• explanation of confidentiality and limits to their research colleagues agree to follow the ethical
confidentiality code of conduct and guidelines prior to conducting
• possible outcomes of the research the research.
• the likelihood and form of publication of the
research results.
Informed consent must be appropriately documented;
for example, by requiring each participant to read and
BOX 2.3 E thical practices and
complete a consent form that contains all relevant conduct in VCE Psychology
information about the research and their participation. Advice and ethical practices and conduct that must be
The form should use ‘plain language’ and take account of followed by VCE Psychology students and teachers is
the participants’ level of comprehension. contained in the VCE Psychology Study Design. This
For participants who are legally unable to give advice includes the following:
informed consent (for example, children and ETHICAL CONDUCT OF EXPERIMENTAL
intellectually disabled people), the experimenter INVESTIGATIONS
must obtain appropriate consent from the persons As part of this study teachers and students will be
who are legally responsible for participants’ wellbeing involved in teaching and learning activities which
(i.e. parent or guardian). include experimental investigations using human
subjects. Teachers and schools have a legal and
Deception moral responsibility to ensure that students follow
ethical principles at all times when undertaking such
Sometimes, giving participants information about a
investigations. Teachers should refer to the following
study may influence their behaviour during the research documents for detailed advice:
and affect the accuracy of the results. In these instances, • the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in
when it is necessary for scientific reasons to conduct a Human Research (2007), issued by the National
study without fully informing participants of the true Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) in
purpose of the study prior to its commencement, the accordance with the NHMRC Act 1992 (Cwlth),
experimenter must ensure that participants do not http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/synopses/
suffer distress from the research procedures. In all cases e72syn.htm
involving deception, participants must be debriefed at • the National Privacy Principles in the Privacy
the conclusion of the study. Amendment (Private Sector) Act 2000 (Cwlth),
http://www.privacy.gov.au/
• the Code of Ethics of the Australian Psychological
Debriefing Society (APS), http://www.psychology.org.au.
Debriefing involves clarifying each participant’s
understanding of the study after it has been conducted. SAFETY AND WELLBEING
This study may include potentially sensitive
This includes correcting any mistaken attitudes or
topics. Teachers should ensure that students have
beliefs that participants may have about the study. opportunities to consider topics systematically and
The experimenter must anticipate the possible objectively, and to become aware of the diversity
effects on participants of being involved in the study, of views held on such matters. Students should not
and provide information about services available to be asked to disclose personal information about
treat any unnecessary distress that results from their their own or others’ health status and behaviours
participation. nor should they feel compelled to volunteer this
Once the entire study has been completed, the information.
experimenter must provide an opportunity for When dealing with sensitive mental health matters,
participants to obtain appropriate information about the students should be specifically advised that they:
study, including its procedures, results and conclusions. (a) should not necessarily interpret their own
experiences as signs of pathology
(b) are not in a position to diagnose problems or offer
Professional conduct any counselling or therapy.
In addition, students should be given information
At all times throughout the research, researchers are about sourcing available treatment services within and
expected to conduct themselves in a professional outside school.
manner. They must not behave in a manner that

experiment and the psychologist will have a good
As part of this study teachers and students will idea of what it has already learned before the
consider different assessments of intelligence, including experiment is conducted.
standardised psychological tests which are designed • When certain experiments require large numbers
to be administered only by trained psychologists.
of participants who have, for example, the same
Teachers must limit access to such tests and ensure
that students understand that such tests are valid only
genetic background, animals are more easily
if administered by a qualified psychologist. obtained than humans.
• ‘Participant expectations’ can influence the results
LeGiSLatiVe COMpLianCe of an experiment, however, animals don’t usually
When collecting and using information, the provisions have expectations and they are not able to guess
of privacy and copyright legislation, such as the
the purpose of an experiment.
Victorian Information Privacy Act 2000 and Health
Records Act 2001, and the Federal Privacy Act 1988
Many arguments have been presented against
and Copyright Act 1968, must be met. the use of animals in psychological research.
One argument is that it is not possible to apply
(generalise) the results of animal studies to humans
because the species are not the same even though
USE OF ANIMALS IN there may appear to be similarities. An issue for
researchers is how far they can generalise about
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH human mental experiences and behaviour from
Although psychology is primarily interested in the results of animal studies. If laboratory animals
human behaviour and mental processes, about 10% die after prolonged sleep loss, would humans? If a
of research involves non-human participants. Within drug causes a brain disorder in animals, should it be
this group, most are mice, rats, hamsters and pigeons. banned for human use?
About 5% of the animals used are monkeys and Another argument is that humans should respect
other primates. animals and protect them from harm rather
Following are the main reasons animals have been than use them in research. It is also suggested
used in research. that humans do not have the right to dominate
• Some psychologists are genuinely interested in other species.
studying animal behaviour. This field of study is
commonly referred to as ethology.
• Some studies cannot be conducted with humans
due to the risk of psychological and/or physical
harm that may be caused, or because suitable
human participants are unavailable (see
page 177).
• Bodily systems and/or behaviours of some animals
are similar to those of humans; therefore, using
animals can be a ‘starting point’ for learning more
about human behaviour.
• Animals have practical advantages over people for
use as research participants. For example, studying
the effects of ageing from birth through to ‘old age’
is not generally practical in humans because most
people live more than 75 years, compared with
rats which have a life expectancy of two years.
Another advantage is that some animal species
breed a lot faster than humans. For example, rats GUIDELINES TO PROMOTE THE WELLBEING OF
produce a new generation every three months and ANIMALS USED FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES
can be used to study the development of certain THE ASSESSMENT AND ALLEVIATION OF
behaviours over successive generations within PAIN AND DISTRESS IN RESEARCH ANIMALS :
a relatively short period of time. Animals can

also be kept for long periods of time in captivity
in laboratories and it is easier to observe their
behaviour under these conditions.
W O R K I N G T O B U I L D A H E A L T H Y A U S T R A L I A
• The behaviour of animals can usually be controlled
to an extent not possible with human participants. Figure 2.32 psychologists must ensure that research
For example, a rat can be raised from birth in animals are well cared for, humanely treated and experience
a cage. The rat can then be used in a learning minimal pain and suffering.

In order to ensure that all reasonable steps are from the wider community (‘lay people’ who cannot
taken to minimise the discomfort, illness and pain to be a scientist, doctor, lawyer or an ‘academic’ such as
animals used in research, ethical guidelines have also university lecturer).
been established for the use of animals in research. Generally, the roles of the HREC include:
The use and care of laboratory animals must be • ensuring the research study is designed and
directly supervised by a person competent to ensure conducted in ethically appropriate ways and in
their comfort, health and humane treatment. The full accordance with relevant National Statement
care and use of animals in research must follow the guidelines
NHMRC Guidelines to promote the wellbeing of animals • ensuring the researcher(s) is adequately
used for scientific purposes (2008). experienced and qualified (or the researcher
According to the NHMRC guidelines, any research is supervised by a qualified person if there are
with animals, including research activities in schools, concerns about their experience and qualifications)
can be performed only if the research can be • monitoring approved research (e.g. through
justified. Justification involves weighing the predicted progress reports, random inspections of research
scientific or educational value of the research against sites, interviews with participants)
the potential effects on the welfare of the animals. • handling complaints (e.g. from participants, the
If an animal is to be subjected to pain, stress or wider community)
deprivation (e.g. food, social interaction, sensory • ensuring accountability of the researcher (e.g. the
stimuli), research may only occur if no other researcher understands, accepts and maintains
alternative is available. If surgery is to occur, the responsibility for all aspects of their research).
animals must be given the appropriate anaesthesia so HRECs are usually established by organisations
they do not experience pain. When an animal’s life is (public, not-for-profit or private) which conduct
to be terminated, it must be done quickly and research involving humans. Universities and hospitals
painlessly. are the most common of these organisations. Not all
organisations which conduct research, however, have
their own HREC. Some organisations and individual
Role of ethics committees researchers use the services of HRECs within another
The National Statement requires that all research organisation (NHMRC, 2007).
proposals involving human participants be reviewed The NHMRC also requires the use of ethics
and approved by an ethics committee. This type of committees for research involving animals. These
committee is formally called a Human Research Ethics are called Animal Ethics Committees (AECs) and
Committee (HREC). Its main purpose is to review, or members have roles and responsibilities similar to
‘assess’, research proposals those of HRECs.
for approval purposes, and
then monitor the conduct of
the research (if it is approved)
to ensure all relevant ethical
guidelines are adopted
and followed.
Any HREC is required to
have a minimum of eight
members, preferably with an
equal number of men and
women, and with at least one-
third of the members from
outside the organisation for
which the HREC is reviewing
research. In addition, HREC
membership must include at
least two people with current
research experience that
is relevant to the research
proposal to be reviewed, a
lawyer, someone who performs
Figure 2.33 An ethics committee reviews research
a ‘pastoral care’ role in the community (e.g. an
proposals for approval purposes and then monitors the
Aboriginal elder or a minister of religion), someone conduct of the research to ensure all relevant ethical
professionally qualified in caring for or counselling guidelines are adopted and followed. Review meetings are
people (e.g. a nurse or social worker), and two people usually informal, as shown in the photo.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.25 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.28
Review questions Essay — ethics in research
1 Define the meaning of ethics in relation to research. Write a 300–400 word essay on one of these topics.
2 Why are ethical considerations and guidelines 1 Why are ethics important in psychological research
necessary for psychological research? with human participants? Explain with reference to
relevant ethical principles and examples not referred
3 What is the ethical responsibility of a researcher
to in the text.
who conducts research with human participants, but
does not fully inform them of the true purpose of the or
research before the study begins because it may 2 Should it be permissible to use animals in psychological
influence the participants’ behaviour? research? Discuss with reference to advantages and
4 According to NHMRC ethical guidelines, if a research limitations of using animals in psychological research
participant became distressed during the research, and to relevant ethical principles.
what should occur? In your essay, ensure that you:
• accurately define all key terms; for example, ethics,
5 What is meant by the statement ‘participants must ethical principles and psychological research
be appropriately informed about the type of study • use appropriate examples
and the reasons for the research’? • cover a range of relevant issues
6 Briefly summarise three ethical guidelines that • structure the information in a logical sequence
must be followed when planning to use animals in • express your information clearly and concisely
psychological research. • accurately cite and reference all source material.
7 (a) What is an ethics committee? References may be used in obtaining information for
(b) Give three examples of its roles or responsibilities. your essay.

Visual presentation — ethics in research The emphasis of the poster should be on a visual
representation of the ethical guideline(s) as well as key
Prepare a poster that clearly illustrates one (or more) points (rather than detailed descriptions).
of the ethical guidelines for psychological research.

Applying ethical principles to research proposal 2
Dr Jones is interested in the effect of stress on performance
Suppose you have been asked to sit on an ethics committee. on the McCord IQ Test. He feels that the test, which is very
The following proposals for human research have been widely used in schools, gives misleadingly low scores to
presented to your committee for approval. Your task students under stress. He wants to divide his participants
is to evaluate the proposals in terms of whether they (VCE students) into two groups, with 20 participants in
meet the standards, then write your recommendations, each group. All participants will take a fake pretest and will
commenting on: be given their ‘results’. The experimental group will be told
(a) whether the committee approves or rejects the that they failed the test and that it is surprising that they
proposal as it is presented were able to do well enough at secondary school to make
(b) if the proposal is rejected, on the basis of which it through to VCE. The control group will be told that they
ethical principle(s) it is rejected. passed the test with flying colours. All of the students will
proposal 1 then be given the real McCord IQ test.
Danielle Foster is a clinical psychologist who is interested Dr Jones hypothesises that the experimental group will
in how parents cope with the death of a young child. not do as well on the IQ test as the control group. At the
She proposes to obtain qualitative data through research end of the experiment, all students will be debriefed and
on grieving parents’ use of sources of support available told that the pretest was not real, nor was the feedback
through the internet. following pre-testing. In addition, the true purpose of the
Foster is particularly interested in chat rooms dedicated to study will be explained.
parents who have lost a young child. In order to obtain realistic (Proposal 2 adapted from Herzog, H. (1996).
qualitative data, she intends to pose as a parent who has Discussing Ethical Issues in Psychological Research.
Psychology Teacher Network, Nov–Dec. p. 12.)
recently lost a child and participate in discussions in several
chat rooms. In the course of her chat room participation, she
will raise issues for discussion and make judgements about Options and variations
the quality and usefulness of chat room support.

Practical activity — determining Data from pairs of experimenters could be combined with
those from other class members.
consistency in hand preference
report
Conduct an experiment to determine whether the Prepare a brief report on the experiment which you
dominant writing hand is consistently used for a variety include in your folio of practical activities. Your report
of other tasks. Pairs of experimenters should collect should include:
data using three volunteer participants who each give
1 A statement of the hypothesis tested by this research
informed consent.
Each participant should attempt or imitate a series 2 The independent and dependent variables in the
of tasks like those listed below. Experimenters should experiment
record hand preference for each task on a pre-prepared 3 A statement about whether the raw data were
data sheet; that is, right (R), left (L) or either (E). Tasks qualitative or quantitative data
could include:
• writing your name 4 A description of the sample used to obtain the results
• using scissors and how the sample was selected
• shuffling a deck of cards 5 A description of the key characteristics of the
• threading a needle population from which the sample was taken
• throwing a ball 6 A table and graph describing the results
• brushing teeth
• using a fork 7 A conclusion in which you state whether or not the
• unscrewing a lid. hypothesis seems to be supported on the basis of the
You should construct a hypothesis before you conduct results obtained
the research. Data for each participant should be tallied 8 A description of any extraneous variables that may
and each participant should be categorised into one of have substantially affected the results obtained from
the following four groups, depending on their responses the experiment
to the tasks.
9 A statement about whether the results of the
1 consistent right — all tasks were conducted using experiment be generalised (applied) to the population?
either right (R) or right and either hand Explain your answer.
2 right mixed — R for writing and L for other tasks
3 consistent left — all tasks were conducted using either Options and variations
left (L) or left and either hand
4 left mixed — L for writing and R for other tasks

Research investigation — what Some of the common findings of dream content
studies are:
people dream about • most dreams are about routine, everyday personal
Almost everyone dreams several times each night, matters usually involving familiar people in
although some people are more able to recall their familiar places
dreams than others. Generally, a dream is a story-like • the dreamer has company in most of their dreams,
sequence of visual images or thoughts that usually more frequently with friends, acquaintances and family
occurs during sleep. Dreams are sometimes a vague or members rather than with strangers
disjointed collection of seemingly unrelated events or • monsters and the ‘boogie man’ rarely appear
thoughts. At other times they are vivid, complex, logically • about half our dreams occur in colour and about half in
structured and very realistic. black and white
When we recall a dream, we usually are able to remember • while most dreams are filled with visual sensations, very
only a portion of the total dream. This helps explain why few involve the sensations of taste, smell or pain
sometimes when a dream is in progress it makes perfect • males and females tend to dream about different things —
sense; however, when we awaken, the dream seems males’ dreams are more active and more friendly, but are
illogical and strange. Unless we wake up during the dream, also more likely to involve fighting; females are more often
or shortly after, we are likely to forget important aspects of pursued or endangered in their dreams
the dream, or even be unaware that we have dreamt at all. • physical activities most frequently reported in
A number of psychologists have conducted dreams involve movement, such as walking, running
research studies on what people dream about. and jumping.

This research activity requires you to collect data on report
dream content and compare the results with those of Prepare a brief report to include in your folio of practical
previous research. activities that includes the following:
Working as a member of a small group, construct a
1 a descriptive title
short questionnaire of about four to six items to collect
data on one or more of the research findings described 2 an ‘Introduction’ section with a brief outline of previous
here. Prior to conducting the research, construct a research findings, an aim for your research and a
hypothesis about the content of dreams. hypothesis
Each group member should collect data from three or 3 a ‘Results’ section with the data collected summarised
four participants who can recall a recent dream. The data in a table and a graph
collected should be combined and summarised using an
4 a ‘Conclusion’ section in which you briefly describe
appropriate graph.
your group’s results, as compared with the findings of
previous research.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Steps in psychological research
– Step 1: identification of the research problem
– Step 2: construction of a hypothesis
– Step 3: designing the method
– Step 4: collecting the data
– Step 5: analysing the data
– Step 6: interpreting the data
– Step 7: reporting the research findings
Research methods
– Experimental research
– Independent and dependent variables
– Extraneous variables
– Experimental and control groups
– Sampling procedures
– Selecting a sample
– Random sampling
– Stratified sampling
– Random–stratified sampling
– Random allocation
– Descriptive research
RESEARCH – Case studies
METHODS I – Observational studies
Quantitative and qualitative data
Making sense of data

– Percentages
– Tables
– Graphs
Ethics and professional conduct

– Roles and responsibilities of the experimenter
– Participants’ rights
– Professional conduct
Use of animals in psychological research

Chapter 2 Test
SECTION A — Multiple-choice questions
Choose the response that is correct or that best answers the question. A correct answer scores 1, an
incorrect answer scores 0. Marks will not be deducted for incorrect answers. No marks will be given if
more than one answer is completed for any question.
Question 1 Question 4
The main purpose of ethical guidelines for When the researcher replayed the tape of participants’
research is to responses to the questions asked in the experiment
A. ensure that the results will not be disputed. described in question 3, it was decided to summarise the
B. ensure that the research proceeds smoothly. data using a table which showed the number of times certain
C. protect the welfare and rights of the anxiety-related words, such as ‘worried’ and ‘scared’, and
participants. non anxiety-related words such as ‘nothing’ and ‘didn’t
D. keep problems with the research participants to a care’, were used. These types of data are best described as
minimum level. A. descriptive data.
B. quantitative data.
Question 2 C. qualitative data.
A psychologist studied differences in the behaviour D. quantitative and qualitative data.
of newborn babies who are breast-fed and newborn
Question 5
babies who are bottle-fed. The psychologist conducted
the research with 20 mothers and their newborn An extraneous variable is best described as a/an
infants at the Royal Women’s Hospital (RWH). The variable.
20 mothers (and infants) were selected from a group A. participant
of 45 mothers at the RWH who had all volunteered B. experimenter
to participate in the experiment. There were another C. dependent
50 mothers with newborn infants at the hospital, D. unwanted
but these mothers did not volunteer to be in the
experiment. Question 6
In this experiment, there were mothers (and Which of the following procedures would be considered
their infants) in the sample, mothers (and their to be unethical when conducting research?
infants) in the population. A. Choosing only volunteers as participants in an
A. 20; 45 experiment
B. 45; 50 B. Disclosing a participant’s extraordinary test results to
C. 20; 95 the media without obtaining written consent to do so
D. 45; 95 from the research participant
C. Testing a child’s ability to do algebra even though the
Question 3 child’s ability to do algebra is already known
A psychologist interested in the effects of anxiety D. Allowing a participant to discontinue being in the
on exam performance asked research participants to experiment, even though the experiment has started
describe how they feel during an exam when they come
across a question they know they will get wrong. The Question 7
participants’ responses were tape-recorded so that they A hypothesis is
could be analysed at a later time. A. a testable prediction about the results of a
The type of data obtained by the researcher is best research study.
described as B. a statement about whether the results apply to the
A. descriptive data. population of research interest.
B. quantitative data. C. a statement about the accuracy of the results of a
C. qualitative data. research study.
D. statistical data. D. formulated after the results have been obtained.

Question 8 Question 11
Researchers collected data for a study on the To generalise from the results of research means
amount of vacation time employees had and their A. overstating the results.
happiness at work. The data were described in the B. stating whether the results can be replicated.
following graph. C. restricting the conclusion(s) to the results.
D. applying the results to the population.
100
Question 12
A research study is said to have external validity when
80
A. the results can reasonably be generalised.
Happiness at work (%)
B. an experimental design has been used.

60 C. a conclusion is drawn on the basis of the
results obtained.
40 D. all ethical requirements approved by an ethics
committee have been followed.
20 Question 13
A pie chart would be appropriate to show
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 A. how responses changed over time.
B. the distribution, or ‘spread’, of responses.
Number of weeks vacation per year
C. how responses changed in relation to the IV.
D. the percentages of responses by different groups.
The type of graph they used to show the results
is called a Question 14
A. line graph. In a histogram, the bars ; whereas in a bar
B. frequency distribution. chart, the bars .
C. frequency polygon. A. do not touch; do not touch
D. histogram. B. are vertical; are not vertical
C. touch; do not touch
Question 9 D. are not vertical; are vertical
The most important feature of a table is that
Question 15
A. percentages have been calculated.
Consider the following graph.
B. the data are displayed in an orderly arrangement of
rows and columns.
C. means have been calculated. 100
Female
Frequency (number of participants)
D. all raw data are included and accurately reflect Male

participants’ responses. 80
Question 10 60
Which of the following series of steps is the most
appropriate sequence for conducting psychological
40
research using scientific method?
A. Design research method, collect data, construct
a hypothesis, analyse data, interpret data, 20
report findings
B. Construct a hypothesis, design research method, 0
collect data, analyse data, interpret data, 0.5 1 1.5 2
report findings Reaction time (seconds)
C. Design research method, collect data, analyse
data, interpret data, construct a hypothesis, This type of graph is called a
report findings A. line graph.
D. Construct a hypothesis, collect data, design B. frequency distribution.
research method, interpret data, analyse data, C. frequency polygon.
report findings D. histogram.

SECTION B — Short-answer questions
Answer all questions in the spaces provided.
Question 1 (3 marks)
(a) What is a case study? (1 mark)
(b) Describe one advantage and one limitation of a case study. (2 marks)
Distinguish between random sampling and random allocation.
Question 3 (1 mark)
What is a scientific benefit of reporting psychological research in a journal or other professional publication?
(a) Explain what a psychological experiment is with reference to two key features that distinguish the experiment
from other research methods. (2 marks)
(b) Describe one advantage and one limitation of an experiment. (2 marks)

SECTION c — Research scenario
Answer the questions in the spaces provided. Write using black or blue pen. Your responses may include
diagrams, charts and tables.
A researcher wanted to find out whether the presence of nicotine in the bloodstream is linked to sleep loss, specifically
sleep loss resulting from spending more time trying to fall asleep.
To investigate this issue, one group of 15 volunteer students who were smokers and enrolled in the first year of
the Psychology course at a Victorian regional university (Group 1) were required to attend the university’s gym
at 9.00 pm on Tuesday evening, smoke ten, 8 mg cigarettes during a 90-minute period while listening to classical
music, and then go to sleep as quickly as they could in one of the standard single beds at the other end of the
gymnasium.
On Friday evening later that week, the procedure was repeated with another group of 12 volunteer smokers
who were also enrolled in the first year Psychology course (Group 2). However, participants in this group were not
permitted to smoke any cigarettes in the one-hour period before being asked to go to sleep in one of the beds.
Both groups were carefully observed from outside the gym by two research assistants through a monitor hooked
up to infra-red cameras. The research assistants recorded the precise time when each participant was observed to
fall asleep.
The results are presented in the figure below. The researcher concluded that neither smoking nor the presence of
nicotine in the bloodstream cause sleep loss.
Question 1 (1 mark)
Identify the population for the experiment.
Question 2 (1 mark)
Is the researcher collecting qualitative or quantitative data?
45
Mean time taken to fall asleep (mins)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Smoked Did not smoke
cigarettes cigarettes
Presence of nicotine
Identify the IV and DV.
IV:
DV:

Identify the experimental and control groups.
experimental group:
control group:
Describe the results obtained with reference to the figure.
Explain whether the conclusion made by the researcher is justified.
Describe one advantage and one limitation of the research design used for the study.
(a) Explain whether volunteer participants are required to give informed consent. (1 mark)
(b) Why is informed consent important in psychological research? (2 marks)
the answers to the multiple-choice questions are in the answer

section at the back of this book and in eBookpLUS.
the answers to the short-answer and research scenario questions are

in eBookpLUS.
note that you can complete Section a of the chapter test online
through eBookpLUS and get automatic feedback.

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2 Research

Chapter 2 Research methods 1 43

Step 6: 4. Look for and

44 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

Figure 2.4 research hypothesis: red p-plate drivers who

Chapter 2 research methods 1 45

46 Unit 1 Introduction to psychology

Step 7: reporting the

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.1

Chapter 2 research methods 1 47

RESEARCH METHODS categories based on whether or not they involve

48 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

Chapter 2 Research methods 1 49

eLesson — experimental research

BOX 2.1 Experimental settings LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.4

50 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

Chapter 2 research methods 1 51

Participants: 100 third-year university students who responded to

Use of driving simulator to test precision of driving skills

Conclusion: Alcohol consumption causes more driving errors,

Generalisation: Alcohol consumption causes impaired driving

52 Unit 1 Introduction to psychology

Sampling procedures schizophrenia

Chapter 2 research methods 1 53

54 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

Chapter 2 research methods 1 55

56 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

Chapter 2 research methods 1 57

58 Unit 1 Introduction to psychology

Chapter 2 Research methods 1 59

60 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

Coder name Olive

Episode Proximity Contact Resistance Avoidance

Mother and baby play alone 1 1 1 1

Mother puts baby down 4 1 1 1

Stranger enters room 1 2 3 1

Mother leaves room, stranger plays with baby 1 3 1 1

Stranger tries to play with baby 1 3 1 1

Mother re-enters and picks up baby 6 6 1 2

The coding categories are:

Chapter 2 Research methods 1 61

62 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

Chapter 2 research methods 1 63

3 What is the main difference between participant and

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.14

Gender bias in bullying

1 Identify the type of research method used. If not part B

QUALITATIVE AND Qualitative data

64 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

Figure 2.19 In this survey, the researcher is collecting

Chapter 2 Research methods 1 65

quantitative research obey the demands of the ‘guards’ and reported

66 Unit 1 introduction to psychology

Conducting an experiment to investigate whether having regular rest breaks during a

Observing the social interactions of pre-school children in a playgroup using pre-determined

Investigating the effects of observing violence by analysing and interpreting children’s

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.17 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.18

Chapter 2 research methods 1 67

90 (subtotal) 100 90 × 100 900

BOX 2.2 Finding percentages using a calculator

2 Research