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AP Biology:: Evolution of Populations

The population is not in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium since forces of evolution are acting on it to change allele frequencies. The information provided is insufficient to calculate genotype or allele frequencies according to H-W principles.

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107 views18 pages

AP Biology:: Evolution of Populations

The population is not in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium since forces of evolution are acting on it to change allele frequencies. The information provided is insufficient to calculate genotype or allele frequencies according to H-W principles.

Uploaded by

Abhinav Basvoju
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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AP Biology:

Evolution
of
Populations
What is population genetics?
Analyzes the amount and distribution of genetic
variation in populations and the forces that control
this variation
mathematically based principles for changes in
genotypes through time—individuals, populations,
etc.
examine mutation, migration, breeding system,
among-population interactions, and selection on
allele frequencies
developed to bridge gap between “genes” and
“species evolution”- microevolution
“alleles” may be any kind of heritable mutation
Concept 15.2 Mutation, Selection, Gene Flow,
Genetic Drift, and Nonrandom Mating Result in Evolution

Because of mutation, different


forms of a gene, or alleles, may
exist at a locus.
Gene pool —sum of all copies of
all alleles at all loci in a
population
Allele frequency —proportion of
each allele in the gene pool
Genotype frequency —proportion
of each genotype among
individuals in the population
Evolution is characterized by a change in the genetic makeup of a
population over time and is supported by multiple lines of
evidence.

It is driven by random occurrences:

1. mutations
2. Genetic Drift
3. Gene Flow
Mutations
• The origin of genetic
variation is mutation.
• Mutation—any change in
nucleotide sequences.
• Mutations occur randomly
with respect to an
organism’s needs; natural • Mutations can be deleterious,
selection acts on this beneficial, or have no effect
random variation and results (neutral).
in adaptation. • Mutation both creates and
helps maintain genetic variation
in populations.
• Mutation rates vary, but even
low rates create considerable
variation.
Genetic Drift
 Changes in the gene pool of a small population due to
chance.
 Chance events may cause the frequencies of alleles to drift
randomly from generation to generation.
 Common in very small populations
 Two types: Bottleneck Effect and Founder Effect
Bottleneck Effect

 Type of genetic drift


 Disasters may randomly reduce the size of a
population.
 Small surviving population may not be
representative of the original population.
 Usually reduces the overall genetic variability (hence
adaptability) of a population—some alleles may be
lost.
 Often seen in endangered
species.
Founder Effect

 Type of genetic drift


 Few individuals from a larger population colonize an
isolated island, lake, or new habitat.
 Ex: Galapagos Finches
 New group may not be representative of old
population.
 Small sample size, lower genetic variability
 Can explain the high frequency of inherited
disorders among human populations established by
a small number of colonists.
Gene Flow
 A population may gain or
lose alleles due to the
migration of individuals or
gametes between
populations.

 Tends to reduce
differences between
populations.

 Extensive gene flow can


eventually group
neighboring populations
into a single population.
Modes (Trends) ofSelection
 Depends on which phenotypes in varying
populations are favored.
 Directional: favors variants of one extreme, most
common during environmental change or migration.
Shifts the frequency curve in one direction.
 Disruptive: occurs when environmental conditions
are varied. Favors individuals on both extremes of
the phenotypic range over intermediates
 Stabilizing: acts against extreme phenotypes and
favors the most common intermediate. Reduces
variation ex. Human birth weight
Modes of
Selection
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

Hypothetical, non-evolving population


• preserves allele frequencies

Serves as a model (null hypothesis)


• natural populations rarely in H-W equilibrium
• useful model to measure if forces are acting on a
population
 measuring evolutionary change

G.H. Hardy W. Weinberg


mathematician physician
Evolution of populations

• hypothetical: what conditions would cause


allele frequencies to not change?
• non-evolving population
REMOVE all agents of evolutionary change
1. very large population size (no genetic drift)

2. no migration (no gene flow in or out)

3. No net mutations (no genetic change)

4. random mating (no sexual selection)

5. no natural selection (everyone is equally fit)


Hardy-Weinberg theorem

Counting Alleles
• assume 2 alleles = B, b
• frequency of dominant allele (B) = p
• frequency of recessive allele (b) = q
 frequencies must add to 1 (100%), so:

p+q=1

BB Bb bb
Hardy-Weinberg theorem

Counting Individuals
• frequency of homozygous dominant: p x p = p2
• frequency of homozygous recessive: q x q = q2
• frequency of heterozygotes: (p x q) + (q x p) = 2pq
 frequencies of all individuals must add to 1 (100%), so:

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

BB Bb bb
H-W formulas

Alleles: p+q=1
B b

Individuals: p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
BB Bb bb

BB Bb bb
Using Hardy-Weinberg equation

population:
100 cats q2 (bb): 16/100 = .16
84 black, 16 white q (b): √.16 = 0.4
How many of each p (B): 1 - 0.4 = 0.6
genotype?

p2=.36 2pq=.48 q2=.16


BB Bb bb

What assume
Must are the genotype
population
frequencies?
is in H-W
Example 2
You have sampled a population in which you
know that the percentage of the homozygous
recessive genotype (aa) is 36%. Using that 36%,
calculate the following:
• The frequency of the "aa" genotype. 36%
• The frequency of the "a" allele. 60%
• The frequency of the "A" allele. 40%
• The frequencies of the genotypes "AA" and
"Aa." AA is 16% and Aa is 48%

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