Learn how inductive

capacitive filters work.

RAY MARSTON

THE PRIMARY APPLICATION FOR RES- pedance would be 10 ohms, and

onant inductive capacitive (LC) the entire signal voltage would
filters these days are in high - be generated across R.
frequency circuits. These fil- The signal currents through
ters, like resistive capacitive INPUT
effective resistance R flow
INPUT
(RC) filters can easily be de- through C and L, which both
signed to perform low -pass, have reactances 100 times
high -pass, bandpass, or notch greater than the value of R in
filtering, but they have the addi- ohms. Consequently, the signal
tional benefit of offering at least a b
12 dB per octave of rolloff, com-
pared to the 6 dB per octave of FIG. 1 -LC SERIES -RESONANT filters:
RC filters, which means sharper simplified schematic, a, and equivalent
circuit, b.
cutoff characteristics at all oper-
ating frequencies. OHMS
The series- and the parallel - At some specific frequency, ZN
resonant LC filters are the two the reactances of C and L could
"watershed" LC designs from be 10 kilohms and 1 kilohm, re- R
which all others are derived. spectively. Therefore the filter's
Figure -a shows a circuit for a
1 input impedance (ignoring the
o

a
FREOUEN( -s
series -resonant filter, and Fig. value of R) will be 9 kilohms at
1 -b shows its simplified equiv- that frequency. Many other sim- 100
alent circuit. The R represents ilar examples can be given.
the resistance of the coil. The key point to be made here
is that at resonant frequency,f., V rtII
Series-resonant filter the reactances of C and L will be VN
50
The fundamental response of equal (but 90° out of phase),
the series filter is that capacitive and the filter input impedance
reactance C decreases with in- will equal the value of R, as indi-
creased frequency, while induc- cated by the dotted line at the o

tive reactance decreases. The bottom of the impedance vs. fre- FREQUENCY --b-
n
inverse relationship also holds. quency characteristic curve Fig.
The filter's input impedance is FIG. 2 -LC SERIES -RESONANT FILTER:
2 -a. For example, if this occurs Plot of input impedance vs. frequency at
equal to the difference between when the reactances of C and L resonance, a, plot of voltage output vs.
these two reactances, plus the are both 1000 ohms, and R frequency at resonance taken across L
value of resistor R. equals 10 ohms, the input im- or C, b. 69

www.americanradiohistory.com
www.americanradiohistory.com
 voltage generated across C and Notice in Fig. 2 -b that the in- +v
L is 100 times greater than the ductive and capacitive voltages 11
actual input signal voltage, as are 90° out of phase, and the -1 10:1

shown in Fig. 2 -b, the curve of voltage generated across the se-
voltage vs. frequency. This volt- ries LC combination is effec- á
age magnification, indicated by tively zero. The impedence of
the sharp peak, is known as the the filter at f- is known as the OUTPUT

circuit's Q. filter's characteristic imped- 9

ance. Zo, and it equals VL /C.
-NW Figure 3 shows two ways to
R make practical use of a series -
b 2.2K b resonant LC filter: In Fig. 3 -a,
INPUT OUTPUT 2.2 kilohm resistor R. and the
4 4 filter act together as a frequen-
attenuator that
cy- selective
a
a
gives high attenuation at the
resonant frequency L, and +v
lower attenuation above or be- -o
low that resonant frequency.
ó (The filter is a notch rejector.) OUTPUT
LX0.1
INPUT In Fig. 3 -b, the input signal is
P applied directly to the filter, and
the output is taken across the LX0.9
inductor L. This filter circuit
acts as a notch acceptor that
FIG. 3 -LC SERIES -RESONANT filters: provides high gain at resonant
notch rejector, a, and notch acceptor, b. frequencyff and low gain above
or below that frequency.
Table 1 lists the principal for-
mulas that can be applied to INPUT

both series- and parallel -reso- o-

Tc nant LC circuits.
Parallel-resonant filters +v
L_ Figure 4 -a shows the sche- o

z2/R
a b matic for a parallel- resonant fil-
ter, and Fig. 4 -b shows its
equivalent circuit. The induc-
C7
CX0.9
OUTPUT

-o
tor's resistance is represented c
T
I

by R. In this filter, capacitive re- Cx0.1

OHMS actance decreases with increas-
ZIN ing frequency,and inductive
reactance increases with in-

c
FREQUENCY - creasing frequency. The re-
ciprocal relationship also holds.
Each component draws a sig-
nal current that is proportional
INPUT

FIG. 4 -LC PARALLEL-RESONANT fil- to its reactance, but the two cur-
FIG. 5 -LC TUNED AMPLIFIERS with
ters: simple schematic, a, equivalent cir- rents are 90° out -of- phase, so low-impedance outputs: transformer
cuit, b. and plot of input impedance vs. the total signal current is equal coupling, a, auto -transformer coupling,
frequency, c. to the difference between the L b, and capacitive-divider coupling, c.

TABLE 1 and C currents. At resonance, L

DESIGN FORMULAS FOR INDUCTIVE -CAPACITIVE FILTERS and C are equal so the total cur-
Formulas apply to series and parallel LC filters rent falls nearly to zero.
As a result, the filter acts as a
f = 1- hertz Z° _ C ohms near -infinite impedance. In
Zit LC practical filters,the presence of
equivalent resistance R modi-
Z°
fies the response by reducing
L = henries C = anfcZ°
farads the impedance at the resonant
2rtf frequency fc, Ze, to Z02/R. For
Zo
example, if Zo equals 1 kilohm
R and R equals 10 ohms, the value
Note : f , Za, X of Z(, will be 100 kilohms.
70

www.americanradiohistory.com
www.americanradiohistory.com
 +6 TO + 18V come this drawback are illus- LC oscillators
111

47k
trated in Fig. 5. Figures 6 through 10 illus-
One way to obtain output trate the different schemes for
coupling is to consider the pri- using a parallel- resonant filter
L1
100µH í Cl
40 TO
100pF
mary winding of an RF trans-
former as the filter's inductive
component, and to take the out-
as the tuning element in tran-
sistorized LC oscillators. The
simplest of the LC oscillators is
put from the transformer's sec- the tuned -collector feedback
ondary, as shown in Fig. 5 -a. form shown in Fig. 6.
01
2N3904
This approach provides a fully 'IYansistor Q1 is connected as
OUTPUT floating output. If the trans- a common -emitter amplifier, L1
R2 C3 R3 C2
former has a 10:1 turns ratio, and C 1 form the tuned collector
22K .047 1 O 047 the output signal will have an filter, and L2 provides the collec-
_J
attenuation factor a of 10. tor -to-base feedback. Inductor
In a second method, the coil L2 is inductively coupled to L1,
FIG. 6-TUNED -COLLECTOR feedback can be tapped as shown in Fig. providing transformer action.
LC oscillator. 5 -b, to obtain an output by au- By adjusting the phase of this
totransformer action. In the feedback signal, the circuit will
third method, as shown in Fig. give zero phase shift at the
+9V 5 -c, the required tuning capaci- tuned frequency so that, if the
loop gain (determined by Ti's
turns ratio) is greater than uni-
+9V ty, the circuit oscillates. With
R1 the component values shown,
4.7K oscillation frequency can be var-
r Cl
ied from 1 MHz to 2 MHz by
L1 .01
R2
trimmer capacitor Cl.
2 5mH
C2 470K
1

I O Figure 7 is the schematic for a

ó 033 -) OUTPUT
simple Hartley oscillator. The
OUTPUT
turns of collector load inductor
C3) 9 L1 are tapped at a point 20%
0.1
4.7K
01 down from the top of the coil,
2N3904' and the circuit's positive power
supply is connected to this tap
FIG. 7- SIMPLE HARTLEY LC oscillator. FIG. 8- COLPITTS LC OSCILLATOR pro- point. As a result, L1 acts as an
duces a 37-kHz output. autotransformer so that the sig-
Figure 4 -c is the filter's fre- nal voltage appearing at the top
quency response: a plot of input of L1 is 180° out of phase with
impedance vs. frequency show- the voltage at its low end (near-
ing how the input impedance C3 R1 est Q1's collector.)
peaks at the resonant frequency 0.002 4.7K The signal voltage at the top of
ff. All of the formulas in 'Fable 1 the coil, (which is 180° out of
apply to the parallel- resonant L1
phase with the signal at Ql's col-
filter as well. 2.5mH lector) is coupled the base of Q1
base by isolating capacitor C2.
Output coupling In this arrangement the circuit
The two most popular ap- oscillates at a center frequency
plications for parallel- resonant
tuned filters are in narrow fre-
quency band amplifiers and in
LC oscillators. In narrow-band FIG. 9 -CLAPP OR GOURIET LC os-
amplifiers the filter usually cillator producese an
80 -kHz output. Ri
functions as the collector load 27K
for common -emitter amplifiers tance is obtained from two se-
as shown by three simplified ries- connected capacitors. An
schematics in Fig. 5. The filter output can be obtained across 72T

--t
01 L3
provides high gain at its reso- the larger capacitor by capaci- '2N3904
nant frequency and lower gain tive divider action. C2 _iL
above and below that frequency. In these schematics each cir- 0.01'r
The drawback to these cir- cuit has arbitrarily been given
cuits is the problem of gaining an attenuation factor a of 10. R2
1 oH
access to the circuit's output Each has an output impedance
signals without loading the of Zc/a2. Thus, if Ze equals 100
tuned circuit and lowering its kilohms and a equals 10, the Z FIG. 10- SIMPLE REINARTZ LC os-
effective Q. Three ways to over- output equals 1 kilohm. cillator. 71

www.americanradiohistory.com
www.americanradiohistory.com
 o
HIGH -Z
OUTPUT
Gouriet oscillator offers excel-
lent frequency stability. With
the component values shown in
--- zo

-o the schematic, it will oscillate at X

about 80 kHz. HIGH-Z

Figure 10 is a schematic for a INPUT
OUTPUT

Reinartz oscillator. Its tuning

coil has three inductively cou-
pled windings. Positive feed- a

back is obtained by coupling f

the collector and emitter signals OdB i
Vow of the transistor through coils
SLOPE L1 and L2. Both windings are -3dB
VIN
0dB 1 =12d B/ inductively coupled to L3. The VoUT
fc OCTAVE
Reinartz oscillator oscillates at a VIN

frequency determined by the SLOPE

=12dB/
values of L3 and Cl. The coil - OCTAVE
turns ratios are typical for a cir-
FREQUENCY cuit designed to oscillate at a FREQUENCY ---'-
b
b few thousand kHz.
FIG. -FALSE L -TYPE LOW -PASS fil-
FIG. 13 -L -TYPE HIGH -PASS FILTER:
11
Z,T schematic, a, and frequency response
ter: schematic a, and frequency re- curve, b.
sponse curve.

determined by the values of L

and C. HIGH -Z
OUTPUT L1 L2
In general, circuit oscillation INPUT OUTPUT
depends on tapping a common 2C

signal at a point in the tuned a

INPUT Ri

circuit so that phase -splitting T

autotransformer response is lc Rs=RL =ZU

obtained. This tap point OdB

not be made in the tuning coil; -3dB - SLOPE 2L

it can be made in the tuning Vow
=12d B/ Rs OUTPUT
capacitor, as in the Colpitts os- OCTAVE C
C.L
INPUT
cillator shown in schematic Fig. VIN

9. With the component values in ó T

LL
Rs=Ri=Zo
that figure, the oscillator will os- b

cillate at about 37 kHz. FREOUENCY -

In Fig. 8, Cl is in parallel with FIG. 14-LOW -PASS LC FILTERS: T sec-
h
tion schematic, a, and :r- section, b.
transistor Q1's output capaci-
tance, and C2 is in parallel with FIG. 12 -TRUE L -TYPE LOW-PASS filter:
Q1's input capacitance. Con- schematic, a, and frequency response
curve, b.
sequently, capacitance changes
caused by ambient and compo-
nent temperature changes can Low -pass and high -pass
shift the oscillation frequency. Figure 11 -a is a schematic for
This shift can be minimized a "false" L -type low -pass filter.
and good frequency stability Inductor L and capacitor C act a I- 0

can be obtained by selecting val- together as a frequency- depen- 0

ues for Cl and C2 that are large dent attenuator. At low frequen- C/2
with respect to Q1's internal ca- cies the reactance of L is low and Rs OUTPUT

pacitance. the reactance of C is high, so the INPUT

RI

Figure 9 shows a modifified circuit offers negligible attenua-

version of the Colpitts oscillator, tion. At high frequencies the re-
known as the Clapp or Gouriet actance of L is high and that of b Rs=RL=ZO

oscillator. Another capacitor, C is low, so the circuit offers FIG. 15- HIGH -PASS LC FILTERS: T -sec-
C3, with a value that is small high attenuation. tion schematic, a, and -r- section, b.
relative to Cl and C2, is put in Consequently, the circuit acts
series with L1. This circuit's res- like a low-pass filter. It is called it circuit is actually a series-reso-
onant frequency is determined a "false" filter because the cir- nant filter (like Fig. 1) with its
principally by the values of L1 cuit will only function correctly output taken from across ca-
and C3 and it is almost inde- if it is driven from a source im- pacitor C.
pendent of variations in tran- pedance equal to Z0. (This is If the circuit is driven from a
72 sistor capacitance. The Clapp/ not shown in the diagram.) The continued on page 89

www.americanradiohistory.com
www.americanradiohistory.com
 ace a required sound -pressure all play a part in squeezing the max- but informative, power-handling ca-
vel from a given loudspeaker, it imum power rating from any given pability specification, such as that
ips the positive and /or negative speaker. used by Allison Acoustics: "At least
laaks of the musical waveforms. The test signal used to derive a 15 watts continuous at any frequen-
hort- duration overloads may not system's power rating must be cy. Over most of the frequency
3 audible; longer overloads are fre- chosen carefully. The ubiquitous range, at least 350 watts for 0.1
uently perceived as level compres- pink -noise signal used in so many second, 125 watts for second, 60
1

ion, rather than distortion. How - other audio tests is totally inap- watts for 10 seconds."
ver, badly overdriven amplifiers propriate for power testing be- Note the distinctions Allison
roduce a raspy distortion, not un- cause, unlike music, it has equal makes between continuous and
ce that of a mistracking phono car- energy per octave. In contrast with transient wattage levels. The dif-
idge. Low bass passages are likely the midrange energy hump dis- ference between them is what al-
take on a "mushy" quality be- played by most music, pink noise lows you to play very loud music
ause of the spurious harmonics shows up on a real -time analyzer as without problems, even though a
enerated by the overload. And as a virtually straight line, which is a continuous sinewave at the same
iscussed earlier, prolonged opera - poor representation of music. peak level would certainly damage
on with hard clipping is a frequent The single rms ratings used by your audio equipment. In other
ause of driver damage, so clipping some manufacturers imply the use words, your 100 -watt (or even 200 -
hould be avoided. of a sinewave test signal, which, watt) amplifier is certainly safe to
again, is totally unlike a musical use with typical speakers rated at
'roper power ratings waveform in shape or energy con- 50 watts maximum so long as you
Arriving at a speaker system's tent. The most valid and informative don't feed continuous tones or pink
lower rating is no easy task, even way for a manufacturer to specify a noise to them, drive the amplifier
Dr its designer. Ideally, a manufac- speaker's power-handling capability into hard clipping, drop a tone arm,
urer designs for the highest power is tostate, however loosely, the or lose a cable ground at high vol-
;apability that can be achieved with - power it can handle in a specific ume. In short, you have to abuse
i his cost and size constraints for a frequency range for a specific your speakers (and your ears) be-
liven model. Special high- tempera- amount of time. fore disaster is likely to strike. If you
ure materials such as voice -coil Listing specifications that way don't ask for trouble, it probably
vire, voice -coil forms, and cements gives rise to a somewhat complex, won't happen. it

L -C FILTERS puts loaded by, a specific imped-

ance value. Such filters can
continued from page 72 readily be cascaded to yield very
high levels of signal rejection.
low- impedance source, the out- Among those filters are the T-
put will produce a steep signal section and pi- section low-pass
peak at f, as shown in the fre-
quency- response curve of Fig.
filters that are shown in Fig. 14,
and the T- section and pi- section
11 -b. The magnitude of this high -pass filters that are shown
peak is proportional to the cir- in Fig. 15.
cuit's Q. All of these filters exhibit an
Figure 12 -a shows how Fig. FIG. 16-T SECTION POWER LINE input output rolloff of about 12 dB per
11 -a can be modified so that it octave (40 dB per decade). Their
filter rejects interference on the power
behaves like a true L -type low - line to about 25 MHz. outputs must be correctly load-
pass filter. Resistor Rx is placed ed by a matching filter section
in series with the circuit's input rather than across capacitor C. or terminating load. The design
so that the sum of Rx and R5 The value of equivalent resistor formulas for them are given in
(the input signal's source im- Ex in both of these circuits can Table 1.
pedance) and R (the equivalent be reduced to zero if the filter's Figure 16 shows an applica-
resistance of L) equals the cir- Zo value is selected to match R5, tion for a T- section low -pass fil-
cuits characteristic impedance as given in formula 2 of Table 1. ter-an AC power-line filter that
Zo. The addition of this resis- The outputs of these filters, like will block interference that is on
tance reduces the circuit's Q to those of the series and parallel - the line from reaching a sen-
unity, but it results in a clean resonant filters, must "see" only sitive unit of equipment while
low-pass filter output shape as high- impedance loads to oper- also blocking any interference
shown in Fig. 12 -b. ate properly. from that might be generated
Figure 13 illustrates how the The most popular low -pass internally by that unit from
principle just discussed can be and high -pass filters are bal- reaching the power lines. This
applied to make an efficient L- anced, with matched imped- circuit can be made to operate
type high -pass filter. The output ances that are designed to be at frequencies up to about 25
is taken across inductor L driven from, and have their out- MHz. it 89

www.americanradiohistory.com
www.americanradiohistory.com