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Principles of Color
Color Processes Color Scanning

Color Development
This chapter of the Core Technology Manual deals with
Color Image Transfer
color specific principles and processes. Discussions of
Image Files
monochromatic specific process or general subjects
that are not affected by color will be found in other
chapters.
Principles of Color
When discussing the processes involved in color
copying, it is important to understand what light is
and how just three basic colors can create a vast 0
1 101 1
array of colors. 01 0 1
1
Electromagnetic Waves 0
Once thought to be the smallest particles of

matter—atoms—have over time been shown to
consist of a variety of subatomic particles. These
subatomic particles are organized into three
groups—hadrons, leptons, and bosons.
1 April 2001 Page 887

Color Processes Principles of Color
The first group, the hadrons, includes among

others the protons and neutrons that are found in
the nucleus of the atom.
Of the second group, the leptons, the electron is
the most important from the standpoint of color.
Electrons are part of ordinary matter; the volume
of an atom is nearly all occupied by the cloud of
electrons surrounding the nucleus.
The final group the bosons, includes the particles
responsible for carrying the fundamental forces of
the universe such as electromagnetic energy and
gravity. One of them is a particle of major interest
here, the photon. You can think of the Boson
group of particles as the universe’s tiny energy
transporters. Photons then, are particles that form
a packet of electromagnetic energy and can
transport this energy.
All matter and energy (as they are understood at
present) consist of these particles. All matter that
we normally deal with is made up of atoms. For What do these particles have to do
our purposes, we will consider an atom to consist with color?
of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a
negatively charged cloud of electrons. These

negatively charged electrons encircle the nucleus

in fixed orbits or shells. Each shell has its own
energy level, and when energy is to be released
from the atom, we will call upon the boson group
of particles to transport this energy outward.
If sufficient energy, say in the form of heat, is
applied to the atom, one or more of the orbiting
electrons will be forced to move to an outer shell.
This process is referred to as absorption. An atom
in which the electrons are boosted to higher
energy levels is said to be in an excited state.
As the electron returns to its “normal” energy
state, electromagnetic radiation is released. This
process is referred to as emission. One type of
electromagnetic radiation is visible light. The color
of the visible light depends on the atom, how far
the electron moved to return to its initial orbit, and
how much energy was released.

Electromagnetic radiation consists of rapidly

changing electrical and magnetic fields, and is
released from the atom in the form of particles or Wavelength
“packets” of energy. These tiny packets of
electromagnetic energy are referred to as
photons. These particles of radiation released in
mass numbers take on the characteristics of a
wave. The three wave characteristics of
amplitude, wavelength, and frequency are
described below. Photons are sometimes defined
as particles of energy that behave like waves.
Along the radiation wave, the electric and

magnetic fields oscillate or go up and down in
strength. The amount that the wave varies in
strength is the amplitude.

The distance between one peak of the wave to

the next in either the electric or magnetic field is
called wavelength, which is measured in meters.
And, the number of peaks that pass a given point

in one second is called the frequency. Frequency
is measured in Hertz (Hz).
1 second

FM BROADCAST / TV
AM BROADCAST
SHORT WAVES
VISIBLE LIGHT
ULTRAVIOLET
MICROWAVES
GAMMA RAYS
INFRARED
X RAYS
ELF
-1 6 -1 4 -1 2 -1 0 -8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 1 10 10 10 10
WAVELENGTH,
METERS
Ultraviolet V B G O R Infrared
400 500 600 700 (nm)
Electromagnetic radiation covers a very broad spectrum of wavelengths. From the longest—the
extremely long frequency radio waves (ELF)—through radio waves, television, microwaves, radar,
infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays and on down to the shortest waves—the gamma rays.
The principle difference between the various kinds of radiation is their differences in wavelength,
frequency and energy. As the wavelength decreases, both the frequency and energy increases.
Notice that visible light occupies only a narrow band of the spectrum between about 400 and 700
nanometers.

• Some wavelengths are long and less frequent.

• Other wavelengths are short and more
frequent.
• The longer the wavelength the lower the
photon’s energy.
• The shorter the wavelength the greater the
photon’s energy.
• A red photon of light (longer wavelength) has
about half the energy as that of a blue photon
of light (shorter wavelength).

The Visual Spectrum

Visible light occupies a very small portion of this
continuous spectrum. The electromagnetic energy
with wavelengths of between about 400 nm and
700 nm makes up the entire visible light spectrum.
(The abbreviation “nm” refers to a unit of measure
called a nanometer. One nanometer is equal to
0.000000001 meters or written in exponential form
-9
1x10 meters.) This range of wavelengths
consists of all the colors of light that humans are
able to perceive. White light contains all these
wavelengths and hence, contains all the colors of
the visible spectrum.
This can be demonstrated through the use of a
prism. A prism works on the principle of refraction,
or the bending of light. As light passes through
dense matter (such as glass), longer wavelengths
of color bend less than shorter ones. In this
manner the various wavelengths of color bend
differently from one another. The result is that all
the individual colors that make up white light are
separated from one another, producing a
“rainbow” of colors.

As you can see in the previous illustration, the

divisions between the colors are not pronounced
or sharp. If you begin at the top, you may notice
the color red, then going down through the
spectrum you may be able to pick out a reddish-
orange, then maybe an orange, a yellowish-
orange and so on down through to the color violet. Range of Wavelengths Color
We perceive certain colors based on the 400nm to about 500nm Blue
proportion of one color to another. For example, if 500nm to about 600nm Green
the ratio of yellow light to orange is 1:1, we would
perceive the color as yellowish-orange. If the ratio 600nm to about 700nm Red
was increased to 2:1, we would perceive the color
as yellow-yellowish-orange, and so on. There are,
however, three primary colors of light that when
any two are mixed together, in equal amounts, a
new or secondary color is produced. And, when all
three of these colors of light are blended together
in equal amounts “white light” is produced. The
three primary colors of light that best produce this
effect are the colors red, green, and blue.
Since all the various colors of light, as well as white light, can be created by combining these three
colors in varying amounts, it is then possible to categorize visible light (from about 400nm to about
700nm) into three basic categories

Reflection and Absorption

Luminous Color and Intrinsic Color
We see objects that create, reflect, or transmit,
visible light. Objects that create light are said to be
luminous. Luminous color is the color emitted by
an object, and is dependent upon the wavelengths
produced. Objects that reflect or transmit light are
said to be intrinsic. Intrinsic color is the result of
the wavelengths of light that are bounced off an
object (reflected), or that are allowed to pass
through a translucent or transparent object
(transmitted color).
For example, the sun, a candle, a television or a

red spotlight are all examples of luminous color.
They all generate light.

Reflection and Absorption

An orange, the pages in a book, a leaf or a
transparent piece of blue glass have intrinsic
color. The colors they produce are the result of
absorbing or stopping some wavelengths of light,
while reflecting or passing others.
As white light strikes the leaf, the green
wavelengths are reflected, while the other
wavelengths are absorbed.
When white light strikes the blue glass, the blue

wavelengths pass through and all other
wavelengths are stopped (absorbed). The eye
perceives the color blue.
Substances which are colorless, such as air, are
unable to absorb any of the wavelengths of light.
Colorless substances either reflect all the
wavelengths of light striking it, such as white
clouds, or allow all the wavelengths to pass
through, such as the glass in a window.

All the visible colors of light can then be

expressed as some combination of three principle
colors of light— red, green, and blue. It is this
ability to reproduce all the colors of light using only
three basic colors that is called additive color
mixing. Red, green, and blue light are referred to
as the three additive primaries.
Light Reflective Characteristics of Color Toner.

The light reflective characteristics of color toner
are of special interest to us. We will get into this in
more detail later, but for now lets take a quick look
at how color toner reflects light.
R
G
Cyan toner absorbs red rays and reflects blue and B
green rays. Reflected “B” and “G” rays are seen
as cyan. Cyan Toner
White paper

R
G
Magenta toner absorbs green rays and reflects B
blue and red rays. Reflected “B” and “R” rays are
seen as magenta. Magenta Toner
White paper
R
G
Yellow toner absorbs blue rays and reflects green B
and red rays. Reflected “G” and “R” light rays are
seen as yellow. Yellow Toner
White paper

Color Mixing
The Primary Colors
Additive color
Colors can be created by mixing three primary mixing uses red,
colors in two basic methods. One is additive color green, and blue.
mixing, which is the mixing of the three primary
colors of light.
Subtractive color
The other is subtractive color mixing, which is the mixing uses yellow,
blending of the three primary colors of pigment magenta, and cyan
(such as ink, paint, or toner).

Additive Color Mixing

In additive color mixing red, green, and blue light
are blended in various amounts to produce all
other colors and white light. Additive Color Mixing
is the process used by color televisions, and by
color computer monitors.
As discussed earlier, if equal amounts of red light,
green light, and blue light are mixed together,
white light is produced. The resultant color created
when mixing colors of light using the additive
theory of color is “brighter” and lighter in color then
either of its elements. The colors “ADD” together.
Red + Green ! Yellow
When only two of the three primary colors are
mixed together, in equal amounts, the color
created is referred to as a secondary color.
When equal amounts of red light and green light
are mixed together, the color yellow is produced.

Red + Blue ! Magenta

Mixing equal amounts of red light and blue light,
produce the color magenta.
Green + Blue ! Cyan
And when equal amounts of green light and blue

light are mixed together, the color cyan is
produced.

When one of the additive primary colors is

combined with one of the secondary colors and
the result is white or near-white light, the two
colors are said to be complementary. For
example, cyan light consists of green and blue
light, adding cyan to red light would create white
light. So, the color cyan and the color red are Additive Complementary
considered to be complementary colors. Primary Color Color
By the same reasoning, the color magenta is Blue Yellow
formed by the mixing of equal amounts of blue
Green Magenta
light and red light. If these colors were added in
the correct proportions to green light, white light Red Cyan
would be the result. Magenta and green are
complements.
The table lists the additive primaries and their
complementary colors.
When mixing pigments, such as ink or dye, these
complementary colors are used as the principle or
primary colors in a process known as subtractive
color mixing.

Subtractive Color Mixing

Mixing colors of light is one thing, but mixing opaque colors such as pigments or dyes is quite
another. For example, red and green pigments will not blend to produce the color yellow no matter
how hard you try. This is because these materials get their color by absorbing or “subtracting” certain
amounts of red, green, and blue light, and reflecting what is not absorbed.
This means that a pure red pigment would absorb blue and green light and reflect only red light; a
pure green pigment would absorb red and blue light and reflect only green light; and a pure blue
pigment would absorb red and green light and reflect only blue light. The mixing of any two of these
three pigments, red, green or blue would result in all three primary colors of light being absorbed,
which is black. So as you can see, in a three color print process, using the colors Red, Green, Blue,
as pigments would not work. What must be determined are the three principle or primary subtractive
colors.
As you read the above paragraph you may have noticed that for each color pigment: pure red, pure
green, and pure blue; two colors of light were absorbed or subtracted by each. If we had three
different colors, colors that would each absorb only one color of light, then by mixing these three
colors we could control the absorption of any combination of the three colors of light, resulting in the
ability to create any color.
As we mentioned earlier three separate colors do exist that will each absorb only one of the three
colors of white light, namely the complementary colors of red, green and blue which are cyan,
magenta, and yellow. These three colors are referred to as the subtractive primaries.

Cyan, Magenta and Yellow will each absorb a

different additive primary and reflect the remaining
two.
When white light strikes a pure yellow pigment the

additive primary blue is absorbed and the
remaining two additive primaries, red and green,
are reflected. Remember, red and green light
create yellow light. When white light strikes a pure
magenta pigment, green is absorbed and red and
blue are reflected. Red and blue light create
magenta light. And as shown here, when a pure
cyan pigment is used, red is absorbed and green
and blue are reflected. (Green and blue = cyan)

Magenta + Yellow ! Red

When magenta pigment (the circle on the left) is
mixed with yellow pigment (the circle on the right)
in equal proportions the color red is produced
(center).
Yellow + Cyan ! Green
When yellow pigment and cyan pigment are mixed

together in equal proportions, the color green is
produced.

Cyan + Magenta ! Blue

When cyan pigment is mixed with magenta
pigment in equal proportions, the color produced
is blue.
When all three colors: cyan, magenta and yellow

are blended together in equal pro-portions, the
result is that all the wavelengths of light are
absorbed, and black is produced. This black color
is referred to as “processed black,” and depending
on the purity of the colors for cyan, magenta, and
yellow will actually appear to be a very deep blue
or brown.

The final color created, when mixing pigments

using the subtractive theory of color, is always
“darker” and deeper in color than either of its
elements. The colors, when mixed together,
“Subtract” light from being reflected.
The colors, cyan, magenta and yellow, known as
the subtractive primaries, will be the colors used
to print the images when using the three color
print process.
The illustration to the right is an example of a
simple “color wheel.” Starting at the color green
and following the top arrow, moving clockwise
toward red is the color yellow. Remember, yellow
is produced by mixing equal amounts of green
and red light. Continuing clockwise past red is the
color magenta, which is a mixture of red and blue
light. Then comes cyan and so on... Notice that
each portion of the color wheel points to its
complementary color. For example the red
“wedge” points to its complement cyan. The blue
wedge to its complement yellow.
Not only does this color wheel show the
relationships of the additive primaries, it also

demonstrates the relationships of the subtractive

primaries. For example, yellow and cyan pigments
Some Color Wheels
mixed in equal amounts create green. The color
“green” sits between yellow and cyan on the color
wheel. Green also points to its complement which
is magenta. There are other, more elaborate color
wheels, that can also demonstrate all the various
“hues” of colors created as the proportions of the
various colors mixed are changed.
Familiarizing yourself with the color wheel can be
A continuous color
a strong aid to obtaining a specific color. For wheel
example, using the color wheel, when equal
proportions of magenta and yellow pigments are
mixed, red is produced. If the amount of magenta
was reduced the color would take on a more
orange look to it. Reduce the magenta even more
and the color would begin to appear more and An additive mixing
more yellow. Understanding these concepts of color wheel
how cyan, magenta and yellow interact in forming
all the printed colors are important in both
operating and servicing any device using the three
A subtractive mixing
color print process, such as a full color copier. color wheel

Color Separation
“Color Separation” can be thought of as the
opposite of “Color Mixing.” The process of color
separation will take a full color image and “break it
down” to its fundamental or primary components.
This is accomplished using the intrinsic color
transmission properties of optical filters. Although
the process of color separation can be
accomplished by using either the additive filters—
Red, Green, or Blue (R,G,B), or subtractive
filters—Cyan, Magenta, or Yellow, when used in
the three color print process, such as used in color
copiers, generally R,G,B filters are used. For this
reason we will limit our explanation to the use of
these three filters.
The Characteristics of Filters

B G R
Red Filter—The “Red” filter allows “Red” light to
pass through and absorbs “Blue” and “Green”.
Red Filter

B G R
Green Filter—The “Green” filter allows “Green”
light to pass through and absorbs “Blue” and
“Red”. Green Filter
B G R
Blue Filter—The “Blue” filter allows “Blue” light to
pass through and absorbs “Green” and “Red”
Blue Filter
rays.
Let’s look at the separation process...

White light is first cast upon a full color image or
object. Depending on the color of the image or
object, certain wavelengths of light will be
absorbed while others are reflected. The colors
which are reflected can be considered as being
composed of various proportions of the three
primary colors: red, green, and blue.

By passing the reflected light through a red filter,

only the reflected light that consists of a red
component will pass through. The intensity or
amount of red that passes through is in direct
proportion to the amount of red light reflected by
the image. In other words, a pure yellow pigment
would reflect red and green light in equal
amounts. A red filter passes only the red element,
hence the intensity of the light passed is only half
of when the red and green light were combined.
White light is cast on the image again. This time

the reflected light is passed through a green filter.
The filter transmits only the green element of each
color; the other colors are blocked.

Again, white light is cast on the image. This time a

blue filter intercepts the reflected light. Only the
blue element of each color from the image is
allowed to pass.
These steps are basically what occur during the
color separation process in a full color copier.
Each time white light is cast on the image would
be equivalent to one scan of the copier. For each
scan, the reflected image is passed through a
different color filter. The end result is that the
image is “broken apart" into its R,G,B,
components.
Image Scanning
The three-scan process has been replaced by a
four-scan process in almost all modern full color
copiers. The fourth scan is used to determine how
much black pigment or toner should be added to
the reproduced image. This is because the
pigment or toner colors used are not necessarily
pure. The magenta used may not be a pure
magenta color, the cyan, not a pure cyan, and the
yellow, not a pure yellow. This is due primarily to
manufacturing, since the materials used to create

the pigment color must also meet a range of

requirements that are independent of color, such
as: resistance to caking or clumping, consistency Original image
of particle size, or in the case of liquids the flow
rate. The materials chosen to meet all the
specifications may not wind up being pure in hue.
For this reason black toner is used to produce a
more true black, instead of the bluish or brownish
look of a processed black. The amount of black
used is usually a percentage of the C,M,Y ratio
used—a process referred to as under color
removal. CMYK
separations
After scanning, the next process involves using after RGB to
the RGB separated color data and determining CMYK
how much toner to apply. This is referred to as conversion
RGB to CMYK conversion (K = BLACK toner).
This step is generally performed immediately after
each scan before the next scan occurs. Since the
subtractive primaries (C,M,Y) are the opposite or
complements to the additive primaries (R,G,B),
the amount of toner used is inversely proportional
(or the opposite of) the amount of light transmitted
through each filter.

Let’s examine the light transmission and toner

selection for a solid pink original.
Since a large amount of red light is reflected from
the pink image, then very little red light was
absorbed. The color that absorbs red light is its
complementary color cyan. Cyan pigment absorbs
red light. Since very little red was absorbed by the
image, the image must contain very little cyan
pigment. So a very small amount of cyan toner will
be used.
The pink original reflects only a very small amount

of green light; so, a large amount must have been
absorbed. The color pigment that absorbs green
wavelengths of light is the complementary color of
green, which is the color magenta. So, a large
amount of magenta toner will be necessary to
reproduce the color of this image.

Finally, the pink original reflects a moderate

amount of blue light; so, a moderate amount must
also have been absorbed. The color pigment that
absorbs blue light is the complementary color
yellow. And a moderate amount of yellow toner
must be added to reproduce this image.
Blended together using heat and pressure, the

end result is a copy or reproduction of the original
image in full color. In this example the color “Pink”
is reproduced.

By altering the proportions of cyan, magenta and

yellow pigments used, based on the levels of red,
green and blue light reflected, any color can be
reproduced. Adding a fourth pigment, black, at the
proper amount adds depth to the copy and
improves black reproduction. And those are the
basic processes surrounding light and color
mixing.

Brightness, Saturation, and Hue White

We will finish the section on the principles of color
with a discussion of three important terms—
brightness, saturation, and hue.
Brightness
These color characteristics form one of the
systematic models available for classifying colors.
It is based on how the eye perceives shades of
color.
Blue Violet
Brightness: This is related to the amount of black Green-blue
or white in a color. It is also a measure of how
Saturation
much light the color is reflecting. Adjusting the Blue-green Red
lightness changes the intensity of R, G, and B but Hue
keeps their proportions the same. Brightness is
Green Orange
also known as ‘lightness’. Green- Yellow
Saturation: Colorfulness with respect to a neutral yellow
gray (chroma is another term used). To adjust
Brightness
saturation, the intensity of the complementary
RGB color is adjusted, keeping the dominant color
the same.
Hue: This is the color of an object. It is a measure
of the proportions of R, G, and B in the color.
Black

These three characteristics of color can be shown

on a three-dimensional diagram as shown on the
previous page. The illustration on this page is a
color representation of this concept.
In this diagram, the brightness increases toward
the top apex and decreases toward the bottom
apex. All colors can be represented as a vertical
color section in the solid, with a white apex at the
top and a black apex at the bottom.
The colors going through the center of the solid
from top to bottom are all shades of gray. Also,
colors get brighter (more white) above the
equatorial plane, and darker (more black) below it.
The colors get more intense as you move away
from the vertical axis (the percentage of gray
decreases). This represents increase in
saturation. A 3D “brightness, hue,
and saturation” color
Any horizontal slice through the solid yields our diagram
friend the color wheel. The hue changes as you
move around the center.

Color Matching
In theory, color management is simple; the colors either
match the original, or they don’t. In practice, however, it is
much more complex. While accurate color matching is a goal
of almost every color process, it is not always possible. There
are a number of technical elements that limit our ability to
reproduce specific colors, as well as psychological elements
that influence our perception of colors. Understanding these
will help you create a close-as-possible color match.
Color Gamut
A color gamut is the maximum color range for a particular
device. Different devices and different color processes have
different gamuts.
The illustration on the right represents the entire visual
spectrum—the color gamut visible to the human eye. The area inside the yellow triangle represents a
typical RGB gamut. This is the color range that can be displayed on a typical monitor.
While the actual gamut will vary from monitor to monitor, it is always smaller than the visible range.
There are always some colors that cannot be displayed.
The area inside the blue line represents a typical CMYK device. This, too, will vary depending on the
quality of the printer or copier, but it is smaller than the RGB gamut. The unfortunate result is, some

colors can be displayed on a monitor but cannot be printed. You can calibrate, adjust and manipulate
the printer as much as you like—you won’t get the desired color.
Dark blue shades are a common example. On some printers certain blues come out purple.
Metamerism
Metamerism is an illusion in which two or more colors
appear identical under certain light sources, but are
markedly different from each other under other lights.
This is a common problem in the paint, printing and
textile industries.
A typical example of metamerism occurs when you try to
paint your
living room to
match your
couch. You
take a fabric
sample with
you to the
hardware store, but while the paint chip and fabric sample
match perfectly under the store’s florescent lighting, they
look quite different in your living room’s blend of
incandescent and natural light.

Metamerism is a particular problem for CMYK processes, where the colors are created from just
three colorants.
Part of the problem is that, as we discussed earlier, light has color. Different light sources produce
different colors—and these colors influence the appearance of fabric samples, paint chips and color
copies.
The color of a light source is described by its temperature. The temperature scale is calculated
based on the amount of light emitted by a blackbody at any given temperature.
Blackbodies are theoretical objects that are perfectly black when cold. At zero degrees Kelvin they
absorb all light cast upon them; however, as they heat up, they begin to emit light—first red, then
yellow, then white and finally blue.
While perfect blackbodies do not exist, most solid objects are a good approximation of blackbodies.
Think of the coils on an electric heater, the filament of an incandescent bulb, and even the sun and
stars.
Color temperatures are measured using the Kelvin scale. Kelvin is similar to Celsius. The unit
intervals are the same; however, zero K is equal to -273 degrees Celsius.
Note, hotter temperatures emit bluish light. Cooler temperatures emit reds. This runs contrary to
most people’s color intuition. Blue is usually seen as a cold color. Red as warm or fiery.

Color Temperatures
12000 K Clear blue sky at noon
11000 K
10000 K Graphics arts monitor
9000 K
8000 K North Sky Light
7000 K Overcast Sky at noon
6000 K Sunlight at noon
5000 K Standard Color viewing lamps,
Cool white florescent
4000 K Photoflood tungsten,
Warm white florescent
2854 K Tungsten incandescent lamp
2000 K Sunlight at sunset, Candlelight
Color temperature of standard light sources
When matching colors it is important to consider the light that the objects will be viewed under. Most
professional color matching goes one step further—using strict lighting standards when comparing
proofs. 5000 K is the default standard. This produces a completely neutral, white light source, similar
to natural daylight. To be even more precise, the ANSI standard also defines the chromaticity,
spectral power distribution, color rendering index, and intensity of the light for viewing different
medium.

Color Memory
We are often disappointed with color reproduction, when the
color does not live up to our memory of the scene. The truth is,
colors that we remember are not always the colors we actually
saw.
People tend to remember colors as being more vibrant, more
rich than they actually where. If you take two prints of the same
object, one with accurate coloring and one with over-saturated
coloring, most people will pick the over-saturated one. It Normal colors
appears more alive and more interesting.
This is just one way in which psychology influences our
definition of a “quality color image.”
For hands on experiments with interesting

online applets, check out
http://www.cs.rit.edu/~ncs/color
Over saturated colors

Color Scanning
In this section we will look at the aspects of image
scanning and photoconductor exposure that are
unique to color systems. The details of processes
that are common to both color and black/white
systems are covered in Photocopying Processes
and Digital Processes chapters. Analog
Ricoh color products have used three different

scanning methods, depending on the underlying
basic architecture of the machines. These
methods can be classified as color analog
scanning/exposure, digital systems using lens and
mirror scanning, and direct scanning digital
systems using a fiber optic array. We will discuss Digital with lens and mirrors
and look at examples of each.
The number of scans that a color copier makes
depends on the amount of memory it has. Most
color copiers must make one scan per color.
However, digital color copiers with a large amount
of memory—for example model A269—can store
the full image data for all colors and need only Digital with fiber optic array
one scan per image.

Analog Scanning
Most color machines are digital. However, there
are some analog color machines in the field.
The color analog scanning and exposure is
basically the same as the systems used for black
and white analog copiers. (See and Exposure in
the Photocopying Processes chapter.) The only
difference is that filters have to be used to
separate the colors and the original has to be
scanned for each of the primary colors to be
reproduced.
Example: Models A030 and A072
The illustration to the right shows the scanning
mechanism of models A030/A072.
During the copy cycle, an image of the original is
reflected onto the drum surface via the optics
assembly. Exposure Light Path:
Exposure Lamp [A] ⇒ 1st Mirror [B] ⇒ 2nd Mirror [C]
Three color filters (red, green, and blue) and a
⇒ 3rd Mirror [D] ⇒ Lens [E] ⇒ 4th Mirror [F] ⇒ Color Filter
neutral filter are mounted on a rotor. The three [G] ⇒ Toner Shield Glass [H] ⇒ Drum [I]
color filters are used when the full color mode is
selected or single color erase mode is selected. Optics cooling fan: [J]

The neutral filter is used when black copies or

single color copies are made.
The filter rotor, which holds the four filters [A], is [A]
shown to the right. The rotor turns to bring the
proper filter into the light path. A home position
[B]
sensor [B] informs the CPU when the rotor is at
the home position. A stepper motor [C] rotates the
filter rotor the precise angle to bring the selected
filter into the light path.
[C]

Lens and Mirror Digital Scanning

Most color digital machines use a lens and
scanners with mirrors to reflect an image of the
original to a charge coupled device (CCD). This is
very similar to the system used in most digital
black and white copiers.
[C]
Example: Models A257 and A269
[A]
An image of the original illuminated by the [D]
exposure lamp [A] (a halogen lamp) is reflected
onto a color CCD [B] (Charge Coupled Device) via
the 1st [C], 2nd [D], and 3rd [E] mirrors, filter, and
lens [F]. The filter removes infrared from the light
reflected off the original; this is particularly
important for glossy photos with black areas, [E]
which can appear reddish in copies.
[F]
For all copy modes except the “Auto Original [B]
Type” mode machine makes a single scan. The
CCD is a one-chip color CCD with RGB color
filters. The scanning resolution is 400 dpi (5,000
pixels).

The key element in digital color machines is the

color CCD. The color CCD resembles the type of
CCD used in black & white digital machines;
however, it has three rows of light sensitive
elements instead of one row. The color CCD
converts light reflected from the original into three
analog signals, one for each of the three basic
colors Red, Green, and Blue. The signals are
called the R, G, and B signals. A single scan
generates a separate set of three signals (RGB).
The CCD consists of three lines of 5000 elements R 1 1 2 3
at a resolution of 400 dpi (15.7 dots/mm)—one 5000

line for each color. To make the R, G, and B
signals, each line has a color separation filter (R,
G, or B). The lines of CCD elements are very
close together, but there is some space between G 5
them. In model A269 the lines are spaced 4 pixels
apart at full size magnification—illustrated to the
right. (In many earlier models they are spaced 8
pixels apart.) To correct for the spacing, the R, G,
and B signals must be synchronized. This is done
by delaying the signals in memory buffers on the B 9
image processing unit (IPU) board. This process
is called scan line correction.

The CCD is mounted on the board with the lens

block (the assembly is known as the SBU or
Sensor Board Unit). Therefore, to replace the
CCD, you must replace the SBU.

Direct Digital Scanning (SELFOC +CCD)

Color direct digital scanning systems use a self-
focusing fiber optic array (SELFOC) and full-size
CCD mounted together on a scanner. The basic
principle of this method is quite simple. As the
scanner moves across (scans) the original, a strip
of the original is reflected through the fiber optic
array to the CCD.
[A]
Example: Models A092 and A105 [D]
The scanner unit used in models A046 and A105
consists of two exposure lamps [A] (fluorescent
lamps), the full-size CCD [B], the CCD drive board
[C], the CCD pre-amp board [D] and the optical
fiber array [E]. The light from the exposure lamps
exposes the original and reflects on to the full-size
CCD through the optical fiber array.
[E]
[C] [B]

The full-size CCD board has an unusual design.

There are 5 CCD chips on the CCD board, each
CCD chip has 2,928 elements (2,880 elements for
model A105). Each element has a tiny green (G),
blue (B), or red (R) filter on top. This G.B.R. order
is repeated along the full length of the CCD chips.
One set of these G.B.R. elements is equal to one
picture element or pixel. The CCD elements are
angled 45 degrees, so that all three CCD
elements of any pixel receive the same reflected
light.
45°
1 pixel 62.5 µm

Color Processes Color Development
Color Development
Like black and white machines, color copiers and
printers use dual-component development or
monocomponent development systems. However,
color systems require a separate development
unit for each color, and they must make at least
one development cycle per color.
The development systems of Ricoh color products Development
can be classified into three groups—(1) systems units in fixed
with the development units arranged in fixed positions
positions around the photoconductor, (2) systems
with a revolver that brings the development units
to the photoconductor when needed, and (3)
tetradrive systems. This section looks at M
representative examples of each group.
K 2nd
C
d 1st
Development units
on a revolver
Tetradrive

Fixed Position Development Systems

Many color copiers and printers have the four color development mechanisms (CMYK) arranged in
fixed positions around the photoconductor. Such an arrangement is logical from a design point of
view; however, such designs have two requirements that designers must address.
1. Photoconductor Surface Area

Four development mechanisms take up a lot of photoconductor surface. For this reason, color
systems using fixed position development units must use a larger than normal photoconductor. One
way is to increase the drum size; this is the approach used by model A109 as explained in example 1
below. Another method is to use a long photoconductor belt; this is the method used by model G033
(see example 2 below).
2. Prevention of Simultaneous Development

Although the development units are in a fixed position, only one color can be allowed to develop the
image at a time. Examples 1 and 2 below show two ways to handle this requirement—model A109
removes the developer from the rollers that aren’t being used for development, and model G033
holds the development rollers away from the photoconductor when they are not in use.

Example 1: Model A109

This machine has one large development unit
[E]
divided into four sections. From the left they are [G]
the black development section [A], the cyan deve- [A]
lopment section [B], the magenta development
section [C] and the yellow development section
[D]. Each development section has a sleeve roller
[E], dual mixing roller [F], doctor plate [G], and
toner density sensor [H]. [B]
To make room for the four development sections,
model A109 uses a drum with a diameter of 120
mm. (Other Ricoh color systems typically use a 90
[F]
mm diameter drum.)
Continued on next page. [D]

[H]
[C]

One interesting feature of this machine is the use

of six motors to drive the various development
components. The color development drive motor
drives the dual mixing rollers in the cyan,
magenta, and yellow development sections. The
black development drive motor drives those in the
black development unit.
Each of the four sleeve rollers is driven by an
independent, reversible motor [A]. When the
sleeve turns as shown by the black arrows,
developer is carried to the OPC drum. When the
sleeve turns in the direction of the white arrows,
all the developer left on the sleeve roller surface is
returned to the development section. Only one
color development section at a time carries [A]
developer to the drum.

Example 2: Model G033

This machine has the four color development
units [K,Y,M,C] arranged along one side of an [A]
OPC belt [A].
When the printer is idle, none of the development
units contacts the OPC belt. During printing, the
machine moves the development units into
contact with the belt one at a time. (Refer to the
G033 service manual for details. The mechanism
used is a standard mechanical system using a
solenoid, a spring clutch, and a cam.)

Revolver Systems
M
Revolver Operation Overview
Machines using the revolver system have the four
K 2nd
development units (K, Y, C, and M) mounted C
around a rotating mechanism called the revolver.
The revolver rotates to bring the proper color
development unit to the drum. Revolver systems Y
use a standard size OPC drum.
d 1st
Example: Model A257/A269
The illustrations to the right show the revolver [A] [A]
used in models A257 and A269.
The revolver unit holds four development units,
one for each color (KYCM). It develops colors by
rotating the revolver counter-clockwise (as viewed
from the front of the copier), 90 degrees at a time,
in the order K, Y, C, and M. (In printer mode, this
machine develops in the order Y, C, M, and K to
improve the reproduction of black letters.)

Tetradrive Systems
[A] OPC drum

[B] Development roller
[C] Toner supply roller
[D] Transport rollers
[E] Mixing augers
[D]
The tetradrive system uses four print engines lined up in a row. It has
four drums, four laser beams, four charge corona units, four transfer
corona units, and four development units. The four print engines allow [E]
the creation of the CMYK images simultaneously, thus greatly
increasing the full color copy speed. The primary drawback of the
tetradrive system is expense. [C]
Examples of the original tetradrive system include models A092 and
A105. The development units of these products use a standard
dual component development system. The components of the [B]
development units of model A105 are illustrated to the right.
[A]

Newer tetradrive systems (sometimes called four-tandem

systems) have a number of improvements over the original.
In the model G060, the paper path is inclined about 38
degrees to make the machine as compact as possible. The
development units are redesigned, and there are four motors.
Development drive motor-K drives the development unit for
black, the fusing unit, and the paper exit section.
Development drive motor-CMY drives the development
units for magenta, cyan, and yellow, the registration roller and
by-pass feed mechanism.
Drum drive motor-K drives the PCU for black and the transfer
unit.
Drum drive motor-CMY drives the PCUs for magenta, cyan,
and yellow.

Toner Supply Control

Current machines generally use fuzzy logic to control toner supply. Most use two inputs to the fuzzy
control algorithm—the amount of toner attracted to the drum as sensed by the ID sensor and the
calculated volume of toner used based on pixel count. (See example 1.) Higher end systems also
use a toner density sensor. (See example 2.)
Note: While the explanation and examples in this section are given using machines with revolver
development units, the basic information applies to other machines—both color and black and white.
Example 1: Models A258/A259/A260
Fuzzy Control Mode

Copy
First, the machine assesses the amount of toner
per unit area on the drum (M/A). This is
determined from two sensor inputs: Vsg, and Vsp Detection for Toner
Supply Control
Vsp(toner).
The fuzzy logic algorithm then uses the most
Fuzzy Control
recent M/A values to assess current toner density
conditions.
Image Area Ratio
The output from the fuzzy logic process is then
combined with the image area ratio obtained from Required Amount of Toner
is Determined
the image data signal coming from the IPU board.
The result of this calculation is the amount of
Toner Supply Motor
Duration is Calculated

toner required, and from this, the machine

determines the time that the toner supply motor
must stay on in order to supply the correct amount
of toner.
Vsp detection for toner supply control 20 mm

The copier generates an ID sensor pattern using a
standard laser diode power. The copier generates
this pattern between the K, C, M, and Y images,
and then detects the density using the ID sensor.
The result is known as ‘VSP for toner supply 20 mm
control’, or ‘VSP (toner)’ to distinguish it from the
other VSP, measured during potential control.
This process is done after
• Each color development cycle for odd-
numbered copies when making continuous
copies of A4/LT landscape size or smaller.
• Each color development cycle, every copy in all
other modes.
Calculating the amount of toner on the drum

First, the machine calculates a value from the
current VSP (toner) value. Then, it refers to a table

in the ROM to determine the toner density on the

drum (M/A).
• M/A: Toner amount per unit area on the drum
2
(mg/cm )
The target M/A for toner supply control is 0.4
mg/cm2 for the C, M, and Y toners and 0.3
2
mg/cm for the K toner. M/A is calculated in the
same way as for potential control.
– Fuzzy Logic Algorithm –

The fuzzy logic algorithm has two input factors
which are related to the amount of toner on the
drum. These are:
• The difference between the average of the
previous 10 M/As and the target M/A
• The tendency of the previous 10 M/As
– Image Area Ratio –
This is a measure of how much toner will be
needed for each color on a page. From the image

data from the image processing unit (IPU), the

machine determines the total amount of the color
on the page. It takes into account the grayscale
values for each pixel for that color.
Fixed Supply Mode

Models A258/A259/A260 normally use the fuzzy
logic supply mode described above. The fixed
supply method is used only when abnormal
conditions occur during the process control self
check. In fixed supply mode, the machine adds a
fixed amount of toner to the developer every copy.
Readings from the ID sensor are ignored.
The toner supply ratios for each color in fixed
supply mode are determined by service programs
(SP 2-208-005 to 008).

Example 2: Models A257/A269
Fuzzy Control Mode

The toner supply control of models A257 and A269 is similar to that described in example 1 above.
However, in the fuzzy logic control mode, input from the toner density sensor (TD sensor) is also
used in the calculation. Thus these machines use three input parameters as follows:
1. Density of the toner read by the TD sensor
2. Amount of toner attached to the drum sensed by the ID sensor
3. Pixel count (image area ratio)
The amount of toner supplied is determined by the toner supply clutch on time
Other Toner Supply Control Modes

In addition to the default fuzzy logic control mode, these copiers have a proportional control mode
and a fixed supply mode.
The proportional control mode is used if an ID sensor becomes faulty. Only the TD sensor is used to
control toner supply.
The fixed supply mode is used if both the TD sensor and ID sensor become faulty.

TD Sensor Output
The relationship between the TD sensor output Vt
and the toner density in the developer is shown in
the figure on the right. The target toner density of
this copier is 5 WT%. The TD sensor output for
this toner density is referred to as Vref. Vref of this
copier is adjusted to 2.5 ± 0.1 volts for a toner
density of 5 WT% (brand-new developer) for each
of the C, M, Y, and K toners. When developers
are replaced, since TD sensor fluctuations can
occur in such a case, it is necessary to initialize
the TD sensor and adjust its gain using SP3-005-1
through SP3-005-5.
Relationship between toner density and TD

sensor output

TD Sensor Noncontact Coupler

Interfacing the toner density sensors in a revolver
mechanism presents a special design problem.
Models A257 and A269 handle this with a
mechanism called a noncontact coupler.
Each of the four development units has a TD
sensor [A]. These sensors interface with the CPU
through a single interface—the noncontact
coupler. The noncontact coupler has two parts;
one is mounted on the main unit [B] and the other
[C]
[C] is inside the bearing ring of the revolver. These [B]
two sections are separated by an air-gap.
Power for the revolver side is provided through a
circular coil [D] (a small transformer) inside the
coupler sections. The power transformation is:
38 Vac (main unit) ! 12 Vac (revolver) ! 12 V
(for TD sensor).
The TD sensor output is conveyed through optical [A]
communication. The CPU receives TD sensor
output only from the development unit at the
development position.
[D]

Color Processes Color Image Transfer
Color Image Transfer

Image transfer in color machines is more
challenging than in single color copiers or printers.
The image must be developed and then
transferred once for each color. Each of the color OPC drum
separations must be transferred and overlaid to
achieve the complete colored copy or print. Ricoh
products have two basic methods of transferring
the developed color separations.
The most common method is a two step transfer
system. In the first step, each of the color separa-
tions transfers from the OPC to an intermediate
surface. The complete image builds on the inter- Transfer
mediate surface one color at a time. Once the belt
color image is complete, it is then transferred to
the paper.
The OPC can be either a drum or a belt. When it Paper
is a drum, the intermediate surface is a “transfer
belt”. (Schematically illustrated to the right.) When
it is a belt, the intermediate surface is a “transfer
drum”.
Two step image transfer

The other method is to transfer the color

separations from the OPC drum the paper as they OPC drum
are developed much in the same way as in single
color imaging systems. This is repeated for each
color to build the complete image directly on the
paper. This is the method used in analog color
copiers and in tetradrive systems. Paper
The following sections examine examples of both

methods.
Direct-to-paper image transfer

Two-step Color Image Transfer

The two-step transfer method builds the complete
color image before transferring it to paper. Each of
the color images (color separations) is first M
developed on an OPC and then transferred from

the OPC to an intermediate surface. Once the C K 2nd
color image is complete, it is then transferred to
the paper. This method has the following
advantages over direct transfer to paper. Y
d 1st
• It reduces paper handling (less chance for
slipping, wrinkling, jamming, etc.)
• It allows greater control over the electrostatics Two A4/LT images made in one
revolution of the transfer belt
of image transfer and more precise registration
of the color separations.
• It is possible to increase the copy speed by
designing the system so that more than one
image can be made at a time. The illustration to
the right (model A269) shows two images being
created on the transfer belt.

Example: Models A257/A269

The image transfer mechanism of models
A257/A269 is illustrated to the right. This
mechanism uses two transfer belts—an image
transfer belt and a paper transfer belt. The copier
transfer belt system first transfers the 4 color toner
images from the drum to the image transfer belt
and then later transfers the complete image onto
the paper. This permits image transfer to the
paper in a single operation.
For the paper transfer step, the copier employs an
insulated transfer belt system to improve the
efficiency of image transfer to the paper. The
paper transfer belt also provides smooth paper
transport as the paper passes through the image 1. OPC drum 14. PTB cleaning brush
transfer area and receives the image. 2. Transfer belt bias roller 15. PTB back brush
3. Image transfer belt (ITB) 16. Belt discharge corona
4. Belt mark sensor unit
5. Transfer belt drive roller 17. Paper transfer drive
6. Transfer belt tension roller roller
7. Paper transfer counter roller 18. Pick-off plate
8. Paper registration rollers 19. Separation corona unit
9. Paper transfer tension roller 20. ITB blade counter roller
10. Paper transfer belt (PTB) 21. ITB cleaning blade
11. Paper transfer bias roller 22. ITB lubricant brush
12. PTB blade counter roller 23. ITB lubricant bar
13. PTB cleaning blade 24. Ground roller

Direct-to-paper Color Image Transfer

Direct-to-paper transfer of color images is an older method that can be found in analog color copiers. It is also
used in the unique tetradrive design.
Example 1: Model A072 (Analog)
The illustration to the right shows the image transfer [D] [B]
mechanism of model A072.
This model uses a transfer drum, which rotates in
contact with the OPC drum. Copy paper is fed and
[E]
clamped to the transfer drum. The transfer drum then
makes the necessary number of rotations to transfer [E]
each color to the paper.
The transfer corona unit is located inside the transfer [F]
[F]
drum unit. A high negative charge is applied to the
transfer corona wire and the corona wire generates [A]
negative ions. The negative ions are applied to the
copy paper and the negative charge attracts the [C]
positively charged toner away from the drum and onto
the paper. At the same time, the copy paper is [G]
electrostatically attracted to the surface of the transfer
drum. [A] Transfer drum [E] AC discharge corona
When full color image is complete, the clamp releases [B] OPC drum units
and the paper separates from the transfer drum. [C] Transfer corona unit [F] DC discharge corona
[D] Separation corona units
unit [G] Transfer drum clean-
ing unit

Example 2: Models A092/A105 (Tetradrive)
C Y M K
[A]
[A] [A]
[A]
The image transfer method of the tetradrive

system is different from all other color systems. It
uses a standard corona transfer system repeated
four times. Transfer coronas [A] are located below
each drum to pull the toner image onto the paper.
The transfer belt position lever [B] raises the
transfer belt to the drum to prevent void image
problems under high humidity conditions. [B]
Continued on next page.

The transfer corona units for all four colors are the
same, except for the corona wire height. The
corona wires for yellow and cyan are installed
closer to the drum than those for black and
magenta [A].
The potential at the paper surface is increased in

steps as each color is developed [B]. This is
necessary because the top layers of toner require
a stronger transfer force than the bottom layers.
The transfer corona current for each color is as
follows:
Black: 300 µA
Magenta: 400 µA
Yellow: 350 µA
Cyan: 600 µA

Color Processes Image Files
Image Files
Instead of being printed immediately, scanned data can be stored as an image file for later use. As a
growing number of machines produce or use these image files, a basic understanding of file types
becomes increasingly necessary.
Raster vs. Vector
There are two basic ways to create images. Rasters are created by defining color data for each dot
in the image. Images are built from a grid of dots. A crude example can be seen at the football
stadium. Fans holding up colored squares produce images for the television cameras.
Rasters are usually created by scanners or “paint” programs. They are particularly good at
representing textures or photo-realistic images. On the down-side, the unmodified, physical size of
the image varies depending on the resolution of the output device. Rasters are naturally displayed
dot-for-dot on the output device. If an image is 600 x 600 pixels, it will be displayed as a 1 inch
square on a 600 dpi printer. The same image will appear as an 8.3 inch square on a 72 dpi monitor.
While most applications can force the image to appear at a user-defined size, scaling the image can
adversely affect its quality. Also, file sizes are based on the number of pixels and color depth of the
image. Large, full-color raster images often result in mammoth files.
Vectors, on the other hand, do not try to define every dot. The image is created by building objects
out of mathematically defined curves and lines. These objects can be further filled with various colors
or patterns. Vector images are usually used for graphs, illustrations and technical drawings. They are
created using “draw” programs. Vector images are easily resized without losing image quality. The

file size depends on the number and complexity of the objects—not the image size. However, most
output devices display images as rasters, so vector images need to be rendered (rasterized) before
they can be displayed.
Metafiles represent a third option for storing image data. A metafile is not a new type of image—
rather it is a composite. It is created from a combination of vector images, raster images and text.
The rest of this section will focus on raster images. Since most of our images will be created from
scan data, raster images are the most important for our purposes.
Color Depth
Images are often described by their color depth—or the amount of information stored in each dot.
The larger the color depth, the greater the variety of colors available. For example, in a 4 bit color
image, each pixel must be one of 16 different colors. An 8 bit image allows 256 different colors. Most
full color images are 24 bit (16 million colors) or greater.
Sometimes the color depth is listed as bits/channel. PhotoShop, for example, supports 8 and 16
bits/channel RGB images (x 3 channels = 24 and 48 bit color).
Color depth greatly affects the image file size. All other things being equal, a 24-bit color image will
be three times larger than a grayscale image, and twenty-four times larger than a black and white
bitmap.
Resolution
Raster images are also defined by their resolution, usually measured in dots per inch (dpi).
Resolution depends largely on the device that will be used to display them. The typical computer

monitor has a 72 dpi resolution. Images displayed at this resolution look natural to the eye—the
pixels blend into a smooth image. However, if that same image is printed on a 300-dpi color printer,
the pixels will appear as visible blocks, giving the image a jagged appearance.
On the other hand, an uncompressed 300-dpi image file is 17 times larger than a same-size 72-dpi
image file. This means that, if the print-quality image was used on a web page, it could take 16 times
longer to download.
Actually, the real-world difference would be greater still, since print-quality compression typically only
reduces the file size by 1/2. Compression for web images often produces files 1/10 their original size
or smaller.
For the best results, you should select an image resolution based on how the image will be used.
Note, if you are using a single image for multiple purposes (for example, a web site and a brochure),
it is usually best to create a separate image file for each.
Intended Use: Recommended Resolution:

Internet Use (e-mail and web) 72 dpi
Halftone Printing Printer’s screen frequency multiplied by
x 1.5 (good quality) to x 2 (best quality)
Other Printing Printer’s resolution
Halftone printing refers to printers that use dithering to produce grayscale images. These printers
cannot produce true shading. Rather, they create dot patterns to give the appearance of grays. Since

it takes multiple pixels to create one shaded pixel’s worth of information, the image resolution should
be less than the printer’s true resolution. Anything over the printer’s screen frequency x 2 is a waste
of memory.
However, when printing bitmaps (pure black and white images) or printing to a device that can
control the shading of individual pixels (through power modulation and pulse width modulation), each
pixel-worth of information is important. The image file’s resolution should equal the printer’s.
Remember, an image’s resolution and it’s scale go hand in hand. A 1-inch, 100 dpi image stretched
to fill 2 inches is the same as a 2-inch, 50 dpi image.
Resolution-based quality problems are often seen when people try to print images from the web or
from a lower-resolution digital camera.
Lossy and Loss-less
Because raster images files can grow quite large, most image data is compressed. Compression
reduces the amount of memory needed to store the file. But not all compression techniques are
equal.
Loss-less compression techniques carefully maintain all the details of the original image. The
compression ratio will vary depending on the complexity of the image, but most are around 2:1. They
compresses images by combining strings of identically colored pixels.
For example, if the image has a row of 5 blue pixels the original sequence would appear as
BLUEBLUEBLUEBLUEBLUE. The compressed image data could be reduced to BLUEX5.

Lossy compression, on the other hand, sacrifices some image detail in order to get a greater
compression ratio, often up to 20:1. By using optical tricks that exploit limits in human vision, they
create an image that is often indistinguishable from the original. However, depending on the amount
of data sacrificed, the reduction in quality could become quite noticeable.
Lossy compression is usually used on the internet, where image size is crucial. When printing, the
drop in quality is more noticeable. Loss-less images are therefor recommended.
Format Highlights
The following section looks at seven of the most common image formats. This, however, is just a
small sampling. A lot of up-to-date graphics information is available on the web. If you are interested,
I recommend looking at The Graphic File Format Page for technical information on a wide variety of
image formats. The Graphic Formats frequently asked questions page provides a more detailed
discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of the TIFF, PNG, JPEG and GIF formats.
BMP
The BMP file is one of the most commonly used formats for the Windows environment. It supports
24 bit color depth and loss-less compression. A very stable bitmap format; however, support is very
limited on Apple or Unix systems. On Windows machines, it is used both for screen display (windows
wallpaper) and printing. It is not typically used on the web.
EPS
Encapsulated PostScript (EPS) files use the Adobe PostScript language. They can store either
bitmaps or vector information. The files are accepted on virtually all platforms, and virtually all

graphics, illustration and page layout applications. The format also offers a variety of options for high-
quality printing to postscript printers.
Most applications cannot read the postscript information directly—therefor the file also contains a
low-resolution (often binary) thumbnail image. Thumbnails are usually TIFF or PICT format. These
images are displayed as placeholders in many graphics and page layout programs.
There are three cautions when using EPSs. First, the PostScript may contain references to fonts. If
the EPS was created on a different computer, those fonts may not be available on the current
system. This can cause a variety of printing problems, from font replacements to print errors. Also,
this may not be obvious when viewing the image in the page layout application.
Second, some thumbnail images are more accurate than others. What you see on the screen is not
necessarily what you get out of the printer. Be sure to test print and check any EPSs.
Finally, EPSs are an excellent format when working with PostScript printers. However, if the printer
cannot use PostScript information, the application will send the low-resolution thumbnail image
instead. The result is very poor quality output from what was supposed to be a high-quality image
format.
The bottom line is, EPSs provide an excellent format for high-quality printing when used properly.
However, they require a bit more care and technical know-how.
GIF
An older format, the Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) only supports indexed color (8 bit, 256
colors) and LZW compression (loss-less compression). Once commonly used for online
photographic images, it has largely been replaced by the JPEG. However, the loss-less

compression, the limited color range, and the ability to have transparent backgrounds makes it an
ideal choice for web-based icons, or any web-images requiring small, clear text or using only a
limited number of colors. When saving rasterized line drawings, GIF files are often much smaller and
much cleaner than JPEGs.
JPEG
The Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) format is commonly used to display photographs and
other continuous tone images on the web. It supports 24-bit color, and uses a lossy compression to
greatly reduce the file size. While most loss-less compression averages around a 2:1 ratio, JPEGs
can achieve 10:1 to 20:1, often without any visible loss in quality.
When saving a JPEG you can set variable amounts of compression. More compression results in a
smaller file—but there is a greater loss in image quality. The maximum quality setting usually
produces a result indistinguishable from the original.
While JPEGs are an excellent choice for screen-viewable photographs, it does not handle large
areas of a single color or sharp edges very well. Blocks of color often develop odd distortions or
squiggles, while text tends to appear blurry. It is also not recommended for binary (pure black and
white) images.
Printing tends to bring out the worst in a JPEG. The optical tricks it uses to compress the data are
more noticeable on the printed page.
One final note about JPEGS, they lose quality every time you open, edit and save them. While
saving it once or twice may not be noticeable, continually editing and re-saving the file can result in a

considerable loss of quality. If you are going to need to edit an image, create a master copy using a
loss-less format. After you are done editing that copy, convert it to a JPEG.
PICT
The PICT format is popular with Macintosh graphics and page-layout applications. It supports 16 or
32 bit color and loss-less compression. It can also support various JPEG compressions. PICT files
can store either raster or vector data. While well supported on the Macintosh, it has very limited
support on other systems.
PNG
The Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format was developed as a patent-free alternative to the GIF.
It supports up to 48-bit color and transparent backgrounds without jagged edges. Unfortunately, older
browsers may not support PNG images.
TIFF
The Tagged-Image File Format (TIFF) is a flexible bitmap image format supported by virtually all
paint, image-editing and page-layout applications. It is also platform independent—being well
represented on Windows, Macintosh and Unix. This makes it an excellent choice for cross-platform
or cross-application projects. If JPEG is the default web graphic format, TIFF is the default for
printing. It supports up to 24-bit color and a variety of loss-less compression routines. Unfortunately,
its flexibility can become a liability. There are many different flavors of TIFF, and not all applications
support all formats.
If you run into TIFF compatibility problems, try re-saving the file without any compression. While this
produces a larger file, it can be read by almost all image-handling applications.

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Principles of Color

Color Processes Color Scanning

Once thought to be the smallest particles of

1 April 2001 Page 887

The first group, the hadrons, includes among

1 April 2001 Page 888

negatively charged electrons encircle the nucleus

1 April 2001 Page 889

Electromagnetic radiation consists of rapidly

Along the radiation wave, the electric and

1 April 2001 Page 890

The distance between one peak of the wave to

And, the number of peaks that pass a given point

1 April 2001 Page 891

1 April 2001 Page 892

• Some wavelengths are long and less frequent.

1 April 2001 Page 893

The Visual Spectrum

1 April 2001 Page 894

As you can see in the previous illustration, the

1 April 2001 Page 895

Reflection and Absorption

For example, the sun, a candle, a television or a

1 April 2001 Page 896

Reflection and Absorption

When white light strikes the blue glass, the blue

1 April 2001 Page 897

All the visible colors of light can then be

Light Reflective Characteristics of Color Toner.

1 April 2001 Page 898

1 April 2001 Page 899

1 April 2001 Page 900

Additive Color Mixing

1 April 2001 Page 901

Red + Blue ! Magenta

Green + Blue ! Cyan

And when equal amounts of green light and blue

1 April 2001 Page 902

When one of the additive primary colors is

1 April 2001 Page 903

Subtractive Color Mixing

1 April 2001 Page 904

Cyan, Magenta and Yellow will each absorb a

When white light strikes a pure yellow pigment the

1 April 2001 Page 905

Magenta + Yellow ! Red

Yellow + Cyan ! Green

When yellow pigment and cyan pigment are mixed

1 April 2001 Page 906

Cyan + Magenta ! Blue

When all three colors: cyan, magenta and yellow

1 April 2001 Page 907

The final color created, when mixing pigments

1 April 2001 Page 908

demonstrates the relationships of the subtractive

1 April 2001 Page 909

The Characteristics of Filters

1 April 2001 Page 910