POWER in ac CIRCUITS

Introduction
Consider the configure shown in figure 12.1

Figure 12.1

The voltage is given by 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 ) ≡ 𝑉∠𝜃𝑣

The current is given by 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 ) ≡ 𝐼∠𝜃𝑖
𝑉∠𝜃𝑣
The impedance is given by 𝒁 = = 𝑍∠𝜃
𝐼∠𝜃𝑖
It is noted that 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖

The power delivered to the load at any instant is given by

𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖
= 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 ) × 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 )
𝑉 𝐼 𝑉 𝐼
= 𝑚 𝑚 cos(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 ) − 𝑚 𝑚 cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 + 𝜃𝑖 )
2 2
= 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 − 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 cos(2𝜔𝑡) + 𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜃 sin 2𝜔𝑡

The first term is noted to be the average power as already derived in previous topics. The third and term terms vary at twice
the frequency of the applied voltage with peak values 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 and 𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜃 respectively.

Resistive Load
For a purely resistive circuit, v and i are in phase, hence θ = 0º. The power at any instant then becomes:
𝑝𝑅 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 − 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 cos(2𝜔𝑡)

A sketch of the power against time is shown in figure 12.2. The power is time varying at a twice supply frequency. All the
power dissipated is dissipated as heat in the resistor and no power is returned to the source.

Figure 12.2

The average power dissipated in the resistor is given by:

𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 =
𝑅

1
The total energy dissipated is given by 𝑊 = 𝑃𝑡.

Inductive Load
For a purely inductive circuit, v leads i by 90º, hence θ = 90º. The power at any instant then becomes:
𝑝𝐿 = 𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜃 sin 2𝜔𝑡

A sketch of the power against time is shown in figure 12.3. The power is time varying at a twice supply frequency. In one
half of the cycle power is absorbed by the inductor while in the second half, it is returned to the source so that the net power
flow into the inductor over a cycle is zero and power factor is zero. No energy is lost in the transaction.

Figure 12.3

The peak value of the curve VI is called the reactive power associated with the pure inductor. It is the amount of power that
is exchanged between the inductor and the source. The symbol is Q and the units are the volt-ampere reactive (VAR). For a
pure inductor, the reactive power is calculated as:
𝑉2
𝑄𝐿 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑋𝐿 =
𝑋𝐿

Capacitive Load
For a purely inductive circuit, v lags i by 90º, hence θ = -90º. The power at any instant then becomes:
𝑝𝐶 = −𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜃 sin 2𝜔𝑡

A sketch of the power against time is shown in figure 12.4. The power is time varying at a twice supply frequency. In one
half of the cycle power is absorbed by the inductor while in the second half, it is returned to the source so that the net power
flow into the inductor over a cycle is zero and power factor is zero. No energy is lost in the transaction.

Figure 12.4

The capacitor, like the inductor is also associated with a reactive power representing the amount of power that is exchanged
between the capacitor and the source. For a pure capacitor, the reactive power is calculated as:
𝑉2
𝑄𝐶 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑋𝐶 =
𝑋𝐶

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Apparent Power, Real Power and Reactive Power for a Load
Apparent Power
Apparent power is the product of the rms values of voltage and current of a circuit (refer to figure 12.1). The symbol is S
and the units are volt-amperes (because it’s just a product of current and voltage). This product does not give the power
associated with the circuit, hence the name apparent. The actual power dissipated depends on the power factor of the
circuit.

Apparent power is a power rating of significant usefulness in description and analysis of sinusoidal ac networks and in the
maximum rating of a number of electrical components and systems. In general, equipment is rated in Vas or kVAs. Given
the power rating and the supply voltage, one can get the rated current. For example a device rated at 10kVA / 200V has a
10000
maximum current rating of = 50𝐴.
200

The magnitude of apparent power can be evaluated using:

𝑉2
𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑍 =
𝑍

Average Power
It is power that is delivered to, and dissipated in the load. It is also called the real power. The symbol is P and the units are
watts (W). It is evaluated using:
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 = 𝑆 cos 𝜃

Reactive Power
It is the power that is exchanged between a load and the source. It is associated with reactive components within the load.
The symbol is Q and the units volt-ampere reactive. It can be capacitive or inductive reactive power. It is evaluated using:
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜃 = 𝑆 sin 𝜃

The significance of reactive power may be explained using a consumer connected to a power utility. Figures 12.3 and 12.4.
will be used. During the storage part of the cycle, the consumer in addition to the power he uses, also takes in the power to
be stored in the reactive components. This has the effect of requiring more generation of energy from the source. As a result
the consumer will also pay for energy he does not use.

Power Factor
The power factor of a circuit is the ratio of the average power to the apparent power. It is determined as:
𝑃
𝐹𝑝 = = cos 𝜃
𝑆

Power factor is said to be leading when current leads voltage and lagging when current lags voltage.

For a pure resistor, power factor is unity, 𝐹𝑝 = 1.

For a pure inductor, power factor is zero lagging , 𝐹𝑝 = 0.
For a pure capacitor, power factor is zero leading, 𝐹𝑝 = 0.
Other loads that have a mixture of both resistive and reactive components have power factors in the between 0 and 1
leading or lagging depending on the nature of the load.

Power factor shows how much of the apparent power is used in the load and thus is an indication of how reactive or
resistive a circuit is. Power factor is required to be as close to unity as possible so that least amount of current is taken for
maximum power. Maximum possible power of an appliance is equal to the rated apparent power but is only achieved when
power factor is unity, (otherwise equipment may be damaged). Operating at low power factors requires more current to
reach the same power (provided it does not exceed ratings). Increased current implies higher ratings of supply equipment.
Suppliers of power charge for apparent power to reflect the equipment ratings used as well as to encourage operation at
power factors close to unity.

The Power Triangle

Apparent power, real power and reactive power can be expressed as vector quantities, where power P is in the positive
horizontal axis, inductive real power (denoted here as QL) is in the positive vertical axis and capacitive reactive (denoted
here as QC) power is in the negative vertical axis. Figure 12.5 illustrates the idea.

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 Figure 12.5

The diagrams also show that S, P and Q can be related in the form of a triangle. Such a triangle is called a power triangle. In
circuits with both capacitive and inductive components, the vertical axis is the overall reactive power found by subtracting
capacitive reactive power from inductive reactive power as figure 12.6 shows.

Figure 12.6

Mathematically, from the triangle relationship:

𝑆 2 = 𝑃2 + 𝑄2
𝑃
𝐹𝑝 = cos 𝜃 =
𝑆

The Total P,Q and S

The total number of watts, volt-ampere reactive and volt amperes of a any system can be found using the following
procedure:
1. Find the total real power and reactive power for each component of the network (add all regardless of whether
they are connected in series or parallel).
2. The total real power of the system, PT is the sum of the average power delivered components.
3. The total reactive power QT is the difference between the total of the reactive power of inductive loads and total of
reactive power of capacitive loads.
4. Total apparent power of the circuit will be given by 𝑆 = √𝑃𝑇2 + 𝑄𝑇2 .
𝑃
5. The total power factor is given by 𝐹𝑝 = 𝑇.
𝑆

EXAMPLE 12.1
Find the total number of watts, VARs, VAs and the power factor for the network in figure E12.1(a). Draw the power
triangle and find the current in phasor form.

4
 Figure E12.1(a)

SOLUTION
Total real power, 𝑃𝑇 = 100𝑊 + 200𝑊 + 300𝑊
= 600𝑊

Total reactive power, 𝑄𝑇 = 700𝑉𝐴𝑅 − 1500𝑉𝐴𝑅

= −800𝑉𝐴𝑅

Total apparent power, 𝑆 = √6002 + (−800)2

= 1000𝑉𝐴
600
Power factor, 𝐹𝑝 =
1000
= 0.6 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

Figure E12.1(b) shows the power triangle.

Figure E12.1 (b)

𝑆
The current in phasor form, 𝐼 = ∠ cos −1 (𝐹𝑝 )
𝐸
1000
= ∠ cos −1 0.6
100
= 10𝐴∠53.13°

EXAMPLE 12.2
Find the total number of watts, VARs, VAs and the power factor for the network in figure E12.2(a). Draw the power
triangle.

5
 Figure E12.2(a)

SOLUTION
Total impedance of circuit, 𝑍𝑇 = 6 + 𝑗7 − 𝑗15
= 10𝛺∠53.13°

𝐸 100𝑉∠0°
Current, 𝐼 = =
𝑍𝑇 10𝛺∠53.13°
= 10𝐴∠53.13°

Total real power, 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃

= 100 × 10 × cos 53.13°
= 600𝑊

Total reactive power, 𝑄𝑇 = 𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜃

= 100 × 10 × sin 53.13°
= −800𝑉𝐴𝑅 = 800𝑉𝐴𝑅 (𝑐𝑎𝑝)

Total apparent power, 𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼

= 100 × 10
= 1000𝑉𝐴
600
Power factor, 𝐹𝑝 =
1000
= 0.6 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

Figure E12.2(b) shows the power triangle.

Figure E12.2 (b)

EXAMPLE 12.3
For the system shown in figure E12.3(a),
a) Find the average power, apparent power and reactive power and power factor for each branch.
b) Find the total number of watts, VARs, VAs and the power factor of the system. Sketch the power triangle.
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 c) Find the source current.

Figure E12.3(a)

SOLUTION

a) Bulbs: 𝑃1 = 12 × 60 = 720𝑊
𝑄1 = 0𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝑆1 = 720𝑉𝐴
𝐹𝑝1 = 1

Heating elements: 𝑃2 = 6400𝑊

𝑄2 = 0𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝑆2 = 6400𝑉𝐴
𝐹𝑝2 = 1

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
Motor: 𝑃3 =
𝜂
5×746
=
0.82
= 4548.78𝑊
𝑃
𝑆3 =
𝐹𝑝
458.78
=
0.72
= 6317.75𝑉𝐴

𝑄2 = 𝑆 sin(cos −1 0.72)
= 6317.75 sin(cos −1 0.72)
= 4384.71𝑉𝐴𝑅

𝐹𝑝2 = 0.72

Capacitive load:
Total impedance of branch, 𝑍𝑇 = 9 − 𝑗12 = 15𝛺∠−53.13°
𝐸 208𝑉∠0°
Current, 𝐼= =
𝑍𝑇 15𝛺∠−53.13°
°
= 13.87∠53.13

𝑃4 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃
= 208 × 13.87 × cos(−53.13° )
= 1731.39𝑊

𝑄4 = 𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜃
= 208 × 13.87 × sin(−53.13° )
= −2308.52𝑉𝐴𝑅 = 2308.52𝑉𝐴𝑅 (𝑐𝑎𝑝)

𝑆4 = 𝑉𝐼
7
 = 208 × 13.87
= 2885.65𝑉𝐴
1731.39
𝐹𝑝2 = = 0.6 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
2885.65

b) Total real power, 𝑃𝑇 = 720𝑊 + 6400𝑊 + 4548.78𝑊 + 1731.39𝑊

= 13 400.17𝑊

Total reactive power, 𝑄𝑇 = 0𝑉𝐴𝑅 + 0𝑉𝐴𝑅 + 4384.71𝑉𝐴𝑅 − 2308.52𝑉𝐴𝑅

= 2076.19𝑉𝐴𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑑)

Total apparent power, 𝑆 = √13 400.172 + 2076.192

= 13560.56𝑉𝐴
13 400.17
Power factor, 𝐹𝑝 =
13560.56
= 0.988 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔

Figure E12.1(b) shows the power triangle.

Figure E12.1 (b)

𝑆
c) The source current, 𝐼 = ∠ cos −1 (𝐹𝑝 )
𝐸
13560.56
= ∠ − cos −1 0.988
208
= 65.19𝐴∠−8.89°

EXAMPLE 12.4
An electrical appliance is rated 5kVA, 100V at 0.6 power factor lagging. What is the impedance in rectangular format?

SOLUTION
I lags V by cos −1 0.6 = 53.23°
Hence, 𝐼 = 50𝐴∠−53.13°
100𝑉∠0°
Impedance, 𝑍 =
50𝐴∠−53.13°
= 2Ω∠53.13°
= 1.2Ω + 𝑗1.6Ω

Power Factor Correction

It has already been stated that power factor needs to be close to unity. However, most loads are inductive so that power
factor may be of low lagging value. To make power factor close to unity capacitive loads (in this case) are added to the
system so as to reduce the magnitude of the overall reactive power and in the process improving the power factor.

The act of introducing reactive elements to bring the power factor close to unity is called power-factor correction. As
exercise, find out how the reactive elements to be added are selected (that is calculation of the ratings of elements to be
added).