Mod 6: Electromagnetism

6.1 Charged Particles, Conductors & Electric/Magnetic Fields

Charged Particles in electric fields
Electric field: region where a charged particle experiences a force (NC-1 or Vm-1)
Electric field strength

Force on a charged particle

A charged particle in an electric field, would experience a force and accelerate, can use
nd
law F=ma
Equate F=ma & F=qE

Electrical potential difference: work done moving a unit positive charge from one point in an
electric field to another point a measure of electrical energy difference between two points
(JC-1)

The motion of charged particles can be solved by using forces and/or energy
Using , where a +ve particle starts from rests (u = 0), it will reach the
negative plate with a velocity of

Alternatively, can consider the work done as it moves to negative plate.

Motion of a charged particle in an electric field

In a uniform electric field, the force on a particle remains constant in magnitude and direction,
and will hence accelerate at a constant rate parallel to the field. The motion is therefore
similar to a projectile in a uniform gravitational field; treat components of motion parallel and
perpendicular to field independently
When applying equations of motion to charged particles in electric fields, replace acceleration
due to gravity with acceleration in field
 Direction depends on charge

Charged particles in magnetic fields

Always produced by moving charged particles
Only exerts a force on a charged particle if it is moving with some component perpendicular
to the magnetic field, therefore does not exert a force on a stationary particle, or a particle
moving parallel to the field

Direction of the force can be determined using right hand palm rule
Because the magnetic force is ripetal force,
and result in centripetal acceleration causing the direction of velocity to constantly change.
Therefore, the force exerted on a charged particle will not change speed, but will change the
direction it moves in

as magnetic force exerts Fc, and particle is moving at 900 to field, sin =1

If charged particle is moving at an angle other than 0 or 90, it will follow a helical path

Moving charged particles in magnetic and electric fields

If 2 types of fields act on a charged particle, the net force will be the vector sum
Since force on moving charge in magnetic field is proportional to its velocity, the velocity can
be found by passing through mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields. To pass
without being deflected,
6.2 The Motor Effect
Force of a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field
Called the motor force given by

The direction of the force is given by RHP rule (for positive charge, reverse if negative)
Greatest force exerted when wire is perpendicular to field
No force when parallel to field

Force between parallel current-carrying wires

since a current-carrying wire is surround by B, a 2nd wire placed in the same field will
experience a force
the force b/w wires is a maximum when the wires are parallel
direction of field is given by RHG rule

k is a constant (2x10-7)
The conductor length l, is always the length that both conductors overlap - if one is longer,
you have to disregard the extra length.
 the ampere is defined as the current which, if maintained by 2 parallel wires of infinite length
and placed 1m apart in a vacuum, would produce a force per unit length of 2x10-7 Nm-1 on
each wire
therefore, the equation above defines the SI standard ampere

6.3 Electromagnetic Induction

Magnetic Flux
a measure of the magnetic flux density (B) passing through a specific surface measured in
Webers (Wb)
maximum when surface is perpendicular to field lines
if mag field and area are not perpendicular, need to determine the component of the mag field
perpendicular to the surface. To do this, consider the area to be a vector perpendicular to the
surface, and then find the component of the magnetic field that is parallel to the area vector
area vector: vector of a plane surface; it has a magnitude equal to the area of the
surface and a direction perpendicular to the plane of the surface

Changing magnetic flux linking a loop or coil of wire will produce an electrical potential
difference across the loop or coil
Faraday and Lenz

The induced emf (electromotive force) in a circuit is equal to the negative rate of
change of magnetic flux in the circuit

o the negative sign relates to the polarity of the induced emf and the resulting
direction of the current in the circuit
Moving a wire relative to a horseshoe magnet
o Current only produced when there is relative motion between the wire and
solenoid, the changing direction of relative motion changes the direction of
the induced current in the wire. The amount of current generated increases
with the strength of the magnet and the relative speed of motion between wire
and magnet
Electromagnetic induction
Production of an electromotive force across a conductor produced by a changing
magnetic flux
Electromotive force: potential diff. produced by a source of electricity measure in
volts when the source is not connected to a circuit; an emf can be used to produce a
current by connecting the source to a circuit

For energy to be conserved, the direction of the induced current produces a magnetic
field that opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced the current
If a load is connected, current will flow and work will be done
Since energy is conserved, work must be done when EM induction produces a current
, only transferred/transformed. Work must be done
when electrical energy is produced by changing the magnetic flux in a circuit
Direction of the induced current can be found using the RHP rule

Eddy currents: loops of current formed in solid conductors exposed to a changing

magnetic field
Effective voltage and supply voltage in a DC motor

Vsupply = voltage delivered by power supply

Veffective = voltage across coil when rotating
Back emf; Vback = induced voltage across motor

The Transformer
A transformer is a device used to increase (step-up) or decrease (step-down) AC voltage
Basic ones consist of 2 coils of copper wire wrapped around a laminated soft-iron core
Soft-iron core links the magnetic field of the primary coil to the secondary coil

the AC input voltage placed on the primary coil produces a constantly changing mag field,
which is intensified and linked to the secondary coil by the iron core
as the magnetic flux in iron core is proportional to number of turns on primary coil, and
induced voltage is proportional to number of turns on secondary coil, input and output
voltages is given by

step-up transformers increase AC voltage and always have more turns on secondary coil than
primary
step-down transformers have less turns on secondary coil than primary
an ideal transformer would transform all the input energy into useful output energy with no
energy wasted

Transformer Efficiency
a real transformer has efficiency of 95%

of eddy currents in the core

energy lost in resistance heating is given by
to minimise resistance heating requires cooling the transformer. This is done by laminating
the iron core to reduce eddy currents. Laminating involves slicing the iron core into thin
sections with insulating material between them to reduce eddy currents
Applications of transformers
since they can efficiently step-up or down AC voltage, they are used in a wide range of
industrial and domestic applications
the most important is the distribution of electrical power

6.4 Applications of the Motor Effect

The DC Motor
converts electrical energy into kinetic energy
Components
Armature (rotor): rotating coil
Magnetic field (stator): provided by permanent magnet or electromagnet
Split-ring commutator: connects armature to external power supply and reverses connection
b/w coil and power supply each half-cycle to ensure the torque remains in one direction
Brushes
a conductor, has a low co-efficient of friction and has a higher melting point than a metal
Torque

is the angle between the area vector and the magnetic field
Area vector: perpendicular to the plane of the coil
To calculate the angle, use sin (90 -
OR use cos (
Torque max when area vector is perpendicular to mag field
0 when parallel
To produce constant torque, a radial magnetic field can be used so that the force is on the coil
is always the same
Back Emf
Since magnetic flux changes as the armature rotates, an emf is induced on the rotating coil

through the coil

Since the induced emf opposes the emf applied to the motor, it is called a back emf
Emf on rotor coil = applied emf back emf
Back emf increases with speed of rotation, which reduces:
the potential difference across the coil
current in the armature
torque produced by armature

Generators and AC Induction motors

Generators
convert mechanical into electrical energy
a DC generator uses a split-ring commutator which ensures current flows in one direction

an AC generator uses a slip-ring commutator

connects armature to external circuit but does not reverse the connection to circuit
every half-cycle
modern AC generators use a rotating electromagnet (rotor) to induce currents in stationary
coils placed around rotor
power station AC generators use 3 stator coils placed around armature to produce AC with 3
different AC output voltages, each 1/3 of a cycle out of phase with each other (120)
 Back emf
Caused since DC generators produce an emf and current, which will oppose the
change in flux that produced the current
Opposes supply voltage
Voltage across coil will be reduced as speed of rotation increases as back emf will
also increase
AC Induction Motor
Uses the force produced when eddy currents are induced in a conductor by a changing mag
field
If a magnet is spun around non-magnetic conductor, eddy currents induced will produce mag
fields that oppose the motion of magnets
These induced mag fields will exert a force on the magnets in the opposite direction of their
motion, and an equal and opposite force on conductor in same direction magnets are moving
Therefore, conductor would spin around following motion of magnets

Squirrel cage rotor:

A squirrel cage rotor has conductor bars that increase the current induced in rods.
The bars are embedded in a laminated iron core to reduce energy losses due to eddy currents
A current in induced in the bars as the mag field moves across them
The bars experience a force since they are carrying a current in a magnetic field. The direction
of the same is the same as direction of movement of mag field. Therefore, it chases the mag
field

Energy Conservation in DC Motors & EM braking

DC Motors
Energy is conserved in a DC motor since the electrical power used by motor always equals
the power supplied to the load
Placing a load on a motor increases the torque it must supply. The torque that can be supplied
increases at a slower rotation speed, and the increased load will slow the motor until it can
supply the torque to turn the load
EM braking
Eddy current brakes use mag fields produced by eddy currents to apply a braking force
Uses relative motion b/w conductor and mag field to slow the conductor by converting KE
into heat energy
Commonly used on rollercoasters and trains since they do not wear out due to frictionless
contact