Breed Improvement: Small-Scale Poultry Production

Small-scale poultry production 59
Chapter 7
Breed Improvement
Strategies to develop poultry breeds suitable for family poultry smallholders in tropical
countries must differ from those used in intensive production, and should focus on improving
indigenous breeds while also making use of pure exotic and cross-bred chickens where
appropriate.
Conservation of local breeds possessing genetic variations specific to the particular
environment is essential for sustainable development. Although they exist as numerically small
populations, local breeds are not only highly adapted to the natural environment, but are also an
integral part of the lifestyle of the rural people. People, livestock and environment form a
delicately balanced but sustainable ecosystem, and thus the potential impact of any intervention
to improve production in the traditional system should be predetermined. The situation is less
sensitive in peri-urban, industrial and small-scale intensive poultry production, in which rapid
improvements can be achieved through well-designed development programmes. The intensive
poultry production sector, however, is generally much smaller than the family poultry sector in
virtually all developing countries.
STRATEGIES FOR BREED IMPROVEMENT

The following two rules should be incorporated into breeding strategies:
x Germplasm in traditional conditions should not be modified until management and
housing have been improved and, even then, selection should be restricted to local
breeds.
x When technical conditions are optimum and a ready market exists for the products, then
improved breeds, crosses and hybrid strains that have been selected for high performance
can be introduced into the peri-urban system, even at small-scale levels.
The most common method of improving the local gene pool is crossing indigenous and exotic
birds, and then leaving the hybrid offspring to natural selection. Pure-bred or hybrid cockerels
(or pullets) selected for greater meat or egg production are introduced into local flocks, usually
in order to increase egg production. It is important to note that improved growth (for meat
production) and high egg production are genetically incompatible in the same bird. The genetic
traits are negatively correlated, which means that selection for one trait will reduce the other.
Cockerel or pullet exchange

An example of this type of strategy is a flock of indigenous local hens laying 50 eggs a year and
beginning to lay at 25 weeks of age, crossed with “improved breed” cockerels, which have a
genetic breed potential of 250 eggs a year, with hens beginning to lay at 21 weeks. The results
are cross-bred hybrid pullets beginning to lay at 24 weeks, with a genetic potential of laying 200
eggs per year. The first generation hybrid cross-breed has a higher theoretical genetic potential
(genotype) than the average (150) of the two parent breeds, due to the effect of hybrid vigour.
However, unless management (especially in the area of nutrition) is improved, this genetic
potential will not be realized by the hybrid cross-breed in actual practice in the environment.
If subsequent generations of the hybrid cross-bred pullets are mated (back-crossed) again
with the same “improved breed” cockerel, the genetic potential for increased production is
raised, although at a slower rate (as hybrid vigour only works with first-time crossing). With
each generation, higher levels of management (including the provision of properly balanced
feeds) are required to achieve this potential.
60 Breed Improvement
If the hybrid cross-breeds mate among themselves, however, potential production falls in the
very next generation to the average potential of the two original genotypes, even if management
could support the higher hybrid level.
The use of cockerels in this way is the basis for the Cock or Cockerel Exchange Programme
(CEP) or Opération Coq, which has been implemented in almost all tropical countries.
Households exchange all their local cockerels for a few improved cockerels, which are then
raised to maturity to allow them to adapt to local conditions.
In some cases, a Pullet Exchange or Hybrid Hatchable Eggs Programme is used. These
approaches were used extensively from the early 1930s until the 1960s, by which time urban
development had begun to give rise to peri-urban, intensive, small- to medium-scale poultry
production, which makes use of imported commercial breeds and technology.
The gradual replacement of local genes through cross-breeding and artificial selection has
been the basis of initial development in many countries (Omeje and Nwosu, 1986; Coligado et
al., 1986).
Although many strategies deemed appropriate for smallholder poultry production systems
have been implemented, most have not succeeded, due to a lack of management input to support
the improved potential.
Replacement of all indigenous breeds

The use of hybrid chickens under free-range rural conditions has often been studied, notably in
Zimbabwe (Huchzermeyer, 1973), and in Sri Lanka, Zambia and Nicaragua (Roberts and
Senaratne, 1992; de Vries, 1995).
It has consistently been found that entire flock replacement programmes lead to increased
egg and meat production, but only where management supplies good nutrition and veterinary
hygiene. There is, however, one great disadvantage, in that the use of commercial hybrids to
increase egg production necessarily eliminates broodiness of hens, due to the negative genetic
correlation between these two factors. For this reason, complete replacement of local birds
should not be considered unless a reliable local supply of day-old chicks (of an appropriate
breed) is available.
Selection within local breeds

Production traits of local breeds
The genetic development of local breeds and varieties in developing countries first requires
proper documentation of their productive and reproductive performance. The main production
characteristics of local breeds are:
x small body size (low nutritional maintenance requirement);
x lateness in maturing (up to 36 weeks of age);
x low performance in egg numbers (20 to 50) and egg size (25 to 45 g);
x small clutch sizes (two to ten eggs); and
x long pauses between laying of clutches and a predominant inclination to broodiness.
For rural smallholder extensive systems, meat production cannot be separated from egg or
chick production, and thus a highly broody (with consequent low egg production), low body-
weight (low-feed requirement) bird is best for survival under these conditions. Surplus
cockerels, whatever they weigh, are usually sold for meat when they reach sexual maturity at
three to four months of age. Under rural smallholder extensive systems, there is little
reproductive control of the hens, as they brood their own chicks for continuous regeneration of
the flock. The egg brooding (incubation) and chick rearing activity increases the reproductive
cycle length by 58 days to about 74 days in total:
16 days for egg laying and clutch formation + 21 days for hatching + 37 days (5.3 weeks) for
chick rearing = 74 days
Source: Horst, 1990b

Thus, most hens can produce chicks about four to five times per year, and only four times if the
rearing period is extended to eight weeks. As malnutrition, infections, predators and accidents
result in mortality rates of 60 to 70 percent during rearing, virtually all eggs are used for
reproduction. With four to five reproductive cycles per year, only about nine replacement
pullets may be obtained.
Fertility and hatchability are also high in local birds. They generally adapt well to
unfavourable management conditions, and resistance to prevailing diseases is usually assumed
to be high, although juvenile and sometimes adult mortality rates can be high in extensive
production systems.
Considerable genetic differences exist between different regional and continental populations
of indigenous chickens, and production rates of local populations should be evaluated before
introducing development programmes.
Selection programmes for local breeds

Although better management procedures can significantly improve the performance of local
birds, some feel there is also a need for genetic selection (Nwosu, 1979). Pure-breeding and
selection programmes have been developed in Bangladesh (Ahmad and Hashnath, 1983),
although not implemented in the field. Both of the above groups concluded that although
improvement of local poultry breeds would be beneficial, it is essential to evaluate breeds and
their crosses before undertaking a breeding strategy.
Research conducted in the United Republic of Tanzania (Katule, 1991) concluded that
selection for dual-purpose characteristics within individual local populations is both time-
consuming and costly. Cross-breeding with improved breeds is recommended, followed by
selection in the composite population.
Although consumer preference in most developing countries is for dual-purpose breeds, it is
important to restate that in the same bird, the traits of increased egg production and increased
broodiness are genetically incompatible, as are the traits of high egg production and high meat
production. Selection for any trait within these pairs will reduce the other trait of that pair.
Modifying local breeds using major gene types

The use of single or combined dominant genes for feather restriction (Na) and feathering
structure (F), as well as the sex-linked recessive gene for reduced body size (dw), has been
found to be particularly relevant for the tropics (Horst, 1989; Haaren-Kiso et al., 1995).
Research into the effects of these genes on economic factors has been undertaken in Malaysia
(Khadijah, 1988; Mathur and Horst, 1989). For example, the feather restriction (Na) or Naked
Neck gene results in 40 percent less feather coverage overall, with the lower neck appearing
almost “naked”. This considerably reduces the need for dietary nutrition to supply protein input
for feather production, and protein is a limiting factor in many scavenger feed resource bases.
Barua et al., (1998) has reviewed the available information on the performance of indigenous
Naked Neck fowl in the hope that it will draw the attention of scientists worldwide to its
interesting characteristics and facilitate future research.
The incorporation of such genes could be significant in the development of appropriate
breeds and strains for smallholder poultry production in the tropics. There are now seven
potentially useful major genes:
x Na - naked neck (autosomal -A);
x Dw - dwarf (sex-linked -S);
x K - slow feathering (S);
x Fa - Fayoumi (A);
62 Breed Improvement
x F - frizzle (A);
x H - silky (A); and
x Fm - fibro-melanosis (A).
The use of major genes to improve productivity in smallholder poultry breeding programmes
has been researched in various tropical countries (including Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand,
Bangladesh, Bolivia, India, Cameroon and Nigeria).
Other morphological traits that allow better heat dissipation include large combs, large
wattles and long legs. Gene coding for these traits, which are not major genes but the result of
multiple genes and their interactions, could also be considered for incorporation into the
development of high performance local birds for the tropics.
BETTER PRODUCTION: BY BREEDING OR MANAGEMENT?

Family poultry is well integrated into most village farming systems, with local breeds
representing 40 to 70 percent of the national meat and egg supply in most tropical countries.
Because of their scavenger adaptability, production ability and low cost, local breeds are kept
by rural smallholders, landless farmers and industrial labourers. It is difficult to imagine birds
better adapted for survival under scavenger free-range conditions than the breeds that have
already evolved under those very same conditions, and are still surviving as proof of their
ability to do so. However, there does remain a considerable and largely unexploited potential for
increased production from local breeds through improved management.
The critical management objective for scavenger free-range systems is to reduce the high
mortality in both growing and adult age groups, but especially the 60 to 70 percent mortality in
the growers. This high mortality means that many eggs laid by the hen need to be used for
reproduction to maintain flock size, instead of for sale or consumption. It also means that many
birds that die could instead be sold or consumed as meat.
The problem with local breeds, as outlined above, is not inherently low egg production or
low meat production, but high mortality. Breed improvement to increase meat or egg production
would not solve the health and nutrition management problems. However, increased egg
production (by breed improvement) would create a new problem – lack of broodiness in the
flock – which would force the smallholder to buy stock rather than have the hen brood and rear
her own.
Mortality can be significantly reduced through increasing farmer awareness of health needs,
through the provision of vaccine (especially for Newcastle Disease) and through improving the
nutrition of growing stock (for example, by providing creep feeding systems). These are the
most important improvements to management activities that will enable to the farmer to best
exploit the existing potential of local breeds under scavenging free-range conditions.
If management resources available to the smallholder or landless farmer increase to the
extent of a local supply of balanced poultry feed, the options open to his income-generating
ability are increased. However, the answer is not to confine local breeds in intensive
management systems. The performance of local breeds will increase slightly under cage or deep
litter management (Akinokun, 1975; Oluyemi, 1979; Nwosu, 1979) but, because the genetic
potential for egg production (or meat production) of local breeds is lower than that of
commercial hybrids, the same investment in intensive management will achieve a much higher
production result by using commercial hybrids.
If balanced feed, good health-care supplies and day-old chicks of hybrid varieties are locally
available, then intensive poultry management is an option. If these are not available, raising
local breeds under scavenger free-range systems is still the best choice.
The vast potential for increasing income generation from scavenger free-range family
poultry clearly lies in the management area of reducing mortality in growing chickens. This
alone is sufficient challenge for the already overstretched resources of government and NGO
field extension staff in developing countries.
The potential for breed improvement is a factor to be considered in the future, but only when
the more immediate objective of reducing mortality is attained. Meanwhile efforts should be
continued to preserve germplasm as a resource for the future.
Chapter 8
Production Economics
The agricultural subsector of animal production is part of a complex interdependent farming
system. Analysis of livestock production cannot be based solely on input and output, but must
also take into consideration other farming activities. The interaction between animal production
and other subsectors can be complementary, as in the use of manure; or competitive, as in the
allocation of land to crops or livestock grazing.
The farming system as a whole, and animal production in particular, is influenced by
external factors (including government policy on rural development, livestock development
programmes and marketing), which must be considered in any analysis or evaluation.
DEFINITION AND ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTION COSTS

The farming system is defined as the combination of all farm enterprises/subsystems,
management and farmer objectives and the interaction between them. It is a decision-making
and land-use unit, comprising the farming household and the crop and livestock systems, which
transforms land, labour, management and capital into products that can be consumed or sold.
Enterprises/subsystems are defined as the different subdivisions of the farming system, each
producing one kind of crop or livestock product. In the case of family poultry, the products are
poultry meat and eggs, with manure as a by-product. The harvesting of family poultry for home
consumption and sale can be considered as the management of a standing resource for economic
yield. In this respect, the economic principles applying to the management of fauna, parklands,
fisheries, wood and timber forests and rangelands are more appropriate than the economic
concepts more commonly applied to the labour and capital-dependent livestock production and
other commercial farming industries.
METHODS AND CRITERIA FOR COST CALCULATION

The cost of production can be seen from various angles. The inputs may be external (Non-
Factor costs) or internal (Factor costs). Internal input is under the control of the farming
household, and includes land, labour, management and capital. The cash involved in production
represents either Cash (Paid) Costs or Non-Cash (Calculated) Costs. Another way to categorize
the costs is to distinguish Variable Costs from Fixed Costs. Variable costs rise and fall with the
size of the output and the level of the operation. Variable costs (for items such as feed, vaccine
and casual labour) can be controlled to some extent and are not incurred when there is no
production. Fixed costs (for items such as taxes, insurance, interest, and depreciation on
buildings and equipment), are incurred whether or not there is any output.
The Opportunity Cost principle is applied in farm cost accounting. Opportunity costs can be
defined as the "income that would have been generated if the production resource/input/factor
were put to the next best alternative use". Many farm enterprises/subsystems yield more than
one product. Poultry produce eggs, meat and manure. When calculating the cost-price per unit
of production, the cash value of the by-products (sold externally or used as a substitute in
another enterprise/subsystem of the farm), must be subtracted from the Total Gross Costs. This
will result in the Total Net Costs. For the cost-price per unit of production, the Total Net Costs
must be divided by the total number of units of production.
The cost-price calculation model splits production costs into two categories: Paid Costs and
Calculated Costs. Paid costs involve actual payment in cash or kind for inputs or services used.
Calculated costs are determined using mathematical formulae, and include the following:
x depreciation on the poultry house and equipment;
x interest on cash in hand and personal capital used to construct the poultry house and
purchase equipment, birds and feed;
66 Production economics
x maintenance of the poultry house and equipment; and

x labour supplied by the farm family.
Calculated Costs include Opportunity Costs as related to the national economy: for example,
unemployment (including hidden unemployment) and high rates of devaluation of the national
currency. These form a part of the socio-economic reality for the smallholder, and influence the
Opportunity Cost of labour (reduced by high unemployment) and of capital (which tends to
move towards zero when the rate of currency devaluation is higher than the interest rate). By
making use of locally available and renewable materials for poultry housing and equipment,
family poultry producers minimize the introduction of external capital into their enterprise.
Large-scale poultry production cannot really be compared with smallholder family poultry,
because smallholders often face such constraints as the absence of organized marketing systems
and the lack of price rewards for produce quality and uniformity. Therefore, the cost-price
calculation for large-scale poultry production (and also that for free-range commercial poultry
production) may not be applicable to smallholder family poultry systems without modifications.
Elson (1992) showed that for layers, production costs (per dozen eggs produced) increased
with space allowance (stock density) per hen. The minimum stock density allowed in the EC
(under EEC Council directive 1988/66) is 22 birds/m2 (450 cm2/bird). The production cost for
birds housed in laying cages at this density is used as a baseline. The percent increases in cost
over this baseline (each with their associated management system) are:
x 5 percent for aviaries;
2
x 7–12 percent for percheries (tiered wire floor aviaries) at 20 birds/m ;
2 2
x 15 percent for cages at 20 birds/m (750 cm /bird);
2
x 21 percent for deep litter systems at 7 birds/m ;
2
x 30 percent for straw yards at 3 birds/m ;
2
x 35 percent for semi-intensive systems at 0.1 birds/m (1000 birds/ha);
2
x 50 percent for free-range systems at 0.04 birds/m (400 birds/ha).
A comparison of the EC cage minimum as a base, with perchery and free-range alternatives, is
shown in Table 8.1.
(Calculations were made using feed at £140/tonne; pullets at £2.35 each; old hens at 24.2p/kg)
A BROADER ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS

All economic activity consists of transforming resources (land, labour and capital) into goods
and services which serve the needs and desires of people. Much of the quantitative assessment
in cost-benefit analysis is simple accountancy: assigning monetary values to various measured
or estimated physical quantities, categorizing them under a cost or benefit heading, adding them
up, and finally comparing the totals. Proper economic analysis should provide a framework by
which the benefits of production are shown in the economic system, and how these benefits are
valued by society. This can only be done with a "before and after" or "with or without" analysis.
Benefits can be measured in two ways:
x by a technical component which represents the higher productivity of resources used (and
hence reduced unit costs) in supplying poultry products; and
x an economic component which reflects the value placed by society on those supplies.
Table 8.1 Performance and production costs of three alternative systems in the United Kingdom
System
Cage Perch Free-range
Performance
Stock density 22 20 0.04
Eggs per hen housed 276 265 252
Feed intake, g/bird/day 115 116 135
Mortality, % 5 5 8
Old hen weight, kg 2.2 2.2 2.3
No of birds/worker 20 000 10 000 2 500
Production costs (pence per dozen eggs)
Feed 25.5 27.8 32.8
Bird depreciation 7.9 8.4 8.6
Labour 1.5 3.2 13.3
Electricity 1.2 1.2 0.7
Medication 0.1 0.1 0.2
Other costs 1.1 1.2 1.3
Total 37.4 41.8 56.9
Source: Elson (1992), as quoted by Tucker (1989)
The technical effects are demonstrated in an economic analysis as a shift of the supply curve -
the basic relationship showing the minimum price at which different levels of production can be
made available to the market. This is shown in Figure 8.1 as the downward shift in the curve S0
to S1. The value placed on this change in potential availability is then entirely dependent on the
demand for poultry products. With rising demand for these products, additional supplies
become expensive, and therefore the extra production translates into a substantial gain in
benefits to the community. It can be argued that this usually happens in developing countries
where, compared to the staple diet, poultry products are a luxury commodity with a relatively
higher value. Hence, the demand curve D shows that the quantity demanded is highly
responsive to price and income changes, with additional consumption causing little decrease in
value. The demand for poultry products is price/income elastic.
This simple model highlights the overall economic impact of higher poultry production as
manifested on the market for poultry products. Production and consumption rise from Q0 to Q1
but the average price paid by consumers (and received by producers) falls from P0 to P1.
Consumers gain significantly, reaping the benefits of both greater supplies and lower prices.
Producers also gain. Although unit costs fall, the increase in production compensates for the
price reduction and, as evident from the diagram, total revenue received by producers, (P1Q1) is
greater than the previous P0Q0.
The overall net economic benefit from improved family poultry production technology is
represented by the size of the shaded area. It is this net economic benefit that an economic
analysis of family poultry development schemes and programmes should be seeking to estimate.
68 Production economics
Fig. 8.2 A representation of the market for poultry products from smallholders
$
price
per
unit SO
PO
SI
PI DB
QO QI
quantity supplied / demanded
Image for demand-supply curve

Chapter 9
Marketing
As a country develops, more of its consuming population lose touch with the village and food
producers. Thus more specialised marketing services are needed. Farm produce must be
collected, packed and transported in good condition to the cities and distributed to retailers near
consumers’ homes. This also calls for grading and storage of the product. The more developed
the country becomes; the greater is the variety of products that can be economically produced.
All this must be provided at a cost that consumers can afford.
A study of existing marketing systems in a country will often reveal how they have evolved
to their present state. Many developing countries do not have refrigeration as a factor in their
storage, either during transport, retail or consumer household stages. For this reason, poultry
meat is purchased live, and slaughtered immediately before consumption. Also, eggs are often
retailed with a means for the buyer to check their quality before buying, either by “candling” (to
see the internal quality with a lantern or battery-torch) or a bucket of water (to test the egg’s age
by the floatation method). Both methods essentially test for the size of the air-cell situated at the
blunt end of the egg, which increases in size as moisture is lost from the egg. With a bigger air-
cell, there is more floatation.
In developing countries, transport of eggs and poultry from the village to the city usually
begins with a purchase by a middleman dealer, direct from the household, or from small locally
held weekly markets. Baskets with layers of straw protect the eggs from breakage, and other
types of baskets are used to carry live birds. Bullock carts are still used in many countries for
transport of both live poultry and eggs to larger community centres. The roofs of buses or trains
replace these slower vehicles as transport systems develop. Marketing quality considerations for
live birds are usually concerned with weight loss in the bird from dehydration during transport.
These are easily resolved by providing drinking water during the trip, and travelling during the
cool part of the day when possible. Egg quality considerations are more complex and are dealt
with in the second half of this chapter.
Improved marketing programmes must add no more cost to the product than the consumer
can afford. Important marketing improvements can often be simply made by making small
corrections to already existing handling, transport, packaging, grading and storage methods.
Marketing organisations generally come into being very gradually, and must be appropriate
for the background, character and education of the people concerned. Plans for radical changes,
which do not take sufficient account of social and economic environments, are likely to fail.
Thus any improvement programme should be designed to achieve desirable modifications in
existing commercial facilities (and their economic and legal framework) by a process of steady
growth.
As a country develops, the task of marketing eggs and poultry will still involve the collection
of live poultry and eggs from farmers, transporting them to a grading, packing or processing
plant, grading and standardising the poultry meat and eggs, processing them and packaging
them into more useful forms, storing them (preferably under refrigeration), moving them
through wholesale and retail channels and delivering them to consumers at a convenient time
and place.
This chapter provides a brief outline with some practical information and advice to those
who are immediately concerned with egg and poultry marketing considerations. For a more
detailed examination of marketing, the reader is referred to FAO Marketing Guide Nº 4
"Marketing eggs and poultry" (1961), from which some of the following material is taken.
70 Marketing
FACTORS AFFECTING DEMAND FOR POULTRY MEAT AND EGGS

Ceremonial and traditional aspects
In traditional societies, poultry are often used for ceremonies, sacrifices and gifts. What follows
are some traditional aspects of poultry keeping from the Mossi of Burkina Faso (West Africa),
the Mamprusi of northern Ghana, and Bangladeshi and Malay farmers in South Asia.
Among the Mossi people when no poultry is available (such as after a Newcastle Disease
outbreak), to meet customary family obligations, the household must purchase or borrow a bird.
Chickens are given to convey value to a relationship, or to offer thanks for a favour or help
(such as from government officials). For most socio-cultural and religious purposes, the
required sex and colour of fowls are also prescribed. For example, a family will give a white
cockerel when an agreement for marriage is reached.
The consumption of eggs in Mossi villages is uncommon. There is a strong belief that a child
who regularly eats eggs will become a thief, reasoning that the good taste of eggs will make the
child want to eat eggs often. The only eggs consumed are those that fail to hatch under broody
hens. These are boiled and then eaten. Chicken eggs, unlike guinea fowl eggs, are not part of the
trade in poultry products, since all eggs are required for hatching to maintain the flock (given
the normally high losses during rearing). Dealers from urban areas reflect the demand for
village eggs. The eggs are often bought by small food stall merchants who boil the eggs and
resell them as snack food. A considerable number of guinea fowl eggs are collected by the
Mossi for sale, most of which find their way to the cities via village markets, where dealers buy
the eggs.
The Mamprusi society in northern Ghana has a variety of uses for poultry products. Chicken
cocks are the most popular sacrificial animals. Guinea fowl cocks are not used. The colour of
the bird is important. A red cock is sacrificed to ask for rain or a good harvest; a white cock is
used to convey value in relationships, and a black cock is used to ask for protection against
disease, war or quarrels. Because of these customs, red, white and black cocks have double the
value of cocks of other colours.
The sale of young birds and eggs takes place in the Mamprusi village markets. Prices
fluctuate during the year, and are low during the pre-harvest season, when the granaries are
empty and the crops are still growing and thus cash is less available. At such times, traders from
the south come to buy for resale in the cities. Sometimes, middlemen dealers are involved. They
buy the birds in the villages and sell them at markets or to city-based traders. The sale of poultry
products from Mamprusi households contributes about 15 percent to Mamprusi annual cash
income.
Poultry consumption by the household is rare, as most birds are sold for income generation.
In Mamprusi society, women, circumcised girls and first-born children do not consume eggs or
meat. These products are only eaten by elderly men, male visitors and young children. The
reasons are not fully understood. Some Mamprusi women believe that during pregnancy, their
behaviour (including their food choices) can affect their unborn child.
In Bangladesh, eggs and meat are consumed mainly by men and boys, and very rarely by
women and girls. Low-income groups generally do not consume eggs or meat. These products
are sold, and from the proceeds, essential items are purchased, such as carbohydrate and low-
cost vegetable protein foods.
Guinea fowl, more than chicken, are given as gifts to visitors. To give a gift is considered to
be a wealth-increasing action as well as an act that conveys value on the receiver. Farmers often
save for agricultural equipment or other materials and small livestock is used as a savings
account. The offspring, like chicks, are considered to be the interest on the savings.
In many parts of Africa, birds are sold to meet unforeseen expenses, for example, to buy the
beer and kola-nuts customarily given to gravediggers when a family member dies. The birds
usually sold from the village flock are: surplus males (cockerels and cocks); pullets; old hens;
non-productive hens; large-sized birds and sick birds. Young birds are often sold just before the
onset of the high-risk period for Newcastle Disease.
Traditional taste values placed on poultry meat

It is important to understand traditional taste values and their effect on market demand. The
market price for free-range birds for meat is usually stable because:
x the meat is considered tastier and stronger flavoured than commercial broiler meat;
x the meat (muscle tissue) is tougher, and retains its texture when prepared in dishes
requiring longer cooking; and
x the birds are not fed with compounded feed which may contain antibiotics, anti-mould
compounds, enzymes, sulpha drugs and other medicines or synthetic chemicals.
In eastern Asia, it is believed that chickens fed with chemicals and drugs have poorer
therapeutic value, as they do not combine well with ginseng and other oriental herbs used in
making soups, especially steamed types. For this type of soup, younger pullets are preferred and
thus they fetch a higher price than do the cockerels. The female is said to be more beneficial and
the meat tastier. Steamed chicken soup is believed to provide virility and vigour. It is commonly
recommended in Malaysia for pregnant women and for those recovering from sickness.
In the case of large-scale commercial ayam kampung (local village chicken) production in
Malaysia, local birds are confined and fed on commercial rations but they fetch lower prices
than free-range local birds. Such large-scale production has an affect on the market value of all
local birds, as purchasers have difficulty distinguishing between genuine free-range and
commercially fed local birds. However, the price of ayam kampung continues to hold a margin
above that of commercial meat chickens. The introduction of more appropriate methods of
Newcastle Disease vaccination in Malaysia will reduce mortality at the village level which may
also stimulate further interest in family poultry production. If this happens, there will be an
increase in the supply of local free-range poultry products to the market, and the price of the
ayam kampung product (from large-scale commercial production) may fall further.
Carcass parts and organ meats

The value of birds for sale in developing countries depends firstly on the available supply,
secondly on the age and sex of the birds, and thirdly on their size or weight. Young birds,
especially cockerels up to six months of age (weighing up to one kilogram live weight), are
usually preferred by consumers. This is because larger birds are more expensive for most
households, and smaller birds are more tender and have the same preferred portions (drumsticks
for example). Table 9.1 shows carcass characteristics of the local village chicken in Bangladesh.
Table 9.1 Product characteristics of indigenous scavenging chickens in Bangladesh

Characteristic Mean
Live weight, kg 1.14
Carcass weight, % 55
Eggs/hen/year 35 – 45
Egg weight, g 35 – 39
Hatchability of eggs, % 84 – 87
Source: Ahmed, 1994 (Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute)
Whatever the size of bird, all chickens have an equal number of high-demand portions (such as
breasts and drumsticks), and a similar proportion of gizzards and other desirable organ parts
(see Table 9.2).
Table 9.2 Organ weights and carcass composition of Ethiopian local chickens at different ages
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Slaughter age (months)

Body part weight 3 4 5 6
(grams)
Total body 502 674 892 1006
Gizzard 19.9 24.1 27.7 30.9
Heart 2.6 3.1 3.8 4.1
Intestine 60.9 67.0 77.4 81.8
Kidneys 4.6 5.4 5.6 6.4
Liver 15.8 20.0 22.9 25.9
Lung 4.0 5.1 6.2 6.6
Pancreas 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.9
Total organs 109.6 126.7 145.9 158.6
Body weight % 21.8 18.8 16.3 15.3
Carcass
Bone 87 113 123 138
Meat 197 267 331 406
Skin 36 49 59 68
Total Carcass 320 429 513 612
Body weight % 63.7 63.6 57.5 60.8
Source: Forssido, 1986
Buying small birds supplies the same number of the desirable parts for a lower price. Together
with the tenderness of the meat, this explains the heavier trade in young birds, which are also
bought for replacement stock in depleted flocks.
SUPPLY MECHANISMS FOR POULTRY MEAT AND EGGS

Depending on the location of the farm dwelling, birds and eggs are sold from the household to
traders (dealers or middlemen), direct to consumers, or carried by the farmer to the local market.
The role of traders in the marketing of poultry products is an important one. Traders from urban
areas buy eggs in villages to sell in cities. Where transport is an important consideration (as in
many parts of Africa), guinea fowl eggs, with their stronger shells, are preferred to chicken
eggs. Prices of eggs are related to supply and demand, to the higher risk of spoilage and lower
use for hatching in hot and humid seasons, and to the availability of alternative protein foods
such as fish. There is a tendency to hatch less in the hot season, due to low hatchability and
diseases of young chickens, and there is also less hatching in the cold season, due to the risk of
chilling stress to the young chicks.
Birds are either brought to the local market once or twice a week for sale to local consumers,
to other local markets, or to local traders. Chickens are transported to the market in open-weave
(well ventilated) baskets or wooden crates. They need not be fed on the day of sale, but should
receive drinking water. If the trip to the market takes eight hours or more, stops should be made
to supply water to the birds. In hot seasons, it is better to transport birds at night or in the cooler
early morning. While the price of live birds depends on their size, the price of eggs depends
more on number.
It is often assumed that for poultry and eggs, producers get 60 to 65 percent of the market
price but this has been found to be false in Bangladesh, where they receive less than this. The
role of traders or hawkers is very important, as it makes selling from the house possible, but
these traders take up to 35 percent of the market value, with a consequent lower profit for the
farmers who are responsible for production. This loss of income has stimulated farmers in many
places to organize sales through their own marketing groups or formal cooperatives.
Supply channels
A study by Adeyanju et al. (undated, unpublished monograph) of the marketing of poultry
products in Ondo State (in south-western Nigeria) revealed a large number of transactions and
participants. The typical flow of the products from the producer to the consumer is shown in
Figure 9.1. The local channel begins with the producer selling poultry products to retailers who
serve the needs of local consumers. In most areas, local consumers also buy directly from
producers. The other marketing channel involves wholesalers. They buy poultry products
directly from producers and sell to retailers inside and outside the State, and are based in urban
centres where urban-based consumers are located.
Fig. 9.1 Supply channel for poultry products in Ondo State, Nigeria
THE FARMER PRODUCER
ÝÞ
LOCAL MARKET RETAILERS URBAN WHOLESALERS

LOCAL CONSUMERS URBAN MARKET RETAILERS

WHOLESALERS URBAN CONSUMERS

INTERSTATE BOUNDARY

URBAN MARKET RETAILERS IN STATES OUTSIDE ONDO STATE

URBAN CONSUMERS
Source: Adeyanju et al., (Poultry Farming in Ondo State, undated, unpublished monograph)
Odi (1990) found that marketing channels for family poultry often cross international
boundaries and can generate significant foreign exchange for the producing countries (see
Figure 9.2).
Figure 9.2 Supply channels into Côte d'Ivoire for guinea fowls produced in Burkina Faso
BURKINA PRODUCER HOUSEHOLDS ($1.33/bird)

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PRIMARY COLLECTOR (5-10 birds)

SECONDARY COLLECTORS (50-100 birds)

MERCHANTS (250-500 birds)

OUAGADOUGOU (5 000 per trip)
Railway Station
<25% mortality
ABIDJAN, Cote dÍvoire (3 750 birds)

Railway Station

Ý ÝÞÞ
IVORIAN CONSUMERS ($3.90/bird)
Source: Odi, 1990
Planning
Forming a marketing plan means identifying where and when birds and eggs will be sold to
receive the best possible prices. Putting large numbers of birds up for sale in a small community
may depress the price.
Even the sale of small numbers of intensively managed layers needs advance planning. A flock
of 20 hens may produce 1 200 eggs in a year, even at the low production rate of 35 percent. The
plans of other farmers must also be considered. If they all expand their flocks and have good
years, prices will almost inevitably fall. Seasonal considerations enter into market plans as well.
In India for instance, eggs are thought of as a heat-producing food and are eaten in the cool,
rainy season. Many factors affect the quality of eggs (see Tables 9.3 to 9.6) and hence the price
that consumers are willing to pay for them in the market.
Table 9.3 Egg quality parameters for four breeds of chickens

Trait Nigerian Isa Trait Ethiopian White
Local Brown Local Leghorn
(Asuquo et al., 1992) (Forssido, 1986)
Egg wt., g 40.6 59.2 Egg wt., g 46.0 64.0
Yolk, % 36.9 26.3 Yolk, % 36.8 34.0
Albumen, % 52.6 62.8 Albumen, % 49.6 53.0
Shell thickness, 0.30 0.35 Shell thickness, 0.35 NA
mm mm
Yolk index 0.36 0.46 Fertility, % 56.4 46.0
Albumen index 0.09 0.12 Hatchability % 42.1 24.1
Haugh unit 79.8 89.9 Haugh unit NA NA
Table 9.4 Length of lay and egg quality in Nigerian indigenous chicken
Traits Months of Lay
2 3 4 5 6 7
Egg wt, g 35.8 37.2 36.9 37.1 39.0 38.6
Yolk wt, g 14.9 14.7 14.5 14.2 14.0 14.2
% Albumen 47.9 50.8 51.5 52.0 52.0 53.5
Shell thickness, mm 0.39 0.39 0.36 0.32 0.36 0.35
Source: Olori and Sonaiya, 1992b
Table 9.5 Quality of eggs of different shell colour of the Nigerian indigenous chicken
Trait Brown Light Brown White
Egg wt., g 38.9 37.1 37.0
Yolk wt., g 14.5 14.0 14.8
Shell wt., g 3.78 3.58 3.51
Albumen wt., g 20.6 19.6 18.8
Shell, % 9.77 9.67 9.49
Yolk, % 37.4 37.8 39.9
Albumen, % 52.3 52.8 50.8
Shell thickness, mm 0.37 0.37 0.35
Surface area, cm2 52.6 50.9 50.8
Source: Olori and Sonaiya, 1992a
EGG QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS

Quality determines the acceptability of a product to potential purchasers. The quality of eggs
and the preservation of this quality during storage is a function of their physical structure and
chemical composition. A basic outline of the most important factors of concern in egg quality is
presented below.
Egg composition
The egg consists of shell, two shell membranes, the white (or albumin) and the yolk. The shell is
quite porous to air and water vapour but is very resistant to invasion by micro-organisms as long
as it is clean and dry. A thin outer covering on the shell called the “bloom” or “cuticle” (which
is unfortunately easily removed by washing), assists this process. After the egg is laid, its
contents shrink, both from cooling and water evaporation. Air is drawn in (along with anything
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else on the shell, such as bacteria or fungi) through the pores in the shell to replace this loss. A
gap opens up between the two membranes because the outer one is attached to the shell and the
inner one is attached to the egg white. This gap is known as the “air cell” and is usually found at
the large blunt end of the egg. The egg white takes the form of a “thick” albumin sack enclosing
the yolk, with a more fluid “thin” albumin between this sack and the yolk to the inside, and
again between the sack and the shell to the outside. These layers provide a barrier to prevent the
yolk touching the shell and to provide food for the embryo. Egg white has specific antibiotic
effects, which further protect the yolk. Egg white also contains two fibrous cords (the chalaza),
which are attached to the yolk and to either end of the egg, which help hold the yolk in the
centre and assist in preventing the yolk from touching the shell.
The weight of an egg laid by a local village breed of hen is about 35 g. Commercial hybrids
lay eggs of about 58 g weight. The shell comprises approximately 11 percent of the weight of an
egg, the remainder being the edible portion. By weight of edible portion, the yolk is 36 percent
and the white is 64 percent.
Shell quality
Eggs of unusual shape are more likely to be damaged during the marketing process, and
consumers do not like them. Small thin cracks in the shell, which do not leak, are called
“checks”. These are usually detected by candling. “Checked” eggs should be sold for immediate
consumption, as their storage life is limited. The household usually consumes eggs with leaking
cracks, where the eggshell membranes are broken as well as the shell. Brittle, thin-shelled eggs
(shells less than 0.35 mm thick) are also unsuitable for transport to market. Dirty eggs must be
cleaned by dry or wet methods, and thus have a higher marketing risk because of the removal of
the cuticle.
Shell colour is not a guide to egg quality, but there is usually a consumer bias to either white
or brown, which must be considered in marketing.
Egg yolk and egg white quality

Consumers prefer the odour and flavour of normal fresh eggs. The yolk should be round, firm
and yellow in colour. Local yolk colour preferences may vary and can be easily adjusted by
raising or lowering the amount of green leaf material included in the poultry ration or
supplement. Egg white normally has a slightly yellow-green tinge and the thick white is slightly
cloudy.
Consumers are usually critical of blood or meat spots, which can vary in colour from red to
grey, and in size from small specks up to one square centimetre. Blood spots are caused by
slight bleeding at the time of release of the ovule (yolk) from the ovary of the hen. They may be
found in the white or adhering to the yolk.
Deterioration
The interior quality of eggs deteriorates after laying at a rate depending on time and conditions
of storage, such as temperature, relative humidity (RH), and the presence of strong smelling
substances or other food items in the storage place. Eggs stored at 27 to 29 oC for 7 to 10 days
will show deterioration changes similar to the same eggs stored at minus 1 oC and 85 percent
RH for several months. The changes are due to water loss, carbon dioxide (CO2) and the
absorption of volatile odours from the environment.
Moisture loss
Since an egg contains about 74 percent water and the shell is porous, eggs readily lose moisture.
A weight loss of 2 to 3 percent is common in marketing and is seldom noticed by the consumer.
When losses exceed this level, the air cell is noticeably enlarged by shrinkage in the contents of
the egg. This loss is reduced if the storage humidity is high and the temperature is reduced.
Coating the eggs with oil and other substances can also reduce the loss. The ideal conditions for
egg storage are about minus 1 oC and between 80 to 85 percent RH. At storage temperatures of
10 oC and above, the optimum RH is 80 percent. There is a risk of mould spoilage when the RH
is too high. Paper pulp egg trays or other packing materials that readily absorb moisture will
accelerate moisture losses from eggs. A temperature as low as 10 °C is unlikely to be practical
in rural areas of many developing countries. Temperatures between 10 and 15 °C are more
practical, but even then, care should be taken when moving the eggs from cool storage into the
outside air with its higher temperature, which often causes condensation to form on the shell,
with consequent risks of mould and “rot” growth.
Microbiological spoilage
The contents of the egg are usually sterile when the egg is laid. The main cause of
contamination is the washing of eggs. Wetting the shell allows micro-organisms on the shell to
penetrate and multiply inside. Common indications are green, black and red “rots”, mustiness
and sourness. The bacteria causing these effects cannot penetrate the shell if it is kept dry. If
eggs do become wet through condensation, for example after removal from a cool store into a
warmer room, bacteria may then be able to penetrate the shell.
Tainting
Eggs, especially yolks, are easily tainted by strong odours, from such sources as disinfectants,
soaps, diesel, kerosene, petrol, paint, varnish and wood preservatives. Other foods, such as
onions and citrus products, can taint eggs after only a few days of exposure.
EGG QUALITY CONTROL AND MAINTENANCE

Maintenance of egg quality is a major problem for those involved in egg marketing. The
importance of using good packing, storage and transport methods to preserve quality is
addressed in other sections below.
Eggs soiled by droppings or the contents of leaking or broken eggs spoil faster than clean
eggs. Only good quality eggs should be sent to the market. The simplest way of sorting is to
divide the eggs into three categories: cracked, dirty and clean. The cracked eggs should be eaten
or sold locally for immediate consumption. The dirty ones should be cleaned and sold locally
for consumption within a few days, while the clean eggs can be sent to the major marketing
outlet. In some areas, eggs of certain colour or sizes are preferred, and the eggs should be sorted
for these qualities.
Production factors affecting egg quality

The main production factors affecting egg quality are:
x breed and age of the flock;
x type of feed;
x incidence of disease;
x management control of the laying flock; and
x management control of the handling of eggs.
Breed and age of the laying flock

The effect of breed on the egg is inherent in many aspects, including the colour, thickness and
texture of the shell, the incidence of blood spots, and the amount of thick albumin. While
commercial breeders pay constant attention to these factors, there is little that farmers can do to
control them.
After the first season of egg production, hens produce eggs of poorer shell quality and poorer
egg white thickness, even though the eggs are larger in size. The rate of egg production is also
lower. For these reasons as well as the high meat value of the carcass of the older hen in most
developing countries, it is advisable to replace the hens after 12 to 18 months of lay.
Type of feed
A balanced diet supplied to intensively housed chickens must supply sufficient nutrients to
enable the hen to produce an egg with a good shell thickness and good egg yolk colour. A high
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level of yellow maize, leaf or grass meal will ensure a good yolk colour. Calcium carbonate in
some form (limestone or shell) must be supplied (for more detail, see Chapter 3 on Feed
Resources and Chapter 4 on General Management). This is either mixed in the ration or fed as a
separate supplement on a free-choice basis. It is often quite practicable to have a separate
container in a pen with shell or limestone inside.
Fish meal with a high fish oil content fed in the diet can give fishy flavours to eggs produced
by hens on those diets.
Incidence of disease
The diseases Infectious Bronchitis (IB) and Newcastle Disease both affect egg quality. They
cause the hens to lay eggs with misshapen shells and poor quality thick white. IB induces
groove-like marks along the long axis of the eggshell.
Management control over the laying flock
In many developing countries, there is a belief that a rooster is necessary to stimulate hens to
lay. This is not true. The presence of an active male causes the eggs to be laid as fertile eggs
(containing an embryo chick), and this reduces the storage stability of the egg. Even after the
male is removed, all eggs laid are fertile for up to six weeks because sperm is stored and
released from specialised cavities in the hen’s oviduct. If fertile eggs are in demand, then cocks
should be placed with the hens. Non-fertilized eggs have a much longer shelf life than fertilized
eggs and are more suitable for the market.
Dirty eggs can be reduced in number. For hens in deep litter systems, the nest box litter must
be clean and replaced regularly. Frequent collection of eggs under any housing management
system, and at least four times a day in the hot humid tropics, will reduce the incidence of dirty
eggs.
Management control over egg handling
Temperature control
The most effective way to preserve egg quality is to store eggs between 10 and 15 oC during all
handling, transport and marketing phases. Insulated containers and/or vehicles can maintain
cool temperatures during long-distance transport. Even an outer layer of straw in a basket will
help. In hot weather, and where there is no cool storage system, eggs should be transported to
market at least every third day. Eggs should never be left standing in the sun or in a very hot
room. Air conditioning or even an electric fan is advised whenever practicable. However, as air
conditioning has the negative effect of drying out the egg contents as well as the advantageous
effect of cooling, wet sacks should be placed as curtains in the cool store to alleviate this
dehydrating effect. If fans or air conditioning are not available, then shaded well-ventilated
rooms or underground cellars should be used.
Treatment of dirty eggs

An egg’s shell has a natural protective coating (cuticle) that resists the entrance of bacteria and
retains moisture inside. Washing eggs with water removes this protection, and thus washed eggs
should be eaten as soon as possible. Whether eggs are wet- or dry- cleaned, they should be sold
separately from naturally clean eggs, as their storage life is shorter. The cuticle from the shell is
a protein-fat substance, and the lack of a cuticle can therefore be detected with a simple
ultraviolet (UV) lamp. Washed eggs (without a cuticle) are red in colour under UV-light, while
a blue colour indicates that the cuticle is still present.
Dry cleaning
Even with good flock management, some eggs will get dirty. The risks of allowing water to
touch the shell have already been mentioned. Dry cleaning systems are preferred. Rubbing
lightly with fine sandpaper or a rough cloth is better than wet cleaning. Cloth-backed sandpaper
or emery paper can be wrapped around a block of foam rubber for dry cleaning by hand. Steel
wool and nylon dishwashing or bathroom scrubbing aids are also quite suitable. Care should be
taken not to remove too much of the protective cuticle layer which covers the shell. Only the
dirty patches should be cleaned. There are also motor-driven dry-cleaners commercially
available. The simplest model consists of a spinning wheel of foam rubber. A mixture of glue
and sand is applied periodically to the foam wheel. The operator holds the egg against the
spinning foam wheel to clean it.
Wet cleaning
Washing of eggs is only suggested under very well-controlled conditions. The concern is to
ensure that the washing water temperature (38 to 43 oC) is never below that of the egg. This
avoids the wash water being sucked into the egg through the shell pores by the action of the egg
contents shrinking (as happens if the egg is in contact with cooler water). In addition, the
washing machine must be able to monitor the detergent/sanitizer/disinfectant/antiseptic levels in
the water to ensure that they are optimal. Only special types of non-tainting chemicals can be
used. The water itself must be changed frequently. After washing, the shell should be
pasteurised by dipping the eggs in water at 82 oC for a few seconds, then dried quickly with
warm air before packing. The eggs must also be clearly labelled as “washed”. Washing done in
this way is complex and expensive, and is therefore only justified in large operations, although
even then it involves risks.
EGG QUALITY GRADING

Interior quality
Candling
Opening the egg by breaking it is the only accurate way to fully check the interior quality. This
can only be done on a limited sample basis. “Candling” can show some aspects of internal
quality without breaking the shell. It consists of inspecting the egg in a beam of light strong
enough to penetrate the shell and illuminate the contents. Various types of lamps can be used
but the essential features are similar. An incandescent-type bulb of 25 to 50 watts is enclosed in
a casing with light exiting through a round hole about 3 cm in diameter against which the egg is
held and turned. The casing usually has another hole to provide light for the operator to see the
egg container if the room is very dark. By rotating the hand-held egg close to the hole in the
candler, the yolk and egg white quality can be estimated by their movement. Experienced
operators can candle 24 eggs per minute. The main points to observe are summarised in the
following paragraphs.
White
Egg white (albumin) characteristics showing good egg quality are thick albumin fullness and
albumin transparency. When the thick albumin sack is strong and healthy, it is full and confines
the yolk within the various layers of egg white. As the thick albumin sack deteriorates, its
contents leak into the thin albumin cavity. The yolk then moves more freely, increasing the risk
that it might touch the shell and be contaminated by micro-organisms from outside the shell. A
healthy albumin is also transparent. It can become discoloured or cloudy due to rot or
overexposure to hot water (partial coagulation) in washing.
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Yolk
Yolk characteristics showing good egg quality are confinement within the thick albumin, a
small spherical shape, orange-yellow colour and the absence of spots. As described in the above
paragraph, yolk confinement within the albumin protects the yolk from outside contaminants. A
small spherical shape indicates a strong yolk membrane. When the egg is exposed to high
temperatures and dehydration, the yolk deteriorates and grows larger and flatter. Consumers
prefer yolks of orange-yellow colour without spots. Spots on the yolk can indicate: embryo
development (reddish colour); blood from the hen’s ovary and “meat” bits from the oviduct
released during egg formation (red and brown, respectively); moulds (grey or black); or
bacterial rots (blue, violet, green or red). Although consumers prefer yolks with no spots, the
only spots that pose any health risk are mould and rot spots.
Air cell
Air cell characteristics showing good egg quality are small size, shallow depth and fixed
position at the blunt end of the egg. Small size and shallow depth indicate very little loss of
moisture from the egg contents, which in turn indicates freshness (or that the eggs have been
stored under good conditions). A fixed position at the blunt end of the egg indicates that the
membranes surrounding the air cell have not been damaged (for example, by rough handling).
There is usually a correlation between the depth of the air cell and other quality aspects.
However an egg stored at high temperature and high humidity may show a good air cell depth
(as the high humidity maintains the egg moisture) but it may have deteriorated otherwise (as a
result of the high temperature).
Air cells can be deflated completely or become unfixed and mobile within the egg. The air
cell can become filled with albumin if part of the inner shell membrane is broken. If the
membrane is merely weakened, the air cell may move freely around the egg. These mobile air
cells are often caused by transporting eggs on rough roads or by the egg being stored small end
upwards. The egg could be otherwise quite fresh.
Shell quality
Before candling, eggshell quality is assessed, and eggs that are dirty, cracked, thin, rough or
misshapen are processed accordingly (procedures regarding shell quality are addressed
extensively in the above section on production factors affecting egg quality).
EGG SALE OPTIONS: GRADED SIZE OR TOTAL PACKAGE WEIGHT

Eggs can be sold by graded size or by total package weight. Selling by graded size involves
weighing each egg individually and grading the eggs within certain weight ranges (commonly
Small, Medium and Large). They are then packed in cartons of 10 or 12 eggs, and sold
according to a price per graded size. Selling by total package weight involves packing the eggs
without size grading, and selling the package according to a price per kilogram (like almost all
other food products).
Consumers in the more developed countries are accustomed to buying eggs graded by size
and boxed into cartons. Grading eggs by size requires complex machinery for grading and
packaging, as well as monitoring and testing of all grading machines, and sample monitoring of
the various grades at retail outlets.
In developing countries without the capital or administrative capacity to undertake such
extensive monitoring tasks, the better option is to sell eggs by total package weight. If a market
weighing scale is used to weigh foods such as rice or maize, then it can also be used to weigh
eggs so that they can be sold by package weight. Selling eggs by package weight also simplifies
the situation where standardization of containers and grades has not yet been developed. It also
makes price comparisons between different types of food items much easier for the consumer.
Eggs in most developing countries are sold by quantity rather than by weight, which
penalizes the producer of larger eggs. As local breeds of hens usually lay uniformly small eggs,
this is not a significant problem. However, as the market grows and a demand develops for
different sized eggs based on the availability of commercial hybrids (laying larger eggs) in peri-
urban areas, the decision to sell eggs by graded size or by total package weight must be faced.
EGG TRANSPORT
The four concerns regarding egg transport are:
x Protection against mechanical damage, which can be achieved by avoiding excessive
shaking, especially where roads are bad, and by using spring suspensions on bicycle
carriers.
x Protection against poor egg handling, which can be achieved by providing convenient
loading levels to make lifting easier.
x Protection against tainting odours.
x Protection against exposure to high temperatures in transport.
Egg packing methods

Eggs can be packed with a padding of rice husks, wheat chaff or chopped straw in firm-walled
baskets or crates. This greatly reduces the risk of shell damage in transport. In Iran, long flat
boxes, each containing about 1,000 eggs cushioned in chopped straw, are commonly used for
the transport of eggs to the capital from a distance of up to 1 000 km. The boxes are transported
in trucks over rough roads, but breakages seldom exceed five percent. The main difficulty with
such systems is in standardizing the number of eggs per container. Consignors and receivers
will otherwise spend much time counting eggs and repacking to ensure that the correct number
has been received for payment.
The standard type of transport egg packing container is the 30-egg tray, which is made of
paper pulp holding six rows of five eggs each. The trays are stackable either when full or empty.
A standard box of 360 eggs (30 dozen) is made up of two stacks, each comprised of six trays.
Washable plastic reusable trays are also available. Cases are usually made of wood. Half-cases
to hold 180 eggs (15 dozen) are also common and are usually made of corrugated cardboard.
Quality preservation during transport

Permissible temperature ranges depend on the duration of transport time. In Europe, the
temperature recommendation for two to three day transport in refrigerated vehicles is between -
1 oC to 3 oC. In developing countries, however, refrigerated vehicles are not widely available.
Even when available, precautions are needed to avoid moisture condensation on eggs removed
from the cool container to the warm moist air of the retailing environment.
Fans blowing air towards the eggs across a container of salt and ice is a cooling system that
has been used in Pakistan for egg transport by rail for the 1 600 km trip from Peshawar to
Karachi, where outside summer temperatures can range from 38 °C to 47 °C.
Refrigerated transport is expensive. In estimating the costs of establishing such a system, the
volume of trade for refrigerated goods is an important consideration. The capital cost may be
spread over five years to prepare the costing. Transport of other taint-compatible produce with
the eggs should be considered; as should the prospect of back-loading with other goods, which
may not necessarily require refrigeration.
Public transport such as rail or bus is the most common means of transport in developing
countries. Awareness of the special needs for egg transport as addressed above will assist the
operator in preserving the quality of the eggs no matter what the type of transport.
EGG STORAGE
All egg storage systems must meet the following requirements:
x Water loss by evaporation to be minimized.
x Mould and bacteria growth to be minimized.
82 Marketing
x Interior quality to be maintained (indicated by a good proportion of a thick white, a firm,

rounded yolk and good flavour in both).
The first two requirements can be met (for storage periods of three to five months) by: coating
eggs with oil or waterglass (sodium silicate); immersing eggs in limewater (calcium hydroxide
solution); or putting eggs in dry storage (using such materials as bran, peat dust, soda lime, salt
and wood ash). However, all three of the above requirements can only be met by refrigeration,
which is the best storage method, if available.
Following below are descriptions of some of the traditional egg storage methods used in the
absence of refrigeration. The first two systems rely on evaporative cooling, which is only
effective in the hot dry tropics. The hot humid tropics do not allow sufficient evaporation to
occur, and thus there is much less of a cooling effect. Where none of these storage systems can
be used, there is no way to slow the inevitable drop in egg quality, and the eggs should therefore
be transported to the consumer as quickly as possible.
Clay pot
Eggs are placed in a clay pot buried in the ground up to its neck, in a shaded area. The pot is
covered tightly so that no water gets into the pot. The ground around the pot is watered, but
without leaving puddles of water. Straw or a mat is placed in the pot to cushion the eggs and to
keep them above any water that seeps into the container. The eggs are put in the pot as soon as
they are collected, and covered with a cloth and damp straw. Due to the evaporative cooling
effect, the inside of the pot is often five to six Celsius degrees cooler than the outside air
temperature. A variation of this method, used in the Sudan, is to bury an earthenware pot in the
ground to half its height. A 7 cm layer of mixed sand and clay is packed around the pot up to its
neck, and kept wet by sprinkling water on it. The inside of the pot is lined with grass. The eggs
inside are covered with a thin cloth to allow air circulation. Evaporative cooling in Sudan’s hot
dry climate often reduces the egg temperature to up to eight-Celsius degrees below that of the
air outside. Eggs are turned daily to prevent the yolks touching the shell, which would
accelerate the decaying process.
Wet sack cooler

This is another method utilising the evaporative cooling principle. The sack material is kept wet
by having a tray of water above the hanging sack, into which the neck-edge of the sack material
is dipped, keeping the sack wet. A slightly more sophisticated system uses perforated pipes
connected to a water tank. To prevent mould formation, the sacking is pre-soaked in a solution
of copper sulphate (CuSO4), using 60 g of crystals in four litres of water.
Oil coating
A thin film of oil on an eggshell fills its pores and reduces evaporation and thus spoilage of the
egg contents. Using a wire basket, the eggs are dipped into slightly heated oil, about 11 qC
warmer than the eggs. Special odourless, colourless, low viscosity mineral oils can be used. If
these are not available, then any light mineral oil or almost any cooking oil that doesn’t easily
turn rancid serves the purpose. To reuse the oil, it is cleaned through a filter and heated to 116
qC to sterilize it. Four litres of oil coats about 7,000 eggs. Oiled eggs last for at least three weeks
(longer if kept at 10 RC, or less at temperatures above 21 oC). For high temperature storage, eggs
should be oiled four to six hours after laying.
Waterglass paste
Waterglass is a paste or ointment of sodium silicate in water. It is rubbed onto the hands and
then the egg is rolled between the two waterglass-coated hands to transfer a waterproof coating
of waterglass paste to the eggshell.
Waterglass solution
For 100 eggs, a 25-litre pot or jar is used, and 5.3 litres of previously boiled (and then cooled)
water are mixed with 0.5 litres of waterglass. The eggs are placed in the pot and covered with
the waterglass solution. The pot is covered and kept in a cool, shaded place. The eggs keep for
one to six months.
Limewater solution
Limewater is a solution of calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], a mild alkali. The main ingredient is
burnt lime (also known as quicklime). The chemical name of this is calcium oxide (CaO). It is
also known as choon in Bangladesh, and is a common ingredient of the betel nut mixture
chewed by people in many tropical countries. Calcium oxide is made by burning limestone
(CaCO3) in a hot fire. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is driven off from the limestone, leaving CaO
behind as a white powder. Dissolving this calcium oxide in water makes limewater. The
resultant solution of calcium hydroxide is only partly soluble, and the insoluble portion will
settle to the bottom of the container.
Six litres of limewater is made by stirring 2.3 kg of calcium oxide into six litres of boiled
(then cooled) water. It is allowed to stand overnight so that the insoluble portion settles. The
eggs and the clear part of the limewater solution are placed in a pot, covered and kept cool. The
eggs last more than a month. In the years prior to 1970, eggs were commonly transported from
Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan) to Pakistan (formerly West Pakistan) on a train journey of
about a month, in high temperatures. The eggs were stored in earthenware jars containing
limewater and maintained their quality well.
Hot water immersion

Immersion in hot water for carefully controlled lengths of time has a pasteurizing effect, which
kills the embryo in fertile eggs, destroys some of the bacteria on the shell and stabilizes the
quality of the egg white. The difficulty is to achieve this without coagulating some of the egg
white. Equivalent effects are achieved with any of the following temperature-time
combinations:
35 minutes at 49 oC
15 54 oC
10 59 oC
5 60 oC
This method requires special equipment and supervision.
Salt and wet clay or ashes

Eggs are coated in a mixture of salt and wet clay or ashes which allows them to keep for one
month. This method has been practised for centuries in China.
Cooked rice and salt

Eggs are covered with a mixture of cooked rice and salt, which allows them to keep for six
months. This method has been practised for centuries in China.
Lime, salt, wood ashes and tea

Eggs are covered with a layer of lime, salt and wood ashes mixed with a tea infusion, which
allows them to keep for several years. This method has been practised for centuries in China.
Chapter 10
Research and Development for Family Poultry
Research and development in the field of Family Poultry (FP) must first examine the social,
cultural and technical constraints faced by this sector, and then observe how these have been
addressed in past efforts and whether the lessons are being applied in currently ongoing efforts.
While holding this perspective, the need for further research, training and extension must then
be assessed in the light of a clear understanding of what the overall development objectives are,
and what place FP has in achieving them. Having provided background in the preceding nine
chapters, this final chapter takes the reader through these concluding stages.
SOCIO-CULTURAL CONSTRAINTS TO DEVELOPMENT

A sociological appraisal is essential in determining strategies for development. Technical and
economic appraisals are also necessary, but are insufficient on their own. Socio-cultural factors
contribute to the wide variety of response of livestock keepers even under identical economic
conditions. Many socio-cultural factors affect livestock production. For example, some
communities ban ducks, as they are presumed dirty and destructive to drinking water supplies.
Some communities regard pigeons as a sign of peace and concord. In such communities, the
presence of pigeons is regarded as a good omen, and their departure would presage disaster. In
other communities, pigeons are regarded as an evil omen, since they are used by native doctors
in sinister rituals.
Another socio-cultural constraint to poultry development is the value placed upon poultry for
use at ceremonies and festivals or even as a source of income in times of need but not as a
source of daily food nor as a regular source of income. Some regard chickens as their pets or
part of the family, thus it is only the arrival of an important unexpected visitor that could allow
their use as food, although they can be sold without regret and the money utilised.
Another major constraint to poultry production is the high value placed upon crop
production rather than livestock production. This affects the willingness to put much time,
expense and effort into livestock production. Theft is also a great constraint. Villagers who have
lost all their poultry to theft may be reluctant to face the expense of starting again.
Another constraint is the social norm that determines ownership of livestock. Typically,
where crop farming is the men’s main activity, keeping livestock is perceived as a peripheral
activity relegated to women and children. However, when the number of livestock increases,
men usually take over the activity.
It should not be assumed that socio-cultural factors can be changed. However, by
incorporating socio-cultural factors into development strategies, the programmes and
technologies may encounter less resistance. Development programmes, which combine local
knowledge with western science, yield strategies which are culturally more acceptable. Socio-
cultural factors are thus not seen as a problem, but rather as a factor to be considered or used in
finding a solution (Olawoye and di Domenico, 1990).
TECHNICAL CONSTRAINTS TO DEVELOPMENT

The most common FP flock size of between 5 to 20 birds seems to be the limit that can be kept
by a family without special inputs in terms of feeding, housing and labour. These small flocks
scavenge sufficient feed in the surroundings of the homestead to survive and to reproduce. Any
significant increase in flock size often leads to malnutrition if no feed supplement is provided.
In addition, larger flock sizes must forage at greater distances, which may involve damage to
neighbours’ vegetable gardens. Any move to fence in or enclose the poultry then involves the
need to provide a balanced ration. Larger flock sizes can easily arise once mortality is reduced
through vaccination and improved hygiene. Flock size can rapidly increase to the point where
86 Research and Development for family poultry
the feed requirement exceeds the available Scavengable Feed Resource Base (SFRB) in the area
around the dwelling (For more detail on the SFRB concept, see Chapter 3 “Feed Resources”).
At this stage, either supplementary feeding or a semi-intensive system of management is
required. If balanced feed, day-old hybrid chick and vaccine input supplies (and markets) are
available and well organized, and then intensive poultry management systems may be a viable
option. There have been many attempts to take short cuts to development and to start
immediately with the semi-intensive system.
FAO consultation 1987

A wide range of approaches to improve FP production has been tried. An FAO Expert
Consultation on Rural Poultry Development in Asia was held in Bangladesh in March 1987, to
review these approaches in order to identify the reasons for success or failure. A major issue
during the workshop was to clearly define the different systems of rural poultry production.
There was confusion in terminology between the low-technology scavenging systems of
Bangladesh, Myanmar and Bhutan, and the small semi-intensive or intensive production
systems (a few hundred birds) kept in India, Malaysia and Indonesia.
Table 10.1 The effect of rural poultry improvement on production, reproduction and off-take
per hen/year
Production system Nº of Nº of year- Nº of eggs for
eggs/hen/year old consumption and
chickens sale
Traditional 20 – 30 2-3 0
Step 0: Scavenging:
no regular water or feed, poor night
shelter
Improved Traditional 40 – 60 4-8 10 - 20
Step 1: offered water and supplementary
feed, improved shelter, care in first
weeks, ND vaccination
Step 2: as in step 1 plus further feeding, 100 10 - 12 30 - 50
watering, housing; treatment for
parasites, additional vaccinations
Step 3: (semi-intensive) as in step 2 160 – 180 25 - 30 50 - 60
with improved breeds and complete
diets
Source: Bessei, 1987
These differences motivated the FAO consultation facilitator (Bessei, 1987) to classify the
various poultry production systems in Asia (Table 10.1, above). The table shows the logical
evolution from Step 0 to Step 3, and the Consultation agreed that many development projects
had failed because they did not recognise the constraints present at the different steps of
development. The constraints themselves (shown in Table 10.2) show the need for awareness
raising in the farmers to recognise the needs of their poultry for regular watering and feeding,
cleaning of the poultry night house and care of the young chicks. The Consultation
recommended that the first critical step for rural poultry development is the encouragement and
support of farmers to change their traditional system. Taking into consideration the chronic
shortages of personnel and transport affecting extension services in the developing countries,
the Consultation emphasized the importance of selecting pilot farms to serve as models as they
can have a multiplier effect on the neighbouring farms and villages.
Perhaps because of the variety of understandings of rural poultry development, many of the
methods suggested seem more suited to the development of small units of intensive poultry
production. The methods reflect the procedures required for transfer of new technology or total
replacement of existing practices. For instance, incentives were required to encourage farmers to
participate in the programmes, perhaps indicating that the programmes were not consistent with
the priorities of the farmers. Selection of farmers was also identified as a major factor in
determining the success or failure of a development programme. Incentives can often lead to the
selection of farmers not genuinely interested in poultry production. To ensure the selection of
authentic candidates, the following procedure was recommended:
x The extension service should select farmers already known to be particularly interested
in poultry production.
x Incentives should never be given in cash.
x Incentives should always be associated with certain commitments by the farmers (for
example, equipment for poultry houses should be provided only if the farmer has
constructed the poultry shed at his own cost).
x Supplies of inputs such as day-old chicks, fertile eggs, feed and vaccines should be made
at cost price.
The pilot farm method risks failure if a large amount of foreign input (such as equipment and
construction materials) is needed to establish it because neighbouring farms can become
discouraged by the fact that they are unable to procure the same equipment.
Table 10.2 Technical constraints and training requirements for family poultry development
Constraint Training Measures required
Disease risk Advice on sanitation and health; training vaccinators.
Predators Advice on predator control.
Housing Advice on improved poultry housing.
Feed and water Advice on locally available feed ingredients and their combinations;
making of feeders and drinkers; regular provision of feed and water.
Genetic potential Introduction of improved indigenous (and if necessary, exotic) breeds and
advice on special management.
Marketing Advice on egg handling and storage, and training of farmers in group
management and marketing.
Source: Bessei, 1987
In order to be effective in the process of technology and information transfer, pilot farms should
be charged with special duties, which bring them obligatorily in contact with the other poultry
keepers. Pilot poultry farmers have been successfully trained in Bangladesh and Burkina Faso to
vaccinate chickens and guinea fowls, respectively. Pilot farmers can also be used to provide
improved lines or to raise pullets for distribution so that a number of farms in the surrounding
area will be regularly served with inputs and information.
Attempts to by-pass the phases as described by Bessei (1987) usually fail, and it appears that
the transitory phases (especially Steps 1 and 2 as described in Table 10.1) are important if the
development is starting from the traditional scavenging system. It has been noted that even in
successful poultry development programmes, the supply of feed and veterinary products often
lags behind the increase in flock size, especially if it is organized by the government extension
service. The use of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and private entrepreneurs is a
better alternative.
INFPD and the 1998 FAO e-conference

The International Network for Family Poultry Development (INFPD) started as the African
Network for Rural Poultry Development (ANRPD), and was established during an international
workshop on rural poultry development held in November 1989 in Ile-Ife, Nigeria. The name
was changed to INFPD at a meeting that took place in M’Bour, Senegal, in December 1997
(Sonaiya, 2000). INFPD is mainly an information exchange network. One of its objectives is to
encourage higher standards of research and development that can sustainably increase the
productivity of the FP subsector. This is achieved through providing advice and collecting data
and detailed information about FP production systems. Information is disseminated through a
trilingual (English, French and Spanish) newsletter, produced twice yearly and distributed
electronically (with a printed version for members without email facilities) with the assistance
of FAO.
In December 1998, FAO held the first INFPD/FAO electronic conference on FP, which
proved so popular and interactive that it was extended until July 1999. The introductory paper
to this conference addressed the issue of research and development options for FP (Sonaiya e.
al., 1999). The layout of this important introductory paper was:
x Research options for family poultry development.
x Prospects for development.
x Development approaches.
x Breeding and reproduction (evaluation and selection of indigenous breeds).
x Evaluation and adaptation of imported breeds to hot climates.
x Feed research and development.
x Health management.
x Entrepreneur development.
x Information management.
All papers, comments and discussions are available on the FAO/INFPD website. The constraints
and issues facing FP that were recognized by the e-conference are:
Disease
Newcastle disease (ND) constitutes the most serious epizootic poultry disease in the world,
particularly in developing countries. No progress has been made in controlling ND in free-
ranging village flocks, which represent more than 80 percent of the total poultry population.
Several recent surveys in Africa showed high rates of seropositivity in the absence of
vaccination. In developing countries, ND occurs every year and kills an average of 70 to 80
percent of the unvaccinated village hens (Branckaert et al., 2000). It is very difficult to organize
vaccination campaigns covering free-range birds. The main constraints are:
x the difficulty of grouping together an adequately large number of birds in order to obtain
an efficient vaccination rate;
x the possibility of disease cross-contamination arising from birds of various ages being
raised together; and
x the difficulty of maintaining an efficient cold chain for proper vaccine quality
preservation.
Diseases make poultry production a risky venture. FP producers using the free-range extensive
system acknowledge this risk, and reduce its impact on the household economy by having small
flocks. ND is a major disease problem for all FP producers wherever the disease exists.
Vaccination of the flock against ND is very important and provides a basis for further
development.
It is worth repeating that the reluctance of farmers to invest in poultry production is not due
to a lack of resources but to the risk of disease outbreaks and mortality. Killer diseases like ND
regularly decimate village flocks. In traditional farming systems, farmers often live close to the
survival limit, so they naturally avoid risks. Minimizing risk ranks higher than increasing
output. A key component of FP development is the control of the most important diseases.
Regular vaccination is a prerequisite for any improvement in FP production.
Although the control of ND is the key constraint, there are other disease constraints, which
rise in importance as soon as higher-ranking constraints are eliminated. Many poultry
development projects have failed because only one constraint was tackled or, when more than
one constraint was considered, the importance of other problems was poorly understood. Many
projects concentrated either on disease control or on genetic improvement. There is no doubt
that vaccination reduces mortality, but in one particular project, in certain periods, mortality due
to predation was as high as 70 percent and the effect of vaccination was further negated by a
secondary constraint of poor housing (Bourzat and Saunders, 1987). Generally, the costs of an
isolated vaccination campaign cannot be justified unless actions to improve housing and feeding
are also taken.
Predators
Predators such as snakes, rats, dogs, cats, foxes, racoons and birds of prey represent the main
causes of predator losses, especially in young birds. Human beings can also represent another
important predator for adult birds. Proper shelter should be constructed using locally available
materials, and predators should be trapped, hunted or repelled by specific plants (Branckaert e.
al., 2000). For example, in Nigeria, sliced garlic (Allium sativum) is placed around poultry
houses to repel snakes.
Analysis of mortality in FP flocks in Thailand (Thitisak, 1992) showed that the first four
months of life are critical for the growing chicks. The mortality of chicks during this period
often rose to 60 percent (Matthewman, 1977) even in flocks vaccinated for ND. In Africa, while
various other diseases such as Salmonellosis or coccidiosis affected the chicks during the first
two months of age (Chabeuf, 1990), the most important cause of mortality between two and
four months of age was predation, by dogs, cats, hawks and snakes, which caused up to 70
percent mortality (Bourzat and Saunders, 1987). Overnight housing is an important way to
reduce this loss, and can utilize locally available materials of reasonable cost.
Feeding
Feed is also an input of major concern and the supply of adequate feed supplement is critical.
The nutrient intake of scavenging birds varies from place to place according to the seasons, the
crops grown and the natural vegetation available. In field experiments, feed supplements,
including household waste (cooked potatoes, yams or cassava tubers), and oilseed cakes, have a
positive effect on egg production and body weight of scavenging birds.
Careful attention should be given to ensuring adequate feed resources. Feed represents 60 to
80 percent of the input cost in the intensive commercial poultry sector. In Low Income, Food-
Deficient Countries (LIFDCs), a surplus of cereals is generally not available. It is therefore not
advisable to develop a wholly grain-based feeding system. The recommended policy is to
identify and use locally available feed resources to formulate diets that are as balanced as
possible (Branckaert . et al., 2000).
Full ad libitum feeding of a balanced ration is essential for poultry intensively managed in
confinement, even on a small scale. The usual recommendation is for commercially
manufactured feed, but many farmers find it too costly and not in regular supply. The by-
products of processing of local crops (brans, and oil and seed cakes) can be used as both energy
and protein sources (see Chapter 3 “Feed Resources”) but on their own cannot make a balanced
ration. More research is needed on local feed resources as sources of trace elements, minerals
and vitamins, especially from leaves, fruits, algae, fungi and other available materials. However,
even with this knowledge, the skills of a well-equipped and experienced nutritionist are needed
to formulate least-cost balanced rations.
Breeding (genetic potential)

Indigenous or local breeds are generally raised in FP production systems. These birds are
exposed to natural selection from the environment for hardiness, running and flight skills, but
not for egg production. Hens are thus poor layers, but good mothers (except for guinea hens).
When farmers contemplate the adoption of a more intensive poultry production system, they are
eager to purchase more productive birds. There is a need to find the best method to provide
them with such birds, and the options are:
xto supply hybrid strains, which requires the presence of well-managed hatchery facilities
and (grand) parent stock, or
x to supply pure-bred breeds, which allows the farmer to renew his flock and to remain
independent from external suppliers. Unfortunately, pure-bred breeds are becoming more
difficult and more expensive to purchase, and produce fewer eggs than hybrids.
(Branckaert et al., 2000).
Genetic improvement has been considered a high priority in poultry development projects.
Usually vaccination programmes are carried out during genetic upgrading programmes, but feed
supply to the improved birds has not received sufficient attention. Thus it has not been possible
to exploit the superior genetic potential of the improved birds.
Marketing
Poultry products in most developing countries, especially in Africa, are still expensive. The
marketing system is generally informal and poorly developed. Unlike eggs and meat from
commercial hybrid birds (derived from imported stock), local consumers generally prefer those
from indigenous stocks. The existence of a local market offering good sales opportunities and
adequate transport facilities are obvious prerequisites for FP development. As most consumers
with greater purchasing power live in and around cities, intensification of poultry production
should be initiated in peri-urban areas or, at least, in areas having a good road network
Traditional dealers and middlemen, who collect eggs and birds from the villages, facilitate
the marketing of FP products in most developing countries. Such traditional marketing
structures are often overlooked, bypassed or criticised. There has been a regrettable tendency in
some countries to use government extension services or parastatals to market family poultry
products. This practice should be discouraged as it is not sustainable.
Farmer organizations
Organizing FP farmers is not an easy task, for several reasons. Flock sizes are small and birds
are maintained with minimal land, labour and capital inputs. Thus farmers generally consider FP
a secondary activity compared with other agricultural activities. Nevertheless, it is essential to
develop producer groups, which give members easier access to essential inputs (such as feed,
improved breeds, medicine, vaccines and technical advice) and to credit, training, transportation
and the marketing of poultry products. Producer groups also encourage more educated people to
initiate FP farming as a secondary activity (conducted at the family level using medium-sized
flocks), as well as facilitating the development of associated activities such as market gardening,
which can utilize poultry manure and help to reduce or remove household waste and pests
Farmers should be allowed to develop the market structures most suitable for them. Often
women’s groups prove to be effective in marketing eggs along with other products at local
markets. Such groups should be encouraged and supported if they exist, but their establishment
solely for FP may be unnecessary and unviable.
In a case study in the region of Niamey, Niger (Kobling, 1989), it was shown that
smallholdings (less than 20 hens) of layers, which were situated beyond 2.5 km from a main
paved road, could supply eggs and meat to the city market at competitive prices. Villages much
farther from the main routes could supply live birds competitively but not eggs. Eggs are not an
important food item at the village level, as it is a relatively high-priced protein food, and thus
marketing may require cooperative efforts by producers to transport eggs to larger towns.
Possibilities for this include using existing commercial trading channels or opening new
channels such as those through producer associations, cooperatives, women’s groups or young
farmer associations. The establishment of specialized poultry production cooperatives has
proved difficult in many places, and socio-economic factors play an important part in this.
Training and management

As was emphasized at the beginning of this chapter by Bessei (1987), technical skills need to be
considered at both farmer and extension officer levels. Training is essential in the areas of
disease control, housing, equipment, feeding, genetic improvement and marketing. A basic
knowledge of specific features of poultry anatomy and physiology is also important, to provide
a basis for understanding the above topics. Housing and management could be improved
through appropriate farmer training, preferably conducted on-farm. Local craftsmen could be
trained to manufacture small equipment, such as feeders and drinkers (Branckaert et al., 2000).
RESEARCH LESSONS LEARNED FROM COMPLETED PROJECTS

Genetic upgrading
This was the earliest and most commonly favoured FP development strategy, and has been
adopted and supported by many donors from the 1960s onwards. It has usually involved
substantial investment in government infrastructure (in terms of establishing farms and
buildings to multiply stock numbers), and less investment in training village farmers or
developing distribution networks for vaccine and medicine. The Cockerel Exchange Programme
(CEP) represented the traditional approach, in which cockerels from exotic strains were reared
up to 15 to 20 weeks of age, usually in government poultry farms, and then exchanged with
local cockerels owned by FP households, which kept small flocks and were requested to remove
or exchange all local cockerels. In addition, sometimes the flocks of the farmers (or of the whole
village), were vaccinated against ND, and the farmers were given advice on poultry feeding and
housing.
In the Machakos district of Kenya, an evaluation by Ballard (1985, as cited in Mbugua,
1990) of the performance of hens upgraded through a CEP in 1977 (using a layer hybrid strain
cockerel) showed an increase in egg production of about 30 eggs per hen in a flock of nine hens
and one cock (Table 10.3).
Table 10.3 Production increase per hen of a nine-hen flock in Kenya

Per hen, per year Local hens (before) Improved hens (after)
Eggs per hen 57 87
Eggs for consumption and sale 41 63
Eggs for hatching 16 24
Chicks hatched 11 17
Birds for consumption and sale 3.2 4.9
Source: Ballard, 1985 (as cited in Mbuga, 1990)
The CEP method is criticised mainly because the raising of cockerels in government farms is
costly, and exposure of the intensively raised cockerels to village conditions leads to
considerable adaptation problems with resulting mortalities of 50 percent or more. Also, local
cockerels are not always removed, as the farmer (quite rightly in many cases) distrusts the
survival and mating ability of the exotic cockerel. The presence of the local cocks reduces the
effectiveness of the attempt at genetic improvement, as they are easily able to compete for the
favours of the local hens against the exotic breed cocks.
In view of the problems of the CEP, other methods have been developed, including the
distribution of chicks, pullets and hatching eggs of improved breeds. A comparison of the
relative efficiency of these upgrading methods (ter Horst, 1987), based on the number of
“improved” day-old chicks produced in the village over three years, showed that the distribution
of hatching eggs was the most cost-effective method (as shown in Table 10.4 below).
Table 10.4 Efficiency of strategies for improving poultry production

Strategy Percent increase
Distribution of pullets 15
Exchange of cockerels 17
Distribution of day-old chicks 67
Distribution of hatching eggs 100
Source: ter Horst, 1987.
In operation, hatching eggs of selected lines are sold to families raising poultry. Local broody
hens hatch the eggs. The chicks are raised by the hens and adapt easily to the environment. The
distribution of hatching eggs is thus the least costly and most efficient method of genetic
upgrading. This method has the following advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of distributing hatching eggs:

x The eggs represent a low project cost, compared with pullets or cockerels.
x The eggs convey 100 percent of genetic improvement, compared with cockerels or pullets,
which contribute only 50 percent when crossed with local birds.
x The young chicks are raised under natural conditions from day-old age, and develop or
learn scavenging ability.
Disadvantages of distributing hatching eggs:
x Cockerels are generally more appreciated and accepted by the poultry farmers. This
hampers the introduction of improved breeds through distribution of hatching eggs in the
same area.
x Transport of hatching eggs under rough conditions and with unsuitable packaging reduces
hatchability.
x The total replacement of local chickens by improved birds of exotic origin leads to: a loss
of biodiversity of the local poultry population; a loss of brooding and hatching ability in
the hen; and a breakdown of the self-sustained system of reproduction at the village level.
These are serious problems and must also be considered.
The words that follow come from a prominent Nigerian livestock expert, (Suleiman, 1990), but
they reflect the growing appreciation of the genetic and environmental resources placed in the
care of all people of all countries: “Perhaps the time has come for us to redefine the ideology for
the development of African agriculture and indeed the entire economy. African agricultural
ideology appears to be based on the premise that the genetic resources indigenous to the
continent are inferior to those found elsewhere and as such they must be replaced or diluted to a
large extent by genetic materials foreign to the continent. Similarly, we have viewed our
environment as hostile and, in fact, a direct threat to our existence. These postures have
prevented us from capitalising on the strengths of our genetic and environmental resource
endowments. We must move from a position of emphasizing the weaknesses of our resource
endowments to one of amplifying their positive aspects, while seeking to overcome the
weaknesses inherent in them.”
Vaccination
Protection against Newcastle Disease requires three vaccinations during the six-month growing
phase of pullets and cockerels. Depending on local conditions, between two and three
vaccinations per year are needed for adult birds. Because of the limited resources of government
veterinary services, it is necessary to build networks of private veterinarians, veterinary
assistants and vaccinators to provide preventive veterinary care in remote rural areas, and to
ensure a reliable supply of vaccines (with a cold chain for the storage and distribution of
conventional vaccines). In Bangladesh, the Department of Livestock Services established such a
cold chain from the vaccine production laboratory to the village level in 1984. Within three
years, 4 500 poultry farmers (especially women) were trained as village poultry vaccinators.
The full cost of vaccination was charged to poultry producers in order to sustain the full cost of
vaccine production and distribution. When it is possible to extend this fee to partly cover an
extension service, it can result in the creation of a partly privatised poultry extension service.
Such a system, financed by vaccination fees and the sale of exotic birds to farmers, was
established in Sao Tome and Principe.
Strategy combinations
A combined approach, including vaccination against ND, the provision of a regular water
supply and feed supplements (household waste) and special care for the young chicks during the
first weeks of life (for example, through improved night shelters and creep feeders), increases
the number of eggs laid by about 100 percent as well as increasing the number of chickens
raised per hen/year to between 10 and 12.
The introduction of genetic improvement, in combination with further improvement in
feeding (compound feed), housing (semi-confinement) and health (full vaccination and anti-
parasites), will again increase egg production by approximately 50 percent and egg weight by
60 percent.
RESEARCH LESSONS LEARNED FROM CURRENT PROJECTS

Some countries have had successes in developing FP systems. In Egypt, the Fayoumi District
Cooperative has raised the productivity and incomes of village FP producers. It distributes
improved Fayoumi local birds and produces supplementary feed at its own feed mill using
mostly local ingredients. It also assists farmers in marketing their eggs and birds.
In Malaysia, small flocks of poultry are fed on “Domestic Feed”, a reduced-price feed
marketed by feed millers with a lower “nutrient density” (balanced for all nutrients, but lower in
energy because of the inclusion of low-energy ingredients such as rice or wheat bran) than
commercial broiler diets. In 1986, village egg and poultry meat production in Malaysia was
estimated at 150 million eggs and 17,000 tonnes of meat, accounting for five percent of total
egg production and seven percent of total poultry meat. Due to a high demand for village
poultry meat, some of the backyard village poultry flocks have evolved into relatively large-
scale commercial village chicken producers. Some of these farms rear between 2 000 and
15 000 young stock, which are then sold for growing under the traditional extensive system.
In Uganda, duck meat production rose from 600 to 3,500 tonnes in the 12 years between
1980 and 1992. This was achieved by improving health care in the traditional small-scale FP
units, with the result that average mortality decreased from over 40 percent in 1980 to less than
eight percent in 1994 (Country Profile 1994).
The Bangladesh model (FAO e-conference 2002) and research topics

In Bangladesh, there has been a significant effort over the past 20 years to develop the FP
system. The Bangladesh model was the subject of the second FAO/INFPD electronic conference
on FP “The Bangladesh model and other experiences in FP development”, which was held in
May-July 2002. All papers, comments and discussions were compiled and presented on the
FAO/INFPD website (http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/AGAP/LPA/ fampo1/fampo.htm.) within two

months of the conference conclusion.
What was not covered in the e-conference about the Bangladesh situation was more detail on
their views on research priorities and what progress they have made. Bangladesh determined
five areas for research potential in FP:
x disease;
x feeding;
x breeding;
x marketing and socio-economics; and,
x management and production.
These are close to the same categories outlined above under the Technical Constraints section.
Under the above five headings, the Bangladesh Department of Livestock Services poultry
research committee suggested protocol outlines for research proposals in FP (those marked
below with an asterisk were regarded as being of top priority as of October 2000), under the
Bangladesh government’s poultry model FP improvement programme, which is currently
(1998-2005) aided by the Asian Development Bank and Danida in two ongoing overlapping
projects.
The protocol outlines were intended as guidance for formulating detailed research proposals
or study proposals for post-graduate degrees or activities of research institutions or NGOs. The
protocol outlines are detailed below:
Disease
x Disease prevalence study (epidemiology):
- host bird (age, sex and breed);
- morbidity and mortality;
- management and feeding;
- spatial and temporal factors;
- parasitism and feed consumption efficiency; and
- vaccine and vaccination failure.
x In-depth study of major serious diseases:
- identification, characterization and virulence of the causal agent;
- serological characterization; and
- pathogenicity.
x Development of a disease-control strategy based on vaccination:
- vaccination schedule;
- maternal antibody and its effects on immunization; and
- establishment of diagnostic networks.
x Development and improvement of vaccination:
- development of vaccine types using local vaccine;
- comparative study of local and imported vaccines;
- comparing of heat tolerance selection in present ND vaccines with the use of I2 or V4
strains; and
- use of heat-tolerant ND I2 seed vaccine produced in district veterinary laboratories
using eggs from the same district.
x Study of disease prevalence in different locations and the seasonal effect of these on
different breeds and breed combinations.
x Study of the quantification of semi-scavenger losses associated with the main diseases,
including possible remedial measures against these diseases.
Feeding
x Study of the possibilities of protein banks, and the cultivation of Ipil-ipil (Leucaena),
duckweed and snails at the smallholder FP level.
x Study of year-round nutrient availability for scavenging chicken under model key rearer
conditions.
x Study of year-round protein production from various conventional and unconventional
resources:
- manure-based duckweed production in shallow ponds with clean and polluted water
sources;
- protein supply from leaves, such as cassava, Leucaena, Sesbania, and Glyrecidia; and
- animal protein supply, for example from blood meal, rumen microbes, earthworms,
insects, hatchery by-product waste, and leather by-products.
x Study and nutritional evaluation of various feed ingredients used for feeding poultry under
semi-scavenging conditions:
- chemical composition;
- nutritive value from feeding trials; and
- preservation of feedstuffs.
x Study of the effective optimum level of supplementation for semi-scavenging birds in
different agro-ecological conditions, for all age groups of birds:
- effect of supplementing protein meal (vegetable and animal protein);
- effect of supplementing energy-rich feed (both conventional and unconventional);
and
- effect of supplementing minerals with ingredients (both conventional and
unconventional).
x Nutrient recycling through manure-based protein production under semi-scavenging
conditions:
- energy flow of the FP farm (conventional and improved systems); and
- protein economy (traditional FP and improved systems).
x Study of how much and what combination of feed ingredients is most economical as a feed
for Model Key Rearers in different environments, seasons and regions.
x Study of the utilization of non-conventional feed ingredients, such as tealeaf waste,
duckweed, poultry litter, earthworms and insects (cultivated and natural), as protein
sources for semi-scavenging poultry.
x Study of the amount and composition of available feeds for scavenging and their seasonal
and regional variations.
x Study of the available Scavenger Feed Resource Base and the optimum chicken number
density for sustainable semi-scavenging in the FP rearing system under Bangladesh socio-
economic conditions.
x Comparison of crop-contents and feed weigh-back systems using the cafeteria system of
feed supplementation.
x Study of whether the cultivation of such chicken feed as earthworms, maggots, termites
and cockroaches can be incorporated within the FP small-scale livestock development
(SLD) system.
x Study of how industrial by-products such as those from breweries and fish processing
plants can be used as supplementary feed for the semi-scavenging FP model.
Breeding
x Comparative profitability studies between: two commercial cross-breeds (locally marketed
as Harco and Nera, both derived by crossing Rhode Island Red (RIR) and Barred
Plymouth Rock [BPR]); and also between the locally bred Sonali (RIR and Fayoumi); and
pure “local” Fayoumi (an Egyptian breed multiplied in Bangladesh without artificial
selection pressure, in confinement management conditions for the past 20 years); under
both FP traditional scavenging and FP semi-scavenging (feed supplemented) systems.
x According to previous studies and research, the Sonali was found to be superior in terms of
meat and egg production, disease resistance and overall profitability in both the FP
traditional scavenging and semi-scavenging systems. This research was undertaken by the
Department of Livestock Services, the Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute (BLRI)
(both supported by the now-completed Danida-assisted Small-scale Livestock
Development project [SLDP-1], and the Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU).
Further study is planned to determine what type of selection index should be applied to the
parent stocks, and under what type of environment, in order to improve its efficiency and
performance under the semi-scavenging system. The parent stocks are the Fayoumi and
RIR. This is related to a protocol suggested in the Marketing and Socio-economics
category below.
x Crossing of dominant Naked-Neck breeds with Fayoumi or RIR for higher egg production
and meat production, disease resistance and profitability in scavenging and semi-
scavenging systems.
x Crossing of Naked-Neck breeds with desi (local indigenous breeds), for increasing both
size and brooding capacity.
x Development and maintenance of grandparent stock, to maintain the breeding efficiency of
RIR and Fayoumi.
x Study of the performance of different breed combinations under various environments,
feeds and disease situations.
x Conducting of stock density trials of different breeds and breed combinations, to determine
the optimum FP flock size for best productivity.
x Comparing the performance of commercial breeds with the desi and other “home-made
combinations” made by Key Rearers, using broody hens under FP traditional and semi-
scavenging systems.
Marketing and Socio-economics
x Study of the impact of the Participatory Livestock Development project (PLDP) activities
(expected duration 1998-2003) on income generation, employment and poverty in rural
Bangladesh.
x Study of the impact of the SLDP concept on the nutritional health of women and young
girls at the village level. An M.Sc. study on this subject has already been completed by a
post-graduate student of the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University (KVL),
Denmark (Nielsen, 2000).
x Study of the nutritional status and effect on work capacity, as well as body mass ratios of
both mother and children, in households using the FP semi-scavenger system, compared
with those using the traditional FP system.
x Comparative cost and returns analysis of poultry production under the scavenging and
confinement poultry farming systems.
x Study of the changing role of women in livestock rearing under PLDP.
x Study of the demand and supply of poultry products, identifying the constraints to
successful market operations.
x Study of the development of market intermediaries (middlemen) and their constraints in
the project areas.
x Study of the effect of NGO modes of operation on the participation in and extension of
poultry model practices.
x Study of the socio-economic impact of smallholder poultry production when combined

with such other activities as vegetable production and fish-culture.
x Comparative studies of the economy of egg and meat production between the scavenging
and commercial systems. Examination of the economics of raising cockerels of Fayoumi
and Sonali at the village level.
x Assessment of the extent to which PLDP and SLDP-1 were able to address the “gender
gaps” in the socio-economic situation of Bangladesh, as well as determining how and
where earnings from poultry were spent (for example, in social, health or education areas).
x Study of the actual rate of interest faced by the beneficiaries of the various Poultry Model
enterprises, and by the different NGOs partnered in PLDP.
Management and production
x Economic use of home-made heaters and fuels for artificial brooding and incubating
systems.
x Determination of the optimum construction and design of a suitable low-cost brooder-
rearing house, using the raised slatted bamboo floor (macha) system. Use of materials of
various types, thicknesses and costs, with a view to providing the best ventilation with
reasonable durability.
x Use of appropriate items of equipment for hatching and rearing of chicks by broody hens.
x Provision of low-cost appropriate accommodation with security measures for exotic birds
of the Model Key Rearers.
x Provision of low-cost lighting facilities for the Model Breeders.
x Choice of low-cost suitable litter materials.
x Determination of the optimum number of day-old chicks to be hatched for best manageable
profitability by the Model Mini-Hatchery, by adopting improved appropriate technology
devices. Determining the reasons for difficulties that some farmers encounter with this type
of enterprise.
x Comparative study of slatted floor and deep litter systems for the Model Breeder unit.
x Conducting of density trials using different breeds or breed combinations to determine the
optimum FP flock size.
x Study of the profitability of the broody hen (desi) for producing day-old chicks and as
caretakers of exotic chicks as foster mothers, and the negative or positive effect on the
scavenging behaviour of the chicks.
x Determination of the optimum number of eggs that can be brooded by unit weight or
feather density of the desi hen, and then the number of chicks that can be successfully
reared up to eight weeks of age per desi hen, using the creep feeder system of
supplementary feeding for growing chicks.
x Study of the effect on the Model Key Rearers’ economy if desi hens are kept together for
brooding purposes.
Bangladesh model - research in progress

A report on results (completed in mid-2002) from the field-based part of the M.Sc. students’
research related to the production and health of rural scavenging poultry in Bangladesh was
produced (Permin, 2002) by Danida’s Network for Smallholder Poultry Development (NSP) for
an INFPD workshop held in Bangladesh in November 2002. Eight post-graduate veterinary and
animal production graduates (with field experience in government service in Bangladesh)
conducted FP field research (under the Danida and AsDB-assisted PLDP project) towards their
M.Sc. (from KVL, Denmark), in the 10-month period from July 2001, in cooperation with the:
x Department of Veterinary Microbiology, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural
University (KVL);
x Department of Animal Science and Health, KVL;
x Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences;

x Institute for Anthropology, University of Copenhagen;
x Bangladesh Agricultural University;
x Participatory Livestock Development Project in Bangladesh; and
x Danida.
This effort represents the first time that animal scientists and veterinarians have worked together
on solving problems directly related to rural poultry production under the difficult logistic
conditions in the northwestern districts of Bangladesh covered by PLDP. It is also the first time
that problems identified in the field by Danida-supported livestock projects (PLDP and SLDP)
in Bangladesh have been fed back to the educational system in Denmark, creating the basis for a
new M.Sc. course in rural poultry production and health, supported by a number of research and
educational institutions in Denmark and hosted by the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural
University in Copenhagen. It is envisaged that the results will be passed on to responsible
parties in government and NGOs working on rural development in Bangladesh, thereby
enabling an adjustment of the present activities to the ultimate beneficiaries, the poor farmers.
The eight research projects covered a range of important problems relating to scavenging and
semi-scavenging poultry production in Bangladesh, notably relating to disease and production
aspects. The following list of the eight M.Sc. research project titles is not presented in order of
importance, but in connected areas of relevance.
x Helminthosis of free-range chickens in Bangladesh, with emphasis on prevalence and
effect on productivity.
x An epidemiological and experimental study of Newcastle Disease in village chickens of
Bangladesh.
x Isolation and pathogenic characterizations of Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD) virus isolate
from an outbreak of IBD in a rural poultry unit in Bangladesh.
x A longitudinal study of the causes of mortality of chickens in parent stock flocks of the
Department of Livestock Services of Bangladesh, with a special emphasis on Escherichia
coli infection.
x Effect of vitamin A supplementation on vitamin A status, growth parameters and disease
resistance of layer type chickens in Bangladesh.
x A study of the effect of feed supplementation on the laying hen under the rural conditions
of Bangladesh.
x A study of the effect of feeding systems on the egg production of Fayoumi hens of Model
Breeding units under the PLDP project in Bangladesh.
x A study of the egg production performance of different breeds and breed combinations of
chicken in semi-scavenging systems in the PLDP project.
The Malawi model

Based on a Danida-sponsored study tour to Bangladesh in 2000 (Chinombo et al., 2001), the
Malawi Department of Animal Health and Industry learned that the Bangladesh smallholder
poultry model is designed as an integrated system to provide the necessary supplies and services
to establish an enabling environment for sustainable smallholder FP semi-scavenging
production. The FP model consisted of smallholder farmers with small flocks of hens supported
by a number of enterprises, all available in the village, to provide inputs and services needed to
maintain these flocks. NGO-initiated and motivated farmer groups supported the model.
Awareness programmes, training and access to micro-credit was provided to the beneficiaries,
the majority of whom were women.
The sustainability of the Bangladesh model relies on a unique implementing organizational
structure, involving groups of FP smallholder women farmers, micro-credit, NGOs and
government institutions. The study team suggested to their government that the model be
replicated in Malawi, with appropriate modification to suit prevailing conditions. For example,
Malawi has a much lower population density than Bangladesh and a less developed NGO
infrastructure. It was therefore recommended that the Bangladesh model, comprising eight
income-generating elements, should be simplified. Results from the Malawi situation analysis
(participatory rural appraisal) in the Danida project area showed that the poorest of the poor did
indeed exist in the pilot area. By using the criteria of the farmer’s perspective, it was found that
37 percent of all households belonged to this poorest segment. It was also found that female-
headed households constituted 60 percent of the poorest segment. The analysis further revealed
that poultry keeping has a high preference as an income-generating activity, in fact the highest
among all livestock categories. The relative status of the importance of different types of
livestock was ranked as: sheep, cattle, pigs, goats and chicken.
The Danida-ENRECA experience in Africa

The abbreviation ENRECA is derived from the Danida objective for the EN-hancement of RE-
search CA-pacity in Developing Countries. This is a programme concept of Danida’s (Danida-
KVL, 2002) in Africa, and involves one poultry project in the United Republic of Tanzania. The
immediate aims of the ENRECA programme are to strengthen:
x collaboration on planning and implementation of locally embedded research activities
relevant to the national development of the developing countries;
x education at Ph.D. and M.Sc. level;
x the research environment, including such physical facilities as laboratories, libraries and
communication facilities; and
x the dissemination of research results to end-users locally as well as internationally.
There are other new FP projects planned for student thesis work in the areas of:
x Newcastle Disease epidemiology in rural poultry production (United Republic of
Tanzania);
x disease resistance of rural chicken (United Republic of Tanzania);
x feeding - baseline data and management strategies (Malawi);
x disease interaction - IBD in ducks and chickens (Kenya); and
x Haemophilus paragallinarum infection in rural chicken (Uganda).
Initial results from Enreca’s Phase 1 (1996-99) in the United Republic of Tanzania are available
on the web site <http://www.poultry.kvl.dk/Research/Projects.htm> for the project: “Improving
the health and productivity of the rural chicken in Africa”, which has formed the basis on which
priorities were laid out for a second phase of the project. In terms of collaborative research, the
objectives of Phase 2 of the project are to:
x determine optimal and efficient management, feeding and disease control systems under
rural conditions, and to implement such systems in selected villages;
x identify and breed the most promising indigenous local chicken Haplotypes (ecotypes), in
terms of disease resistance and productivity;
x develop a sustainable Newcastle Disease vaccine campaign under field conditions;
x study and explore the marketing strategy of rural chicken products, to identify and classify
the different poultry management systems which exist in the study region and to examine
the social, cultural and geographic determinants of these systems; and
x train extension workers and rural farmers in better, but affordable, management, disease
control methods and marketing strategies.
Phase 2 of the project is focused on obtaining knowledge of optimal management conditions for
FP rural chicken production in Africa. In continuation of this, a Phase 3 will be proposed within
three years, to focus on promoting better poultry management practices and disease control,
specifically Newcastle Disease control at the village level and on a wider scale (whole districts
rather than just a few villages). In addition, and most importantly, Phase 3 will focus on
developing village cooperative societies, modelled on the Livestock and Poultry development
projects in Bangladesh. In phase 3, models for establishing such cooperatives will be tested in
the United Republic of Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Kenya, in collaboration with government
extension staff and scientists from agricultural, veterinary and social sciences. The farmer
cooperatives will have farmers and farmer groups specialized in four production areas:
x producing affordable feeds using locally available feed ingredients;
x raising breeding stock and hatching chicks;
x rearing chicks up to eight weeks of age;
x raising chickens for egg production, sale of eggs and later sale of culls; and /or
x raising chickens for meat under semi-intensive production systems.
RESEARCH, TRAINING AND EXTENSION NEEDS

The achievement of FP development objectives requires a concerted effort, incorporating
research, development and training. A coherent strategy should emphasize, but not be limited to,
the following:
x identification of research requirements and programmes, at both the strategic and adaptive
levels;
x identification of development efforts for the two target groups: rural and peri-urban;
x delivery of technological assistance to producers with regard to input supply and product
marketing; and
x continuous training and retraining of technical staff involved in smallholder FP production
at all levels.
In many developing countries, only commercial small-scale intensive (broiler and layer) chicken
production is part of the agriculture curriculum in schools. FP chicken production and the
production of other poultry species are not considered at any level. For the development of FP
production, it is important that this subject be included in the regular education and training
schemes of agricultural generalists, as well as livestock and poultry specialists. It is also
important that more research on the problems of FP producers be initiated, as this is a
precondition for the successful development of FP production. Poultry and livestock specialists
in Low Income, Food-Deficient Countries (LIFDCs) must come to accept that the family
poultry system is of significant economic and social importance to their countries and is worthy
of coordination, examination, intervention and development.
In the past, too much emphasis was given to the development of an autonomous poultry
extension system, while the links between poultry production and other agricultural services
were neglected. Even if the specialized poultry extension system is well organized and working
effectively, its impact on the very large number of smallholder FP keepers (particularly in rural
areas) will be very low. This is because government budgets can provide for only a few poultry
extension specialists. It is therefore necessary to establish links between poultry specialists and
established institutions such as general agricultural extension services, veterinary services,
agricultural colleges and NGO services. It is important to revise the strategies and activities of
existing poultry farms and stations, so that a considerable part of their capacity is devoted to
indirect extension through general extension services.
A study of agricultural training and educational institutions in Africa (FAO, 1984) showed
that livestock training facilities were mainly concentrated in North Africa and some West
African countries. This means that some African countries do not have the institutional capacity
to meet their manpower needs for livestock research, extension and development. It is important
that national training institutions be strengthened through utilizing the manpower and training
facilities available in other countries. The inauguration of a Regional Poultry Training
Programme is an example of such cooperation. The international FP development programme of
Danida’s Network for Smallholder Poultry Development (NSP) is commendable in its scope,
and is committed to the education and training of national scientists and experts in the field. The
Fellowships and Networks section later in this chapter presents more details on the NSP
foundation, structure, objectives and activities.
Transfer technology (extension) methodologies

Transfer technology (extension) methodologies (Branckaert et al., 2000) should include a
communication strategy for Small livestock Projects for a Food Production (SPFP) framework.
A strategy is a systematic process which takes into account the project objectives, the results to
be achieved and the technical activities to be carried out. In a participatory planning strategy, it
is necessary to identify the needs of the stakeholders and target groups, in order to:
x determine shared values and knowledge and the advantages of the project to be
implemented;
x identify the strengths and weaknesses of the topics to be disseminated and identify
appropriate tools /media and methodologies;
x assess the constraints (such as limited resources) which are likely to limit the range of
alternative actions;
x assess opportunities and threats;
x consider all alternative proposals given to achieve the objectives;
x select the plan which appears to have the greatest chance of achieving the objectives;
x implement the plan and its activities; and
x periodically monitor, evaluate and revise the plan /activities.
A good extension methodology should include a systematic, rational and pragmatic approach to
planning, implementing, managing, monitoring, and evaluating effective technology transfer to
farmers. An information and extension programme such as the Strategic Extension Campaign
(SEC) fits these criteria. FAO’s Research, Extension and Training Division (SDR), has
recommended this SEC package to AGA for the needs of FP extension. The methodology
emphasises the importance of people's participation in strategic planning and systematic
management and implementation of information, extension and training programmes. Its
training and extension strategies and messages are especially developed from the results of a
participatory problem identification process regarding the causes or reasons for non-adoption, or
inappropriate practices, of a given recommended technology or innovation.
SEC activities are geared to narrowing the gaps between existing and desired knowledge,
attitudes, and appropriate practice levels of the target beneficiaries regarding the technology
recommendations. The SEC programme is carried out over a relatively short time period, and
aimed at increasing the awareness and knowledge level of target beneficiaries and altering their
attitudes and behaviour so as to encourage a favourable adoption of given ideas or sustainable
technologies. It follows a systems-approach, which starts with a survey of the target public's
Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (a KAP survey), the results of which are used as planning
inputs and benchmark baselines for evaluation purposes.
For more detail on how to identify the problems to be faced and overcome in using the SEC
(Strategic Extension Campaign) approach, the reader is referred the full text of the paper
Target populations
The primary target beneficiaries should be the poorest households, women (in particular widows
and female-headed households), the disabled (often as a result of civil conflict), women's groups
and schools.
Women
Rural women carry out a fundamental role in agricultural production, rural development and
food security. FAO studies and statistics show that women produce between 60 and 80 percent
of food in Africa and Asia and approximately 40 percent in Latin America. In many regions,
women are also responsible for the management of small livestock, including reproduction. An
appropriate approach to working with women and poultry will not only boost productivity and
reduce work time, workload and strain, but also promote the transfer of appropriate technology
knowledge, tools and skills.
Numerous disparities persist regarding the participation of rural women in poultry

production. Undoubtedly they face greater difficulties than men with regard to access to input
resources (such as land and credit, among others) and to services designed to increase
productivity, for example, research, technology transfer and extension services. Training
programmes for women should be planned taking into account their socio-cultural traditions and
their high illiteracy rate. In many regions, such programmes should also consider the training of
women as extension workers, in order to effectively reach this important target audience.
Youth
During FAO World Food Day (1999), the theme “Youth against hunger” was given
considerable attention, together with the significant role that youth can play in food security. An
important message from this event is that given adequate training, education and support, young
people can become active partners in helping to meet the World Food Summit goals of halving
the number of the hungry by the year 2015.
In terms of technology transfer, many government agricultural extension services include
rural youth programming as an integral part of their overall work to help women, men and
young farmers apply new practices. An even larger number of NGOs, through extension-type
programmes, work to assist youth audiences in the use of improved agricultural technology.
Some of the features of rural youth programmes that make them particularly valuable include
their ability to successfully promote the application of technology, such as poultry production,
to improve agricultural production on a sustainable basis. Experience has shown that young
people are usually more open to new ideas and practices than adult farmers. Most programmes
also focus on the start-up of agricultural and rural-based non-agricultural income-generating
activities. Any attempt to enhance the knowledge, skills and experience of young people, and
increase their access to resources through rural youth programmes, will have an immediate
impact on food security.
Rural youth programming, as a technology transfer mechanism, has the potential to
overcome some of the major constraints related to expanding FP production in developing
countries mentioned earlier in this paper, such as training, management, group organization,
disease control, feeding, genetic improvement and protection against predators.
There are already some experiences in developing countries related to the training and
education of rural young people in the area of poultry, that, if supported more fully and
expanded to other countries, could contribute significantly to more efficient and effective egg
and meat production.
Through community-based non-formal educational programming, rural youth gain the
necessary knowledge, skills and experiences enabling them to be productive today, as well as to
become better farmers for the future. It is essential for farmers to have some knowledge of basic
agricultural science related to their daily work. Without this knowledge, the technology often
manipulates farmers, often forcing them to act in ways they do not understand, which can be a
severe hindrance to effective technology transfer.
Individual and group poultry project activities have been a part of youth programming in
some countries for many years. There are two primary ways of reaching young people in rural
areas. One is through community-based rural youth programmes, which target out-of-school
rural young people. The other is using the rural schools by incorporating agricultural topics as
an integral part of the regular curriculum or as extracurricular activities.
Basic poultry science is easily adapted to either community-based groups or school
programmes. The most effective way to work with youth in a practical way, either in the
community or the schools, is through non-formal education methodology using a hands-on,
experiential approach to learning. Community youth members learn such things as basic poultry
anatomy and physiology through structured group learning activities and then apply the
knowledge to practical experiences, planning and carrying out individual and group small-scale
poultry projects.
Where proper facilities are available, small-scale poultry projects can be carried out on the
school grounds. Students can learn first-hand many of the practical aspects of raising chickens.
The study of embryology by hatching chicken eggs is particularly well suited to the classroom.
Much can be learned by students from the incubation and hatching of chicken eggs. Experience
around the world has shown that this activity generates much interest and excitement among
young people as they anxiously wait 21 days for the eggs to hatch.
One of the constraints to expanded FP production in developing countries is the difficulty of
helping farmers organize themselves into groups and associations. This is not a problem where
farmers as youth had the experience of being a member of a community or school agricultural
club. Belonging to a formal group offers the young person experiences of democratic action
with elected officers and structured decision-making. The communication and leadership skills
gained enable youth to make immediate contributions to their communities. These skills also
help them accept formal and informal leadership roles in community and farmers’ organizations
as adults.
Through school and community-based rural youth programmes dealing with FP production,
youth learn and practice knowledge and skills related to sanitation, vaccination, housing
construction using low-cost naturally available materials, predator control, adequate nutrition,
improved breeds of chickens and alternative marketing strategies.
As a mechanism for technology transfer, youth programmers, when given adequate support,
can make a significant contribution to expanding FP production in developing countries. Young
people learn basic principles and sound practices of raising poultry through practical, hands-on
projects and activities, enabling them to successfully start and maintain a small enterprise in an
efficient and effective manner, thus contributing to food security.
Disabled - handicapped
During the past decades in many developing countries, civil wars, international conflicts and the
dissemination of mines (with their terrible consequences), along with the propagation of
handicapping diseases and the increase in traffic accidents, have been responsible for a
considerable increase in the number of disabled persons.
For the disabled, FP raising represents a valuable occupation, providing excellent revenue
and enabling them to rejoin the social community. Many disabled persons are literate and can
thus easily be approached and trained.
Rural workers
Whatever their gender or age, livestock vaccinators, extension workers and rural development
agents need some basic socio-cultural information in order to improve their impact in
technology transfer.
The vaccinator needs to know the reasons for the non-adoption of the technology and must
be prepared to provide the farmer with a relevant demonstration or explanation. The extension
worker should develop extension and training programmes according to the farmer's knowledge
and information need. Finally, the development agent should be able to explain the positive
advantages for the rural community in having members develop income-generating activities.
Specific training programmes and teaching materials, using appropriate media, should be
produced to cover these requirements.
RESEARCH DATA REQUIREMENTS

In anticipation of development assistance under the Special Programme For Food Security
(SPFS), FAO provided guidelines for FP field surveys and research (Mack, 1998). Any research
or Participatory Rural Appraisal undertaken for FP should ensure that the following list is
consulted regarding data collection:
x number of households owning poultry;
x average flock size and breed type;

x flock structure: number of laying hens, cocks, chicks and immature birds;
x average number of eggs laid per clutch and number of clutches per year;
x use of eggs (hatching, sale or home consumption);
x details of any seasonal variation in production or mortality;
x use of male birds and cull hens (sale or consumption);
x selling price (and seasonality) of live birds and eggs at the farmgate and local market;
x estimated income from sale of live birds and eggs;
x estimated production costs (for example, vaccines and feed);
x type of housing provided;
x feeding regime;
x disease control /vaccinations (type and frequency);
x estimates losses (through disease, predators and theft);
x access to goods and services (extension, input supply and marketing);
x perceived constraints; and
x opportunities for expansion.
Sources of information
Sources for this data could include livestock and agricultural census figures and Veterinary
Department records, including:
x vaccination campaigns;
x number of vaccines given;
x supply of locally produced and imported vaccines and their costs; and
x subsidies.
Veterinary Departments should have information on the major epizootic and parasitic diseases
that occur in a country, and increasingly there are sections dealing with epidemiology. The
Ministry of Agriculture, poultry research institutes and parastatal organizations are sources of
information on the technology available, past development experience and the supply of
breeding stock, usually from state farms.
Another information source is FAO country production data, which is based on government-
submitted information and locally undertaken household surveys or Participatory Rural
Appraisals. Other sources include universities, nutrition and home economic departments, the
Agricultural Census Office, NGOs and bilateral agencies.
National crop data allows for the use of conversion factors to estimate the supply of agro-
industrial by-products and broken grains. Availability is always a concern as these products
have many alternative demands, and cost is an important factor. Reports on availability of non-
conventional feeds often indicate these alternative uses. Import statistics can give an indication
of the level of self-sufficiency for the major animal food products, including eggs and poultry
meat. Government household surveys, agricultural census data and local rural appraisal surveys
may also provide information on levels of household consumption. If a commercial stock-feed
sector exists, they may provide additional information on:
x type of goods (such as feeds, chicks, drugs and vaccines) and services (such as veterinary,
public health and abattoirs) that are available and how accessible they are;
x disease situation; and
x supply and demand of feed ingredients.
DEVELOPMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Many agricultural policy-makers (including livestock specialists) believe that the smallholder
poultry system should be considered only as a means of subsistence, and as such needs no
coordination, examination, intervention or development. Such notions must be challenged and
changed.
Since FAO’s first technical assistance project (BGD/79/003) for FP in Bangladesh in 1979,
FAO (AGA) has identified, formulated, backstopped and monitored (with the financial
assistance of UNDP and the FAO Technical Cooperation Programme [TCP]), many projects
supporting FP development activities. The countries involved have included Bangladesh,
Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea,
Ethiopia, the Gambia, Honduras, Maldives, Madagascar, Myanmar, Nigeria, the Philippines,
Rwanda, Somalia, the United Republic of Tanzania, Turkey, Viet Nam and Zimbabwe.
The FAO Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS) was launched in 1994 by the FAO
Director-General to respond to the urgent need to boost food production. In 1997, improved
household poultry production - either peri-urban or rural - was identified as a key element in the
overall SPFS approach, and as a major activity of the SPFS diversification component.
The SPFS presently covers 40 countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. It is rapidly
expanding, with more than 60 countries expected to join it during the next few years. The
collaboration between SPFS and INFPD will grow simultaneously. The development of South-
South cooperation in the field of rural FP is encouraged through the use of Technical
Cooperation between Developing Countries (TCDC) experts. Since 1997, important support has
also been provided by FAO’s Telefood programme. Up to US$10 000/group has been
distributed for small-scale FP projects in several countries (Branckaert et al., 2000).
Productivity objectives
What is required to maximize the productivity of family poultry production systems? First, the
whole web of interdependent factors affecting the overall activities of the family farming
system, along with their advantages and constraints, must be fully understood. It is certain that
village production will continue as long as there are villages, but various aspects of the
production system need to be carefully modified. For example, it is now known that vaccination
against Newcastle Disease can improve chick survival rate from 30 up to 70 percent; simple
housing and other predator protection is required for chicks and young growers; supplementary
feeds are important; and other poultry species such as ducks, guinea fowls, pigeons and quails
need to be considered.
FP is a vehicle for rural development, income-generation and nutritional enhancement. It is
clear that the presence of flourishing industrial peri-urban poultry farms does not negate the
need for a parallel FP system in rural areas. Priority must be placed on the development of
appropriate technologies, the provision of extension services, farmer training, input and output
transportation, markets and credit supply.
It is not appropriate to concentrate entirely on boosting food production at all costs without
concern for who produces the food and with what type of management system. FP systems
reflect the need to increase job opportunities, stimulate the development of associated non-
farming, rural activities and generate benefits that accrue equally to all segments of society,
urban as well as rural.
Fellowships and networks

Development is an ongoing process that requires feedback and constant interaction between
operators and the knowledge network, both local and international. The restructuring of the
agricultural and livestock extension system towards this approach is an important strategy in
poultry development. FAO’s Travelling or Visiting Fellowships and regular consultations on
poultry development are other examples.
INFPD
The International Network for Family Poultry Development (INFPD), which is supported by
FAO, can play a useful role in this regard by promoting:
x exchange and distribution of publications;
x participation in regional and international congresses; and
x the organization of biannual workshops on specialised topics.
The role of the INFPD was expanded from its African focus in 1997, and in December of that
year, the first international workshop “Issues in Family Poultry Development Research: Current
Concepts in Family Poultry Development Research” was held in M’Bour, Senegal. Proceedings
of the workshop (Sonaiya 2000) are also available at:
www.fao.org/ag/aga/AGAP/LPA/fampo1/proceed.htm
Danida’s Poultry Network

Danida’s “Danish Network for Poultry Production and Health in Developing Countries” was
established as a concept in Denmark in 1997 and then renamed the “Network for Smallholder
Poultry Development” (NSP) when it became operational in August 1999. The objective of the
NSP is “poverty alleviation and improved welfare of the moderate and extreme poor in rural
areas”. To achieve this, the overall scope of work for the NSP coordination unit is to initiate and
coordinate resource bases related to village poultry production in the Danida programme
countries (and in Denmark) and to build institutional capacity to implement poultry projects.
The coordination unit will promote and carry out research, education and planning of projects,
based on experience with the FP smallholder concept in Bangladesh and other countries. This
will ensure that necessary education, training, and research will be integrated into the Danida
development sector programmes or funded as independent activities. The coordination unit
assists in fund-raising for these activities from Danish and international sources. Further
information can be found on the website: <http://www.poultry.kvl.dk>
Socio-economic objectives
To develop effective strategies for family poultry development, some inefficient aspects of
traditional production must be replaced by more suitable methods. The main socio-economic
objectives of FP development should be to:
x increase rural and peri-urban labour productivity and family incomes through increasing
poultry productivity; and
x ensure a high level of food security and raise nutritional levels of rural and peri-urban
families.
Development strategies
The overall aims of development are to reduce poverty and improve income and nutrition. To
develop effective strategies for FP development, traditional but inefficient methods of
production must be replaced by more suitable measures. The main objectives of such strategies
should be:
x improving food supply;
x creating income and employment opportunities for rural populations;
x conserving environmental resources;
x maintaining biodiversity; and
x promoting respect for socio-cultural values.
Abbreviations and Conversions
AfDB African Development Bank

AsDB Asian Development Bank
BAU Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh
BCRDV Baby Chick Ranikhet Disease Vaccine
BLRI Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute, Savar
DLS Directorate of Livestock Services
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GoB Government of Bangladesh
GVC Government Veterinary College
IBD Infectious Bursal Disease (Gumboro disease)
IBDV Infectious Bursal Disease Vaccine
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute
KVL The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University (Den Kongelige
Veterinære Landbohøjskole)
LIFDC Low Income, Food-Deficient Countries
ME Metabolisable Energy
ND Newcastle Disease (RD: Ranikhet Disease)
NDV Newcastle Disease vaccine
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NN Naked Neck (Local breed)
NSP Network for Smallholder Poultry Development (Danida)
PLDP Participatory Livestock Development Project
RIR Rhode Island Red (American poultry breed)
SFRB Scavengeable Feed Resource Base
Sonali Bangladeshi poultry breed (“The Golden bird”)
SPFP Small livestock Projects for Food Production (FAO)
SPFS Special Programme for Food Security (FAO)
TCDC Technical Cooperation between Developing Countries (FAO)
TCP Technical Cooperation Programme (FAO)
Uppazila sub district, formerly a thana
Velogenic highly virulent ND
Conversions
Linear measure
Feet to metres x 0.3048; 3 feet is 0.91 m or 91 cm
Stock Density
Square feet/bird to Birds/square metre uses an inverse relationship with the multiplier of
0.0929sq.m = 1 sq.ft. Using a calculator, the formula is:
0.0929 M+ then [sq.ft/bird] x, MR, =, /, /, 1, = gives [birds/sq.metre] or
108 Abbreviations and Conversions
0.0929 M+ then [birds/sq.metre], x, MR, =, /, /, 1, =, gives [sq.ft/bird]

For example: 4.0 sq.ft/bird = 2.7 birds/sq.m
Energy
There are 4.1868 megajoules (MJ) or kilojoules (kJ) per megacalorie (Mcal) or kilocalorie
(kcal) of energy. The joule is the newer metric format to measure energy.
Example 1: a feed with a metabolisable energy (ME) value of 2300 kcal ME/kg is now stated as
9.6 MJ ME/kg (2300 x 4.1868 / 1000).
Example 2: a SFRB per household of 468 Mcal of ME is now stated as 1960 MJ of ME.
109 Small-scale poultry production
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Small-scale poultry production 59

STRATEGIES FOR BREED IMPROVEMENT

Cockerel or pullet exchange

Replacement of all indigenous breeds

Selection within local breeds

Source: Horst, 1990b

Selection programmes for local breeds

Modifying local breeds using major gene types

BETTER PRODUCTION: BY BREEDING OR MANAGEMENT?

DEFINITION AND ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTION COSTS

METHODS AND CRITERIA FOR COST CALCULATION

x maintenance of the poultry house and equipment; and

A BROADER ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS

Image for demand-supply curve

FACTORS AFFECTING DEMAND FOR POULTRY MEAT AND EGGS

Traditional taste values placed on poultry meat

Carcass parts and organ meats

Table 9.1 Product characteristics of indigenous scavenging chickens in Bangladesh

Slaughter age (months)

SUPPLY MECHANISMS FOR POULTRY MEAT AND EGGS

THE FARMER PRODUCER

BURKINA PRODUCER HOUSEHOLDS ($1.33/bird)

PRIMARY COLLECTOR (5-10 birds)

ABIDJAN, Cote d´Ivoire (3 750 birds)

Source: Odi, 1990

Table 9.3 Egg quality parameters for four breeds of chickens

EGG QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS

Egg yolk and egg white quality

EGG QUALITY CONTROL AND MAINTENANCE

Production factors affecting egg quality

Breed and age of the laying flock

Treatment of dirty eggs

EGG QUALITY GRADING

EGG SALE OPTIONS: GRADED SIZE OR TOTAL PACKAGE WEIGHT

Egg packing methods

Quality preservation during transport

x Interior quality to be maintained (indicated by a good proportion of a thick white, a firm,

Wet sack cooler

Hot water immersion

Salt and wet clay or ashes

Cooked rice and salt

Lime, salt, wood ashes and tea

SOCIO-CULTURAL CONSTRAINTS TO DEVELOPMENT

TECHNICAL CONSTRAINTS TO DEVELOPMENT

FAO consultation 1987

INFPD and the 1998 FAO e-conference

Breeding (genetic potential)

Training and management

RESEARCH LESSONS LEARNED FROM COMPLETED PROJECTS

Table 10.3 Production increase per hen of a nine-hen flock in Kenya

Table 10.4 Efficiency of strategies for improving poultry production

Advantages of distributing hatching eggs:

RESEARCH LESSONS LEARNED FROM CURRENT PROJECTS

The Bangladesh model (FAO e-conference 2002) and research topics

FAO/INFPD website (http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/AGAP/LPA/ fampo1/fampo.htm.) within two

x Study of the socio-economic impact of smallholder poultry production when combined

Bangladesh model - research in progress

x Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences;

The Malawi model