Glossary

The use and range of applications of fibre reinforced matrix materials have increased
considerably over recent years. Consequently, a new technology has been established,
involving a number of specialized processes and techniques. Since those working
in the area may have widely differing backgrounds, it is useful to define the
more important terms used in this book.

Addition polymers Polymers formed into long chain molecules by the chemical
reaction of one or more types of monomer units, each of which has a double
bond prior to polymerization.
Anisotropic material There are no planes of material property symmetry which
pass through a point. Therefore, the material constants at a point change as the
co-ordinate system is rotated at the point. An anisotropic material in a plane
stress state has six independent elastic constants. Isotropic and orthotropic materials
are specialized cases which have a higher degree of symmetry than anisotropic
materials.
Antiplane core (associated with sandwich beams) One in which U xx = U yy = U Xy = O.
Consequently, the shear stresses U zx and u yz are independent of z.
Bifurcation A term related to the load deflection relationship of a straight axially
loaded strut at critical load. It is a point at which divergent equilibrium states
become possible and results at a branch point in the plot of axial load against
lateral deflection from which two alternative load deflection plots are theoretically
valid.
Buckle The process of wrinkling or bulging of a member as a result of elastic
or inelastic strain.
Buckling load The load at which a compression member will collapse in service
or fail in a loading test.
CFRP Carbon fibre reinforced polymer.
Chopped strand mats These are chopped strands which are held together by
means of a size. The strands are completely randomly orientated and the mats
are of uniform thickness. They are produced in various sizes, the most usual
being 1 oz/ft2 and q. oz/ft2 (300 g/m2 to 400 g/m2).
Chopped strands These are made from continuous strands which are chopped
into short lengths, usually 50 mm.
Condensation polymers Polymers formed by the chemical reaction of at least two
monomer units, with, in most cases, production of a by-product of low molecular
weight.
 GLOSSARY 247
Continuous fibre reinforcement Continuous fibres may be defined as fibres which
are continuous throughout the whole length of the laminate, resulting in the
load being applied directly to them; the stress throughout the length of the fibre
is constant.
Co-polymer An addition polymer of at least two monomers.
Critical length The critical length of a fibre is the length which is required for
the fibre stress to develop its maximum value when under a particular load condition.
Critical load The load at which bifurcation occurs. It is determined by theoretical
stability analysis.
Crystallite The most rudimentary form of an embryonic crystal that can be
identified as a certain species under the microscope.
Degree of polymerization An impression of the length of the average molecular
chain in a polymer, assessed by an estimate of the average molecular weight
and usually stated in terms of the number of repeating units in the chain.
Discontinuous fibre reinforced plastics Discontinuous fibre reinforced plastics refer
to plastics whose reinforcing fibres have length-to-diameter (lid) ratios (know as
aspect ratios) varying between 100 and 5000. Whisker reinforcements have lid
ratios between approximately 150 and 2500. Discontinuous glass fibre reinforced
polymers which consist of premix thermosetting resins, chopped strand mat-reinforced
resins and fibre-reinforced thermoplastics resins have fibres with lid ratios between
150 and 5000. The ultimate strength and modulus of short-fibre-reinforced composites
can approach the values for continuous fibre composites, providing that the short
filaments can be aligned unidirectionally and that their length is much greater
than the critical length (I) required for shear stress transfer.
Effective width This term refers to the reduced width of plate or angle which,
assuming uniform stress distribution, will give the same structural behaviour as
the actual section of the plate or angle and the actual non-uniform stress distribution.
Elastomer An elastomer is any member of a class of synthetic polymeric substances
possessing rubber-like qualities (especially the ability to regain shape after deformation)
and toughness, and which has a glass transition temperature well below ambient
temperature.
Fibre Any material in an elongated form such that the ratio of its minimum
length to its maximum average transverse dimension is 10: 1, its maximum cross-
sectional area is 1.975 x 10 mm (corresponding to a circular cross-section of 0.25 mm
diameter) and its transverse dimension is not greater than 0.25 mm.
Fibre composite material A material consisting of two or more distinct physical
phases, one of which is a fibrous phase dispersed in a continuous matrix phase.
Filament A continuous fibre.
Flexural rigidity (associated with sandwich beams or struts) Neglecting the local
bending stiffness of the faces:
248 GLOSSARY

Flexural rigidity (associated with sandwich panels) With cylindrical bending and
neglecting the local bending stiffnesses of the face:
D2 = E f td 2 /2(1- v;l

Gelcoat Quick-setting resin used in the moulding process to provide an improved

surface for the composite; it is the first resin applied to the mould after the
mould release agent and provides enviromental protection to the composite.
GFRP, GRP Glass fibre reinforced polymer.
Glass transition temperature The temperature at which a sudden change in slope
of various physical properties versus temperature curves occurs (commonly measured
in terms of the standard heat distortion temperature). It almost approximates
the temperature below which a polymer fails in a brittle manner and above
which it behaves as a leathery or rubbery solid.
Homogeneous materials The material properties do not change from point to
point in the body, although they may change with a co-ordinate rotation at the
points; thus, as long as the material properties are the same for the same co-ordinate
position the material is homogeneous. If this is not true, the material is said to
be heterogeneous.
Hybrid Composite with two or more constituents: for instance a carbon/glass
fibre hybrid. An intralaminar hybrid has plies made from carbon and glass filaments.
An interlaminar hybrid has laminates made from two or more different ply materials.
Hydrophilic The property of possessing strong affinity for water.
Hygrothermal effect Changes in properties due to moisture absorption and temp-
erature change.
Isotropic material This term indicates that the material properties at a point in
the body are not a function of orientation. The material properties remain constant
regardless of the reference co-ordinate system at a point. As a result, the material
properties are constant in any plane which passes through a point in the material.
All planes which pass through a point in the isotropic material are planes of
material property symmetry. Two independent elastic constants are necessary to
write the Hooke's Law relationship for two- or three-dimensional stress states.
Kevlar fibre DuPont company trade name for an aramid fibre.
KFRP Kevlar fibre reinforced polymer.
Macromechanics Structural behaviour of composite laminates using the laminated
plate theory. The fibre and matrix within each ply are smeared and no longer
identifiable.
Matrix A bonding material which adheres to and contains the fibres. Many
materials, such as the thermoplastic and thermosetting resins, metals, glass or
ceramic materials, can form a matrix. Resins are the most widely used.
Micromechanics Calculation of the effective ply properties as a function of the
fibre and matrix properties. Some numerical approaches also provide the stress
and strain within each constituent and those at the interface.
 GLOSSARY 249
Monomer A monomer is the low molecular weight starting material from which
a polymer is formed.
Off-axes Not coincident with the symmetry axis.
On-axes Coincident with the symmetry axis.
Orthotropic material Only three mutually perpendicular planes of material property
symmetry may pass through a point. Four independent elastic constants must
be determined.
PAN A precursor used in the manufacture of carbon fibres. PAN is the abbreviation
for polyacrylonitrile.
Peel ply Fabric material applied to a laminate to protect the clean, ready-to-use
bonding surface and peeled off prior to curing.
Plane strain Two-dimensional simplification for stress analysis, applicable to the
cross-section of long cylinders.
Plane stress Two-dimensional simplification for stress analysis applicable to thin
homogeneous and laminated plates.
Plasticizers Materials deliberately added to polymers to reduce their stiffness.
Polymerization The chemical reaction involved when, for example, a liquid polyester
resin sets to a solid. A comparatively simple chain molecule becomes a highly
complex three-dimensional one.
Pre-preg (a pre-impregnated fibre) An intermediate product conslstmg of fibres
or tows which have been coated with a matrix material such as resin. In the
majority of cases the fibres are aligned to give a flat sheet or tape. Usually the
resin is not fully cured, so that the aggregate remains flexible and the sheet can
be built up in plies to form a composite.
Sandwich beam A sandwich beam has two faces, each of thickness t, separated
by a layer or core of low density material of thickness c.
Strand This is associated with filaments of glass fibre. The diameter of a filament
is up to 1/400 mm.
Tangent modulus The slope of the stress-strain curve of a material in the inelastic
region, at any given stress level as determined by the compression test of a small
specimen.
Thermoplastic plastics A material is thermoplastic when it can be softened by
heating and hardened by cooling without undergoing a chemical change.
Thermosetting plastics A material is thermosetting when it can be changed or
has been changed into a hard infusible product by a non-reversible chemical
reaction initiated by the use of heat or curing agents.
Thick face (associated with sandwich beams) One in which the stiffness in bending
about its own axis is significant and the thickness of the faces is assumed to
have a finite value so that d is not equal to c.
250 GLOSSARY

Thin face (associated with sandwich beams) One in which the stiffness in bending
about its own axis is assumed to be zero, but the thickness of the faces is
assumed to have a finite value so that d is not equal to c.
Very thin face (associated with sandwich beams) One in which the stiffness in
bending about its own axis is taken as zero and is sufficiently thin to assume d equal to c.
Whisker Any material that fits the definition of a fibre and is a single crystal.
Wire A metallic filament.
Woven cloth This is a more refined product than woven rovings. It is usually a
bi-directional reinforcement.
Woven rovings These are continuous strands which may be unidirectionally or
bidirectionally orientated.
Yarn or tow A number of filaments in a bundle which can be handled as a
single unit. A tow is usually bigger than a yarn, having thousands of filaments
whereas a yarn usually has a few hundred filaments. A yarn may be spun and
twined from staple fibre but a tow is formed from constant filaments.
Yield point The maximum stress recorded in a tensile or compressive test of a
ductile specimen prior to entering the inelastic region of the material.
Yield stress A term denoting the yield strength or yield point of a material as
defined above.
Appendix: ASTM specifications

There is generally no equivalence between the test specification of the American

Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the British Standards Institution (BSI)
specification. Throughout the book reference has been made to BSI specifications
and the equivalent International Standards Organisation (ISO) specifications; this
appendix will give some of the more commonly encountered specifications from
ASTM for fibre reinforced polymers.

Chemical resistance

Various different test methods are in use.

Resistance of plastics (including cast/hot-
moulded/cold-moulded resinous/sheet
products) to 50 chemical reagents ASTM D 543-87(08.01)
Practice for determining chemical resistance
ofthermosetting resins used in glass fibre
reinforced structures (liquid service) ASTM C 581-87(08.04)
Reinforced plastics contact-moulded lami-
nates for corrosion resistance equipment ASTM C 582-87(08.04)

Fire and smoke tests

Test method for rate of burning and/or

extent and time of burning of self-
supporting plastics in horizontal position ASTM D 635-91(08.01)
Test methods for rigid sheet and plate
materials (used for electrical insulation):
flammability and flame resistance ASTM D 229-91(08.01,10.01)
Test methods for measuring minimum
oxygen concentration to support candle-
like combination of plastics ASTM D 2863-87(08.02)
Test method for surface burning character-
istics of building materials ASTM E 84-90a(04.07)
Test method for surface flammability of
materials using a radiant heat energy
source ASTM E 162-90(04.07)
252 APPENDIX: ASTM SPECIFIC AnONS

Smoke evolution tests

Test method for density of smoke from the

burning or decomposition of plastics ASTM D 2843-77(1988)(08.02)

Mechanical properties

Test methods for compressive properties of ASTM D 695-91(08.01)

liquid plastics [D 695M-91]metric
Test methods for flexural properties of
unreinforced and reinforced plastics and
electrical insulating materials ASTM D 790-91(08.01)

1 ensile strength and modulus

Various different test methods are in use, utilising different sizes of test specimens
and different test speeds.
Apparent tensile strength of ring or tubular
plastics and reinforced plastics (by the
split disc method NOL ring method ASTM D 2290-92(08.04,15.03)
Method for preparation and tension
testing of filament wound pressure vessels ASTM D 2585-68(1990)(15.03)
Test methods for tensile properties of fibre
resin composites ASTM D 3039-76(1989) (15.03)
Test method for flexural properties of
fibre-reinforced pultruded plastic rods ASTM D 4476-85(1990)(08.03)
Test method for in-plane shear strength of
pultruded glass-reinforced plastic rod ASTM D 3914-84(08.03)
Test method for apparent horizontal shear
strength of pultruded reinforced plastics
rods by short beam method ASTM D 4475-85(1990)(08.03)
Test method for tensile properties of
pultruded glass-fibre reinforced plastic
rod ASTM D 3916-84 (1988)(08.03)
Test method for tensile properties of
reinforced thermosetting plastics using
straight sided specimens ASTM D 5083-90(08.03)
Test methods for tensile properties of
plastics ASTM D 638-91 (08.01)
ASTM D 638M-91a
(for matrix [metric])
Test method for longitudinal tensile
properties of fibre glass reinforced
thermosetting plastic pipe and resin tube ASTM D 2105-90(08.04)
 APPENDIX: ASTM SPECIFICATIONS 253
Definitions of terms relating to reinforced
pultruded products ASTM D 3918-80(08.03)
Specification for contact moulded glass-
fibre-reinforced thermoset resin hoods
fabricated by custom contact-pressure/
chemical resistant tanks ASTM D 4097-88(08.04)

Thermal properties

Test method for deflection temperature of

plastics under flexural load ASTM D 648-82(1988)(08.01)

Coefficient of expansion

Linear expansion ASTM D 696-91 (08.01)

Adhesives

Test method for tensile properties of

adhesive bonds ASTM D 897-78(1983)(15.06)

Rigid cellular polymers

Test method for compressive properties of

rigid cellular plastics ASTM D 1621-73 (1979)(08.02)
Test method for tensile/tensile adhesive
properties of rigid cellular plastics ASTM D 1623-78 (08.02)
Test method for apparent bending modulus
(stiffness) of plastics by cantilever beam
method ASTM D 747-90 (08.01)

Plastics (thermosetting) reinforced

Test method for in-plane shear strength of

reinforced thermosetting plastics ASTM D 3846-79 (1985) (08.03)
Specification for dimensional tolerance of
thermosetting glass-reinforced plastic ASTM D 3917-84(1988)(08.03)
Test method for tensile properties of
pultruded glass-fibre-reinforced plastic
rod ASTM D 3916-84(1988) (08.05)
Index

ABAQUS 94 sandwich struts 177

abrasion resistance 136 thick face sandwich panels 177
acrylic 34 thin face sandwich panels 176
adherend thickness and joints 195
adhesion bonded joints 187 C-glass 30
adhesive carbon fibre 16, 31, 32, 33, 50, 125
shear stress 193, 194 in foot bridge construction 8
stress-strain characteristics 201 mesophase pitch 31
adhesive bonds, flaws 205 polyacrylonitrile 31
adhesive joints Cemfil fibreglass 30
modes of failure 190 characteristic equation of sandwich beam
relative strengths 189 175
spew fillet 192 Charpy pendulum (impact test) 106
adhesive non-linear model 202 chlorinated paraffin, part filler 146
AKZO 37 chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) 159
aluminium trihydrate 146 Class 1 flame retardancy 145, 146
American Express building 2 Class 2 flame retardancy 145, 146
angle-ply laminates 72, 228 Class 1 spread of flame 141, 143
antimony trioxide, part filler 146 Class 2 spread of flame 141, 143
aramid fibres 2, 33, 34 closed cell structure (foam) 158, 161
Arapree 37 closed mould technique 116
aromatic polymers 125 closed mould system 116
autoclave fabrication 116 co-extrusion 123
cold press moulding technique 119
Baekeland 1 composite joints 187
Bakelite 1 composites
blistering of composites 138 chemical resistance of 131
blow-moulding thermoplastics 122 compressive tests 99
bolted repairs 149 crazing of 138
bolting composites 206 creep coefficient 153
bolt fit 212 delamination in 57
clamping force 212 design of 94
failure mechanisms 210 fatigue beam behaviour 87
failure stress 208, 209 fatigue behaviour 59
Boltzman's principle (creepj 42 fatigue in 56
bonded joints manufacturing faults 125
double lap 200 measurements of 96
single lap 198 properties of 53
single and double lap thermal properties 131
non-linear analysis 200 composites, laminated
theoretical solution 198 behaviour of 87
bonded repairs 148 isotropic plate 90
bonding, practical considerations 204 orthotropic plate 90
bonding composites 187 composites, processing techniques 111
mode of failure 190 repair, modelling of 149
bridge enclosure 7 test procedure for
buckling flexural test 103
pin-ended columns of GFRP 229 Iosipescu shear 104
sandwich panels 179,181 impact test 105
256 INDEX

composites, processing techniques (contd.) fire penetration time 143

inplane shear 100 propagation, test method 140
interIaminar shear 103 resistance criteria for 141
rail shear test 101 resistance penetration test on structures
torsion shear 102 141
unidirectional tension 97 fire
unidirectional compression 99 optical density of smoke 145
Composites Research Advisory Group smoke generation 143
(CRAG) 54 spread of flame 143
constant rate of elongation test 96, 98 fire-smoke-toxicity (FST) 144
constant rate of loading test 96 flame retardancy, method of imparting
Covent Garden flower market 2 (to GFRP) 145
cracking of matrix material 57 flexural rigidity of sandwich beams 169,
creep compliance 46 170,233
creep of polymers 40 foams 157
cross-ply laminate 72, 227 closed cell 158, 161
crystallites 32 open cell 158
foams
delamination in composites 57 low density (rigid) 157
Die Bruck Olenbergstrasse (highway bridge), polymers, mechanical properties of 164-
Dusseldorf 8 168
discontinuous fibres 21, 22, 23
dough moulding compound 118 Gateshead (use of polystyrene for roads) 7
Du Pont Company 29, 34 gel coat 113, 114, 134, 138
Dubai Airport 2 geogrids 51, 154
durability 137, 154 geostrip 153
oxidation degradation 154 geosynthetics 34, 36, 51, 151
Dusseldorf (footbridge) 8 fibres for 35
end use performance properties of 149,
E-glass fibre 29-31 151
E-glass roving 31 geotextiles 51, 149-152, 154
elastomer 26, 163 durability of 154
elongation, constant rate of 96 GFRP rebars 7
epichlorohydrin 28 fatigue performance 60
epoxy-coated rebars 7, 8 S-N curves 59
epoxy resin 28 Ginzi, Bulgaria (highway bridge) 7
Euler buckling 229 glass fibres 29, 125
Euler critical load 229, 231 C-glass 30
Euler load for sandwich struts (modified) 81, E-glass 9, 29, 48, 49
243 R-glass 30
exothermic reaction 26 S-glass 29
expanded polystyrene 9, 135 chopped fibres 31
extrusion thermoplastic polymers 121,122 surface tissues 31
woven fabric 31
fibres 13, 28 woven rovings 31
breakage 58 glass-filled nylon 197
mechanical properties of 48 glass-filled polyester 197
fibre matrix interface 13 glass-reinforced polymers 129
fibre pattern 138 Grant-Sanders failure criterion 86
filament winding 116 Great Yarmouth (Western bypass) 9
fillers 135
film-blowing polymer sheet 12 hand-lay up technique 17, 113
film stacking 125 laminates 148
Findley's power law 42 heat deflection temperature 131
fire-behaviour of polymers 139 high modulus carbon 32, 33
fire observation high strength carbon 33
insulation 142 Hollandsche Beton Group (HBG) 37
integrity 142 hydrolysis 154
stability 142 effect on polymers 154
 INDEX 257
humidity effect 155 fibres 18, 48, 49
temperature effect 156 geotextiles 51
matrix 18, 38
ignitability 140 meta-phenylene di-isocyanate (MDI) 160
ignition, reaction to fire 140 Miyun Bridge, China 7
impact test dropweight 106 modacrylic 34
Izod 106 modes of failure of joints 190
infrared thermography 147 modulus of elasticity
injection moulding 121, 197 initial tangent 230
inorganic fibres 29 reduced tangent 230
intumescent resin 145 Mondial House 2
interface (between fibre and matrix) 13, 14 monomers 31
debonding 58 Morpeth School 2
Iosipescu shear test 104 Morrison Moulded Fibre Glass Co. 6
isochronous
stress-strain curves 43, 44, 55, 56 napkin ring test 202
creep curves 152, 153 Neste Corporation (Nestehaus) 4
isocynate 163 Nilflam polyisocyanurate 164
isometric 94 non-destructive testing techniques 107, 109,
isophthalic polyester 132, 133 147
isostrain 44
isostress 43, 45 off-axes unidirectional arrays 215
isotropic lamina 64 oligomers 28
open cell structure (foam) 158
joints, adhesive relative strengths of 189 open mould manufacturing techniques for
peel stress 194, 199 GFRP 113
shear stress 193, 194, 199 optical density of smoke 145
optical fibres 9, 147
Kelvin model (creep) 41 orthophthalic polyester 132, 133
Kevlar fibre 29, 34, 49, 125 orthotropic composites (lamina) 18,65,66
composites, fatigue behaviour of 59
Parafil 37
laminate theory 63 peel stress distribution in joints 199
lap joints 188 peel stress joints 190
double lap 188 Permali, UK 159, 162
single lap 188, 198 PET 122
stress distribution 199 phenolic (rigid foam) 157 -159
tubular lap 195 mechanical properties 159
law of mixtures 19, 23, 24, 216 phenol-formaldehyde (phenolic foam) 1,
leaching of polymers 139 158
light transmission 136 Plasticell foam 159, 162
Ludwigshafen (CFRP tendons in prestressed polyacrylonitrile (PAN-based) fibres 31
bridge) 9 polyamides 49, 125
macro analysis of fibre/matrix composites polyaramid fibres 151, 154
63 polyester
Manchester City Football Stand 3 fibres 151, 154
Marien Flede, Germany (footbridge) 8 hydrolysis 154
matched die moulds 117 isophthalic 132, 133
matched die fabrication processes 117 orthophthalic 132, 133
matrix 13 polyether 161
cracking 57 polyetheretherketone 125
Maxwell model 41 polyethylene
measurement of engineering properties coatings of 155
measurement of fibre reinforced polymers HDPE grids 151
see composites polyisocyanurate 163
mechanical joints 206 polymer foams, uses and manufacture 162
modes of failure 207 polymers 25
mechanical properties composites 147
composites 53 degree of cure of 130
258 INDEX

polymers (contd.) reduced modulus of elasticity 230

elastomers 26 reinforced soil applications 151
epoxy 28 repair of composites 146
foamed 26 resin, Crystic 146
leaching of 139 Prefil F 146
mechanical properties of 38 resin injection 119
reaction to fire of 140 resin micro-cracks 126
thermoplastic 25, 27, 34, 38 shrinkage 127
thermosetting 25, 27, 38, 111 rigid polymer foams
yellowing of 139 closed cell 158, 161
yield strength of 74 open cell 158
polymerisation 24, 26 mechanical testing 164-168
addition 25
condensation 25 S-glass 29
polycondensation 25 sandwich beams 168-176
polyol 160, 161, 163 characteristic behaviour 174
polyolefins design summary 184
anti-oxidants 154 shear stress in core 170
hydrolysis 154 thick face 174-176
oil spillage, effect on 155 thin face 172-174, 176, 177, 179
polyethylene 34, 50, 122-124, 151 sandwich coefficient 181, 182
polypropylene 34,49,122,123,151,154 sandwich panels 179
polyparaphenylene 125 buckling of thick face 181
polypropylene buckling of thin face 179
fibres 154 sandwich panels bending, simply supported
geotextile 153 182
grids 154 edge load 184
tapes 35, 151 transverse load 184
polystal 8 sandwich struts
prestressing tendons 8, 36 buckling 176
polystyrene wrinkli\lg 178
foamed blocks 9, 157 Shanghai GFRP Institute 7
expanded, for ceiling tiles 135 Sharajah International Airport 3
polysulphone 125 shear tests
polyvinylchloride (PVC), coatings of 155 composites 100, 101
polyurethanes 49 rigid polymer foams 168
rigid foam 157, 158, 160, 161 sheet moulding compound 117
porosity 126 short fibre composites 17, 22
preform moulding 117 silicone surfactant 160
prepreg 125, 126 smart materials 9
prepreg joints 126 structures 9
pressure bag fabrication 115 smoke generation (fire) 144
prestressing fibres sound insulation 135
polymers 36, 37 specification of materials for composites
steel 152 128
pull winding 120 spray-up technique 17, 111, 113, 115
pultrusion technique 7, 119 stacking arrangements (lamina) 14
horizontal and vertical 120 stress rupture
Puppo and Evensen criterion 84 GFRP characteristics 45
durability
quality control for manufacture of GFRP stress-time-temperature superposition 47
135 surface spread of flame 141
quality control of materials for composites surface tissue 31
129 synthetic fibres 34, 49

randomly orientated fibres 17 tensile tests for composites

randomly orientated long fibres 21 tests, mechanical techniques for composites
reaction injection moulding (RIM) 164 96
 INDEX 259
thermal conductivity 130, 131 ultrasonic test techniques for composites
thermal properties of composites 131 108
thermoplastic composites, manufacture of ultraviolet light component of sunlight 134
124 ultraviolet stabilisers 27
thermoplastic fibres 152 uniaxial compressive strength 77, 99
thermoplastic polymers 25, 38 uniaxial tensile strength 75, 96, 226
thermosetting composites, manufacture of urea formaldehyde 162
111
thermosetting polymers 25, 38, 39, 111 vacuum bag fabrication 115
thick face sandwich 174-176 vibro thermography 147
thin face sandwich 172-174, 176, 177, 179 vinyl polymers 34
time-temperature superposition principle vulcanization 26
46
torsion tests for composites 102 weathering of GFRP 133
toughened adhesives 188 woven fabric 31
tremerization 163 woven glass cloth 30
Tsai-Hill failure criterion 82-84 woven rovings 31
tubular lap joints 188, 195 design of, in compression 231
axisymmetric 188 design of, in tension 224
Twaron aramid fibre 37 wrinkling instability 178, 179
Type 1 carbon fibre 33 wrinkling of composite material 138
Type 2 carbon fibre 33
Type 3 carbon fibre 33 X-ray tomography 147