Soil Mechanics With Detailed Questions

110 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)
Soil Mechanics 111
Soil Origin & Its

Properties 1
 Father of Soil Mechanics Dr. Karl Terzaghi coined the term ‘‘Soil
Mechanics’’ in 1925.
 A civil Engineer is concerned mainly with (10 -15) m from top crust of
soil in dealing with small or medium size project.
 The soil particles coarser than 0.075 mm are visible to the naked eye
Surface Area
Specific Surface =
Mass or Volume
 The specific surface is defined as the total area of surface of grains per
unit of mass. A sphere has least specific surface area as compared to a
plate.
Existing
rock
Upheaval Weather action
Transportation/
deposition
Geological Phase
Erosion phase
Physical weathering Chemical weathering
 Retains same composition of  Change in mineral composition
Parent rock
 Bulky particles like as gravel,
 Plate like structure with high
sand surface area, ex- clay, silt
 Shape-Angular, Rounded,
 Crystalline particle of colloidal
Flat & Elongated size known as clay mineral
 Single grain particles without
bonding between them
Soil Deposited by
Alluvial Soil River/running water
Marine Soil Sea water
Lacustrine Soil Still water like as lakes
Aeolian Soil Wind
Glacial Soil (Till/drift) Ice
Special Points:
 Loess is a wind deposit soil (silt). It is generally of uniform gradation,
with the particle size between 0.01 - 05 mm. These deposits have low
density & high compressibility (when they are in wet form). For loess
the permeability in vertical direction is generally larger than that of
horizontal direction.
 Soil deposit due to gravity force is called talus (colluvial soil).
Various types of Soil
 Alluvial soil: Low density & liable to liquefaction in earthquake prone
areas.
 Black cotton soil: Residual deposits form basalt or trap rocks, contain
clay mineral. Very poor bearing capacity (50-100 kN/m2).
 If depth of layer of B.C.S. is shallow, Then remove its layer for making
structure.
 If depth of layer of BCS is Deep, then we use under-reamed piles In
foundation for making structure.
 Generally we use raft foundation in BCS.
 Black cotton soil have high shrinkage & swelling characteristics, its
shearing strength is extremely low. It is due to Montmorillonite mineral.
 Laterite soil: Iron oxide gives red or pink colour. It is residual soil formed
from basalt. It is soft & can be cut with knife.
 Desert soil: It is uniform in gradation (ex. dune sand). It is Non-plastic
& highly pervious.
 Loam: It is the mixture of sand, silt & clay.
 Caliche: It is the mixture of gravel, sand & silt.
 Marine soil: It has low shearing strength, highly compressible, soft &
highly plastic.
 Peat: It is the organic soil with fibrous aggregates formed from vegetable
matter in excess moisture (ex. in swamps), highly compressible. It is not
suitable for foundation.
 Bentonite: It is formed from volcanic ash. It has high percentage of
Montomorillonite.
Soil Mechanics 113
Special Point: Lithification is a process by which unconsolidated materials

are converted into coherent solid rock due to compaction or cementation
action.
Phase diagram
It is the diagrammatic Representation of the different phases in a soil mass.
Soil
3 Phase 2 Phase
(Partially Saturated)
Wa 0 Fully Saturated Dry Soil

Va Air
Vv V w = Vv Vv = Va
Vw Water Water Ww Air Wa = 0
Ww
V W
Vs Solid Ws Vs Solid Ws Vs Solid Ws
Special Point: If the voids absent in a system, it would not be termed

soil. Ex:- Granite (Aquifuge rock).
Water content
Ww
w = W  100
s
There is no upper limit for it (w  0).
Void ratio
Vv
e = V , 0  e  Infinity
s
Fine grained soil have higher Void ratio than coarse grained soil. But the
size of void in coarse grained soil is greater than fine grained soil.
Porosity
Vv
n =  100 , 0 < n < 100%
V
Special Points: For uniformly graded coarse soil having perfectly

spherical grain size when particles are arranged in
(a) Prismoidal array, emin = 35%, nmin = 25.9%
(b) Cubical array, emax = 91%, nmax = 47.6%
Void ratio is much better as compared to porosity because porosity is
define with respect to total volume but void -ratio wrt volume of soild.
Value of porosity is less than void ratio for same soil sample generally.
Degree of Satuaration
Vw
S = V , 0  S  100%
v
for fully saturated soil at shrinkage S = 100%
For partially saturated soil 0 < s < 100
for fully dry soil S= 0%
Soil Condition S (%)

Dry Soil 0
Humid Soil 0-0.25
Damp Soil 0.25-0.5
Moist Soil 0.5-0.75
Wet Soil 0.75-1
Fully Saturated 1
Air Content Percentage air Void

Va Va
ac  a   100 , (0  a  1)
Vv , (0  ac  1) V
Special Point: a = n × ac, ac + s = 1, (ac > na)
Bulk unit weight
W Ws  Ww KN  kgf
t =  , units  , ,
V Vs  Vw  Va m 3 m 3 cm 3
Unit weight of water
Ww
w = V
w
Soil Mechanics 115
Value of w changes with temperature but usually we take

 w = 9.81 KN/m3 at 4ºC
Unit weight of solid
Ws
s = V , s = Gw
s
where G = specific gravity of soil solid

Dry unit weight
Ws
d =
V
High value of d indicates more compacted soil/Dense sand.
Submerged or Buoyant unit weight
When the soil is below the water table, then a Buoyant force acts upward
on the soil solid & its saturated weight is decreased by unit weight of water.
 sub = sat – w
Special Point: Saturated soil may or may not be submerged but a
submerged soil will always be saturated.
Saturated unit weight

Wt. of Saturated Soil
 sat =
Volume of Soil
It is the unit weight of soil when all the air voids are filled with water
Specific gravity of solids

s
G =  (Unitless)
w
It is measured at 27°C by pycnometer method.
Also known as “Absolute specific gravity” or ‘grain specific gravity’.
Specific gravity: G = 2.6 to 2.75 for Inorganic soil, G = 1.2 to 1.4 for
organic soil
1
G  mineral content, 
amount of organic content
Gfine grained > G Coarse grained soil
Mass specific gravity of solid
t
Gm =  (unitless, Gm < G)
w
Relative density: It is also called density index.

emax  enatural
Dr = e  e
max min
 d max   d natural   d min 

=   
d natural   d max   d min 
It (Dr) is generally used for sandy & gravelly soils
Relative density Classification

0–15 Very loose
15–35 Loose
35–65 Medium dense
65–85 Dense
85–100 Very dense
Some Important Relationships

W V
1. Ws  2. Vs = 3. a = n × ac
1 w 1 e
t n
4. d = 5. ac + s = 1 6. e=
1 w 1 n
e G+Se
7. n= 8. se = wG 9. t =  w
1 e  1e 
G G+e G–1
10. d = w 11. sat = w 12. submerged = w
1 e 1 e 1 e
w (1   a )G  w
13. S = 14. d = 1  w G 15.  sub   sat   w
w 1
(1  w) 
t G
1
Special Points: 1.  sat     dry   sub , 2. sub  sat
2
Soil Mechanics 117
3.If in question,(a)   g / cm 2 , then  w  1g / cm3 , (b)   kN / m 3 ,
 w  10 KN / m 3 or 9.81 kN/m3
Methods of determination of water content

1. Oven drying method: It is most accurate & standard laboratory test.
• Soil sample is derived in controlled temperature (105 – 110ºC) for 24
hrs. (for sand 4-6 hrs., organic soil 60-80ºC for 24 hrs.) in laboratory.
Above 110ºC, water of crystallisation will be lost.
• In it, free water, capillary water, adsorbed water is removed except
structural water.
2. Pycnometer method: Pycnometer have volume 900 ml having
conical brass tip of 6mm diameter core.
Water
Water
Moist Soil
soil
w1 w2 w3 w4
 w2  w1   G – 1  
w =  w  w   G   1
 3 4   
 The Pycnometer method for the determination of water content
can be used only if the specific gravity of solid particles is known.
 It is more suitable for cohesionless soil as the removal of entrapped
air from cohesive soil is difficult. Therefore, w3 can not be measured
accurately.
3. Sand bath method:
 It ia a rapid field method. Hence, not accurate.
 Sand bath is a large, open vessel containing sand filled to a depth of
3 cm or more.
4. Torsion balance moisture meter method: It is useful for rapid &
accurate determination of water content. Because drying & weighing
occur simultaneously, hence it is useful for soils which quickly reabsorb
moisture after drying.
5. Calcium Carbide method
 Quick method but not so acurate. (5-7 minute)
 CaC2 + 2H2O  C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
Acetylene gas
 It is useful in embankment construction of highway.

 In it, scale is calibrated to give the water content based on total
weight (w) of the soil. So, actual water content (based on soil solid)
is to be recalculated.
6. Alcohol method:
 It is a quick field method
 It is not to be used with soils containing calcium compound or organic
content.
7. Radiation method:
 It gives water content in in-situ condition
Capsule Detector
Hydrogen atoms of
water in soil
 Loss of energy by radio-active material (cobalt 60) due to scattering
of neutrons by hydrogen atoms of soil while travelling form capsule
to detector is directly proportional to water content present in soil.
Determination of Unit Weight

1. Core Cutter method
 It is a field method suitable for soft, fine grained & clayey soil.
 It is not suitable for stoney, gravelly soil & dry soil.
2. Sand replacement method: It is a field method
 It is used for gravelly, sandy & dry soil
3. Water displacement method
 It is suitable for cohesive soils only & paraffin wax is used in it.
4. Water ballon method
 In it, volume of the pit is measured by covering the pit with plastic
sheet & then filling it with water.
 Thus weight of water calculated is equal to volume of soil excavated.
5. Radiation method: It is quick & conveninent.
 It is used for bulk density of in-situ soil.
Soil Mechanics 119
Index Properties
of Soil 2
Properties which help to access the engineering behaviour of soil (shear
strength, compressibility etc.) & which help in determining its classification
accurately are termed as index property:
For coarse grained soil, Index properties depend upon grain shape & size,
relative density etc.
For fine grained soil, Index properties depend upon Atterberg’s limit and
consistency.
Sieve Analysis -
(a) Coarse sieve analysis - It is dry analysis.It is used for gravels.
In it, 4 sieves ( 80,20,10,4.75mm ) are used.
(b) Fine sieve analysis - It can be dry or wet analysis.
· It is used for sand (dry analysis). If size is less than 75  , then wet analysis
is used.
· In it, seven sieves ( 2mm, 1mm,600  ,425  ,212  ,150  & 75  ) are
used.
According to IS : 1498-1970, The sieves are designated by the size of
square opening, in mm or microns.
Grain Size Distribution Curves
60
30
% finer
than 10
D60 D30 D10

Size 
D 60 = Size of the particle such that 60% particle are finer than this size
D 10 = effective size of particles (particles which if present alone will
cause the same effect as caused by the soil).
D 60 > D30 >D10
b e
a
c
% finer d
Coarse 75 Fine

a  Well graded
a & b Similarly graded
c  Poorly/uniformly graded coarse grain soil.
d  Gap graded
e  Poorly graded fine soil
Special Points: If there is a abruptly change in the graph, then it shows
the mixture of soil of two different geological formations.
Boulder > Cobbles > Gravel > Sand > Silt > Clay > Colloidal particle
(Size)
D60
Coefficient of uniformity Cu = D
10
(For Gravel, Cu > 4, For Sand, Cu > 6)
D30 2
Coefficient of curvature Cc =
D60  D10
(For well graded soil, 1  Cc  3)
 A uniform soil has less strength & stability than a Non-uniform soil.
• Sedimentation Analysis: Based upon Stoke’s Law.
(  s   w )d 2
Stoke’s Law: Vt =
18
V t = terminal velocity
d  diameter of the grain
 Stoke’s law valid for range of diameter of particle = 0.2 mm to 0.0002
mm
 If particle size is smaller than 0.0002 mm, then Brownian motion will
occur & if particle size is greater than 0.2 mm, then turbulent motion will
occur.
Soil Mechanics 121
h d1 h t
 d2   1 2
t d2 t1 h2
h = height through which particle falls in t-secs.
Special Points:
 Pipette method & Hydrometer method, both follow the same principal,
but different in taking sample/observations.
 Hydrometer is a device which is used to measure the specific gravity
of Liquid.
 7 gm sodium carbonate + 33 gm Sodium Hexa Meta phosphate + 1 litre
water  Dispersing Agent.
 (12 - 30) gm soil + 1 litre water  Soil solution.
Corrections in hydrometer Analysis
• Defloculating (Dispersing) Agent correction  Always negative (Cd)
• Meniscus correction  Always positive (Cm)
• Temperature correction  If temp.is more than 27°C, its positive
otherwise negative (Ct)
• Combined correction
C = Cm – Cd ± Ct
Consistency limits
It is the relative ease with which a soil can be deformed. Atterberg classified
the consistency in 4 - stages  solid, semi-solid, plastic, liquid stage.
VL
VP
Liquid
Assumed
Vdry Plastic
Semi
Assumed solid
solid
WS WP WL
V dry = Volume at shrinkage limit.
VP = Volume at Plastic limit.
VL = Volume at liquid limit.
WL = Water content at liquid limit.
WP = Water content at plastic limit.
WS = Water content at Shrinkage limit.
VL  VP VP  Vdry

WL  WP WP  Ws
Special Points: Naturally occurring water content in soil is generally

between WL & WP
Liquid limit
 It is minimum water content at which soil has tendency to flow.
 All soil at liquit limit have similar shear strength (Negligible, 1.7 KN/m2)
 Found out by two tools (a) Casagrande’s tool (b) Cone penetration.
Casagrande’s tool
Rise and W1 Flow-curve

Handle
fall mechanism
WL
Groove Water
Sample content W2
log10 N1 log10 25 log10 N2

Rubber Block Number of blows (log scale)
• Soil about 120 gm of an air dried sample passing through 425µ IS sieve
is taken in a dish and mixed with distilled water to form a uniform paste.
 Water content at which 25 blows close the groove (length-12 mm, width
at bottom-2 mm, width at top- 12 mm) cut in soil sample placed in
Casagrande’s bowl is called liquid limit.
 If the Material of base of the casagrande’s liquid limit device on which
the cup containing soil paste drops is softer than standard hard rubber,
then liquid limit of soil always increase.
Flow Index (If): Slope of flow curve is called flow index
Larger shearing
strength
W1  W2
W
If = (log N  log N )
10 2 10 1 More flow
index
W1  W2 log N
If = N
log 2
N1
Soil Mechanics 123
1
Flow Index   Shear Strength
Plastic limit
 It is minium water content at which soil is in plastic stage.
 Shear strength at the plastic limit is about 100 times at that liquid limit.
 At plastic limit, a soil when rolled into a thread of 3 mm, does not show
any crack on surface. It starts to crumble.
Shrinkage limit
It is minimum water content at which soil is completely saturated or the
maximum water content at which further reduction in water content does
not cause any descrease in the volume of soil sample.
(V1 – Vd)w
V1 – Vd
Water Water Air

V1 W1 Vd
Solid Solid Wsolid Solid Wsolid
Original Soil at Dry soil

saturated soil shrinkage limit (c)
(a) (b)
At shrinkage limit, (a) S = 1, (b) there are two phases (soil & water), (c)
no volume change.
(W1  WSolid )  (V1 -Vd )  w
Water content at shrinkage limit = Wsolid
Shrinkage ratio: It is the mass specific gravity of the soil in dry state.
 V1  V2 
   100 d
S.R. =  V d  , S.R. = 
w
W1  W2
V1  Vd
Volumetric Shrinkage =  100
Vd
Plasticity Index:
I P = WL–WP
 Soil with large IP & WL  Fat clay & Soil with low IP & WL  Lean
clay.
 If the plasticity index comes out negative, then it will be consider 0 (sand,
gravel).
IP Consistency
0 Non Plastic
<7 Low Plastic
7–17 Medium Plastic
> 17 Highly plastic
 If we add clay particles in gravel, sand etc. (coarser soil), then liquid &
plastic limit of soil particle increases.
 Low plastic soil is used for Embankment because it is easy to compact.
Consistency Index: It is also called relative consistency.
WL  W
Ic = W  W
L P
Liquidity Index
W  WP
IL = W  W , (Note: Ic + IL = 1)
L P
Consistency Ic IL
Very stiff >1 <0
Stiff 1–0.75 0–0.25
Medium Stiff 0.75 – 0.5 0.25 – 0.5
Soft 0.5–0.25 0.5–0.75
Very soft 0.25–0 0.75–1
Iiquid State <0 >1
Toughness Index: It indicate the loss of shear strength with increase
in moisture content and strength of soil at plastic limit.
IP S
It   log P
If Sl
SP = Shear strength at plastic limit
Sl= Shear strength at liquid limit
Thixotropy
It is regain of loss in strength of soil with passage of time.
Soil Mechanics 125
During Pile driving in clayey soil, frictional resistance by soil increases

due to property of thixotropy.
Sensitivity (S):
Unconfined Compressive Strength of an undistrubed soil
St =
Unconfined compressive strength of remoulded soil
qu (undisturbed)
St= q (remoulded)
u
Special Point: Stiff clay having fissures & crack have St  1.

1 Insensitive (Gravel & Coarse sand)
2–4 Normal
4–8 Sensitive (Silt & Clay)
8–16 Extra
> 16 Quick
Activity Number (Ac):
More activity means more changes in volume. BCS has montmorrilonite.
IP
Ac =
% of clay size particles (size < 2)
 0.75 Inactive
0.75-1.25 Normal
> 1.25 Active
Dilatancy: It is the volume change observed in granular material when

they are subjected to shear deformation.
• If soil is silty, water rises quickly to its surface & gives it a shiny or
glistening appearance.
Classification
of Soil 3
Soil classification is done on the basis of index properties such as grain size
distribution & plasticity. These are important systems of classification -
1. The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS): It was developed
by casagrande (1948) for the use in air field construction.Fine grained
soils on the basis of plasticity characteristics but coarse grained soils
were classified on the basis of grain size distribution.
 The soils are classified into four major groups, namely, coarse grained,
fine grained, organic soil & peat.
2. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Official (AASHTO): Soil are classfied into 8 groups from A1 to A7
with A8 for muck or peat
Group index : GI = 0.2 a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd
Where a = % passing through 75  sieve – 35 1 a 40
b = % passing through 75  sieve –15 1  b  40
c = liquid limit – 40 1  c  20
d = plasticity index – 10 1  d  20
 The value of GI lie in the range (0-20)
Type of Group index

subgrade soil range of subgrade
Good 0-1
Fair 2-4
Poor 5-9
Very poor 10-20
 If the calculated value is negative, it is reported as zero.

 Group index 0 indicates good subgrade material but group index of
20 indicates very poor subgrade material.
Soil Mechanics 127
3. Indian standard soil classification system: Fine grained soil in indian

standard soil classification are sub divided into low, medium, high on
the basis of compressibility while in unified soil classification system
it has only two categories of low & high compressibility.
Soil classification based upon grain size (mm)
Coarse Grained Soil Fine Grained soil
Boulder Cobbler Gravel Sand
Coarse Fine Coarse Medium fine silt clay
>300mm 300-80 80-20 20-4.75 4.75-2.0 2-0.425 0.425-0.075 0.075-0.002 <0.002
Special Points:
Fine sand is a coarse grained soil
BIS classified soil into 18groups
Coarse grained soil classification

Case 1: When fines (particles less than 75  m) are less than 5%
Case 2: When fines are between 5–12%
 Dual symbol is used & also called Border line case.
 Divided into 8 parts based on gradation & fines.
 For Ex:
SP-SC  Poorly graded sand with clay as fines.
GW-GM  Well graded gravel with silt as fines
Case 3: When fines are greater than 12%
Gravel Sand
IP < 4 IP > 7 IP < 4 IP >7

GM  silty gravel GC  clayey gravel SM  silty sand SC  clayey sand
Special Point: If Ip betwen 4-7, dual symbols will be used.
From Dual symbol method -

Gravel -G, Sand - S, Well Graded Soil - W, Silt - M, Clay- C, High
Compressibility- H, Low Compressibility- L, Intermediate
Compressibility- I, Poor Graded Soil- P, Organic Soil- O, Peat- Pt .
Fine grained soil classification
ne
-li
ne
U
-li
A
CH
IP
Cl MH U-line IP = (0.9 (WL - 8))
Plasticity Index CL-ML OH A-line IP = (0.73 (WL - 20))
CL Ml
7
4 ML Ol
ML OL
0 8 10 20 35 50
Liquid limit
 Classification of fine Grained soil is done on the basis of plasticity chart.

SAND
Sand particle consist of small grain of silica (SiO2). It is formed from
sandstone's decomposition due to various effects of weather.
According to natural source of sand, it is classified into following types-
1. Pit Sand - It is obtained by forming pit into soil.
 It consist of sharp angular grain.
 Excavated from a depth of about 1 - 2 m from the ground level.
 If it is free from salts, excellent material for mortar or concrete work.
2. River Sand - It is obtained from bank or bed of river.
 Its colour is almost white.
 It consist of fine rounded grains.
3. Sea Sand - It is obtained from sea shores.
 Its colour is light brown
 It is consist of fine rounded grains.
 It contain salts. So, its use is avoided for engineering work.
Special Point : Nala is not a good source of good quality sand due to the
presence of impurities (specially organic impurity), which may cause detri-
mental effect on the engineering works.
According to size of grain-
Fine sand : It is the sand passing through a screen with clear opening of
1.5875 mm. It is mainly used for plastering
Coarse sand : It is the sand passing through a screen with clear opening of
3.175 mm. It is mainly used for masonry work.
Gravity sand : It is the sand passing through a screen with clear opening
of 7.62 mm.Generally It is used for concrete work.
Soil Mechanics 129
Clay Mineral & Soil

Structure 4
 Clay particles always carry a Net Negative charge except at edges.
Various Clay Minerals
1. Montmorillonite:
Si
Al
Si
Vander wall
force (weakest force)
 2: 1 clay mineral, also called smectite.

 Bentonite is a montmorillonite clay, found in Black cotton soil.
 Highly plastic with little internal friction.
 Common in residual soil derived from volcanic ash.
Isomorphic Substitution: Substitution of metallic Ion with another
metallic Ion of lower valency but same physical size like as Si+4 replaced
by Al+3 in a tetrahedral unit.
2. Illite:
Si
Al
Si +
K Bond
 2 : 1 clay mineral, Isomorphous substitution takes place, have Ionic

bonding
 It is common in Stiff clays & in Lacustrine soft clay.
3. Kaolinite:
Al Gibbsite sheet
Si Silica sheet
Hydrogen bonding
Al
Si
• 1 : 1 clay mineral, No isomorphous substitution, Found in old deposits/

Sedimentary & residual soil, ex. China clay.
Special Point: Halloysite when air dried gets converted to Kaolinite &
both Halloysite & Kaolinite are used for making chinaware.
Properties of clay minerals
Grain Size Base IP Dry Active
exchange strength tip
capacity
Kaolinite Maximum Min Min Min Min
Illite Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate
Montmorillonite Minimum Max Max Max Max
Soil Structure:
1. Single Grained structure:-
(a) Found in Cohesionless soils such as Gravel & Sand.
(b) Under shock & vibration, they show little settlement.
2. Honey combed structure:-
(a) Found in sand & silt
(b) Under shock & vibrations, structure collapses & show large
deformation.
3. Flocculated Structure:-
(a) These have mostly edge to face configuration but, it can be edge
to edge also. Net force is attractive.
(b) Soils in flocculated structure have low compressibility, high per-
meability & a high shear strength.
4. Dispersed structure:-
(a) These have face to face configuration. Net force is repulsive.
(b) Soils in dispersed structure have high compressibility, low perme-
ability & a low shear strength.
Soil Mechanics 131
Compaction
of Soil 5
Compaction Consolidation
Reduction in volume of air voids at a Volume reduction due to expulsion of pore
given water content water from voids
Always partially saturated soil Always completely saturated soil
Instantaneous phenomenon Time dependent phenomenon
Specific compaction Technique By static load placed on soil
(use dynamic load)
Special Point: Cohesionless soils are compacted by Vibrations but

cohesive soils are compacted by application of static pressure.
Proctor Test
A definite relationship is established between the degree of dry density &
soil moisture content.
 Compactive effort is a measure of mechanical energy applied to soil
mass.
 (OMC) is the water content at which a particular soil attains maximum
dry density (MDD).
 Maximum dry unit weight obtained is a function of compactive effort &
methods of compaction for a particular type of soil.
 On increasing the compactive effort, curve shifts backwards & upwards,
OMC decreases & MDD increases.
100% saturation line

Dry density (d)
d2
zero air void line
2
d1
1
OMC2 OMC1 water content

Special Points: Zero air void line can not be practically achieved because
all air voids can not be ever removed.
OMC  Clay > Silt > Sand > Gravel, d  Gravel > Sand > Silt > Clay
NnWh
Compactive effort E =
V
NNo. of blows per layer, W weight of hammer
nno. of layers, h height of fall, Vvolume of mould
Compaction Tests:
Standard Modified
Proctor Tests Proctor test
(Light Compaction (Heavy
Test) compaction
test)
Volume of mould 944 cc 944 cc
No. of layers 3 5
No. of blows 25 25
Height of free fall 12 inches 18 inches
Wt. of hammer 2.495 kg 4.54 kg
Compactive effort 594.29 2703.88
(KJ/m3)
Special Point: Ratio of compactive effort (energy imparted), in modified

proctor test to Standard proctor test is 4.5.
Compaction Curve for different Soils:

d
GW
SW
ML
CL
CH
wc
 Well graded soil can be compacted more than poorly graded soil
 Low plastic soil (L) can achieve higher compaction than highly plastic (H) soils.
Soil Mechanics 133
Bulking of Sand
d
dmax
Air dry
dmin Complete
saturation
4-5% Water content
 In compaction of sand, intially d decreases due to bulking of sand at

nearly 4-5% water content & increase in volume is about 20-40%. Then
d increases & reaches to maximum at complete saturation.
 In volume batching in building construction, bulking of sand is considered
& play important role.
Suitability of Compaction Equipment
Types of Equipment Suitable of Soil Type Nature of project

Rammers or tempers All soils In confined areas such as fills behind
retaining walls, basement walls,
Trench fills.
Frog hammer Cohesionless soil For small restricted & confined areas
Pneumatic tyred rollers Gravel silts, sands, Base, sub-base & embankment
clayey soils, not suitable compaction for highways, airfields,
for uniformly graded Earth dams etc.
soils
Sheepfoot rollers Clayey soil, Pure clay Core of earth dams
Smooth wheeled rollers Crushed rocks, gravels, Road construction etc.
sands
Vibratory rollers Sands Embankments for oil storage tanks etc.
• Vibrofloat can be use for compacting cohesionless soils upto 12 m

depth (relatively larger depth)
Property Dry of optimum Wet of optimum
Structure after compaction Flocculated (random) Dispersed (oriented)
Permeability More, isotropic Less, anisotropic
Compressibility
at low stress Low Higher
at high stress High Low
Water deficiency More Less
Swellability High Low
Shrinkage Low High
Stress-strain behaviour Brittle: high peak higher Ductile: no peak, lower elastic
elastic modulus modulus
Pore water pressure Low High
Sensitivity more Low
Compressibility and
Consolidation 6
Settlement
 Gradual sinking of the structure due to compression of the soil below the
loading.
 Consolidation settlement is a function of effective stress but not the
function of total stress.
St = S im mediate + S1º – con soli dation + S2 º – consolidat ion
 In immediate consolidation, Expulsion of air or compression of pore air
occurs.
 In primary consolidation, Expulsion of excess pore water pressure occurs
due to increase in total stress.
 In secondary consolidation, Gradual re-adjustment of particles occurs
due to adjustment of particles into more stable configuration under
constant effective stress.
 In case of a coarse Grain sand, Having High permeability & low plasticity,
95% of consolidation occur, within 1 minutes after Application of load.
• The characteristics of soil during one-dimensional consolidation ( zero
lateral strain) can be measured by oedometer test/consolidation test.
• Soil sample in oedometer test will be in double drainage condition.
• The soil specimen is placed in the cell between top & bottom porous
stones.
General Settlement Formula
H
e0 Water
Water  V e
H  
1 Solid Solid  V 1  e0
Soil Mechanics 135
Compressibility characterstics
Virgin Compression curve
Reloading
Unloading
0
= Over consolidation ratio (OCR)

 0 = Pre consolidation stress

 If existing effective stress   0 , then soil is normally consolidated,
OCR  1
 If   0 , then over consolidated soil, OCR > 1
Coefficients in Compressibility of clay

1. Compression index cc
 cc has a constant value for a given type of soil & is not a function of
effective stress.
cc =
e1  e2 e
  H
log10 2  log10 1  2 
log10  
 1 
e
e1
e2
log 
log 1 log 2
(a) cc = 1.15 (eo –0.35 ) Remoulded soil of low sensitivity.
(b) cc = 0.009 (wL–10) undisturbed soil (by Terzaghi & Peck)
(c) cc = 0.4 (eo –0.25) undisturbed soil of medium sensitivity
(d) cc = 0.007 (wL –10) Remoulded soil (by Skempton)
(e) cc = 0.115 w, where w = water content
2. Coefficient of Compresibility (av)

e
av 

e
e0
e1
e1
e2
e2
0 1 2
3. Coefficient of volume compressibility (mv)

Volume change per unit volume
mv 
Increase in effective stress
av
mv 
1  e0 where, e0 = Initial void ratio
Calculation of Primary Settlement

H = Change in depth (settlement)
e0 = Initial void ratio.
 e
1. 
 1  e0
cc H  0   
2. H = mv   H, 3. H = log  
1+e0  0 
Calculation of Secondary Settlement:

 It is significant only for Highly plastic soil & it occurs due to readjustment
of soil particles.
c H 0 t2
H = 1+e log10 t
0 1
H 0 = height at the end of 1º consolidation.

e 0 = Void ratio at the end of 1º consolidation
Soil Mechanics 137
Terzaghi’s one dimensional consolidation equation:
u  2u
 cv 2
t z
u = Excess pore pressure
u
= Rate of change of pore pressure with time
t
C v = coefficient of consolidation
u
= Rate of change of pore pressure with depth
z
K
where CV = m 
v w
 The progress of consolidation can be shown by plotting a series of curves

of Ue (Excess pore water pressure) Against Z for different values of t.
Such Curves are called Isochrones.
Time factor (TV):
CV t
TV =
d2
d H/2
d H H
H/2
One way drainage (semi open) Two way drainage (Open)
CV = Coefficient of consolidation
d = Length of drainage path
(a) d = H (in one way drainage)
H
(b) d= (in two way drainage)
2
 2
(a) u  60%, TV = (u ) , where u = Avg. degree of consolidation

(b) u  60%, TV = 1.781 – 0.933 log (100–u)
Special Point:T50 = 0.196, T90 = 0.848
Degree of consolidation
e0  e
(a) U = e  e , eo = initial void ratio, e = void ratio at any stage, ef = final
0 f
void ratio
h
(b) U =  100 , h = settlement at any stage, h = settlement at end of
h
consolidation.
Ui  U
(c) U = U f , Ui = Initial pore water pressure, U = Pore water pressure
at any stage
Uf = Pore water pressure at the end of stress increment
Determination of coefficient of consolidation (CV)

Casagrande’s method Taylor’s method
(Also called Logarithm of time fitting method) (Also called Square root time fitting method)
T50H2 T90H2
Cv  Cv 
Dial gauge t50 Dial gauge t90
reading reading
T50= 0.196 T90 = 0.848
log (time) t
 Taylor curve is much suitable as compared to Casagrande’s method.

 CV is inversely proportional to liquid limit (wL) & Cc is directly
proportional to liquid limit.
 Value of CV decreases with increases in plasticity.
Special Point:
• During the installation of sand drains, disturbance of the soil adjacent to
the drain is likely to decrease its permeability and hence, slow down the
consolidation process. This effect is described as smear.
• It also depends on the method of installation. Dynamic driving creates
more discordance of the soil than static pushing.
• The smear effect increases with increase in drain diameter.
• The size of drain has also influence on the extent of the disturbed zone.
Soil Mechanics 139
Effective Stress, Capillarity

and Permeability 7
Effective stress concept is the developed by Terzaghi & applied to Fully
Saturated soils only.
 Effective stress relates 3 types of stress:-
(a) Total stress ()
(b) Neutral stress (Pore Pressure) (U)
(c) Effective stress ()
(    U)
 Total stress is a physical parameter which can be measured by suitable
arrangement (Pressure cell)
 Pore water pressure is also called as Neutral stress because It acts on all
sides of particles. It is measured by using a piezometer/a stand pipe.
 Effective stress (Intergranular stress) is not a physical parameter, but it
is very Important parameter in soil mechanics.
 At bottom of a pond/swimming pool, total stress and neutral stress same
but effective stress is zero.
 If we increase water table above ground level, then total stress & neutral
stress increase by same amount, but effective stress remains constant.
F
=–u
 = Effective stress
h1 Dry  = Total stress
u = Pore water pressure
h2 Submerged
Area A
F F
   d h1   sat h2 , u =  w h 2 ,  dh1 sat h2 wh2
A A
Capilarity
 Water which is held above the water table by phenomenon of surface
tension is called capillary water.
 Capillary rise is a function of Pore size.
 Due to capillary rise, Effective stress in capillary zone increase & hence
shear strength also increases.
Empirical formula:
C
h cm = e D
10
c = emperical constant =0.1 – 0.5 cm2

 Any fluctuation in the level of free water above the ground surface would
not result in any change in the effective stress at any depth in the soil
deposit.
 Bulking of sand also occurs due to capillary. It produces apparent cohesion
which holds the particles in clusters, enclosing honeycombs.
Quick sand condition

 In case of upward seepage flow, if the upward seepage force becomes
equal to the buoyant weight of soil, the effective stress in soil becomes zero.
 Quick sand condition is also called Boiling of sand because surface of
sand looks as if It is boiling.
 Quick sand condition occurs in sand but not in clay becuase in clay
cohesion exists.
 It can be prevented by lowering of water table at site before excavation
or by increasing the upward flow length by providing a sheet pile wall.
Critical hydraulic gradient
 sub G  1
icr =   1 + e = (G – 1) (1 – n)
w
icr
Factor of safety = i , ie=exit hydraulic gradient.
e
Permeability: It is the property by which water can flow through any

medium. It is also called hydraulic conductivity.
Soil Mechanics 141
Darcy’s law: In one dimensional flow, discharge through fully saturated

soil is given by
h
q = K i A or V = Ki , i
l
A= Cross sectional area of the soil corresponding to flow ‘q’
q= Discharge, i=Hydraulic gradient
h = Loss of head in length ‘L’
K= Coefficient of permeability
V= Discharge velocity or superficial velocity
Special Point: Darcy’s law is valid only for laminar flow (Re < 1) & fine
grained soil.
(a) Seepage velocity (Vs) is the true velocity of flow in which liquid
leaks through a porous medium from high head to low head by taking area
of voids into consideration.
• Discharge velocity (V) is not the true velocity .Because it consider the
flow of water take place through the whole cross section of the soil
but in reality water flow through the void present in between the soil
particles. So, it is also called superficial velocity.
• Actual velocity/seepage velocity (Vs) is given by
V
Vs  , n = porosity of soil
n
• Because n < 1, Vs is always greater than V.
K
(b) KP =
n
where KP = coefficient of percolation
Coefficient of Permeability
Pumping out test: It is useful for homogenous coarse grained soil &
large project.
2.303 q r 
K= 2 2
log10  2  (For unconfined aquifer)
 h 2  h 1   r1 
2.303 q r 
K log10  2  (For confined aquifer)
2 D  h2  h1   r1 
Pumping in test: It is more economical but less reliable than pumping
out test as it gives coefficient of permeability of stratum which is close to
the whole. It is use for small project.
Determination of coefficient of Permeability
Laboratory methods Field methods Indirect method
Constant head Pumping out From consolidation
Variable/Falling head Pumping in From particle size

& specific surface area
Constant head Falling head
permeability test permeability method
Use for coarse grained soil/ Use for fine grained soil/
pervious soil/sand impervious soil/Clay
Area ‘’a
hL Soil
h sample
L h h
2 1
Soil L Area
sample ‘A’
Area
A
q
qL QL aL  h1 
K  K ln  
hL A t  hL  A Ato  h2 
Special Point: Radius of influence,is the circle over which the effect of
pumping is observed. It gradually merges asymptotically to the water
table
R = 3000 d K Sichardt’s formula
K = Coefficient of permeability (m/sec)
R = Radius of influence in m
d = Drawdown of well in m
Soil Mechanics 143
Factors affecting Permeability

(a) Particle Size: K = CD102
e3
(b) Void ratio: K =
1 e
w
(c) Viscosity and Unit Weight: K =

(d) Impurties: More impurties, less permeability.
(e) Effective Stress: More effective stress, less permeability.
For particle size & specific surface
Kozeny-Carman equation Allen Hazen’s formula Louden’s formula

3
1 w e 1
K = C  1  e S2 K = CD102 log10 (KS2) = a + bn
A
C = 100 (CGS) n porosity

C = Shape factor coefficient a, b constants
SA = Surface area per unit volume S = Specific surface Area
Permeability of Stratified Soil
H1  ....  H n
K1H1  ....  K n H n KV 
KH  H1 H 2 H
H1  H 2 ......H n  ....  n
K1 K 2 Kn
Special Points: (Always KH > KV)

Consolidation equation:
K = cvmvw
c v = Coefficient of consolidation
mv = Coefficient of volume compressibility
 w = Unit weight of water.
Various values of the coefficient of permeability
Soil Type Coefficient of Drainage
Permeability Properties
(cm/sec)
Gravel 100 - 1.0 Very pervious
Coarse Sand 1.0 - 0.01 Pervious
Fine sand 0.01 - 0.001 Poorly pervious
Silty clay 0.001 - 0.00001 Impervious
Clay < 0.000001 Impervious
Seepage
Through Soil 8
Laplace Equation in two dimensional Flow
 2  2
 0
x 2 y 2
Special Point: Cofficient of permeability of transformed section K' =

K x K y (in 2D).
Calculation of discharge through a flow net

 Flow lines is a line which indicates direction of flow of the water particles.
 Equipotential line is the line joining the points of equal total head.
Nf  a 
q = KH  
ND  b 
Equipotential lines
a b
Flow lines
q = Flow per unit width perpendicular to the pressure plane of section

H = Total head loss
 Nf 
  =Shape factor
 ND 
ND = No. of equipotential drops
ND = N–1, N = No. of equipotential lines
Nf = No. of flow channels
Nf = N– 1, N = No. of flow lines
Soil Mechanics 145
a, b  Dimensions of an elementary square. Hence ratio of a/b is

generally 1
Special Points: Shape factor (Nf/ND) is the function of boundary
conditions only, & will change only when extent of flow is changed. It will
not change even if U/S & D/S water levels are interchanged & direction
of flow is reversed,
Methods of obtaining a flow net
Analytical method Graphical Method Capillary flow analogy

Electrical flow analogy Sand model
Phreatic Line: It is the top flow line which follows the path of base
parabola. It is a stream line. The pressure on this line is atmospheric &
below this line is hydrostatic.
Piping: When the uplift forces due to seepage on the D/S side of a
hydraulic structure is more than the submerged weight of the soil, the soil
grains are dislodged & eroded. Gradually, it results into a pipe shaped
discharge channel & finally it may lead to a failure of the structure. This is
called piping failure.
It may be prevented by:
(a) Diverting the seepage water into filter wells
(b) Increasing the creep length of flow of water
(c) Increasing the stress due to weight of the structure
Seepage force:-  w  i  V
Seepage pressure:-  w  i  Z
 Seepage pressure is the energy transfer related to soil particles due to
movement of pore water. It depend upon formation of Hydraulic gradient.It
is always act in the direction of flow.
 It is taken as -ve when movement of water is in upward direction &
value of effective stress descrease.
 It is taken as +ve when movement of water is in downward direction &
effective stress on soil increase.
Shear Strength
of Soil 9
It is defined as the maximum value of shear stress that can be mobilised
within a soil mass.
It is the capacity of the soil to resist shearing stress.
Special Point: Shear strength parameters (C, , C,  ) are not the
inherent properties of soil. They are related to the type of test & the
condition under which these are measured.
It depends upon two factors -
(a) Cohesive strength - It depend upon true cohesion (electrostatic
attraction due to addition of Ca to clay )n and apparent cohesion (Capillary
rise or suction due to negative pressure) .
(b) Frictional strength - It depend upon particle to particle friction &
interlocking of particles.
Special Point: Whatever be the nature of loading on soil, failure on soil
occurs by shearing, it never occurs by crushing of particles.
Mohr’s hypothesis: Shear stress on failure plane at failure reaches a
value which is a unique function of normal stress on that plane.
ff = f(ff)
ff = Normal stress on failure plane at failure.
 ff = Shear stress on failure plane at failure (also called Shear strength)
In Mohr diagram for shear strength, any point above Mohr failure envelope
indicate imaginary condition.
Coulomb’s hypothesis:
 ff = C + tan 
f = C' +  tan '
Where C', ' are effective stress parameters & C,  are total stress
parameters
Soil Mechanics 147
Relation between of f , , 1f &  3 f 

Based on Mohr’s & Coulomb’s failure envelope
Normal to
Normal to f 1 failure plane Shear
failure plane Failure plane strength

3 3 Applied max
f
 C 2f
3f O 1f
1

 f = 45
2
(failure plane makes an angle of (45 + /2) degree with major principal
plane)
 f  3 f  f  3 f
= sin + C cos 
2 2
-1
 = tan (sin )
1f  3f
q
2  - Angle of shearing
resistance
1f  3f
p
2
p-q plot
2   
 3f = 1 f tan  45    2C tan  45  
   
2   
 1f =  f tan  45    2C tan  45+ 
   
Where  major principle plane,  minor principle plane
 Angle of obliquity is defined as the angle b/w resultant stress on a
plane & normal stress on the plane.
 The angle of inclination of the plane at which the body begins to move
down the plane, is angle of repose.
 It is the minimum angle of an inclined plane which causes an object to
slide down the plane.
R
N
N
f=
Angle of 
friction
Inclined surface
 Angle of repose
Inclined surface
 Angle of friction is the angle between the normal reaction force & the
resulant force between friction & normal reaction forces when the
object just begins to move along the surface.
 On a space when sliding just start angle of repose becomes equal to
angle of friction.
N R = Resultant
Angle of
friction
 f = N
Horizontal Surface
Drained Condition: Effective stress analysis & long term
stability is checked.
Un-drained Condition (with Total stress analysis & stability should be

positive pore water pressure): checked immediately after construction.
Un-drained Condition (with Effective stress analysis & long term stability
negative pore water pressure): Should be checked.
Direct shear test

 It is good for free draining soil like sand & gravel, not useful for clay.
Soil Mechanics 149
 In it, effective stress & total stress are same because U = 0.
Load
Porous
stone
Water Water
Confirming
ring
Porous stone
 In it , shear normally applied at constant rate of strain

 It is quick, inexpensive & simple.
 Shear & vertical deformations are measured during test using dial gauge
Disadvantage
(a) Drainage condition can not be controlled & pore water pressure can
not be measured.
(b) Failure plane is always horizontal & predetermined which may not be
the weakest plane.
(c) Non-uniform stress distribution on the shear plane. Failure start at
edge & progress towards centre.
Volume changes
Dense sand
Shear Dense sand
stress
Loose sand
Shear
displacement
Shear strain Loose sand
Triaxial test
 It is suitable for all types of soil
 In it, pore water pressure & Volume change can be measured in undrained
condition.
 Application of additional axial stress produce shear stresses within soil
mass on all planes except horizontal & vertical planes.
 In triaxial test, Axial strain & deviator stress are determined.
a
c
c c
c
a
3 = C = confining pressure
1 = C + a, a = deviator stress.
Unconfined compression test
• The unconfined compression test is a special form of a triaxial test in
which the confining pressure is zero.
qu
f
Sample
Cu
O  1 = qu
qu
• Load is rapidly applied.So, it is an undrained test. Angle of internal

friction is not mobilized. u = 0).
• The test can be conducted only on cohesive soils like clayey soil.
• Becaause there is no confining pressure 3 = 0. So, only one Mohr circle
is obtained.
qu
f  C u 
2
1 = Axial stress at failure, f = Undrained shear strength
Soil Mechanics 151
qu = Unconfined compressive strength.
Vane Shear test

 The maximum torque applied is the total shear
 It is use for plastic cohesive soil which is very sensitive
d Applied torque (T)
T
Vane
h
h d
d
Twist-
T
f = [when both top & bottom end shear the soil]
h d 
d 2   
2 6
T
f = [when one end shear the soil]
 h d 
d 2   
 2 12 
h  height of vane used in shearing.
Here, f = Shear strength = Cu (undrained cohesion)
qu
From UC Test, Cu =
2
Cu undisturbed
Sensitivity =
Cu remoulded
Lab size Field size

Height of Vane (H) 20 mm 10–20 cm
Dia of Vane (D) 12 mm 10 cm
Thickness of Vane (t) 0.5–1 mm 2–3 cm
Consolidated drained Consolidated undrained Unconsolidated undrained

(CD) (CU) (UU)
 Drainage allowed in  Drainage allowed in 1st  Drainage not allowed in any
both stages stage only statge
 It takes long time 24 hr’s in 1st stage & 2  It takes 15 min test.
hr's in 2nd stage (quick test)
Consolidatd Drained Test

 To Check long term stability of embankment which has been in existence
from long time.
 It is used in Analysis of gradual loading condition
Dense sand Volume Loose sand

(1 – 3) change Dense sand e1
Void ecr
Loose sand ratio
ed
Axial strain Dense sand
Loose sand Shear strain
Results of CD Test
Soil Liquefaction: The phenomenon in which Saturated loose sand in

undrained condition under rapid loading developes +ve pore water water
pressure which ultimately reduces the effective stress to zero. It occurs due
to high frequency of Vibration - e.x. vibration of machine, during pile driving,
explosive blasting & earthquake shock. Liquefaction is generally associated
with sandy soil (not possible in normal clays due to cohesion between the
particles). But, highly sensitive clays may undergo liquefaction under
vibrations.
Soil liquefaction may occur due to : The weight of the soil particles
finer than 0.005 mm is less than 15% of the dry weight of the soil.The liquid
limit of the soil is less than 35%.
Pore Pressure Coefficients: It is given by Skempton. It is used to
express the response of pore water pressure to change in total stress under
undrained conditions & enable the initial value excess of pore water pressure
to be determined.
u = B[3 +  (1–3)]
U 1 = B3
U2 = AB(1–3)
U1
B =  , For saturated soil B = 1, For dry soil B = 0

U1 = Change in pore pressure due to increase in cell pressure
U 2 = Change in pore pressure due to increase in deviator stress.
 A is also not a constant, depends on type of soil, stress condition etc.
Soil Mechanics 153
Earth pressure and

Retaining walls 10
Earth presure is the lateral force exerted by the soil on any structure retaining
that soil.
 Cohesive soil are poor for backfill because of large lateral pressure.
Retaining wall:
A retaining wall (structure) is used to retain the ground surface at different
elevations on either side of it. Shear key is provided in a retaining wall to
avoid sliding.
Types of retaining wall
Depending upon the mechanisms used to carry the earth pressure, these are
classfied into following types:
1. Gravity retaining wall, 2. Cantilever retaining wall, 3. Buttress wall.
A
Ground Surface
Surcharge
Stem
D B C
Toe Heel
Toe slab Heel slab
(b) T-Shaped cantilever (c) Reversed L-shaped
(a) Gravity wall cantilever retaining wall
retaining wall
Gravity retaining wall : Plain concrete gravity walls are not used for
heights more than 3.0 m.
 In it , the resistance to the earth pressure is generated by weight of
the structure only.
Cantilever retaining wall
 When height of retaining wall >6m, then, counterfort retaining wall is
provided & cantilever is generally economical for heights of 6m - 7m.
 A cantilever retaining wall resists the earth pressure horizontal & any
other, by the cantilever bending action.
Buttress wall
 These are structurally more efficient & more economical than
counterforts.
 But, buttress reduces the clearance in front of the wall & therefore, it
is not commonly used.
Classification of lateral earth pressure
Active earth pressure Earth pressure at rest Passive earth pressure
(wall moves away from (wall does not (wall moves towards the
backfill) moves at all) backfill)
Movement tendency
of soil
Movement tendency
H of soil
Shear stress on
soil block
Passive Shear stress on
H earth soil block
On the verge
of failure Active earth Earth pressure pressure
pressure On the verge
at rest of failure
Pa< P 0
Pa= active earth pressure
P0= earth pressure of rest Movement Away from Soil Movement Towards the soil Pp > P 0
1. Earth pressure at rest

z
 x = y & x= 0 y
 x x
So x = z
 
y
z
x = K0 z

So, K0 =
 
• For cohesionless soil (C = 0), K0 = 1 – sin 
Active earth pressure Passive earth pressure

Very little movement is required to Much higher movement is required to
mobilise the active pressure mobilise the pressure
Failure plane is inclined at (45 + /2) Failure plane is inclined at (45 –/2) with
with the horizontal the horizontal
H = 0.2% of H Dense sands H = 2% of H Dense sands
H = 0.5% of H loose sands H = (5-10)% of H loose sands
Length of failure block
   
= H cot  45   Length of failure block = H cot  45  
 2  
1  sin    1  sin   
Ka   tan 2  45   kP   tan 2  45  
1  sin      sin   
Soil Mechanics 155
Earth pressure theories

1. Rankine theory (1857)
2. Coulomb’s theory (1776)
1. Rankine’s theory. Originally Rankine’s theory was only for
cohesionless soil but later it was extended to cohesive & submerged
soil.
 For Cantilever & Counterfort wall, we use Rankine theory.
 Assumptions in Rankine’s theory.
Horizontal backfill
Plastic equilibrium
(Dry + cohesionless) soil
Vertical smooth and frictionless
(a) Soil is semi-infinite, homogenous, isotropic, dry & cohesionless.
(b) Soil is in a state of plastic condition at the time of active & passive
pressure generation.
(c) The Backfill soil is Horizontal.
(d) Back of wall is vertical & smooth.
(e) Rupture surface is a planar surface which may be horizontal/inclined
(a) Passive earth pressure
PP = kp z  2c k P z = 3 = Z
1  sin   
where kp =  tan 2  45   x = PP
  sin   
(b) Active earth pressure
Pa = k a z  2c ka
1  sin    x = 3 =  active = pa
2 
Where ka =   sin   tan  45    earth pressure
 
Various cases of earth pressures

1. Cohesionless soil on a vertical smooth wall
z
H
H/3
paz = ka z, ,
ppz = kp z
k  H2 kp  H 2
Fa= a , Fp 
2 2
2. Soil with Inclined backfill

Z 
z
H P
 Fa
H/3
From above figure,
z = z cos , Pa = ka z cos 
In It,
 cos   cos 2   cos 2  

a =  2 2


 cos   cos   cos  
 cos   cos 2   cos 2  

p =  2 2


 cos   cos   cos  
ka   
Fa= cos 
2
3. Active earth pressure on cohesive soil
2C ka
a
b z0
d H
C-soil z0
h g
f e
K a H  2c K a
Soil Mechanics 157
4C
HC = 2z0 =  K = Critical depth
a
• No- contact loss= Active earth pressure corresponds to area efgh

• After contact loss = Active earth presure corresponds to area fde
4. Partially submerged cohesionless soil on vertical smooth wall
For point A
Pa = ka t z
Pa = K a ( t H1   sub (Z'  H1 ))   w (Z'  H1 ) , at point B

Effective stress
A z
t z H1
B H2
Special Point: Water pressure due to hydrostatic condition is same in all

directions, therefore hydrostatic pressure is not multiplied by ka
5. Back fill with two different soils (1 and 2)
A: Pa = Ka1 1 Z
B: Pa = Ka1 1 H1
C: Pa = Ka2 1 H1 + 2 (Z – H1))
D: Pa = Ka2 1 H1 + 2 H2)
A z 1 H1
B H2
C 2
D
Coulomb’s theory of earth pressure:

 For gravity & for semi gravity wall, We use coulomb's theory.
 In it, sliding wedge is assumed at an angle from horizontal rigid body.
 The position & line of action of earth presure will also be known in
advance.
W Rigid body
(not plastic state

R as in case of Rankine
Pp Theory)
Trial
wedge

Failure
plane
W

 R
P 
Wall
 Forces acting on trial wedge will be W, R, P whose directions will be

known.
 By assuming various trial wedges at different trial angle , the value of
P will be calculated.
 Highest value of P is for active earth presure while lowers value of P is
for passive earth pressure.
Special Points:
(i) Retaining wall are designed for Pa.
(ii) Due to compaction, Pa decrease & PP Increase.
Cantilever sheet Pile and Anchored Bulkhead

A sheet pile wall is an earth & water retaining structure which behaves as a
fixed vertical cantilevers in resisting lateral earth pressure
Soil Mechanics 159
Cantilever sheet pile
Granular Soil Cohesive soil

2C
Pa1 2C
Dredge H Zc = 
Level H>H
Dredge c
Passive Active Pressure Pa Level (4C – q )
PP
Pressure d Pivot point PP1 (H+d) (q – 2C)
Active Passive d
Pressure PP2 3 3 d Pivot
Pressure point
Shet Pile (4C + q)
d (H + d )
PP. = Pa without FOS q = H
3 3
at depth H,
Pa = q – 2C ()
PP = q – 2C ()
PP d (H + d )
 = Pa  with FOS Resultant at depth H,
FOS 3 3
1
Pp  K p d 2 PP – Pa= 4C – q ()
2
1 2
Pa  K a   H+d  Resultant earth Pressure at H +d
2
PP –Pa = 4C  q ()
Anchored Bulkhead
If the wall height is large, then support against the lateral pressure is provided
by embankment in the ground & by tie rods near the top. This type of earth
retaining structure is called as an anchored bulkhead.
Deflected Anchor
Deflected
shape shape
Sheet pite
Dredge line
Anchored bulkhead at
shallow depth Anchored bulkhead down
to deeper depth
(a) Anchored bulkhead in granular soil.
Far = Force in anchor rod
Rp = Resultant passive earth pressure acting at y 2 below the anchor
rod.
R A = Resultant active earth pressure acting at y1 below the anchor

rod level.
a
d
Anchor rod
H y1
y2 h
e
Dredge line f RA a
D
y
RP b
(KP - KA)
From above diagram

For equillibriun
Far + RP – Ra = 1
At depth ‘a’ to the point of zero pressure
Pac
a = '(K  K )
P a
Special Points:
 A cantilever sheet pile derives its stability from lateral resistance of
soil.
 Deflection of a sheet pile in a Braced cut increase from top to bottom.
Coffer Dam: It is a temporary structure constructed in river,dam, lake
etc to keep the working area dry for construction of other structure. After
the construction of coffer dam, area is dewatered by pumping.
Types of coffer dam: Earth embankments, double wall coffer dam,
braced coffer dams, cantilever sheet pile.
Soil Mechanics 161
Shallow
Foundation 11
Footings are the lower most supporting part of any structure known as sub-
structure & these are last structural elements through which load is
transferred to foundation consisting soil/rock.
Types of footings
Strip Isolated Raft/mat Pile foundation Combined

footing footing foundation footing
L L
B B
 A raft foundation is provided if its area exceeds the plan area of the
building by 50%. It is a combined footing that covers the entire area
beneath a structure and support all the walls and columns. IS 2950:1981
for design of raft foundation.
 The weight of footings is assumed as 10% of the weight transferred to
the column
 The minimum depth of building foundation on sandy soils is 0.8m to 1m,
rocky soils is 0.05m to 0.5m & clay soils is 0.9m to 1.6m
Strip Foundation
 For a number of columns constructed in a row, the type of foundation
used is strip foundation.
 The foundation is called strip foundation because L > > B
B
Strap footing: Straps are provided to restrain the overturning force due
to eccentric load on exterior footing.
 These are used where the base for exterior column must not project
beyond the property line.
 It consists of two or more footings of individual columns, connected
by a beam, called a strap.
Column B
Column A
Strap beam
Footing of column A
Strap footing
Special point: A raft foundation is used when soil has low bearing ca-
pacity, such that there is chances of differential settlement.
Stepped footing Raft foundation Circular footing
Columns
Elevation
Plan
Types of foundation Use of foundation

Closely spaced columns
Combined footing resting on compressible
soil.
Micro piles Loose sand
Following are the general requirement for foundation

(a) Settlement of the foundation should be within permissible limits.
(b) Foundation must be safe against shear failure.
(c) Foundation should be located at such depth, such that its performance
is not affected by seasonal volume changes.
Soil Mechanics 163
Types of footings (As per Terzaghi)

Shallow foundation Deep foundation
DF DF
B 1 B >1
Ex:- Isolated footings Ex:- Pile foundation
combined footing,
raft foundation
Basic Terms
1. Gross Pressure or Gross Loading Intensity(q): It is the total
pressure at the base of the footing due to weight of the super-structure,
weight of the earth fill & self weight of the footing.
P
P Df
qg =  D f
B2
B
2. Net Pressure Intensity: It is the excess of gross pressure to over burden
pressure.
qnet = qg– Df
P
For safe design,  qnet-allowable
B2
3. Ultimate bearing capacity (qu): It is the maximum gross intensity of
loading that the soil can support before it fails in shear.
4. Net ultimate bearing capacity: It is the minimum net pressure
causing shear failure of soil.
P
qnu = qu – Df =
B2
5. Gross safe bearing Capacity:
qnu
qs =  D f
FOS
6. Net Safe bearing Capacity:
qnu
qns = , where FOS is generally 2-3 adopted.
FOS
7. Allowable bearing pressure: It is the maximum net intensity of

loading that can be imposed on the soil with no possibility of shear
failure or the possibility of excessive settlement.
Special Point: It is smaller of Net safe bearing capacity & safe bearing
pressure.
8. Safe bearing Pressure: It is the maximum net intensity of loading
that can be allowed on soil without the settlement exceeding the
permissible value.
Special Point: No factor of Safety is used when dealing with settlement.
(Calculation of Bearing Capacity)

Analytical methods Building codes Field test methods
General shear failure Rankine’s method Standard penetration test
Punching shear failure Bell’s theory Plate load test
Local shear failure Prandtl method Static cone penetration test
Terzaghi method
Skempton’s method
Meyor’s method
Hensen’s Recommendations
Analytical Methods
Based on shear failure criteria
1. General Shear Failure:
P Heaving
Failure load General shear failure of soil
Fa
ilu
re
Settlement
Well defined
pl
an
Passive Passive
failure plane
e
E.P. E.P.
 Over consolidated clay with low compressibility

 Well defined failure pattern, large heaving will occur.
 Occurs after plastic equilibrium state is reached.
 Brittle type stress-strain curve
 Failure due to tilting of foundation
 Occurs in soil with relative density > 70%
2. Local Shear Failure:
Soil Mechanics 165
P
Small
Load Intensity heaving
Settlement
Failure plane
 Slight heaving of soil adjacent to foundation
 Foundation does not tilts
 Partial development of state of plastic equillibrium
 Failure is not sudden
 Plastic stress-strain curve
 Occurs in loose sand with relative density (30-–70)%
3. Punching Shear Failure:
Load
Settlement
1 1
1 1
 No heaving of adjacent soil
 Deep foundations generally fail by punching only
 No tilting of foundation
 Shearing in vertical direction around the edge
 Very loose sand with relative density less then 30%
Parameter General shear failure Local Shear failure

1. Friction angle () > 36º <29º
2. Strain at failure  5º  15º
3. Relative density > 70% < 30%
4. SPT number > 30 <5
5. Void ratio < 0.55 > 0.75
6. Unconfined Compressive Strength > 100 kN/m2 < 80kN/m2
Building Codes
1. Rankine’s Method (for -soil):
 
qu  D f tan 4  45  
 
2
 1  sin   Df
qu  D f  
   sin  
2. Prandtl Method (for C – soil):
qa = CNC +  Df Nq + 0.5 B  Nr (For strip footing)
For C- soil , NC = 5.14, Nq = 1, N= 0
3. Bell Theory (for C – soil):
qs = CNC + DfNq
for pure clays C = 4, Nq = 1
4. Terzaghi Method (for C– soil): It underestimate bearing capacity of soil.
 Strip footing at shallow depth (Df/B 1)
 General shear failure governed by Mohr’s criteria
 Shear resistance of soil between ground surface & footing base is
neglected
D B E
q q q q qq
u u
q
Df
q = Df q

F 45º– 
2
45º– 
2 X I Y 45º– 
2 45º– 
2 G
III C Z C III Soil
H II pp pp II I

c

(a) Log-spiral curve

Failure Plane
Failure Plane
Zone I  Zone of elastic Equilibrium
Zone II  Radial Shear Zone
For C –  soil  logarithmic shape, For C-soil  circular shape
Zone III  Rankine Passiave Zone, Passive plastic Equilibrium with
 
 45   angle with the Horizontal.
 
For strip footing,
q u = CNC + Df Nq+ 0.5 BNr
q nu  CN C  (N q  1)q  0.5BN 
Due to cohesion, Due to Over burden, Due to soil in Shearing Zone
Special Point: Nc , Nq, Nare the functions of  only. Hence the bearing
capacity increases as the value of increases.
For clayey soil (= 0) NC = 5.7, Nq =1, N= 0
Modification in Terzaghi’s Equation
1. For Circular footing
Soil Mechanics 167
qnu = 1.3 CNC + q (Nq–1) + 0.3 BNr

2. For Square footing
qnu = 1.3 CNC + q (Nq–1) + 0.4 BNr
3. For rectangular footing
 0.3 B   0.2B 
qnu = 1   CN C  q(N q  1)  1   (0.5 BN  )
 L   L 
Special Point:
Load carrying capacity in order - Strip < Circular < Square Footing
4. For local shear failure ( < 29º)
2 2
Cm  C, (tan m) = tan 
3 3
From Cm & m, find NC, Nq, N
2
qnu = CN C   q (N q   1)  0.5BN'
3
5. For water table, in strip footing
y
Df c
Df – y
PF
x
B b
Nr B–x
Df + B
a
(a) For (a)  when water table below (Df + B) (No effect)
qnu = CNC + tDf(Nq – 1) + 0.5 Bt N
(b) For (b)  when water table between Df & (Df + B)
qnu = CNC + tDf(Nq – 1) + 0.5 (xt + (B – x)sub)N
(c) For (c)  when water table between 0 & Df
qnu = CNC + [ty + (Df – y)sub] (Nq – 1) + 0.5 B subN
Another way of modification due to water table
qnu = CNC + Dft(Nq – 1)Rw + 0.5BtN Rw'
 D  w D
Rw = 0.5 1  w  , when 0 < D  1
 Df f
 
 D  Dw 
R w = 0.5 1  w  , when 0 < 1
 B  B
Dw
1
Dw
Rw , R w
0.5
Dw Dw 1
0 Df B
Special Point:
 The rise of water Table in cohesionless soils upto ground surface reduces
the Net ultimate Bearing capacity by 50%.
6. Skempton’s Method
Applicable only for saturated clay & to deep foundations also.
q n u = CN C
‘C’ can be found out from
(i) U–U test
(ii) Vane shear test
(iii) Unconfined compression test
For value of NC
(a) Strip footing
 Df  Df Df
NC = 5 1  0.2 ,  2.5 (for  2.5, NC = 7.5)
 B  B B
(b) Square/circular footing
 Df  Df Df
NC = 6 1  0.2 B  , B  2.5 (for  2.5, NC = 9)
  B
(c) For rectangular footing
 Df  B Df
NC = 5 1  0.2  1  0.2  ,  2.5
 B  L B
Df  0.2B 
For  2.5, NC = 7.5 1  
B  L 
7. Meyerhoff’s Method (C- soil)
• Applicable for both shallow & deep foundation.
• Failure surface is assumed to go above the foundation level.
Soil Mechanics 169
qu = CNCSCdCiC + qNqSqdqiq + 0.5BNSdi

where S, i, d are emperical correlation factors for shape, inclination,
depth. For -soil, NC = 5.14, Nq = 1, N = 0
Field Tests
1. Standard Penetration Test (IS 2131:1981)
Bore holes
Df
X
B 150mm 150mm
150mm 300mm Reading
(1.5-2)B st
1reading Y
150mm Noted
150mm
300mm
nd
2reading Z
 For Granular soils only
 The split spoon sampler is allowed to penetrate into the soil by applying
Impact load of 65 kg having a free fall of 75 cm.
 N-value is determined at selected number of bore holes & average value
of corrected N is calculated for the depth from Df + (1.5–2) B.
 Any value greater than 50% of the average value is rejected & new
average value is found out.
 N  Relative Density
<4 25–30 0
4–10 27 –32 15
Over burden Correction
 It is necessary because the N-value will have effect on it due to
confinement of soil at various depth.
 350 
N1 = N 0   , N0 = observed SPT value
   70 
Special Point : STP-N value recorded in clayey deposit dose not require
corrections for overburden pressure & dilatancy
Dilatancy correction required only in saturated fine sand or silt.
• It is more significant in case of fine dense sand (N1> 15 ) because it
has tendency to dilate under rapid loading & -ve pore pressure will develop.
1
N2 = 15  (N1  15)
2
2. Plate Load test: (IS 1888–1982)
Girder
Hydraulic jack
Pipe arrangement
Dial gauge
Plate
BP
5 × BP
 Circular/square bearing plates of mild steels are used, having thickness

25 mm and size range (300-750) mm.
 Significant only for cohesionless soil
 It is used to calculate
(a) Allowable bearing capacity
(b) Ultimate bearing capacity
(c) Safe settlement of foundation
For Granular Soil
quf B f

qup BP
2
Sf  B f  B  0.3  
P
=     , where B , B in metres
SP  BP  B f  0.3   f P
For Clayey soil quf = qup

Sf Bf

SP BP
3. Static cone penetration test (CPT):
 Particularly for soft clays, silts & fine to medium sand deposits.
Soil Mechanics 171
 Cone area 10 cm2, Apex angle 60º

 Continuous record of soil resistance
 Rate of pushing cone 20 mm/sec upto depth of 100 mm.
Holes 3 mm dia
150 mm
60 mm dia
Slurry
65 mm
Allowable Bearing Capacity (QA net)
Peck Henson’s Formula
qa(net)= 0.41 NS Cw
 Dw 
Cw = 0.51 D  B
 f 
N = corrected SPT N-value, Cw = Water table correction factor
S = Permissible settlement (mm), Dw = depth of WT below ground
Settlement of foundatin:
S = Simmidiate + S1° + S2º
qn B(1    )
Where Simmediate = If
ES
Simmediate  Elastic settlement for both sandy & clayey soil,
E s = modulus of elasticity, =Poisson’s ratio
I f = Influence factor = f (shape, rigidity of structure)
Srigid  Sflexible  0.8
immediate immediate
Deflected shape of Footings
Clayey Soil Granular soil
Flexible Footing
Settlement varies,
Pressure constant
Rigid
Footing
Settlement constant
Pressure varies
Permissible Settlements in Shallow Foundation

Total
settlement (mm)
Isolated footing on clay 65
Isolated footing on sand 40
Raft on clay 65-100
Raft on sand 40-65
Permissible Angular Distortion: In case of large frame strulcture,

1
angular distortion must not exceed in general and if all kind of
500
minor damages are to be prvented, then angular distortion must not
1
exceed
1000
Soil Mechanics 173
Deep Foundation 12
 Pile: Small diameter shaft which is driven or bored into ground.
 Piers and wells: These are large diameter shafts constructed by
excavation & sunk to required depth.
Classification of Piles based on various factors -
(a) Function/Action - Fender, sheet, batter, tension (uplift), load bearing etc.
(b) Installation method - Driven, jack, screw & Bored ( cast in-situ) piles.
(c) Material - Steel, timber, concrete & composite piles.
(d) Displace-ment of soil - Displacement and non-displacement piles.
(e) Mode of load transfer - End bearing, friction and combined piles.
 Friction (floating) pile: These are used in soft soil clay.
 End bearing piles: These are used in stiff clay, Dense sand.
 Tension or uplift piles: These are anchor structures subjected to
hydrostatic pressure or overturning moment.
 The advantage of a concrete pile over a timber pile is no decay due to
termites, no restriction of the length & not necessary to cut below the
water mark
 Fender & dolphin piles: Thses protect water-front structure against
impact from ships & other floating objects from the abrasion or impact.
 Franki pile:- It has an enlarged base of mush-room shape, which gives
effect of a spread footing. It is best suited to granular soil. It is more useful
w where a bearing stratum of limited thickness can be reached at reason-
able depth.
End bearing piles

Friction pile
 Compaction pile: These compact loose granular soil. It itself do not

carry any load. It may be made up of sand.
 Anchor pile: Anchor against horizontal pull form water or sheet piling.
 Batter piles: These resist horizontal & inclined forces, especially in
water front structure. These are drive at an inclination to resist large
horizontal inclined forces
 Displacement Piles: It displaces the pile laterally or upward.
 In case of clays, large displacement piles remould the soil to a distance
of 2 times the diameter of pile.
 In loose sand, a pile densifies the sand upto a distance of 3.5 times the
diameter or pile measurd from the centre of pile.
Non-displacement piles: These are bored piles. Such piles are formed
in the soil by boring or excavation & then these voids are filled with concrete
sides are either supported by casing or by Bentonite slurry.
Special Point: Driven concrete piles are generally of diameter upto 500
mm. But bored piles may be even 2-3 m.
1. Static formula
Qu = Qpu +Qf
Qpu= qpu. Ab
Qf= Fs. As
Where qpu= Unit point bearing resistance
Qu = Ultimate load
Qf = Ultimate skin friction.
Qpu = Ultimate point bearing load
Ab = Area of base
As = Surface area of pile in contact with soil.
Fs = Unit skin friction resistance
So Qu = qpu Ab + Fs As
For C –  soil q p u = CNc + DF Nq + 0.5 BN
Neglecting 0.5 B N wrt. Df as B <<< Df
So, q p u = CNc + Df Nq
for C – soil qpu= CNc
(a) Static formula in driven granular soil
Q u = (Df Nq) Ab + Fs As
where F s = K avg tan 
For dense sand, Df = 20 (diameter of pile)
From loose to medium sand, Df = 15 (diameter of pile)
Soil Mechanics 175
For values of K and S
Pile material  Value of K
Loose Dense
Steel 20º 0.5 1
Concrete 3/4  1 2
Timber 2/3  1.5 4.0
Special Point: As per IS code =  & K = 1 – 3 for driven piles in loose
to medium sand
When there are various layers of soil, then
Qp = K tan (avg1.A1 + avg2 A2 +... + avgn An)
(b) Static formula in bored granular soil.
 Point bearing of bored cast in situ piles = 0.5 (point bearing resistance
of driven piles.)
 Due to boring, the value of K becomes very small (0.5).
 Rest remaining calculations as above.
(c) Static formula for piles in clay.
 Static formulae are suitable for friction piles driven through cohesive
soils.
Q u = (CubNc) Ab +  (Cu)As
Where C u = Undrained cohesion in the embedded length of pile.
C ub = Undrained cohesion at the base of the pile
N c = 9 (By skempton).
 = Depends on adhesion between soil & pile called
adhesion factor
 = 1  for very loose clays
 = 0.3  for very stiff clays
Special Points: Smaller the undrained strength, softer is the consistency.
2. Dynamic formula: It is based on resistance to penetration, hence used in

driven piles only
 Dynamic formulae are suitable for friction piles through cohesionless soil.
Energy Imparted = Work done in pile driving
Qu × S = W × H
(a) Engineering News Formula
WH
Q allowable =
FOS (S + C)
Where H = Height of fall in cm
W = load in Kg
S = Settlement/blow in cm
= last 5-blows of drop hammer also called, as real
set per blow.
= last 20 blows of steam hammer.
C = Emperical factor
= 2.5 cm for drop hammer
= 0.25 cm for single acting steam hammer.
FOS = 6
(b) Modified Hilly Formula:
Wh
Ultimate Driving Resistance (R) =
C
S+
2
Where W= Weight of hammer (Tonnes)
S = Final set per blow (last– one blow – cm)
h = Height of fall (cm)
C = Total elastic compression per blow (of soil + pile + Dolly)
 = Efficiency of blow.
Negative Skin Friction (Down drag)
Filled up/loose
Nagative Leff unconsolidated Negative
skin friction layer skin friction
Frictional Natural stiff Frictional

resistance soil resistance
(a) Single pile (b) Pile group

 It is a phenomenon, which occurs when a portion of soil layer surrounding
a pile settles more than the pile.
Soil Mechanics 177
 It reduces the load carrying capacity of pile/pile group.

 It is develop due to lowering of ground water table, sudden compression
loading etc.
 It occurs in soft/filled up/loose unconsolidated layers of soil.
 It can be prevented by providing a casing around the pile/by providing a
bitumen coting around the precast pile.
Under Reamed Piles
Bulb
Bulb
B1
(a) (b)
Single under- Double under-
reamed pile reamed pile
 Suitable for expansive soil like as black cotton soil.
 These are bored, cast-in-situ concrete piles with a one bulb/more bulb.
 Bulb help in increasing the load carrying capacity of pile.
 IS: 2911 Part 3 (1980) recommended a maximum of two bulb.
 Diameter of bulb is taken as 2-3 times shaft diameter.
 Minimum horizontal spacing of piles should be two times the bulb diameter
under normal conditions.
 Vertical spacing between the two bulbs should not be less than 1.5 times
bulb diameter for the bulb diameter upto 30 cm.
3. Pile load test: (IS 2911)
 It is considered to be most reliable as it is an in-situ test.
 It is the only direct method for determining the allowable loads on the piles.
 Initial pile load test is used to check the allowable load or settlement at
working load.
 Routine pile load test is done for working piles for checking the settlement
under working load.
 Types of pile load test -
(a) Pull load, (b) Lateral load, (c) Cyclic load, (d) Vetical/Compression
Cyclic load: It is carried out to determine skin friction & end bearing
separately for a pile load on a single pile. It is generally an initial test.
Special Points:
 Working pile is a pile which is a part of foundation & is being used for
the purpose of testing at present.
 Test pile is a pile which is especially bored for the purpose of conducting
test & will not be the part of foundation in future.
 As per IS : 2911 Part IV for more than 200 piles, there should be a
minimum of two initial test but routine test is done on 0.5% to 2% of
total number of piles.
 Ultimate load will be determined from the load settlement curve
Allowable load on single pile: It will be the minimum of the following
cases:
(a) 2/3rd of the load at which total settlement is 12 mm.
(b) 50% of the ultimate load at which total settlement is equal to the
(1/10) of the pile diameter.
(c) 2/3rd of final load which cause a net settlement of 6 mm.
Group Action of Piles

Minimum number of piles driven are 3, but in case of bored piles single pile
can also be used.
P
Pile cap
8
7
4 2
1
5
Free standing pile used in 3 6
expansive soil
Special Point: To avoid tightening of ground, pile in sand should begin at

centre & then moved out-ward.
Qug
Group efficiency  =
nQ u
Soil Mechanics 179
Q ug = ultimate load capacity of pile group

n = No. of piles.
Q u = ultimate load capacity of single pile
Special Points: Minimum spacing between piles according to I.S code
 For friction piles = 3 × Diameter
 For point bearing piles = 2.5 × Diameter
 For loose sand or back filled soil = 2 × Diameter
 In case of non-circular piles, diameter of the circumscribed circle is
taken as diameter
Ultimate bearing capacity of pile group
In sand - The group efficiency of driven piles in loose or medium sand in
larger than one due to the compaction of soil from vibrations but in dense
sand efficiency can be less than one. Therefore, for design purpose we
consider   1 . So, Qug = nQu
In Clay - (a) Individual pile failure occurs when S > 8D.
(b) Block failure occurs when spacing in the range (2 - 3)D
Qug = CubNcAb +  CuAs
Safe load capacity
 minimum of [Qug , nQu ] 
Qs =  FOS

 
Special point : The load carrying capacity of a pile group is not necessarily
equal to the sum of the capacity of the individual piles.
Converse labarre pile group efficiency

  (n  1)m  (m  1)n 
g = 1 
90  mn 

d
tan  =  
 s
s = Centre to centre spacing.
d = Diameter of pile
m = No. of rows
n = No. of piles in a row.
Settlement of pile groups
1. Settlement of pile group in clays

B
P
P
Embeded 2 L LB Area = (B × L) B
length L 3 Raft 2L
of pile 3 + H/2
H/2 A s 2 H
2 H
1 2 2
1 Centre of clay 1
Hard strata layer
(a) When pile is driven in uniform clay deposit
CC  o   
H = 1  e H log   
0  o 
P
 =  H  H
 B +  L + 
 2  2
2 H
o =  L +  t
3 2
(b) When piles are driven into strong stratum through an overlaying
weak stratum
L1
P Soft soil
LB (weak soil)
2L (Strong soil)
L2 3 2
Strong soil stratum

H H/2
2 2
A
1 1
Rock
In it, depth H is measured from 2 L 2 to the bottom solid surface

3
where L2 is the depth of embedment in strong soil.
Soil Mechanics 181
CC  o   
H = 1  e H log   
o  o 
Where,  o is measured at point A (mid depth of H)
(c) In case of bored piles of end bearing piles resting on firm stratum
In it, H is measured from the bottom of piles to the bottom hard
strata
P Strong stratum
LB throughout
Strong
clay stratum
H 2
1 A
Rock
CC  o   
H = H log  
1  eo  o 
 o = effective stress at point A
2. Settlement of pile groups in sand

2
Sg  4B + 2.7 
Group settlement ratio ( )  
Si  B + 3.6 
Sg
Si
B
S g = Group settlement at the same load of pile group.
Si = Settlement of individual pile calculated from the pile
B = Size of pile group in meter.
Vertical Stress 13
Vertical stress due to concentrated load
Vertical Stress due to concentrated load
Boussinesq’s Equation Westergaard’s Equation
Use for isotropic soil Use for An-Isotropic soil
It provides conservative value and is Poisson’s ratio assumed zero
commonly used in soil It's result are more close to field.
engineering problems Fenske Chart is based upon it.
Newmark Chart is based upon it.
1Q 1
3 Q 1 z 
z  w 2
z  2 3/ 2
b
2 z   r  2 5/ 2
2
r  
1  2   
1      z 
  z 
y P(x ,y, z)
z
r
Special Point: If  1.5, then z  z
z B w
Soil Mechanics 183
Vertical stress due to strip load
Point P below the Point P not below

centre of strip the centre of strip
q
–b q +b
2
X X X 1
2
 
P P
Z Z
q q
z  (2  sin 2 z  (2  sin 2 cos 2
 
Vertical stress due to line load
2
 
  q
2q  1  x
z   
z 2 P(x, z)
1  x  
 z  y
    z
Vertical stress due to a circular area

z = q (1–cos3)
q
2
P
Z
Newmark’s Influence chart: It is based on Boussinesq’s equation to
calculate horizontal stress, vertical & shear stress due to uniformly loaded
area of any shape (regular or irregular) below any point, inside or outside
the loaded area
1
 = qN
m n
n = No. of radial lines (Generally 20)
m = No. of concentric circles (Generally 10)
N = Equivalent no. of areas
q = Intensity of load
Special Point: All the area units will have equal influence at the centre
despite the area is inside or outside the loaded area, it will have the same
influence at the centre of the chart.
Approximate methods
Trapezoidal method Equivalent load method Stress isobar method

L q/unit Q2 Q3
area
Q4 0.6 q
B Q1
0.4 q 1.5B
1
n rr 0.2 q
rr
nz B nz P
q(B×L)
z = (B+2nz)(L + 2nz) z =  z1  z 2   z3  ...... 0.2 q = 20% Stress isobar
Q Q
 z1 = K B 21 ,  z  K B 22 Area bounded by 0.2 q
z 1
z 2 2
Soil Mechanics 185
Stability of
slopes 14
Assumption in analysis of slope stability
(a) Shear parameters of the soil are constant along any possible slip
surface.
(b) Slope–stability problem is a two dimensional problem.
Stabillity of Infinite Slope

f
F.O.S =

C   tan 
F.O.S = z cos  sin 
 = z cos2 

3  = z sin   n = z cos 

 = z cos  sin  2 n =  Z cos2
1 z = z cos 
2
C +z cos  tan 
(i) F = (for c-  soil)
z cos  sin 
tan 
(ii) F = (for C = 0)
tan 
(iii) F =1, & Z = HC then
C
HC =  cos 2   tan   tan 
pe
slo
Mohr’s failure
fe
envelope
sa
Un
e
lop
afes
S
 

If  <  , then F > 1

C 2
(d) Sn =   cos   tan   tan 
C
So, Sn is a dimensionless Quantity
Stability of Finite Slope
(a) Swedish Circle Method: Surface of sliding is assumed as "arc of
circle"
Face/slope failure Toe failure (most Base failure

(soil close to the common mode (soil below the toe is
toe is quite strong) of failure) soft & slope is flat)
depth factor < 1 depth factor = 1 depth factor > 1
Purely cohesive soil Cohesive frictional soil

0
 R
B C
0 6
R R
5 N6
 B C
4 W6T
R d 3 S1 6
1 2
C.G A N5
A W S1 N 1 W1 W5
T1 T 5
C = cR
W2 =N2W W4 N5
3
T2=0 T3 N3T4
CR 2  CR + N tan 
F= F
Wd T
(b) Taylor’s stability number: It is a dimensionless parameter. It is
obtained for FOS wrt cohesion but the factor of safety wrt friction F
is considered to be unity.
Soil Mechanics 187
C C
Sn = 
Hc Fc H
Maximum theoretical value = 0.5 & maximum practical value = 0.261
(c) Friction Circle Method: It is based on the assumption that the
resultant force R on the rupture surface is tangential to a circle of
radius r = R sin which is concentric with the trial slip circle.
R sin 
R sin m 0
B C
C.G.
F W D F1
A C F
W
CCm
(a) (b)
 Total stress approach is used
 Friction is assumed to be fully moblised
C
FC = C
m
tan  tan 
F = tan   tan 
m
(d) Fellinious Methods: For purely cohesive soil.
The method of slices for determination of stabilty of the slope was first
suggested by 'Fellineous' in 1926.
According to this method.
Cr    N
F .O .S 
T
where,
 = Friction coefficient of soil
C = Cohesion of soil
N = Normal component of weight of soil
T = Tangential component of weight of soil
Soil Exploration 15
The field & laboratory studies carried out for obtaining the necessary
information about characteristics including the position of GWT is called
soil-exploration. Following are two stages in it,
In preliminary stage, Geological study at site and site reconnaissance is
done.
In detailed stage Site investigation, sequence and thickness of various
subsoil layers, nature & their lateral variations, physical properties, position
of GWT etc. are done.
Boring and its methods
It is the making & advancing of bore holes is called boring
Various methods of boring -
(a) Auger boring - It is use in partially saturated sands, silts and medium to
stiff clays. But it gives highly disturbed sample. It is suitable for small depth
of exploration (hand operated auger upto 6m depth) like as highway & borrow
pit etc.
(b) Wash boring - It gives disturbed sample. It is not use in hard soils, rock
and soil containing boulder.
(c) Percussion boring - In it, heavy drilling bit is dropped and raised. It can
be used only in boulder & gravel strata.
(d) Rotary boring - It gives least disturbed samples.
Soil samples
Undisturbed samples are those in which original soil structure is preserved
& mineral properties have not undergone any change. These samples are
use in size distribution, Atterberg’s limits, consolidation parameters, coefficient
of permeability, shear strength parameters etc.
 Thin wall sampler are use for undisturbed soil sample.
Disturbed sample are those in which natural soil structure gets modified
or destroyed during the sampling operation.
Soil Mechanics 189
(a) Inside clearance

Cutting edge Sample tube
D2 D1 D3 D4
D 3  D1
Ci =  100 , (1–3)%
D1
(b) Outside clearance
D2  D4
Co =  100 , (0–2)%
D4
Note: (C0 > Ci always)
D4
D3
S1
S L
H A
M
P
L
E
Down Ward
Reflection
D1
F
D2
(c) Area ratio
D 22  D12
Ar =  100
D12
< 20 for stiff clays
< 10 for senstitive clays
Special Point: For good quality soil sample, area ratio should be about
10%.
L length of sample before withdraw

Recovery Ratio ( )=
H Penetration of the sampler in the soil mass
L1
Gross Recovery Ratio =
H
L1
True Recovery Ratio =
HF
F = Depth of downward Refraction curve
L1 = Gross length of sample, equal to the distance from the top of the
sample to the cutting edge.
If Recovery Ratio = 1, Good soil
< 1, compressed soil
> 1, swelled soil
Types of Samplers -
 Thin walled sampler is used for obtaining undisturbed samples.
 Thick walled sampler is used for obtaining disturbed but representative
samples.
 Thin walled sampler & thick walled sampler are open drive sampler.
 Piston sampler (having sample cylinder and piston system) are useful
in sampling the saturated sands, soft & wet soils which can not be
sampled by open drive sampler.
 Rotary samplers are useful for sampling in firm to hard cohesive soils
& rocks.
Following are field tests for depth of exploration -
(a) Vane shear test
(b) Plate load test
(c) Pressure meter test
(d) Penetration test - Static cone penetration test (SCPT), Standard
Penetration Test and Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT).
(e) Geological methods - Using electrical resistivity , Seismic refraction.
Special Point: SPT is carried out in a bore hole but CPT & DCPT are
carried without bore holes.
Soil Mechanics 191
Expansive Soil 16
Soil Which has tendency to increase in volume in presence of water &
decrease in volume in absence of water are called as expansive or swelling
soils.
Identification of Expansive Soil

1. Free Swell Test: In it, 10 cm3 of dry soil sample passed through 425
mm sieve, into a 100 cm3 graduated cylinder filled with water. Then
volume is observed after 24 hours.
Final Volume  Initial Volume
Free Swell (%) =  100
Initial Volume
Mineral present in Clay Free Swell%
Montmorilonite 1200–2000
Kaolinite 80
Illite 30–80
2. Swelling test: In it, two identical undisturbed samples are obtained at
a moisture content which is expected at construction time. Both samples
are dried to a moisture content below shrinkage limit, Volume of one
of them is measured. but specimen is first loaded to a pressure equal
to that of the expected structural load & then allowed free access to
water. Then volume of other is measured.
3. Differential Free Swell Test: In it, two samples of 10 gm, passing
through 425 mm sieve into a 50 cm3 cylinder one containing kerosene
(non polar liquid) but carrying distilled water. The volume is observed
after 24 hours.
Soil volume in water  Soil volume in kerosene
DFS =  100
Soil volume in kerosene
Degree of Expansiveness DFS%

Low Less then 20
Moderate 20–35
High 35–50
Very High Greater than 50
4. Plasticity Index, Shrinkage limit and colloidal content:
 Higher the plasticity index, higher will be swelling potential.
 Higher the colloidal content, higher will be the expansion possibility.
 Lower shrinkage limit means soil will start swelling at low water
content.
Soil Mechanics 193
Soil Stablization 17
The process of increasing the strength and durability of the soil is known as
soil stabilization.
Mechanical stabilization
1. Mechanical stabilization consists of
(i) The grading of the soil particles (by changing the composition of the
soil mixture by adding or removing the different soil particles).
(ii) Compacting the soil to improve the stability and strength.
2. No chemicals are added to the soil in the machanical stabilization.
3. It is used in preparing base course of roads.
Chemical stabilization
Chemical stabilization uses lime, cement, fly ash and a combination of all
above for soil improvement.
The chemical stabilization is used to
(i) Reduce the permeability of soil
(ii) Increase bearing capacity & improve shear strength,
Lime Stabilization
(i) Normal requirement is 4% to 6% of the soil weight.
(ii) Highly unstable, plastic and swelling clayey soils such as 'black cotton
soils' may be stabilized by hydrated lime.
Bitumen Stabilization
(i) Bituminous substances like, bitumen, tar and emulsion are used to sta-
bilize sub-grade or bases of roads built on granular deposits like sand
and gravels.
(ii) Bitumen acts as a binder and as water proofing agent.
Special Points:-Grouting is a process by which stabilizers, either in the

form of solution or suspension are injected into sub-surface soil.
 Cutback bitumen (bitumen with some dilutent such as Naphtha, petrol,
kerosene etc) is used to stabilize moderatedly cohesive roads bases.
 Surface compaction is one of the most widely used technique and is
also one of the oldest technique of soil densification.
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CHAPTER 7
EARTH PRESSURE AND RETAINING WALL
1. Which one of the following statements is correct
(a) Wall friction greately increases the
horizontal thrust on a retaining wall X
5.
(b) Wall friction greately reduces the horizontal
thrust on a retaining wall
(c) Wall friction will increase or decrease the
horizontal thrust on a retaining wall
depending on the inclination of its back face
(d) In a retaining wall with vertical back face
horizontal thrust does not depend on wall
friction Earth pressure and resultant possibilities of wall
2. A cantilever sheet pile derives its stability from movement are shown in the diagram above. The
point marked X in the diagram denotes
(a) Lateral resistance of soil
(a) Earth pressure at rest
(b) Self-weight
(b) Active earth pressure
(c) The deadman
(c) Passive earth pressure
(d) The anchor rod
(d) None of these
3. Deflection of a sheet pile in a braced cut
6. Give that for a soil deposit,
(a) Increases from a sheet top to bottom
K0 = earth pressure coefficient at rest
(b) Decreases from top to bottom Ka = active earth pressure coefficient
(c) Increases from top and then decreases Kp = passive earth pressure coefficient
(d) Decreases from top and then increases m = poisson's ratio
4. What is the effect of wall friction on lateral earth The value of (1- m)/ m is given by
pressure on a retaining wall (a) Ka/K p
(a) It reduces both active and passive earth (b) K0/K a
pressure (c) Kp/K a
(b) It reduces the active earth pressure (d) 1/K0
(c) It increases both active and passive earth 7. Consider the following assumptions
pressures 1. The backfill is dry and homogeneous
(d) It increases active earth pressure but 2. The sliding wedge acts as a rigid body
reduces passive earth pressure 3. The back face of the wall is a plane
4. The position and direction of the earth thrust
are known
Which of these assumption are common to
Rankine's and Coulomb's earth pressure theories
[ 39 ]
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (a) 1t/m2
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 3 (b) 2 t/m2
(c) 4 t/m2
8. Consider the following statement
(d) 8 t/m2
1. Culmann's graphical method of determining
12. In a cohesionless oil deposit having a unit weight
the earth pressure is based on Coulomb's
of 1.5 t/m3 and an angle of internal friction of
wedge theory 30°. Acitve and passive lateral earth pressure
2. Rankine's theory of lateral earth pressure intensities (in t/m2) at a depth of 10 m will be
is more versatile than Coulomb's theory respectively
(a) 5 and 45
3. A gravity retaining wall together with the
(b) 5 and 15
retained backfill and supporting soil is an
(c) 10 and 20
indeterminate system
(d) 20 and 10
Which of these statements are correct
13. When movement of a wall under the earth
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 pressures from the backfill was prevented. The
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 coefficient of earth pressure was recorded as
0.5. The coefficient of passive and active earth
9. Consider the following statements
pressure of the backfill is
Active earth pressure will be developed in the (a) 1/3 (b) 3
backfill when the (c) 1/9 (d) 9
1. Horizontal strain is 0.5% 14. A retaining wall 8 m high with a smooth vertical
2. Horizontal strain is  1% back retains a clay backfill with C' = 15 kN/m2,
3. Mobilised shearing resistance along the  = 15° and  = 18 kN/m3 (Given sin 15° =
failure plane is a minimum 0.25). The pressure at the top will, nearly be
4. Mobilised shearing resistance along the equal to
failure plane is a maximum (a) 35.2 kN/m2
Which of these statement are correct (b) 23.0 kN/m2
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 27.6 kN/m2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4 (d) 11.5 kN/m2
10. In a cantilever retaining wall, the stem design 15. Saturated unit weight of a soil is 20 kN/m3 and
moment is unit weight of water is 10 kN/m3. If the ground
1 water table is at the surface of soil and lateral
(a) K a gh2 (b) Ka gh
2 earth pressure coefficient of soil is 0.4. Effective
lateral stress at 10 m depth will be
1 (a) 140 kPa (b) 40 kPa
(c) K a gh3 (d) None
6
(c) 80 kPa (d) 180 kPa
11. A retaining wall retains a sand strata with  = 16. A wall with smooth vertical back and 10 meters
30° up its top. If a uniform surcharge of 12t/m2 height retains cohesionless material with a
is subsequently put on the sand strata. Then the horizontal surface. The cohesionless material
increase in the lateral earth pressure intensity weight 4.91 kN/m3 and has an angle of internal
on the retaining wall will be friction of 30°. The total active earth pressure is
[ 40 ]
(a) 81.585 kN/m lenfth of wall
(b) 91.585 kN/m length of wall
(c) 40.743 kN/m2
(d) 8.158 kN/m2
17. A rigid retaining wall of 6m height has a saturated
backfill of soft clay soil, What is the critical height
when the properties of the clay soil are
3 2
 sat = 17.56 kN/m and cohesion C = 18kN/m
(a) 1.1 m (b) 2.1 m
(c) 3.1 m (d) 4.1 m
18. A saturated stiff clay has unit weight 2gm/cm3
and unconfined compressive strength 2 kg/cm2.
(a) 31.7 (b) 35.2
The depth of tension crack that would develop
in this clay is (c) 51.8 (d) 57.0
(a) 2 m (b) 5 m 22. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists
(c) 10 m (d) 20 m
List-I
19. A 6m high retaining wall having smooth vertical
face and horizontal backfill. Top 3m thick layer A. Active pressure
is sand having  = 30° while the bottom layer is B. Passive pressure
3 m thick clay (C = 20 kPa). Assume unit weight C. Earth pressure at Rest
for both sand and clay as 18 kN/m3. The total List-II
active earth pressure per unit length of the wall
1. Wall moves towards backfill
(in kN/m) is
2. No movements of wall
(a) 150 (b) 216
(c) 156 (d) 196 3. Wall moves away from backfill
20. During a site reconnaissance survey, it was Codes:

observed that 10 m height of soil is standing A B C
without any lateral support. What is the cohesive (a) 1 2 3
strength of soil with  = 0 and  = 20 kN/m 3
(b) 2 3 1
(a) 100 kPa (b) 50 kPa (c) 3 2 1
(c) 25 kPa (d) 200 kPa (d) 3 1 2
21. Two different soil types (soil 1 and soil 2) are
used as backfill behind a retaining wall as shown
in the figure, where g t is total unit weight, and
c',  ' are effective cohesion and effective angle
of shearing resis-tance. The resultant active earth
force per unit length (in kN/m) acting on the wall
is
[ 41 ]
23. Match List-I (Type of structure) with List-II
A. 3 4 1 2
(Type of pressure exerted by sandy back fill)
and select the correct answer using the codes B. 3 4 2 1
given below the lists C. 4 3 1 2
List-I List-II D. 4 3 2 1
A. A masonry retai- 1. Acitive pre-
ning wall founded ssure
on compressible
clay
B. Pressure on the 2. Earth pre-
back of a cantil- ssure at rest
ever sheet pile-
wall near the
embedded end
C. A masonry 3. Passive ea-
retaining wall rth pressu-
founded end re
Codes :
A B C
(a) 1 3 2
(b) 3 2 1
(c) 3 1 2
(d) 2 3 1
24. List I List II
A. Retaining wall 1. The wall moves
about a dredge
line as a rigid
structure
B. Bridge abutment 2. The wall moves in
the form of elastic
line with a point
of contraflexure
C. Cantilever sheet pile 3. The bottom
moves away
from the soil
D. Anchored bulkhead 4. The top of the
wall moves away
from the soil
Codes:
A B C D
[ 42 ]
Answer Sheet
1. (C) 2. (A) 3. (A) 4. (B) 5. (C) 6. (D) 7. (C) 8. (B) 9. (B) 10. (C)
11. (C) 12. (B) 13. (D) 14. (B) 15. (A) 16. (A) 17. (D) 18. (C) 19. (A) 20. (B)
21. (A) 22. (D) 23. (A) 24. (C)
YOUR MOT IVATIONAL GOLI

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[ 43 ]
43
CIVIL Ki GOLI PUBLICATION
7 EARTH PRESSURE &

RETAINING WALL
ing structure which behaves as a fixed vertical cantile-
vers in resisting lateral earth pressure
3.(a) Deformation of the sheet pile wall is zero at the
top & increases towards the bottom.
Sol.1(c): There are many theories to calculate active
pressure, horizontal thrust on retaining wall by soil. But 4.(b) The Rankine’s Theory assumed that the wall
two theories are more popular surface is smooth, while in practice friction develop
1. Rankine theory (1857) between the wall surface of the soil fill. This friction will
2. Coulomb’s theory (1776) depend upon the wall material. It leads to development
1. Rankine’s theory. Originally Rankine’s theory of smaller active pressure & larger passive pressure than
was only for cohesionless soil but later it was estimated by Rankine’s theory.
extended to cohesive & submerged soil. Sol.5(d):
 For Cantilever & Counterfort wall, we use rankine
theory. Classification of lateral earth pressure
Active earth pressure Earth pressure at rest Passive earth pressure
 Assumptions in Rankine’s theory. (wall moves away from (wall does not (wall moves towards the
Horizontal backfill Movement tendency
Movement tendency
of soil
H of soil
Shear stress on
soil block Shear stress on
Passive
H On the verge earth soil block
pressure On the verge
Plastic equilibrium Pa< P 0

P0= earth pressure of rest
at rest
Movement Away fromSoil Movement Towards the soil

of failure
Pp > P 0
(Dry + cohesionless) soil

Vertical smooth and frictionless Sol.6(d):
(a) Soil is semi-infinite, homogenous, isotropic, dry & Earth pressure at rest
cohesionless.  x = y & x= 0
(b) Soil is in a state of plastic condition at the time of 
active & passive pressure generation. So x = zz y
 
(c) The Backfill soil is Horizontal.
x x
(d) Back of wall is vertical & smooth.
(e) Rupture surface is a planar surface which may be y
horizontal/inclined x = K0 z z
But Coulomb theory consider the roughness of wall. 
As per Coulomb theory, Horizontal thrust So, K0 =
 
ka  H 2 • For cohesionless soil (C = 0), K0 = 1 – sin 
Fa =
2
 cos   cos 2   cos 2  

 a = cos   
 cos   cos 2   cos 2   for inclined Sol.7(c): Rankine’s theory. Originally Rankine’s
 
theory was only for cohesionless soil but later it was ex-
surface.
tended to cohesive & submerged soil.
So, horizontal thrust depends on wall friction as well as
inclination of wall back faces  For Cantilever & Counterfort wall, we use rankine
Sol.2(a): A sheet pile wall is an earth & water retain- theory.
43
8.(b)
 Assumptions in Rankine’s theory.
Coulomb’s theory is more versatile than Rankine’s
Horizontal backfill
because it can take into account break in the wall face
or in the surface of the fill, any shape of the back fill
Plastic equilibrium surface, effect of various types of surcharge on earth
(Dry + cohesionless) soil pressure & effect of adhesion, cohesion & wall friction.
Vertical smooth and frictionless Sol.9(b):
(a) Soil is semi-infinite, homogenous, isotropic, dry &
Active earth pressure Passive earth pressure
cohesionless.
Very little movement is required to Much higher movement is required to
(b) Soil is in a state of plastic condition at the time of mobilise the active pressure mobilise the pressure
active & passive pressure generation. Failure plane is inclined at (45 + /2) Failure plane is inclined at (45 – /2) with
with the horizontal the horizontal
(c) The Backfill soil is Horizontal. H = 0.2% of H Dense sands H = 2% of H Dense sands
(d) Back of wall is vertical & smooth. H = 0.5% of H loose sands H = (5-10)% of H loose sands
Length of failure block
(e) Rupture surface is a planar surface which may be
horizontal/inclined  
H cot  45  
 
= length of failure block = H cot  45  
 2  
Coulomb’s theory of earth pressure:
1  sin    1  sin   
 For gravity & for semi gravity wall, We use coulomb's Ka   tan 2  45   k P   tan 2  45  
1  sin      sin   
theory.
 In it, sliding wedge is assumed at an angle from Sol.10(c) For a cantilever retaining wall:
horizontal rigid body.
 The position & line of action of earth presure will also
be known in advance.
h P
h
Rigid body 3
W
(not plastic state Kah

R as in case of Rankine
Pp Theory)
 Total force acting on the wall
1
=  h  Ka  h  
2
Trial
wedge 1
 Total force =  K a h 2
Failure 2
plane
W
 h
Point of application of force = from bottom
 R 3
P 
Wall 1 h
Design moment at base = Ka h 2 
2 3
 Forces acting on trial wedge will be W, R, P whose
directions will be known. 1
M  K a h 3
 By assuming various trial wedges at different trial 6
angle the value of P will be calculated.
 Highest value of P is for active earth presure while
lowers value of P is for passive earth pressure.
44
45
= 0.4 (20 - 10) × 10 + 100
Sol.11(c):  140 kN/m2

Sol.16(a):
1
1  sin  1-
2 =1 1
Ka= 1  sin  = 1 3 1  sin  1-
1+ 2 =1
K a = 1  sin  = 1 3
2
1+
2
Increase in lateral earth pressure intensity
1 1
= 12 × = 4 t/m2 Pa = K H2
3 2 a
1 - sin 30 1 1 1
=  × 4.91 × 100
Sol.12(a): K a = 1 + sin 30 = 2 3
3
P a = 81.83 kN/m
Kp = 3
4c
1 Sol.17(d): Critical Height =  K
P a = (1.5 × 10) × = 5 t/m2 a
3
P P = (1.5 × 10) × 3 = 45 t/m2 4  18
Sol.13(d): K 0 = 1 – sin  = 0.5 = 4.1 m
17.56  1
sin  = 0.5   = 30°
2c
1  sin  1  0.5 1 Sol.18(c): Depth of tensile crack =  K
K a = 1  sin   1  0.5  3 a
qu 2
1  sin  C  1
K P = 1  sin  = 3 2 2
2  1  1000
KP = 2 1 cm = 10 m.
=9
Ka
19.(a)
1  sin15 1  0.25
14.(b) K a    0.6
1  sin15 1  0.25 A
(1) Sand
  30o, C = 0
Pa  K a ( z)  2C K a 3m  = 18 kN/m3
tan   sin   0.5,    30o 6m B 18

(2) Clay 14 B'
  0o
Pa  (18  0)  0.6  2  15 0.6 C = 0 kPa
 = 18 kN/m3
Pa = - 23.24 kN/m2
C 68
15.(a)Effective lateral stress at bottom
= Ka  sub Z   w .Z
1  sin  1  sin 300 1
K a1   
= 0.4 (  sat   w ) × 10 + 10 × 10 1  sin  1  sin 30o 3
45
1  sin 00  1  sin 30o 
Ka2  1 PB  K a1  1Z     15  2  10kN / m3
1  sin 0 0  1  sin 30o
 
1
PB = Ka1  Z   18  3  18kN / m3  1  sin 40o 
3 PB '  K a 2  1Z     15  2
 1  sin 40o
 
PB '  K a 2 Z  2C K a 2
 6.51kN / m3
 1  18  3  2  20 1 From B to C only,
PC  K a 2   2  Z  (0.217 × 20 × 20)
 14 kN / m 3
 8.64 kN/m3
PC  Ka 2 VZ  2C Ka 2
total force = Fa1  Fa 2  
 18  6  2  20 1
= 68 kN/m3 1 (8.64  6.51  6.51)

F   10  2   2 1
2 2
Total active earth pressure per unit length of wall.
 31.7 kN/m3
1 1
Pa   18  3  (14  68)  3
2 2
= 150 kN/m3 Sol.22(d):
4C Classification of lateral earth pressure

20.(b) H C  Active earth pressure Earth pressure at rest Passive earth pressure
 (wall moves away from (wall does not (wall moves towards the
Movement tendency
of soil
Movement tendency
H of soil
4C
10  Shear stress on
soil block
Passive Shear stress on
20 H On the verge earth soil block

On the verge
pressure at rest of failure
Pa< P 0
P0= earth pressure of rest Movement Away fromSoil Movement Towards the soil Pp > P 0
C = 50 kPa
23(a). The retaining wall made up of masonry is Gravity
21.(a)
retaining wall. If wall is founded on rock, there
will be no stretching of soil mass, hence Earth
pressure conditions will be at rest.
A
(1) t = 15 kN/m3
C' = 0,   30o
2m
B
(2) t = 20 kN/m3 B'
C = 0,   40
o Dredge line
2m
Stationary O
Point
C
46
47
From diagram,
Above the dredge line, the pressure is active on back of
wall. But near the embedded end, the pressure on back
of wall will be passive as the wall moves towards the
fill.
24(c). In retaining wall, the top of the wall moves away
from the back fill.
In case of bridge abutment, bottom of the abutment
moves away from the soil backfill.
In case of anchored bulkhead the wall moves in the form
of elastic line with a point of contraflenuse.
47
CHAPTER 8
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL
1. Which one of the following statements provides 5. A sand when sheared is expected to undergo an
the best argument that direct shear tests are not increase in volume at what value of its void ratio
suited for determining shear parameters of a clay (a) Equal to critical void ratio
soil
(b) Less than critical void ratio
(a) Failure plane is not the weakest plane
(c) Greater than critical void ratio
(b) Pore pressure developed cannot be
(d) Equal to the maximum void ratio
measured
6. In triaxial compression test on a soil specimen,
(c) Satisfactory strains levels cannot be
the intermediate principal stress is equal to
maintained
(a) Major Principal Stress
(d) Adequate consolidation cannot be ensured
(b) Minor Principal Stress
2. For a partially saturated soil,  u the increase in
(c) Difference between major & minor
pore water pressure, when no drainage is
principal stress
permitted, is expressed as (where A and B are
Skempton's pore pressure para-meters and (d) None of these
  1 and   3 are major and minor principal 7. In a Mohr's diagram, a point above Mohr's
envelope indicates
stress increasement
(a) Imaginary condition
(a) u = B [  3 + A ( 1 -  3 )]
(b) Safe condition
(b) u = A [  3 + B ( 1 -  3 )] (c) Imminent failure condition
(d) Condition of maximum obliquity
(c) u =  3 + A ( 1 -  3 )]
8. Consider the following statement related to trixial
(d) u =  3 + B ( 1 -  3 )] test
3. Which of the following parameters can be used 1. Failure occur along pre-determined plane
to estimate the angle of internal frication of a 2. Intermediate and minor principal stresses
sandy soil are equal
(a) Particle size 3. Volume change can be measured
(b) Roughness of particle 4. Field conditions can be simulated
(c) Particle size distribuition Of these statement
(d) Density index (a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
4. A footing is resting on fully saturated clayey (b) 1, 2 and 4 are correct
strata for checking the initial stability, shear para- (c) 1, 3 and 4 are correct
meter are used from (d) 2, 3 and 4 are correct
(a) Consolidated undrained test 9. Consider the following statements related to the
(b) Unconsolidated drained test pore pressure paramenters, A and B
(c) Unconsolidated undrained test P. A always lies between 0 and 1.0
(d) Unconsolidated undrained test with pore Q. A can be less than 0 or greater than 1.0
pressure measu-rement R. B always lies between 0 and 1.0
[ 44 ]
S. B can be less than 0 or greater than 1.0 4. Non-uniform distribution of stress
For these statements which one of the following 5. Principal stresses in the sample can not be
options is correct determined
(a) P and R (b) P and S The limitations in direct shear test include
(c) Q and R (d) Q and S (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
10. Consider the following statements with regard (c) 3, 4 and 5 (d) 1, 2 and 5
to Soil testing 13. Consider the following statement
1. The origin and pole are at the same point in The vane shear test is
a mohr's circle
1. A direct test to determine shear strength
2. The shear stress is maximum on the failure parameters of saturated clays
plane
2. Mostly useful in cohesionless soil
3. Mohr's circle drawn with data from an
3. Used for determining undrained shear
unconfined compression test passes
strength of normally consolidated, sensitive
through the origin
clays
4. Maximum shear stress occurs on a plane
Which of these statement are correct
inclined at 45° to the principal plane
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only
which of the above statements are correct
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
14. Consider the following statement
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 4 only
1. The parameters (C,  ) obtained using
11. Consider the following statement relating to
triaxial test Coulombs theory are empirical
1. Change in length of the speciamen in a 2. Mohr's envelop is a straight line

triaxial shear test is required to be 3. The characteristics of soil are not used in
accounted for in the calculation of stresses the construction of Mohr's circle
at failure 4. The strength of a soil is a function of
2. In 'Drained Triaxial shear Test' drainage is effective stress
permitted under a specified all-around Which of the statement given above are correct
pressure unit consolidation is complete. The (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
principal stress difference is then applied
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
with no drainage being permitted
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only
3. Unconfined compression test is a special
(d) 2, 3 and 4 only
case of triaxial shear test
15. Undrained strength of a clay soil can be obtained
Which of these statement are correct
by conducting which of the following tests
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
1. UC test
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1,2 and 3
2. Vane shear test
12. Consider the following limitations
3. Cyclic triaxial test
1. Can be performded only on purely
4. Slow direct shear test
cohesionless soils
Select the correct answer using the code given
2. Plane of failure is prede-termined
below
3. There is virtually no control on drainage
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 4
[ 45 ]
(c) 2 only (d) 1,2 and 3 failure plane makes an angle of 50° with the
16. Consider the following horizontal. The shear parameters 'c' and '  '
1. Closing the drainage valve respectively will be
(a) 41.9 kN/m2, 0°
2. Opening the drainage valve
(b) 50.0 kN/m2, 0°
3. Applying cell pressure
(c) 41.9 kN/m2, 10°
4. Shearing
(d) 50.0 kN/m2, 10°
What is the correct sequence of operation for
22. The confining pressure and the deviator stress
conducting CU triaxial test
on a triaxial sample are, respectively, 100 kN/
(a) 1-2-3-4 (b) 3-2-1-4 m2 and 300 kN/m2. What is the normal stress
(c) 2-1-3-4 (d) 2-3-1-4 acting on the plane of maximum shear stress
17. A soil specimen having a cohesion c = 106 kN/ (a) 150 kN/m2 (b) 200 kN/m2
m2 and  = 6 ° is tested in an unconfined (c) 250 kN/m2 (d) 400 kN/m2
compression test apparatus. The angle which the 23. A clay soil specimen when tested in unconfined
failure plane of the sample will be make with condition gave an unconfined compressive
the axis of the sample is strength of 100 kN/m2. A specimen of the same
clay with the same initial condition is subjected
(a) 42° (b) 45°
to a UU triaxial test under a cell pressure of 100
(c) 48° (d) 51° kN/m2. Axial stress (in kN/m2) at failure would
18. Given that for a sand sample, certical void ratio be
= 0.50, initial void ratio = 0.60. If the sand sample (a) 150 (b) 200
is subjected to continued shear, its volume will (c) 250 (d) 300
(a) Increase 24. Given that the effective angle of internal friction
(b) Decrease of a soil is 200, the angle between the failure
(c) Not change plane and the major principal plane will be
(d) Initially increase and then decrease (a) 110° (b) 27.5°
19. During the first stage of triaxial test when the (c) 12.5° (d) 55°
cell pressure is increased from 0.20 N/mm2 to 25. In a direct shear test, the shear stress and normal
0.26 N/mm2. Then pore water pressure increase stress on a dry sand sample at failure are 0.6
from 0.07 N/mm2 to 0.15 N/mm2. What is the kg/cm2 and 1 kg/cm2 respectively. The angle of
value of the skempton's pore pressure parameter internal friction of the sand will be nearly
B (a) 25° (b) 31°
(a) 1.33 (b) - 1.33 (c) 37° (d) 43°
26. In an unconfined compression test on stiff clay,
(c) 2.66 (d) - 2.66
if the failure plane made an angle of 62° to the
20. An initial cross-sectional area of a clay sample horizontal, what would be the angle of shearing
was 15 sq cm. The failure strain was 25% in an resistance ?
unconfined compression test. The corrected (a) 16° (b) 34°
area of the sample at failure would be
(c) 14° (d) 24°
(a) 15 sq cm (b) 20 sq cm 27. An undrained triaxial compression test is carried out
(c) 25 sq cm (d) 30 sq cm on a saturated clay sample under a cell pressure of
21. A soil fails under an axial vertical stress of 100 50 kN/m2. The sample failed at a deviator stress of
kN/m2 in unconfined compression test. The 100 kN/m2. The cohesion of this clay sample would
[ 46 ]
be
1  2
(a) 25 kN/m2 (b) 50 kN/m2 (a) sin-1   (b) sin-1  
3 3
(c) 75 kN/m2 (d) 100 kN/m2
28. Stress path equation for a triaxial test upon 1  1 
(c) sin-1   (d) sin-1  
application of deviation stress is q = 10 3 + 0.5 2 2
P. The respective value of cohesion C (in kPa) 32. In an unconfined compression test on a saturated
and angle of internal friction (  ) are clay, the undrained shear strength was found to
be 6 t/m2. If a sample of the same soil is tested
(a) 20 and 20° (b) 20 and 30°
in an undrained condition in triaxial compression
(c) 30 and 30° (d) 30 and 20° at a cell pressure of 20 t/m2. Then the major
29. For a triaxial shear test conducted on a sand principal stress at failure will be
specimen at a confining pressure of 100 kN/m2 (a) 48 t/m2 (b) 32 t/m2
under drained conditions, resulted in a deviator (c) 24 t/m2 (d) 12 t/m2
stress ( 1   3 ) at failure of 100 kN/m2. The 33. A triaxial test was conducted on a granular soil.
angle of shearing resistance of the soil would be 1
(a) 18.43° (b) 19.47° At failure ,  = 4. The effective minor principal
2
(c) 26.56° (d) 30° stress at failure was 100 kPa. The value of
30. A clayey sample tested in unconfined approximate  and the principal stress difference
compression test is failed at a normal stress of at failure are, respectively
100 kN/m2 and the failure plane made an angle (a) 45° and 570 kPa
of 450 with the horizontal. If the same sample is (b) 40° and 400 kPa
tested in triaxial test using lateral pressure of 30 (c) 37° and 300 kPa
kN/m2. Then deviator stress, shear stress on
(d) 30° and 200 kPa
principal plane and cohesion respectively, would
34. A soil sample tested in a triaxial compression
be
apparatus failed when the total maximum and
(a) 70 kN/m2, 70 kN/m2, 100 kN/m2 minimum principal stresses were 100 kPa and
(b) 70 kN/m2. zero, 50 kN/m2 40 kPa, respectively. The pore pressure
(c) 100 kN/m2, 70 kN/m2, zero measured at failure was 20 kPa. The effective
principal stress ratio at failure is
(d) 100 kN/m2, zero, 50 kN/m2
(a) 2.5 (b) 3.0
31. The result of a consolidation drained trixial shear
(c) 4 (d) 2.0
test on a normally consolidated clay are shown
35. In a triaxial test at failure, major principal stress
in the figure. The angle of internal friction is
was 180 kPa, minor principal stress was 100 kPa
and pore pressure was 20 kPa. The tangent of
the angle of shearing resistance of the sandy
soil tested is
(a) 1/3 (b) 2/7
(c) 1/2 (d) 1/6
36. A CD triaxial test was conducted on a granular
 '1
soil. At failure  ' was 3. The effective minor
2
principal stress of failure was 65 kPa. The

[ 47 ]
principal stress difference at failure will be
1 4 1 3
(a) 65 kPa (b) 150 kPa (c)  (d) 
 7  7
(c) 260 kPa (d) 130 kPa
41. In a drained triaxial compression test conducted
37. In a triaxial compression test, the major principal
on dry sand, failure occurred when the deviator
stress was 90 kPa and the minor principal stress
stress was 218 kN/m2 at a confining pressure of
was 30 kPa, at failure. The pore pressure at
61 kN/m2. What is the effective angle of shearing
failure was observed to be 10 kPa. The tangent
resistance and the inclination of failure plane to
of the angle of shearing resistance of the sandy
major principal plane ?
soil that was tested was
(a) 34°,62° (b) 34°, 28°
1 1 (c) 40°, 25° (d) 40°, 65°
(a) (b)
2 3
42. In a consolidated drained triaxial test, a specimen
of clay fails at a cell pressure of 60 kN/m2. The
2 3
(c) (d) effective shear strength para-meters are C' =
3 4
15 kN/m2 and  = 20°. Find the compressive
38. A cylindrical soil specimen of saturated clay, 3.50
strength of the soil
cm diameter and 8 cm length, is tested in an
unconfined compression testing machine. The (a) 50 kN/m2
specimen failed under a vertical load of 50 kg (b) 105 kN/m2
together with an accompanying additinal (c) 150 kN/m2
deformation of 8 mm. What is the unconfined (d) None of these
compressive strength of this clay ?
43. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
(a) 4.67 kg/cm2 (b) 5.0 kg/cm2 answer using the codes given below the lists
(c) 5.5 kg/cm2 (d) 6.0 kg/cm2 List-I (Field test)
39. In an unconsolidated undrained triaxial test, it is A. Vane shear test
observed that an increase in cell pressure from
B. Standard penetration
150 kPa to 250 kPa leads to a pore pressure
increase of 80 kPa. It is further observed that, C. Static cone penetration test
an increase of 50 kPa in deviator stress results D. Pressure meter test
in an increase of 25 kPa in the pore pressure. List-II
The value of Skempton's pore pressure para- 1. End bearing and skin friction resistance
meter B is
2. In-situ stress-strain test characteristics
(a) 0.5 (b) 0.625
3. Soft clay
(c) 0.8 (d) 1.0
4. Sandy deposit
40. A vane 20 cm long and 10 cm in diameter was Codes:
pressed into a submarine clay at the bottom of a
A B C D
bore hole. Torque was applied gradually and
(a) 4 2 1 3
failure occured at 1000 kg cm. The cohesion of
the clay in kg/cm2 is (b) 3 4 1 2
(c) 4 3 2 1
1 6 1 5 (d) 3 4 2 1
(a)  (b) 
 7  7
44. Match List-I (field problem) with List-II (type
of laboratory shear test to be carried out) and
[ 48 ]
select the correct answer by using the codes
given below the lists
List-I
A. Stability of clay foundation of an
embankment whose rate of construction is
such that some consolidation occur during
construction
B. Initial stability of footing on saturated clay
C. Long-term stability of a slope stiff fissured
clay
D. Foundation on soft marine clay deposit
List-II
1. Undrained triaxial test
2. Drained triaxial test
3. Consolidation underdained tri-axial test
4. Quick vane shear test
Codes:
A B C D
(a) 1 3 2 4
(b) 1 3 4 2
(c) 3 1 2 4
(d) 3 1 4 2
45. Match List-I (Investigator) with List-II
(Equation) and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the lists
List-I List-II
A. Skempton 1. v = ki
B. Coulomb 2.  ' =  – u
D2  s   w 
C. Stokes 3. v =
18
D. Terzaghi 4. u = B  3  A(1 - 3 ) 
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 4 1 3 2
(b) 4 2 3 1
(c) 4 2 1 3
(d) 1 4 2 3
[ 49 ]
Answer Sheet
1. (B) 2. (A) 3. (D) 4. (C) 5. (B) 6. (B) 7. (A) 8. (D) 9. (C) 10. (C)
11. (B) 12. (B) 13. (C) 14. (B) 15. (A) 16. (D) 17. (C) 18. (B) 19. (A) 20. (B)
21. (C) 22. (C) 23. (B) 24. (D) 25. (B) 26. (B) 27. (B) 28. (B) 29. (B) 30. (D)
31. (A) 32. (B) 33. (C) 34. (C) 35. (A) 36. (D) 37. (D) 38. (A) 39. (C) 40. (A)
41. (D) 42. (B) 43. (B) 44. (C) 45. (B)
[ 50 ]
8 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL
In case of loose sand void ratio decreases and approach
towards critical void ratio.
Sol.1(b):
Sol.2(a): Pore Pressure Coefficients: It is given by e1 Loose sand
Skempton. It is used to express the response of pore Void ecr
ratio
water pressure to change in total stress under undrained ed
Dense sand
conditions & enable the initial value excess of pore wa- Shear strain
ter pressure to be determined.
u = B[3 +  (1–3)]
U 1 = B3 Therefore, if a sand when sheared is expected to un-
U 2 = AB(1–3) dergo an increase in volume, then it would occur at void
U1 ratio of less than critical void ratio.
B =  For saturated soil B = 1, F o r Sol.6(b):

dry soil B = 0 Sol.7(a): Mohr’s hypothesis: Shear stress on failure
U 1 = Change in pore pressure due to increase plane at failure reaches a value which is a unique func-
in cell pressure tion of normal stress on that plane.
U 2 = Change in pore pressure due to increase
in deviator stress.  ff = f(ff )
Sol.3(d): Relative density: It is also called density in-  ff = Normal stress on failure plane at failure.
dex.  ff = Shear stress on failure plane at failure (also
called Shear strength)
emax  enatural
Dr = e  e In Mohr diagram for shear strength, any point above Mohr
max min failure envelope indicate imaginary condition.
 d max   d natural   d min 
=  
d natural   d max   d min 
It (Dr) is generally used for sandy & gravelly soils Sol.8(d): Triaxial test
Relative density Classification  It is suitable for all types of soil
0–15 Very loose  Pore water pressure & Volume change can be
measured in undrained condition.
15–35 Loose
 Application of additional axial stress produce shear
35–65 Medium dense
stresses within soil mass on all planes except hori-
65–85 Dense zontal & vertical planes.
85–100 Very dense  In triaxial test, Axial strain & deviator stress are de-
termined.
4.(d) Measurement of pore pressure is needed to
calculate effective stress parameters. a
c
5(b). In case of dense soil (sand) void ratio first de-
creases and then increase and approaches towards criti-
c c
cal void ratio.
So in case of dense sand volume increases and in this c
case void ratio less than critical void ratio. a
48
49
3 = C = confining pressure CIVIL Ki GOLI InPUBLICATION
unconfined test
1 = C + a, a = deviator stress. Confined stress = 0
Sol.9(a): Pore Pressure Coefficients: It is given by
 there is only deviator stress
Skempton. It is used to express the response of pore wa-
ter pressure to change in total stress under undrained  Minor principal stress = 0
conditions & enable the initial value excess of pore wa- and major principal stress = d
ter pressure to be determined. Maximum shear stress plane occurs on plane inclined at
u = B[3 +  (1–3)] 45° to the principal plane.
U 1 = B3 11(b). Under triaxial test, area of soil specimen
U 2 = AB(1–3)
changes continuously under the action of load and we
U1
B =  For saturated soil B = 1, F o r know that

dry soil B = 0 Stress = (Force/Area)
U1 =Change in pore pressure due to increase in cell So, to calculate accurate value of stress at failure we
pressure need to have the value of area at failure
U2 =Change in pore pressure due to increase in deviator
stress. (Volume of soil) at failure
 A is also not a constant, depends on type of soil, stress Af =
(length of soil specimen of failure)
condition etc.
10(c). Failure occurs when angle of obliquity
becomes equal to friction angle of and at this angle, V0 ± V
Af 
shear stress is not maximum L0  L
Normal to L0  Original length of sample

failure plane Shear
strength L Change is length of soil sample.
 V0 Original volume of soil sample
Applied max
shear stress V Change in volume of soil sample
 C 2f
3f O 1f Af = V0 (1 ± V/V0) L0 (1 – L/L0)
 1 y 
It is not necessary that origin and pole are at same point = A0  1   
 L 
in all cases. Only in case of unconfined compression test,
it is same. In Drained Triaxial test also called CD test, (consolidated
trained test), drainage is allowed in both stages (in con-
fined stage as well as deviator stage).
t
Unconfined compression test is a special type of triaxial
shear test in which confined pressure i.e. 3 = 0
Sol.12(b):
sd Shear Dense sand
stress
s
Loose sand
Shear strain
Disadvantage of Direct shear test
(a) Drainage condition can not be controlled & pore
water pressure can not be measured.
(b) Failure plane is always horizontal & predetermined
49
which may not be the weakest plane.
(c) Non-uniform stress distribution on the shear plane.    
 1   3 .tan 2  45    2C.tan  45  
Failure start at edge & progress towards centre.  2   2 
Volume changes So by performing different test at different value of 1

Dense sand and 3, we get value of C and .
The relation above is the output of performing various
tests and at different condition and therefore that rela-
Shear tion is empirical in nature.
displacement
Infact, the relation shows the line which is failure plane
Loose sand is straight line, while in actual it is not purely straight.
Mohr’s envelop is assumed to be a straight line, but in
Sol.13(c): Vane Shear test actual it is not.
 The maximum torque applied is the total shear For construction of mohr’s circle only principal stresses
 It is use for plastic cohesive soil which is very sensitive 1 and 3 are required.
d The strength of a soil is a function of effective stress
T and not total stress. This is found by Terzaghi and termed
Vane
it as Modified Mohr - Columb Theory.
h
h d
d
15.(b) Unconfined compression test
• The unconfined compression test is a special form
Applied torque (T) of a triaxial test in which the confining pressure is
zero.
Twist- qu
T
f = [when both top & bottom end
h d  f
d 2   
2 6 Sample
Cu
shear the soil]
O  1 = qu
T
f = [when one end shear the soil]
 h d  qu
d 2   
 2 12 
h  height of vane used in shearing. • Load is rapidly applied.So, it is an undrained test.
Here, f = Shear strength = Cu (undrained cohesion) Angle of internal friction is not mobilized. u = 0.
qu • The test can be conducted only on cohesive soils like
From UC Test, Cu = clayey soil.
2
• Becaause there is no confining pressure 3 = 0. So,
Cu undisturbed
Sensitivity = only one Mohr circle is obtained.
Cu remoulded
qu
14(b). C and (Shear strength parameters of soil) f  C u 
2
value are not inherent properties of soil, they are related
to the type of test and the condition under which these 1 = Axial stress at failure, f = Undrained shear
are measured. strength
qu = Unconfined compressive strength.
50
51
16.(d) Consolidated Undrained Test: - CIVIL KiQuick
also called GOLI PUBLICATION = 0, tan  = tan 50
3
test. The samples are allowed to consolidate under an 100 = 2 × C × tan 50°
applied pressure & then sheared under conditions of no
C = 41.9 kN/m2
drainage.
Sol.22(a):  3 = 100 kN/m2
 1 = 100 + 300 = 400 kN/m2
1   3
Centre of mohr circle = = 250 kN/m2
2
1   3
 Max. shear stress =
Sol.17(c): f =45 + 2
2
400  100
6 =  150 kN / m 2
f = 45 + = 48° 2
2
100
18.(b) Sol.23(b): C = = 50 kN/m2
2
 3 = 100 kPa, For clay  = 0
   
ecr = 0.6 1  3 tan 2  45    2C tan  45  
 2   2
 1 = 100 × 1 + 2 × 50 × 1 = 200 kPa

ecr = 0.5

Sol.24(d):  f  45 
2
Strain
20
= 45 +  550
2
u1 0.15  0.07 Sol.25(b):  = C +  tan 
Sol.19(a): B =   0.26  0.20
3 0.6 = 0 + 1 tan 
 = 31°
0.08
= = 1.33
0.06 
Sol.26(b):  f  45 
2
A0 15
Sol.20(b): A = 1    1  0.25 = 20 cm2

62o  45o 
2
Sol.21(c):
   34
f  45 
2
Sol.27(b): 3 = 50 kN/m2,   0
  100  d = 100 kN/m2
 1 = 100 + 50 = 150 kN/m2
o
10
f  45o   50o
2    
1  3 tan 2  45    2C tan  45  
 2  2
 1 = 3 tan2  + 2c tan 
51
150 = 50 × 1 + 2C × 1

C = 50 kN/m2 45o  45o 
2
28.(b)
  0o
As test is unconfined compression test,
1  3  100 kN
q So, C   50 2
2 2 2 m
 tan   sin 
Triaxial test on same sample
C Cos   0o
1  3 3  30 kN / m 2
P
2
 1  sin    1  sin  
1  3    2C  
 1  sin    1  sin  
1  3   3
 C Cos   1 sin 
2 2 1  30  1  2  50  130 kN/m2
On comparison with given eq.
 1  d  3
q  10 3  0.5P
130  d  30
tan   sin   0.5,    30o

d  100 kN / m 2
CCos  10 3 Shear stress is always zero at plane of maximum

principal stress.
C  Cos 30o  10 3
31.(a)
C = 20
29(b) For sand samples C = O
1  d  3
1  100  100  200 kN / m3

1  3 tan 2 (45o   / 2) B
200  100 tan 2 (45o   / 2)


A 3 C 1
  19.47o  1  3 
 2 ,0 

 
o
30.(d)  f  45 
2
1  3   3
BC  , AC  1
52 2 2
53
CIVIL Ki GOLI AtPUBLICATION
failure minor principal stress.
BC  1  3 
sin       i.e.  3  65 kPa
AC  1 3
 1  3  65  195 kPa
200  100  Prinicpal stress difference at failure
sin  
200  100
    1   3  195  65 130 KPa.
1
  sin 1   1f  3f
3 Sol.37(d): Sin 
1f  3f
32.(b) Major principal stress in undrained test = Cell
pressure + 2× undrained shear strength (90  10)  (30  10) 6
 
(90  10)  (30  10) 10
= 20 + 6 × 2 = 32 t/m2
  3
tan  
Sol.33(c):  1 = 3 tan2  45   4
 2
1 v 
  Sol.38(a): Area at failure Af =  1   
4 = tan2  45    l 
 2
A0 Original area of gross section.
  37
v Volumetric strain
 37  l bilinear strain
 1 = 100 tan2  45   = 400 kPa
 2  v  Neglecting it, because it is very small
1 – 3 = 400 – 100 = 300 kPa

A0  / 4  3.52
 Af  
Sol.34(c): 1 = 100 – 20 = 80 kPa 1  1  0.8  = 10.69 cm2
1  
 8 
 3 = 40 – 20 = 20 kPa
1 80 Load 50
= =4 Stress at failure = A = 10.69
3 20 f
Sol.35(a): 1 = 180 – 20 = 160 = 4.67 kg/cm2
 3 = 100 – 20 = 80 kPa Uc 80

Sol.39(c): B= = = 0.8
3 250 - 150
 
160 = 80 tan 2  45  
 2 T
Sol.40(a): C=
h d
 = 19.47 d 2   
2 6
1 1
tan  = =
2.835 3 100
=
 20 10 
  (10) 2   
1  2 6
Sol.36(d): Given   3
3
53
 It is use for plastic cohesive soil which is very sensitive
10 1 6 Standard Penetration Test
C=  
 10   7
  10  
 6 
Bore holes
41.(d) 3  61 kN / m3
Df
1  3  d X
B 150mm 150mm
150mm 300mm Reading
1  61  218 st 150mm Noted
(1.5-2)B 1reading Y 150mm
300mm
1  279 kN / m3 nd
2reading Z
1  3 tan 2 (45o   / 2)  2C tan(45o   / 2)  For Granular soils only
 The split spoon sampler is allowed to penetrate into
for sand, C = 0 the soil by applying Impact load of 65 kg having a
free fall of 75 cm.
273 = 61tan 2 (45   / 2)  0  N-value is determined at selected number of bore holes
& avg. value of corrected N is calculated for the depth
from Df + (1.5–2) B.
  39.88o  40o
Static cone penetration test (CPT):
40  Particularly for soft clays, silts & fine to medium
f  45o   / Z  45  sand deposits.
2
 Cone area 10 cm2, Apex angle 60º
 650  Continuous record of soil resistance
Sol.42(b):  3 = 60 kN/m2  Rate of pushing cone 20 mm/sec upto depth of 100
mm.
C = 15  = 20°
44(c). For initial stability of footing on saturated
    clay unconsolidated undrained test is to be performed.
1  3 tan 2  45    2C tan  45  
 2   2 Whereas for long term stability consolidated drained test
is to be done.
 20  For stability of clay foundation of an embankment on
 1 = 60 tan2  45  
 2  which construction is going on and so, consolidation is
occuring. CU test is being performed i.e. consolidation
 20  undrained test.
+ 2 × 15 tan  45  
 2 
Quick value shear test is suitable for soft saturated clay
 1 = 165 kN/m 2 deposit.
Comp. strength = 1 – 3 Sol.45(*): Sedimentation Analysis: Base upon
= 165 – 60 = 105 kN/m2 Stoke’s Law.
(  s   w )d 2
Stoke’s Law: Vt =
18
V t = terminal velocity
d  diameter of the grain
Darcy’s law: In one dimensional flow, discharge
Sol.43(b): Vane Shear test through fully saturated soil is given by
 The maximum torque applied is the total shear
h
q = K i A or V = Ki i
l
54
55
Pore Pressure Coefficients: CIVIL Ki GOLI
It is given by PUBLICATION
Skempton. It is used to express the response of pore water
pressure to change in total stress under undrained
conditions & enable the initial value excess of pore water
pressure to be determined.
u = B[3 +  (1–3)]
Effective stress concept is the developed by Terzaghi &
applied to Fully Saturated soils only.
 Effective stress relates 3 types of stress:-
(a) Total stress ()
(b) Neutral stress (Pore Pressure) (U)
(c) Effective stress ()
(    U)
55
CHAPTER 11
VERTICAL STRESS
1. According to Boussinesq's theory, the vertical (d) 1 and 2

stress at a point in a semi-infinite soil mass 5. Which of the following statements are correct
depends upon
1. Stress lsobar can be prepared using
(a) Point load, co-ordinates of the point and Boussinesq's stress distribution theory
modulus of elasticity of soil
2. Equivalent point load method yields accurate
(b) Point load, co-ordinates of the point and results
modulus of elasticity of soil and its Poisson's
3. Newmarks's method relates the vertical
ratio
stress with the help of influence chart
(c) Point load, co-ordinates of the point
4. Westergaard's method helps in
(d) Point load, co-ordinates of the point and determination of stress distribution for
modulus of elasticity of soil and its density layered soils
2. What is Newmark's chart used for (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(a) To know the safe bearing capacity of a (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
footing
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only
(b) To know the settelement of a foundation
(d) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) To know the stress intensity at any depth
6. A 25 kN point load acts on the surface of an
due to a loaded foundation
infinite elastic medium. The vertical pressure
(d) To know the allowable bearing pressure on intensity in kN/m2 at a point 6.0 m below and
the foundation 4.0 m away from the load will be
3. Westergaard's formula for vertical stress gives (a) 132 (b) 13.2
greater value of stress than that by the
(c) 1.32 (d) 0.132
Boussinesq's formula, when (r/z) exceeds
7. A 2 m thick deposit of fill weighting 15 kN/m3 is
(a) 1.5 (b) 2.5
placed over a large area. According to Newmark
(c) 3.5 (d) 4.0 chart, the increase in vertical stress at 1m depth
4. Consider the following charac-teristics of soil below the base of the fill is 30 kN/m2. The
layer increase in vertical stress at 2 m depth will be
1. Poisson's ratio (a) 30 kN/m2 (b) 15 kN/m2
2. Young's modulus (c) 7.5 kN/m2 (d) 60 kN/m2
3. Finite nature of soil layer 8. The change in the vertical stress in the soil mass
4. Effect of water table estimated by Boussinesq's equation when Poisson's
ratio of soil changes from 0.3 to 0.5 will be
5. Rigidity of footing
(a) Reduction by 30%
Westergaard's analysis for pressure distribution
in soil utilises (b) Increase by 50%
(a) 1, 3, 4 and 5 (c) Reduction by 20%
(b) 2, 3, 4 and 5 (d) No change
(c) 3, 4 and 5 9. A concentrated load of 50 t acts vertically at a
[ 63 ]
point on the soil surface. If Boussinesq's equation 2. Newmark
is applied for computation of stress. Then the 3. Boussinesq
ratio of vertical stresses at depths of 3 m and 7 4. Wester-gard
m resp-ectively vertically below the point of
Codes:
application of load will be
A B C D
(a) 4.36 (b) 5.4
(a) 4 3 2 1
(c) 1.66 (d) 2.77 (b) 3 4 2 1
10. With a vertical point load on the surface when (c) 3 4 1 2
considering the vertical plane passing through (d) 4 3 1 2
the load, the stress gets reduced by 53.3% at a
14. Match List-I (Method) with List-II (Used
depth of
for) and select the correct answer using the
(a) 0.25 of unit length
codes given below the lists
(b) 0.5 of unit length
List-I
(c) 0.75 of unit length
A. Meyerhoff's analysis
(d) 1 of unit length
B. Newmark's chart
11. A concentrated load acting on the surface of a
soil produces a stress of 19.1 kPa at a depth of C. Bishop analysis
1 m below it. Using Boussinesq's expression, the D. Rebhann's construction
stress at 3m depth is List-II
(a) 9.55 kPa (b) 6.37 kPa
1. Earth pressure
(c) 2.12 kPa (d) 4.24 kPa
2. Stability analysis
12. A footing of 3 m × 3 size transmits a load of
3. Seepage analysis
1800 kN. The angle of load dispersion in soil a =
tan-1 0.5. What is the stress created by the 4. Bearing capacity
footing load at a depth of 5 m ? 5. Vertical stress
(a) 26.12 kN/m2 (b) 27.12 kN/m2 Codes:
2 2
(c) 28.12 kN/m (d) 29.12 kN/m A B C D
13. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct (a) 4 1 2 5
answer using codes given below the lists
(b) 2 5 3 1
List-I
(c) 4 5 2 1
A. Stress distribution due to point load in
homogeneous istropic medium (d) 2 1 3 5
B. Stress distribution due to point load in an

anisotropic soil medium
C. Influence chart for stress distribution area
D. Influence chart for stress distribution in

irregularly shaped areas
List-II
1. Stein Brenner
[ 64 ]
Answer Sheet
1. (C) 2. (C) 3. (A) 4. (A) 5. (B) 6. (D) 7. (C) 8. (D) 9. (B) 10. (D)
11. (C) 12. (C) 13. (C) 14. (C)
YOUR MOT IVATIONAL GOLI

lwjt dh rjg pedus ls igys lwjt dh rjg riuk iMrk gS rks ;g tku ys dh lQyrk vklkuh
ls ugha feyrh gS mlds fy, dBksj ifjJe djuk iMrk gSA
[ 65 ]
11 VERTICAL STRESS
q = Intensity of load
N = Equivalent no. of areas
Sol.1(c):
Sol.3(a):As per Boussinesq’s theory vertical stress.
Boussinesq’s Equation
Use for isotropic soil 5/ 2
It provides conservative value and is  
commonly used in soil  
3  1  Q
engineering problems z  .
2   r 2  z2
Newmark Chart is based upon it 1    
  z  
Q
As per westergard’s theory.
X
5/2
 
 
1 1 Q
 z  . 2
 .
  r  z2
y P(x ,y, z) 1  2   
  z  
z
r
3 Q 1 At = 1.52
zb  z
2  z   r  2 5 / 2
2
1     Vertical stress by Boussinesq and Westergard gave same

 z  result.
Sol.2(c):
r
Newmark’s Influence chart: It is based on At < 1.52 , Bousinesq theory gave higher value
z
Boussinesq’s equation to calculate horizontal stress,
vertical & shear stress due to uniformly loaded area of
any shape (regular or irregular) below any point, inside or r
> 1.52 , Westergard give higher value
outside the loaded area z
Sol.4(a):
1 Westergaard’s Equation
 = qN
m n Use for An-Isotropic soil
n = No. of radial lines (Generally 20) Poisson’s ratio assumed zero
m = No. of concentric circles (Generally It's result are more close to field.
10) Fenske Chart is based upon it
68
69
Sol.5(b): CIVIL Ki GOLI PUBLICATION
Sol.8(d): No change because Boussinesq’s equation
Newmark’s Influence chart: It is based on doesn’t depend upon 
vertical & shear stress due to uniformly loaded area of  Q 
any shape (regular or irregular) below any point, inside or 9(b). z  0.4775  2 
Z 
outside the loaded area
Westergaard’s Equation 2
Use for An-Isotropic soil or Stratified soil 3  7 
    5.4
7  3 
Approximate methods
Sol.10(d): For the vertical plane passing through the load,
Trapezoidal method Equivalent load method Stress isobar method the vertical stress is
L q/unit Q2 Q3
area
Q4 0.6 q
B Q1
0.4 q 1.5B Q
1  z  0.4775
Z2
n rr 0.2 q
rr
nz B nz P
q(B×L) Z(unit length) z % reduction

z = (B+2nz)(L + 2nz) , z =  z1   z2  ... ,0.2 q = 20% Stress isobar
0.25 7.64 Q More than Q
Area bounded by 0.2 q
0.5 1.91Q More than Q
0.7 0.84 Q 16% reduction
1.0 0.4775 Q 52.25% reduction
11(d). We know that
Q
Sol.6(d):  z = KB 1
z2 z 
z2
5/ 2
3  1 
 2 1
KB = 
2
1   r    3m  19.1 
4
 4.775kPa
 
  z  
12(c).
5/ 2
3  1 
KB =  2 = 0.19 B = 3m
2
1   4  
  6  
Z = 5m
25
z=0.19 × = 0.132 kN/m2
36
A B
7(c). Newmark chart is based on Boussinesq’s eq. 0.5 Z
1 AB = B + Z = 3 + 5  8m
z 
z2
Stress at Z,
z 1
 1800
30 4   28.125kN / m2
88
 z  7.5 kN / m 2
69
Sol.13(c):
Newmark’s Influence chart: It is based on
any shape (regular or irregular) below any point, inside or
Vertical Stress due to concentrated load
Boussinesq’s Equation Westergaard’s Equation
Use for isotropic soil Use for An-Isotropic soil
It provides conservative value and is Poisson’s ratio assumed zero
commonly used in soil It's result are more close to field.
engineering problems Fenske Chart is based upon it.
Newmark Chart is based upon it.
1Q 1
3 Q 1 z 
z  w
 z   r 2 3/ 2
2
b
2 z   r  2 5/ 2
2
1  2   
1      z 
  z 
Sol.14(c):
Newmark’s Influence chart: It is based on
any shape (regular or irregular) below any point, inside or
Bishop gave a simplified method of Analysis of the
stability of slopes, which conoider the force on the sides
of each slice.
Meyerhoff gave the ultimate bearing capacity equation
for strip footing.
70

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110 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Soil Mechanics 111

Soil Origin & Its

Upheaval Weather action

Special Point: Lithification is a process by which unconsolidated materials

Wa 0 Fully Saturated Dry Soil

Vs Solid Ws Vs Solid Ws Vs Solid Ws

Special Point: If the voids absent in a system, it would not be termed

Special Points: For uniformly graded coarse soil having perfectly

Soil Condition S (%)

Air Content Percentage air Void

Special Point: a = n × ac, ac + s = 1, (ac > na)

Bulk unit weight

Value of w changes with temperature but usually we take

where G = specific gravity of soil solid

Saturated unit weight

Specific gravity of solids

Mass specific gravity of solid

Relative density: It is also called density index.

 d max   d natural   d min 

It (Dr) is generally used for sandy & gravelly soils

Relative density Classification

Some Important Relationships

3.If in question,(a)   g / cm 2 , then  w  1g / cm3 , (b)   kN / m 3 ,

Methods of determination of water content

 It is useful in embankment construction of highway.

Determination of Unit Weight

D60 D30 D10

Coarse 75 Fine

Special Points: Naturally occurring water content in soil is generally

Rise and W1 Flow-curve

log10 N1 log10 25 log10 N2

Water Water Air

Original Soil at Dry soil

During Pile driving in clayey soil, frictional resistance by soil increases

Special Point: Stiff clay having fissures & crack have St  1.

Dilatancy: It is the volume change observed in granular material when

Type of Group index

 If the calculated value is negative, it is reported as zero.

3. Indian standard soil classification system: Fine grained soil in indian

Coarse grained soil classification

IP < 4 IP > 7 IP < 4 IP >7

Special Point: If Ip betwen 4-7, dual symbols will be used.

From Dual symbol method -

Fine grained soil classification

 Classification of fine Grained soil is done on the basis of plasticity chart.

Clay Mineral & Soil

 2: 1 clay mineral, also called smectite.

 2 : 1 clay mineral, Isomorphous substitution takes place, have Ionic

• 1 : 1 clay mineral, No isomorphous substitution, Found in old deposits/

Special Point: Cohesionless soils are compacted by Vibrations but

100% saturation line

OMC2 OMC1 water content

Special Point: Ratio of compactive effort (energy imparted), in modified

Compaction Curve for different Soils:

4-5% Water content

 In compaction of sand, intially d decreases due to bulking of sand at

Types of Equipment Suitable of Soil Type Nature of project

• Vibrofloat can be use for compacting cohesionless soils upto 12 m

Virgin Compression curve