Mathematics in the Modern World Chapter 4: Mathematics as a Tool

Intended Learning Outcomes

1. Apply a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data
2. Use the methods of linear regression and correlations to predict the value of a variable given
certain conditions
3. Recognize the importance of statistical analyses in making decisions

Activity

Use the equation given to solve for y given the values of x:

1. 𝑦 = 0.2 − 0.5𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 2

2. 𝑦 = 0.75 − 0.8𝑥1 + 0.2𝑥2 when 𝑥1 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 = 2

Processing

In linear regression, we generate equations so we can solve variables. The x and y variables in the
above activity may present real-life situations. Example: y may represent the number of goods to be
produced by a company while x may be the number of orders they got from a client. The equation
represents the trend on how much goods the client has been ordering from them. The equation is
generated by looking at the client’s past orders. This way, the company will be producing that number of
goods to always be ready to deliver them whenever the client needs it.
On the second example, there are two variables to look at. The equation may represent a trend for
the cost of a property (𝑦) based on the lot area (𝑥1 ) and the number of bedrooms (𝑥2 ).
Statistics is used in planning and decision-making. In the scenarios above, if we can predict how
many goods a client needs, we can adjust work schedules and ordering of basic materials for the goods. In
the second one, we can estimate how much a property costs based on the given variables so that we can
plan for the budget.

Abstraction

STATISTICS
- is the study of the collection, organization, examination, summarization, manipulation,
interpretation and presentation of quantitative data. It deals with all aspects of data including the
planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments.

TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS
• Continuous data
- is information that can be measured on a continuum or scale. Continuous data can have almost
any numeric value and can be meaningfully subdivided into finer and finer increments,
depending upon the precision of the measurement system.

• Discrete data
- is information that can be categorized into a classification. Discrete data is based on counts.
Only a finite number of values is possible, and the values cannot be subdivided meaningfully.
It is typically things counted in whole numbers.

MEASUREMENT SCALES
• Nominal
- used for labeling variables, without any quantitative value. “Nominal” scales could simply be
called “labels.”A good way to remember all of this is that “nominal” sounds a lot like “name”
and nominal scales are kind of like “names” or labels.
Note: a sub-type of nominal scale with only two categories (e.g. male/female) is called
“dichotomous.”
• Ordinal
- With ordinal scales, it is the order of the values is what’s important and significant, but the
differences between each one is not really known.Ordinal scales are typically measures of non-

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numeric concepts like satisfaction, happiness, discomfort, etc.“Ordinal” is easy to remember

because it sounds like “order” and that’s the key to remember with “ordinal scales”–it is
the order that matters, but that’s all you really get from these.
• Interval
- are numeric scales in which we know not only the order, but also the exact differences between
the values. The classic example of an interval scale is Celsius temperature because the
difference between each value is the same.“Interval” itself means “space in between,” which
is the important thing to remember–interval scales not only tell us about order, but also about
the value between each item.
- Here’s the problem with interval scales: they don’t have a “true zero.” For example, there is
no such thing as “no temperature.” Without a true zero, it is impossible to compute
ratios. With interval data, we can add and subtract, but cannot multiply or divide.
• Ratio
- they tell us about the order, they tell us the exact value between units, AND they also have an
absolute zero–which allows for a wide range of both descriptive and inferential statistics to be
applied. Good examples of ratio variables include height and weight.

POPULATION
- is a set of similar items or events which is of interest for some question or experiment. A statistical
population can be a group of actually existing objects or a hypothetical and
potentiallyinfinite group of objects conceived as a generalization from experience.

PARAMETER
- is any numerical quantity that characterizes a given population or some aspect of it. This means
the parameter tells us something about the whole population.

DATA SAMPLE
- is a set of data collected and/or selected from a statistical population by a defined procedure.

In Statistics, numbers are summarized data from a sample. Typically, the population is very large,
making a census or a complete enumeration of all the values in the population is either impractical or
impossible. The sample usually represents a subset of manageable size. Samples are collected and statistics
are calculated from the samples so that one can make inferences or extrapolations from the sample to the
population

RATIO
- is one thing compared to or related to another thing; it is just a statement or an expression.

PROPORTION
- is two ratios that have been set equal to each other; a proportion is an equation that can be
solved.For instance,5/10 equals 1/2. Solving a proportion means that you are missing one part of one
of the fractions, and you need to solve for that missing value.

PERCENTAGE
- is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100. It is often denoted using the percent sign,
"%". A percentage is a dimensionless number (pure number).

TWO MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF STATISTICS

• Descriptive statistics
- are statistics that quantitatively describe or summarize features of a collection of information.
Descriptive statistics aim to summarize a sample, rather than use the data to learn about
the population that the sample of data is thought to represent. This generally means that
descriptive statistics are not developed on the basis of probability theory
• Inferential Statistics
- process of drawing information from sampled observations of a population and making
conclusions about the population. Inferential statistics have a two-prong approach. First,
sampling must be conducted to be representative of the underlying population. Second, the
procedures must be capable of drawing correct conclusions about the population.
What is a statistical hypothesis?

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A hypothesis is a statement or tentative theory which aims to explain facts about the real world.
These hypotheses are then subjected to testing. If they are found to be statistically true, they are accepted;
if they are found to be false, they are rejected.

The Null and the Alternative Hypothesis

The null hypothesis is the hypothesis we hope to accept or reject and is denoted by Ho. A null
hypothesis must always express the idea of non-significance of difference.
The rejection of Ho implies our acceptance of an alternative hypothesis, which we denote by H a.

Example: More than one million children were randomly assigned to two groups: one to be inoculated with
polio vaccine, the other to be inoculated with a simple salt solution.
Ho: The vaccine did not provide immunity to polio.
Ha: The vaccine provided immunity to polio.

Level of Significance (alpha, α)

The probability of making a type I or alpha error in a test is called the significance level of a test. It
is customary to use a level of significance of 5% or 1%. A 5% significance level,thus, implies that we are
95% confident that we have made the right decision. Meanwhile, a 1% significance level implies that we
are 99% confident that we have made the right decision.

Type I and type II errors

In making a decision about a proposed hypothesis, we run the risk of making an error:

Decision Ho = true Ha = true

Reject Ho Type I error(α-error) Correct Decision

Accept Ho Correct Decision Type II error(Β-error)

Steps in hypothesis testing

1. State the problem.
2. Formulate the null hypothesis (Ho) that there is no significant difference between items being
compared. State the alternative hypothesis (Ha) which is used in case Ho is rejected.
3. Set the level of significance, α.
4. Compute for the test statistic using the formula.
5. State the decision rule: If the computed value falls in the critical region, reject Ho.
6. Compare the computed value with its corresponding tabular value, and then state your conclusion.

CORRELATION is a bivariate analysis that measures the strength of association between two variables and
the direction of the relationship. In terms of the strength of relationship, the value of the correlation
coefficient varies between +1 and -1. A value of ± 1 indicates a perfect degree of association between the
two variables. As the correlation coefficient value goes towards 0, the relationship between the two
variables will be weaker. The direction of the relationship is indicated by the sign of the coefficient; a +
sign indicates a positive relationship and a – sign indicates a negative relationship.
Usually, in statistics, we measure four types of correlations: Pearson correlation, Kendall rank correlation,
Spearman correlation, and the Point-Biserial correlation. The software below allows you to very easily
conduct a correlation.

PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION (r)

It is used if:
1. The data is normally distributed
2. The data are interval and ratio data
3. We want to determine the index of relationship between two variables, the independent
and the dependent variables.
Note: The independent variable can be represented by x while the dependent variable can be represented
by x while the dependent variable can also be represented by y. The value of r is +1, zero to -1. If the value
of r is +1 or -1, there is a perfect correlation between x and y. However, if r equals zero then x and y are
independent of each other.

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If the trend of the line graph is going upward, the value of r is positive. This indicates that as the
value of x increases the value of y increases.
If the trend of the line graph is going downward, the value of r is negative. It indicates that as the
value of x increases the corresponding value of y decreases, x and y being negatively correlated.
If the trend of the line graph cannot be established either upward or downward, then r = 0,
indicating that there is no correlation between the x and y variables.

FORMULA:
n ∑(xy) − ∑ x ∑ y
r=
√[n ∑(x 2 ) − (∑ x)2 ][n ∑(y 2 ) − (∑ y)2 ]
where:
r = the Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation
n = sample size
∑xy = sum of the product of x and y
∑x∑y = product of the sum of x and the sum of y
∑x2 = sum of squares of x
∑y2 = sum of squares of y

Example:
Below are the midterm (x) and final grades (y).

x 75 70 65 90 85 85 80 70 65 90

y 80 75 65 95 90 85 90 75 70 90

Solution:
1. Statement of the Problem:
Is there a significant relationship between the midterm and the final examinations of 10
students in Mathematics?
2. Hypotheses:
Ho: There is no significant relationship between the midterm grades and the final grades of 10
students in Mathematics.
H1: There is a significant relationship between the midterm grades and the final grades of 10
students in Mathematics.
3. Level of Significance:
α = 0.05
df = n-2 = 10-2 = 8
r0.05 = 0.632
4. Statistics:
x y x2 y2 xy

75 80 5,625 6,400 6,000

70 75 4,900 5,625 5,250

65 65 4,225 4,225 4,225

90 95 8,100 9,025 8,550

85 90 7,225 8,100 7,650

85 85 7,225 7,225 7,225

80 90 6,400 8,100 7,200

70 75 4,900 5,625 5,250

65 70 4,225 4,900 4,550

90 90 8,100 8,100 8,100

∑x = 775 ∑y = 815 ∑x2 = 60,925 ∑y2 = 67,325 ∑xy = 64,000

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̅ = 77.5
X ̅ = 81.5
Y
n ∑ xy − ∑ x ∑ y
r=
√[n ∑ x 2 − (∑ x)2 ][n ∑ y 2 − (∑ y)2 ]
10(64,000) − 775(815)
= = 0.949
√[10(60,925) − (775)2 ][10(67,325) − (815)2 ]
5. Decision Rule:
If the computed r value is greater than the r tabular value, disconfirm H o.
6. Conclusion:
Since the computed value of r which is 0.949 is greater than the tabular value of 0.632 at 0.05
level of significance with 8 degrees of freedom, the null hypothesis is disconfirmed in favor of
the research hypothesis. This means that there is a significant relationship between the
midterm grades of students and the final examination.

SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS

It is used if:
1. There is a relationship between x independent variable and y dependent variable.
2. The data should be normally distributed.
3. The data are interval and ratio data
4. We want to predict the value of y dependent variable given the x independent variable
value.

FORMULA:

y = a + bx
n ∑(xy)−∑ x ∑ y
b = ∑(x2 )−(∑ 2
n x)
a = y̅ − bx̅
where:
y = dependent variable
x = independent variable
a = y intercept
b = slope of the line
n = number of samples
∑ xy = sum of the product of x and y
∑ x ∑ y = Product of the sum of x and the sum of y
∑ x 2 = sum of squares of x
∑ x = sum of x
y̅ = mean of y
x̅ = mean of x

Example:
Suppose the midterm report is x = 88, what is the value of the final grade? (Use the data in the previous
example)

Solution:
n ∑ xy−∑ x ∑ y 10(64,000)−775(815)
b= = = 0.971
n ∑ x2 −(∑ x)2 10(60,925)−(775)2
a = y̅ − bx̅ = 81.5 − 0.971(77.5) = 6.25
The Regression Equation is,
y = a + bx = 6.25 + 0.971x
Therefore:
y = 6.25 + 0.971x = 6.25 + 0.971(88) = 91.70 or 92

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Mathematics in the Modern World Chapter 4: Mathematics as a Tool

Assessment Tasks

The table below indicates the total number of enrollees in a university in the past 9 years. The
administrators would like to know their incoming number of enrollees this year for their plans. Use linear
regression to obtain the equation of the trend of enrolment of the university and predict the number of
enrollees in 2020.

Year Total Enrolment

2011 16,0000
2012 15,000
2013 17,500
2014 19,000
2015 13,000
2016 15,500
2017 16,000
2018 18,000
2019 15,500

References

Adam, J. A. (2003), Mathematics in Nature: Modeling Patterns in the Natural World., Princeton University
Press, New Jersey.

Baltazar, et. al (2018), Mathematics in the Modern World., C&E Publishing, Inc., Quezon City

Frany, M.W.J et al. (2004). Funadmentals of Probability and Stattistics for Engineering. Trinitas Publishing,
Inc., Philipines.

Johnson, D. (2012), Mathematics: A Practical Odyssey, 7e. Brookes/Cole Cengage Learning, USA.

Smith, K.J. (2010), The Nature of Mathematics 12 th ed., Santa Rosa Junior College, Brookes/Cole Cengage
Learning, USA.

Stewart, I. ( 1995), Nature’s Numbers: The Unreal Reality of Mathematics, Basic Books, New York

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