GEOSCIENCE FRONTIERS 2(3) (2011) 375e384

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China University of Geosciences (Beijing)

GEOSCIENCE FRONTIERS
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits in magma plumbing

systems: Features, formation and exploration
Xieyan Song a,*, Yushan Wang b, Liemeng Chen a

a
State Key Laboratory of Ore Deposit Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guanshui Road 46,
Guiyang 550002, China
b
Jinchuan Group Limited, Jinchuan Road 98, Jinchang, Gansu 737104, China

Received 30 September 2010; accepted 15 January 2011

Available online 25 May 2011

KEYWORDS Abstract The three most crucial factors for the formation of large and super-large magmatic sulfide
Magmatic Ni-Cu sulfide deposits are: (1) a large volume of mantle-derived mafic-ultramafic magmas that participated in the
deposit; formation of the deposits; (2) fractional crystallization and crustal contamination, particularly the input
Magma conduit; of sulfur from crustal rocks, resulting in sulfide immiscibility and segregation; and (3) the timing of
Sulfide immiscibility; sulfide concentration in the intrusion. The super-large magmatic Ni-Cu sulfide deposits around the world
Tectonic extension; have been found in small mafic-ultramafic intrusions, except for the Sudbury deposit. Studies in the past
China decade indicated that the intrusions hosting large and super-large magmatic sulfide deposits occur in
magma conduits, such as those in China, including Jinchuan (Gansu), Yangliuping (Sichuan), Kalatongke
(Xinjiang), and Hongqiling (Jilin). Magma conduits as open magma systems provide a perfect environ-
ment for extensive concentration of immiscible sulfide melts, which have been found to occur along deep
regional faults. The origin of many mantle-derived magmas is closely associated with mantle plumes,
intracontinental rifts, or post-collisional extension. Although it has been confirmed that sulfide immisci-
bility results from crustal contamination, grades of sulfide ores are also related to the nature of the
parental magmas, the ratio between silicate magma and immiscible sulfide melt, the reaction between
the sulfide melts and newly injected silicate magmas, and fractionation of the sulfide melt. The field rela-
tionships of the ore-bearing intrusion and the sulfide ore body are controlled by the geological features of
the wall rocks. In this paper, we attempt to demonstrate the general characteristics, formation mechanism,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: songxieyan@vip.gyig.ac.cn (X. Song).
1674-9871 ª 2011, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking
University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Peer-review under responsibility of China University of Geosciences

(Beijing).
doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2011.05.005

Production and hosting by Elsevier

376 X. Song et al. / Geoscience Frontiers 2(3) (2011) 375e384

tectonic settings, and indicators of magmatic sulfide deposits occurring in magmatic conduits which
would provide guidelines for further exploration.
ª 2011, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by
Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Ni-Cu-Co deposit (Canada), and the Uitkomst Ni-Cu deposit

(South Africa) (Table 1) (Naldrett et al., 1995; Naldrett, 1997,
Magmatic sulfide deposits host w40% and >99% of the global 2004; Li et al., 2000). As mentioned above, some important
resources of nickel (Ni) and platinum-group elements (PGE) and magmatic Ni-Cu deposits were found at the bases of komatiite
w3% of copper (Cu) and provide 60% Ni and >99% PGE to the flows (Table 1). Many studies have indicated that the Sudbury
world market. According to their geological and geochemical intrusion is a most unusual exception and is associated with crustal
characteristics, magmatic sulfide deposits can be broadly divided melting in response to a meteorite impact. Extensive studies have
into two major groups: rich in sulfides (sulfide >5%, generally also revealed that economically important magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE)
20%e90%) and sulfide poor (sulfide <5%) (Table 1). The former sulfide deposits tend to occur in magma conduit systems, rather
can be further divided into Ni-Cu-PGE and Ni-Cu-(Co) deposits. than in large layered intrusions (Li et al., 2001; Maier et al., 2001).
As shown in Table 1, world-class super-large magmatic Ni-Cu- Thus, in the past 20 years, exploration targets moved from large
(PGE) deposits with Ni grade higher than 1 wt.% are hosted in layered intrusions to magma conduit systems. This led to the
intrusions associated with basaltic, picritic, or troctolitic magmas discovery of the Voisey’s Bay Ni-Cu-Co deposit during
and at the base of komatiite flows, whereas the super-large sulfide- 1993e1997, and remains as the only finding of a super-large
poor PGE deposits occur in large layered intrusions, although magmatic sulfide deposit in the past 40 years. The research and
a few small sulfide-poor PGE mineralizations, such as the Jin- exploration activities over the past 10 years have yielded a better
baoshan and Zhubu intrusions in the Emeishan Large Igneous picture on the formation mechanism of the magmatic sulfide
Province (ELIP) (Tao et al., 2007; Song et al., 2008), occur within deposits within magma conduit system.
magma conduits. In this paper, we focus on the general characteristics, formation
Since 1883, several Ni-Cu-PGE deposits have been discovered mechanism and tectonic settings, as well as the indicators of the
at the base of the Sudbury layered intrusion, Canada, which has magmatic sulfide deposits occurring in magmatic conduits.
assigned this deposit the status of the first super-large magmatic
Ni-Cu-PGE deposit in the world. The total metal reserves of Ni, 2. Salient characteristics
Cu, and PGE in the Sudbury deposit are 1978 million tonnes, 1780
million tonnes, and 1933 tonnes, respectively (Table 1). In the Since the discovery of the Jinchuan, Limahe (Sichuan Province),
following decades, using the Sudbury model, geologists tried to and Hongqiling (Jilin Province) Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits during the
find other magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE deposits in large layered intru- 1950s to 1960s, several magmatic sulfide deposits related to
sions around the world, such as the Bushveld and Great Dyke in magma conduit systems have been found in China, such as the
Africa, Duluth and Stillwater in North America, and Skaergaard in Kalatongke and Huangshan Ni-Cu deposit (Xinjiang), and the
Greenland. However, what they found in these areas were strati- Yangliuping Ni-Cu-PGE deposit (Sichuan Province) (Sixth
form sulfide-poor PGE deposits (Table 1). In contrast, several Geological Unit, 1984; Tang, 1990; Wang and Zhao, 1991; Tang
super-large Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits rich in sulfides were discovered and Li, 1995; Song et al., 2003, 2008; Tao et al., 2008; Song et al.,
in small mafic-ultramafic intrusions, such as the Jinchuan Ni-Cu- 2009).
(PGE) deposit (Gansu Province, China), the Noril’sk Ni-Cu-PGE These discoveries offered good prospects for the exploration of
and Pechenga Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits (Russia), the Voisey’s Bay magmatic sulfide deposits in China. Here we focus on the

Table 1 Characteristics of different types of magmatic sulfide deposits and the major super-large deposits around the world (from Naldrett
(2004)).
Deposit type Origin Deposit Metal reserve (@ average grade)
Ni (Mt @ wt%) Cu (Mt @ wt%) PGE (t @ g/t)
Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposit Intrusion related to Sudbury (Canada) 1978@1.2 1780@1.08 1933@1.17
rich in sulfides meteorite impact
Magma conduit Noril’sk (Russia) 2320@1.77 4673@3.57 12,438@9.5
Pechenga (Russia) 400@1.18 215@0.63 107@0.32
Jinchuan (China) 545@1.06 389@0.75 135@0.26
Voisey’s Bay (Canada) 217@1.59 116@0.85 26@0.19
Base of komatiite flow Thompson (Canada) 349@2.32 24@0.16 124@0.83
Kambalda (Australia) 194@2.9 14@0.21 75@1.13
Sulfide-poor PGE deposit Large layered intrusion Bushveld (South Africa) 1500@0.04e0.41 688@0.02e0.2 65,473@4.1e6.2
Great Dyke (Zimbabwe) 540@0.21 360@0.14 13,946@5.42
Stillwater (America) 1.5@0.05 0.7@0.02 804@24.9
 X. Song et al. / Geoscience Frontiers 2(3) (2011) 375e384 377

following questions: (1) what are the main features of magmatic

Ni-Cu-PGE deposits associated with magma conduit systems; (2)
why super-large deposits formed in small intrusions on the magma
plumbing system; (3) what are the predominant factors controlling
Ni, Cu and PGE grades of sulfide ores; (4) what are the ideal
tectonic settings of these deposits; and (5) what are the important
indicators for the deposits.
Below we consider the main features of sulfide-rich Ni-Cu-
(PGE) deposits associated with a magma conduit system,
comparing the Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits formed at the base of the
Sudbury intrusion and komatiite flows.

2.1. Ore-bearing intrusions are generally small and highly

mineralized

Sulfide-rich Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits associated with magma conduit

systems are hosted in relatively small intrusions, but the sulfide
ore bodies often occupy large proportions of the intrusion. For
example, the Jinchuan ultramafic intrusion is only 6.3 km long and
20e527 m wide with an outcrop area of w1.34 km2, whereas the
three giant ore bodies fill w43% of the intrusion (Tang and Li,
1995). The outcrop of the Y1 intrusion at Kalatongke is only
w0.1 km2, and the Ni-Cu sulfide ore body occupies w60% of it
(Wang and Zhao, 1991). In the Hongqiling area, intrusion No.7 is
almost completely sulfide mineralized (Qin, 1995). The largest Ni-
Cu-PGE deposit in the world is hosted in the Kharaelakh, Talnakh,
and Noril’sk mafic-ultramafic sills at Noril’sk, Russia; the thick-
nesses of these intrusions are less than 300 m (Zen’ko, 1994;
Zen’ko and Czamanske, 1994).

2.2. Ore-bearing intrusions in sill-like, lens or irregular

shapes distributed along regional deep faults
Figure 1 Distribution of the magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide deposits
All magma plumbing systems are located near regional deep faults, in the Noril’sk-Talnakh district, Siberia, Russia (after Naldrett, 2004).
through which the mantle-derived magma moved up into the
magma conduit system where sulfide segregation occurred. the mafic-ultramafic intrusions emplaced in Proterozoic meta-
The original shapes of the ore-bearing intrusions largely depend on morphic rocks are small and lens-shaped. Only a few intrusions,
the shape and dimension of the secondary fractures in the wall rocks such as Jinchuan and Zhangbutai, are up to 2e4 km long (Tang
along the regional deep fault. The fractures in sub-horizontal and Li, 1995). Recent lithological and geochemical study shows
unfolded sedimentary strata may extend to a greater distance than in that the segments on the two sides of the fault F16e1 belong to two
metamorphic rocks because high-grade metamorphic rocks have originally separate intrusions at Jinchuan (Fig. 3). These two
higher strengths than the sedimentary strata and may be folded. intrusions have thicknessup to 500 m with a lateral extent of less
Thus, the magma chambers emplaced in sub-horizontal sedimen- than 4 km (Fig. 3A) (Tang et al., 2009), much less than the lengths
tary strata should have had a larger extension than those intruded of the sill-like intrusions in the Noril’sk area. Although Segment II
into metamorphic rocks. Examples include more than 20 intrusions has concentric lithologic distribution, the normal fractionation
occurring in three areas: Talnakh, Noril’sk and Imangda, along the sequence of the Upper unit of Segments I and III, comprising
Noril’sk-Kharaelakh fault in the Noril’sk region (Fig. 1). These sill- dunite, lherzolite and pyroxenite from the base to the top, indi-
like intrusions, emplaced into unfolded DevonianeLower Permian cates that the intrusions at Jinchuan were initially sub-horizontal
horizontal sedimentary strata, have large variable lengths, up to (Fig. 3B). Extensive movement of the regional thrust fault F1
15e20 km long and 2 km wide, and low thicknesses up to 350 m toward the northeast made the Jinchuan intrusions steeply dipping
(Fig. 2) (Naldrett et al., 1995; Naldrett, 1997; Arndt et al., 2005). to the southwest (De Waal et al., 2004; Song et al., 2009; Tang
Regional geological, petrological, mineralogical, and geochemical et al., 2009). In the Labrador area of eastern Canada, the Voisey’s
studies have indicated that these intrusions are linked with the Bay intrusion comprises a series of small lens-shaped intrusions
magma plumbing system of the mantle plume related to Upper between two troctolite intrusions within Neoproterozoic meta-
Permian continental flood basalt (Siberian Traps) (Naldrett et al., morphic rocks. The Ni-Cu-Co ore bodies occur as lens-shaped
1995; Lightfoot and Hawkesworth, 1997; Naldrett, 1997). bodies where the magma conduit widened out and the magma flow
In contrast, the intrusions emplaced in folded metamorphic slowed down (Li et al., 2000).
rocks generally have small dimensions and are of lens- or irregular In the ELIP, several magmatic sulfide-deposit hosting intru-
shape. Some of the best examples of such intrusions include the sions are emplaced in different wall rocks. The intrusions
Jinchan intrusion (China) and the Voisey’s Bay intrusion emplacing in Paleozoic strata are sill-like with large extension and
(Canada). In the Longshoushan Terrane, Gansu Province, most of small thickness. For instance, in the Yangliuping area in the
378 X. Song et al. / Geoscience Frontiers 2(3) (2011) 375e384

Figure 2 Distribution and field relationships of the three largest intrusions containing Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides in the Noril’sk-Talnakh district,
Siberia, Russia (after Naldrett, 2004).

northern ELIP, the sill-like sulfide-bearing intrusions, including 2.4. Genetic links between ore-bearing and sulfide-poor
Yangliuping, Zhengziyanwou, Xiezuoping, and Daqiangyanwou, intrusions and PGE depleted extrusive rocks
are emplaced into unfolded Devonian limestone along beddings
with lengths of 1e3 km and thicknesses of less than 300 m Ore-bearing and sulfide-poor intrusions and extrusive rocks on the
(Fig. 4A) (Song et al., 2003; Song et al., 2004; Tao et al., 2007; same magma plumbing system could have been derived from the
Song et al., 2008). The regional metamorphism of the wall rocks same upper mantle source and thus have a closely genetic rela-
and intrusions in the Yangliuping area occurred after the formation tionship. Many studies have indicated that continental flood
of the intrusions. The Jinbaoshan sill containing a PGE deposit in basalts contain not only information on the origin and evolution of
Yunnan Province is also emplaced in non-metamorphosed and the mantle-derived magma and also clues of the formation of the
unfolded Devonian dolomite (Fig. 4C). In contrast, as shown in magmatic sulfide deposit beneath the intrusion. Genetic links
Fig. 4B, the funnel-shaped Limahe intrusion hosting magmatic Ni- between the Ni-Cu-PGE mineralization in the ore-bearing sills and
Cu ore bodies is emplaced within Proterozoic metamorphic rocks consistent Ni, Cu and PGE depletion of some suites of the Noril’sk
(Song et al., 2008; Tao et al., 2008). Siberian Traps have been attested by recent studies (Naldrett,
2004). Similarly, the formation of the Ni-Cu-PGE deposits
2.3. Ore bodies at the base and entry of intrusion and resulted in the PGE depletion of the Middle Unit of the Emeishan
widened portion of magma conduit continental flood basalts at Yangliuping (Song et al., 2003, 2006).
However, it is sometimes difficult to find extrusive rocks
Because the density of sulfide liquid is higher than that of silicate related to magmatic sulfide ore-bearing intrusions because of the
liquid, the segregated sulfide droplets tend to settle down to the strong erosion that occurs during regional uplift. For example, the
lower parts of the magma chamber. In particular, when sulfide Emeishan continental flood basalts in the central zone of the ELIP
immiscibility and segregation occurred relatively earlier than the related to the formation of the ore-bearing intrusions (e.g. Limahe,
crystallization of the silicates, the sulfide droplets could be Qingkuangshan and others) have been eroded mostly during
concentrated at the base of the magma chamber to form massive MesozoiceCenozoic uplift (Song et al., 2008). No Proterozoic
or semi-massive ores. In contrast, if sulfide segregation and sili- extrusive rock srelated to the Jinchuan Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposit have
cate crystallization occurred at the same time, they would settle been found in the Longshoushan Terrane until now.
down together and form disseminated sulfide ores.
In a horizontal magma conduit, the settled sulfides could form 3. Why super-large deposits can be formed in small
large and continuous ore layers at the bases of the magma
chamber, such as the ore-bearing intrusions in the Noril’sk area
intrusions in magma conduit systems
(Fig. 2) and in the Yangliuping area, Sichuan (Fig. 4). However, in
a magma conduit with a complicated shape within metamorphic Abundant sulfide is concentrated in a relatively small intrusion
rocks, the sulfides concentrate in those places where the conduit basically because of the unusual geological characteristics of the
became widened and flat, or at the entry of a new magma chamber, magma conduit system as discussed below.
such as in the case of the Voisey’s Bay deposit (Li et al., 2000;
Naldrett, 1997). Sometimes, the sulfide-silicate mushes could 3.1. Volume of magma involved in formation of deposit in
move under structural compression to form new ore bodies of magma conduit systems
unusual shape and lithologic distribution. For instance, the Jin-
chuan No. 1 ore body is situated at the centre of Segment II The Noril’sk Ni-Cu-PGE deposit contains 23 million tonnes Ni
(Fig. 3) (Song and Li, 2009) and the massive sulfides of the and w12,438 tonnes PGE, but the total volume of these ore-
Limahe deposit are located at the lower margin of the mafic- bearing intrusions is only 3.5 km3. S-unsaturated basaltic magmas
ultramafic intrusion (Fig. 4C) (Song et al., 2008; Tao et al., 2008). derived from the upper mantle commonly contain w300 ppm Ni.
 X. Song et al. / Geoscience Frontiers 2(3) (2011) 375e384 379

Figure 3 Simplified geological map (A) and main exploration sections (B) of the Jinchuan ultramafic intrusion and hosted Ni-Cu-(PGE) sulfide
deposit (modified after Sixth Geological Unit, 1984; Song et al., 2009). I-24 is the exploration line 24 of Segment I, II-14 and II-36 are the
exploration lines 14 and 36 of Segment II, respectively.

Thus, concentration of abudant Ni and PGE in the Noril’sk level to form a new intrusion or erupted to form lava. This
intrusions indicates that as much as 1000 km3 basaltic magma was mechanism makes the magma conduit the perfect space for
involved in the formation of the deposit (Naldrett, 2004). The a magmatic sulfide deposit. However, why the sulfide deposition
volume of the Jinchuan intrusions is only w1 km3, with the and concentration occurs in only few magma chambers is still
reserve is w5.45 million tonnes Ni implying that about 300 km3 unclear.
basaltic magma passed through the magma conduit system. These
mass-balance calculations indicate that an ore-forming magma 3.2. Main factors controlling sulfide liquid immiscibility
conduit must be an open system. When new pulses of magma-
bearing sulfide droplets entered the magma conduit, those droplets The mantle-derived magmas having potential to form Ni-Cu-PGE
settled down, and at the same time, the overlying sulfide-poor and deposits must have been produced by relatively high degrees of
PGE depleted magma was squeezed out and ascended to a higher partial melting and S-undersaturation whereas, PGE remained at
380 X. Song et al. / Geoscience Frontiers 2(3) (2011) 375e384

Figure 4 Geological map and cross sections of the typical magmatic sulfide deposits in the Emeishan Large Igneous Province (after Song et al.,
2008). A: Geological map of the Yangliuping area and cross section of the Yangliuping sill hosting Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide ore bodies; B: The Limahe
complex hosting Ni-Cu sulfide deposit and vertical section across the complex; C: The Jinbaoshan mafic-ultramafic sill hosting PGE sulfide ore
bodies.

the mantle source with sulfides during low degrees of partial Shima and Naldrett, 1975; Buchanan and Nolan, 1979; Wend-
melting, which produced S-saturated and PGE-poor magmas. landt, 1982; Mavrogenes and O’Neill, 1999). Therefore, sulfide
Thus, S-saturated primary magmas have the potential to form Ni- immiscibility does not occur during adiabatic ascent from the
Cu deposits rather than a Ni-Cu-PGE deposit. Experimental mantle because of the decrease of pressure. In contrast, an S-
studies have indicated that S solubility of mafic magma decreases saturated magma could become S-undersaturated when the
with decrease in temperature and of FeO and TiO2 in the magma, magma rises to a shallower level. Thus, input of sulfur and SiO2
and increase with decreasing pressure (Haughton et al., 1974; and Al2O3 during crustal contamination is a key factor to trigger
 X. Song et al. / Geoscience Frontiers 2(3) (2011) 375e384 381

the mantle-derived basaltic magma reaching S-saturation. The primary magmas are decided by the degree of partial melting.
formation of magmatic sulfide deposits found around the world Komatiitic and picritic magmas produced by high degrees of
until now is clearly related to crustal contamination. However, the partial melting have high PGE concentrations and high Ni/Cu
magmas generated from metasomatized mantle might have had ratios. In contrast, the mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) generated
high S solubility because of high oxygen fugacity. Sulfide by a low degree of partial melting of the upper mantle are PGE
immiscibility and segregation could be triggered by deoxidization depleted in general. Fractional crystallization under S-under-
when the magma encountered sediments containing carbon or saturation can cause a slight increase of Pd concentration of the
organic materials, and input of sulfur might then be unnecessary. basaltic magmas and decrease of IPGE (Os, Ir, Ru) concentrations.
One of the intriguing questions is whether sulfide immisci- Once S-saturation is reached, the basaltic magmas will become
bility, segregation and concentration occur in the same magma PGE depleted once a small amount of sulfide is separated, but the
chamber or in different magma chambers in a magma plumbing Ni and Cu concentration of the magma changes little. Concen-
system. If these processes occurred in the same magma chamber, trations of Ni, Cu and PGE of the sulfide liquid are positively
input of adequate sulfur from the wall rocks was needed, or sulfur correlated with the concentrations of these elements in the
solubility must have been extensively lowered by means of input parental magma if the sulfide liquid does not experience fractional
of a large amount of SiO2 and Al2O3 during contamination. crystallization. Thus, the compositions of disseminated sulfide ore
However, the wall rocks of some ore-bearing intrusions have too are useful for investigation of the nature of the parental magma,
low sulfur contents to provide enough sulfur to trigger sulfide from which the sulfide separated. Song et al. (2009) estimated that
immiscibility. For instance, the sulfur contents of wall rocks of the the Cu/Pd ratios of the parental magma of the Jinchuan intrusion
Jinchuan intrusion are less than 100 ppm, much lower than the are 2  104 to 9106 according to the Cu/Pd ratios of the
saturation solubility of mafic magmas (w1000 ppm). Thus, it is disseminated sulfide ores. Their calculation indicated that ratios
clear that sulfide immiscibility must have occurred in another are much higher than that of the primitive mantle
magma chamber at Jinchuan (Ripley et al., 2005). Similarly, the (w7000e10000), indicating that the Jinchuan sulfides were
wall rocks of the Yangliuping and Limahe intrusions are also not separated from the PGE-depleted basaltic magma because of prior
rich in sulfur. The sulfur of the sulfides of the Voisey’s Bay Ni-Cu- weak sulfide segregation.
Co deposit was also not derived from the wall rocks of the
intrusion (Naldrett, 2004). Although input of a large amount of
4.2. Degree of sulfide segregation
SiO2 and Al2O3 by wall rock contamination could decrease sulfur
solubility of the mafic magmas and trigger sulfide segregation,
The degree of sulfide segregation can be defined by the ratio of
extensive contamination also resulted in decrease of temperature
silicate melt/sulfide liquid (R factor). For a certain magma, the
and crystallization of silicate minerals. The sulfide droplets and
larger the R factor, the smaller the amount of sulfide segregated
silicate minerals would settle down together and form dissemi-
from the parental silicate magma and higher Ni, Cu and PGE
nated ores, which would be uneconomic. Moreover, if sulfide
concentrations of the sulfide liquid are expected, whereas a low R
segregation occurs after crystallization of olivine, the sulfides
factor implies low Ni, Cu and PGE concentrations of the sulfide
would have very low Ni grades and also be uneconomic.
liquid. Because partition coefficients of PGE between the sulfide
Thus, a more convincing interpretation is that the mantle-
liquid and the silicate melt (DSul/Sil) are as high as 104e105
derived magma reaches S-saturation when they pass through
(superscript "Sul" means sulfide liquid, "Sil" means silicate melt),
sulfur-rich sedimentary rocks in the crust before crystallization of
much higher than those of Ni and Cu (102e103), the effect of the
olivine or at the same temperature as the liquidus of olivine. The
R factor on the PGE concentration of the sulfide liquid is more
sulfide droplets would then settle down and concentrate to form
obvious than on the Ni and Cu concentrations when the R factor is
ore bodies when the sulfide-bearing magma entered a magma
larger than 1000. The PGE concentrations of the sulfide liquids
conduit system. Previous studies (Li et al., 2001; Ripley et al.,
may be elevated by reaction with new pulses of S-undersaturated
2005; Song et al., 2009) indicated that sulfide immiscibility of the
and PGE-undepleted magmas. The very high PGE grades of the
Voisey’s Bay and Jinchuan deposits occurred at deep levels before
Noril’sk deposits are attributed to the reaction between the sulfide
the respective magmas entered the ore-bearing intrusions.
liquid and new pulses of magma (Naldrett, 2004).

4. Main factors affecting Ni, Cu and PGE grades 4.3. Fractionation of sulfide liquid

Several factors affect the Ni, Cu and PGE grades of the sulfides of Nickel and IPGE having partition coefficients (DMss/Sul) between
the magmatic sulfide deposits, the most important of which monosulfide solid-solution and sulfide liquid are larger than 1
include: concentration of these elements of the parental silicate (superscript "Mss" means monosulfide solid solution, "Sul" means
magma, degree of sulfide segregation, reaction between the sulfide sulfide liquid), whereas the partition coefficients (DMss/Sul) of Cu
droplets and new pulses of mafic magma, and fractionation of the and PPGE (Pt, Pd, Rh) are less than 1. Thus, fractional crystalli-
sulfide liquids. zation of the monosulfide solid-solution will result in differentiation
between Ni and Cu and between IPGE and PPGE. Copper and
4.1. Nature of primary silicate magma PPGE will be concentrated in the residual sulfide liquid during
fractional crystallization of monosulfide solid-solution. Differenti-
Concentrations of Ni, Cu and PGE of the mantle-derived magma ation between IPGE and PPGE is very common in massive and
depend not only on the degree of partial melting and nature of the semi-massive (net-textured) sulfide ores, and is unusual in
mantle source, but also on magmatic evolution, such as fractional disseminated sulfide, in which the sulfide liquid droplets are sepa-
crystallization and particularly sulfide separation. For a certain rated from each other by the silicate melt. Differentiation between
mantle source, the concentrations of Ni, Cu and PGE of the the IPGE and PPGE has been found not only in the massive and
382 X. Song et al. / Geoscience Frontiers 2(3) (2011) 375e384

semi-massive sulfide ores of the Noril’sk and Jinchuan deposits, but background for the formation of a magmatic sulfide deposit.
also in the magmatic sulfide deposits in the ELIP. Several tectonic processes can cause continental lithosphere
extension and rifting, such as mantle plume, upwelling of the
5. Tectonic setting of deposits asthenosphere, and post-collisional extension. Extension and
thinning of continental lithosphere not only result in upwelling of
the upper mantle, but also induce extensive decompression
S-undersaturated primary basaltic magmas generally contain
melting of the upper mantle under relatively low temperature and
w300 ppm Ni and w10e20 ppb Pt and Pd. The formation of
produce a large amount of basaltic magma. Deep faults permit
large economic magmatic sulfide deposits required the involve-
mantle-derived magmas to ascend rapidly to a shallow magma
ment of a large volume of basaltic magma, and a continuous
chamber or to erupt to the surface. Thus, most of the large
supply of such magma is pivotal for the formation of large and
magmatic sulfide deposits (except for Sudbury) occur in rift zones
rich ore bodies. On the other hand, crustal contamination is always
and are distributed along regional deep faults. As indicated above,
a key factor in the formation of magmatic sulfide deposits. Thus,
the Noril’sk Ni-Cu-PGE deposits are located along the large
the perfect tectonic settings for large and super-large deposit are
Noril’sk-Kharaelakh and Imangda faults, which were formed
a large igneous province and a rift zone in a continental plate,
during regional extension because of the upwelling of a mantle
where a large amount of basaltic magma is generated by extensive
plume. The magmatic sulfide deposits in the ELIP are also situated
upwelling of the upper mantle.
along some deep faults. Tang and Li (1995) proposed that the
Jinchuan deposit was formed in a Proterozoic rift zone at
5.1. Large igneous province a continental margin and Li et al. (2005) suggested that the rifting
was related to a Neoproterozoic mantle plume.
A large igneous province comprises of flood basalts covering In general, an intracontinental rift experiences incipience,
a large area and associated intrusions resulting from a mantle maturity and opening of the oceanic basin stages. In the incipient
plume. Mantle plumes come up probably from the boundary stage, a series of large mafic-ultramafic intrusion form along linear
between the lower mantle and the core (e.g., Maruyama et al., regional deep faults. A triple junction forms in the mature stage
2007; Santosh, 2010) and thus have very high temperatures (up to and many intrusions and lavas are formed because of more
1500  C). An upwelling mantle plume results in extensive high- extensive magmatism. An ocean basin opens at the late stage of
temperature partial melting of the asthenosphere, lithosphere as the rift and magmatism becomes weak. Naldrett (2004) proposed
well as the plume itself producing a large amount of S-undersat- that the Great Dyke and Voisey’s Bay deposits are the results of
urated basaltic magma in a short time (1e2 Ma). Basaltic magma incipient rifting, the Noril’sk deposit was formed during the
produced by a mantle plume provides enough material for the mature stage of a rift, and the Jinchuan and Pechenga deposits are
formation of a large Ni-Cu-(PGE) sulfide deposit, a V-Ti-Fe oxide associated with magmatism of the late stage.
deposit, and a chromite deposit. The formation of the magmatic In fact, post-collisional extension of the lithosphere may cause
sulfide deposits in magma conduit systems, such as the Noril’sk upwelling of the asthenosphere, although rifts may not be formed
Ni-Cu-PGE deposit, Voisey’s Bay Ni-Cu-Co deposit, and the in such an environment. Upwelling of the asthenosphere may
magmatic sulfide deposits at the bases of komatiite flow, and the induce partial melting of the overlying metasomatized mantle and
PGE deposits in large layered intrusions, such as the Bushveld produce mafic magmas. This situation is similar to the incipient
intrusion and Great Dyke, are closely related to mantle plumes stage of a rift zone and some mafic-ultramafic intrusions are
(Naldrett et al., 1995; Lightfoot and Hawkesworth, 1997; Naldrett, formed when the mafic magma ascends to the crust. Studies have
1997, 2004; Li et al., 2000; Arndt et al., 2005; Li et al., 2005; indicated that the magmatic Ni-Cu deposits at Kalatongke and the
Song et al., 2006; Song and Li, 2009). Recent studies indicated Huangshan-Jingerquan zone formed in a post-collisional tectonic
that the magmatic sulfide deposits and V-Ti-Fe oxide deposits in setting related to partial melting of metasomatized mantle sources
the ELIP resulted from the activity of a Permian mantle plume (Song et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2009).
(Song et al., 2003; Song et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2006; Tao et al.,
2007; Song et al., 2008; Tao et al., 2008).
Although the presence of a mantle plume satisfies some 6. Implications for exploration
important conditions for the formation of a large magmatic sulfide
deposit, these deposits have been discovered in only a few large Some of the important questions to be resolved in the exploration
igneous provinces. Thus, with the exception of a continuous for ore deposits are: (1) how to evaluate the potential to discover
supply of a large amount of magma, crustal contamination, new deposits in a target area; (2) how to estimate the possible type
particularly input of enough sulfur from the sedimentary rocks in of deposit; and (3) how to define significant indicators for possible
a certain magma plumbing system is also a very important deposits. These aspects are briefly considered below.
precondition for the formation of a large magmatic sulfide deposit.
This is why no magmatic sulfide deposits have been found in 6.1. Evaluation of mineralization potential of an
a large igneous province within an oceanic plate (such as the exploration target area
Ontong Java LIP in the Pacific Ocean). This is probably because
the oceanic crust cannot provide sulfur to trigger sulfide immis- The foregoing discussions indicate that intracontinental extension
cibility of the basaltic magma. zones, particularly rift zones resulting from upwelling of mantle
plumes are potential targets for the exploration of magmatic
5.2. Rift zone sulfide deposits. Because the mantle-derived magmas in different
tectonic settings offer different potential for the formation of
Extension and thinning of continental lithosphere can cause magmatic sulfide deposits, estimating the tectonic setting of the
extensive partial melting of the upper mantle and create a good magmatism through studies on the regional geology and
 X. Song et al. / Geoscience Frontiers 2(3) (2011) 375e384 383

geochemistry of the volcanic rocks is important for evaluating the References

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