MARYKNOLL SCHOOL OF LUPON, INC.

Kambing Baratua St., Poblacion, Lupon, Davao Oriental

LEARNING MODULE
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 – GRADE 12
QUARTER 3: W-3

Name of student:

Grade and Section:

Teacher’s name: Nice M. Bawi

 Module 3:

Thermochemistry

Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions

Changes in chemical reactions are always accompanied with energy change. Energy refers to the
capacity to do work or to supply heat. It has neither mass nor volume. Energy, therefore, has no
concrete form, but it can only be detected based on its effects. Energy causes water in the kettle to boil
when subjected to heat, and energy propels space shuttles into orbit when a liquid and solid fuels are
burned. Energy is a state function that depends on the present state of the system.

The study of energy changes during a chemical reaction and/or a change in phase is referred to
as thermochemistry. Energy can be classified as potential or kinetic energy. Potential energy is the
energy at rest, and kinetic energy is the energy in motion. Potential energy is due to the position or
composition of an object. Kinetic energy is dependent on the mass and velocity of an object, such that

KE = ½ mv2

Thus, the total energy is the summation of potential and kinetic energies.

Energy is neither created nor lost. This principle is in accordance with the law of conservation of
energy. This implies that the energy of the universe does not change in amount but is only transformed.
Also, there are ways by which energy changes can occur. Energy changes occur because both heat and
work are exchanged between a system and its surroundings.

A system could be a reactant, a product, or a reaction vessel

including its components. A surrounding on the other hand, refers to
the system’s immediate environment or the things found outside of the
system.

Open, Closed, and Isolated Systems

The diagram below shows the three types of systems that we study. The differences are in what
is exchanged between the system and the surroundings. An open system allows both matter and energy
to freely flow from system to surroundings and vice versa. A closed system prevents any matter from
transferring but does allow energy to flow across the boundary. Finally, an isolated system allows
neither matter nor energy to exchange. On that last topic - scientists refer to the universe as an isolated
system, nothing gets in, and nothing gets out.

The most important system type for us as we try to measure the energy in/out of chemical
reactions is the closed system. This is what calorimetry is based on. The heat leaving the system is
"caught" by the surroundings and we measure it. We then logically reason that the amount that entered
the surroundings is equal to the amount that left the system.

Figure 1:
Open, Closed,
and Isolated
Systems
Endothermic/Exothermic

Heat is defined as the energy that is either released or absorbed due to differences in
temperature. If the system has a higher temperature than its surrounding, then heat flows from the
system into the surrounding.

An endothermic process is one in which heat is absorbed by the system (heat enters).

An exothermic process is one in which heat is released by the system (heat exits).

Consider the melting of butter at room temperature. The butter is the system, and the air is the
surrounding. To melt the butter, its temperature must increase; therefore, heat must flow from the air
to the butter. The process is endothermic.

Exothermic Reaction Endothermic Reaction

It is the chemical reaction that gives out heat to It is the chemical reaction that absorbs heat from
the surroundings. the surroundings.
The temperature of the surroundings increases. The temperature of the surroundings decreases.
Examples: Examples:
Combustion of fuel, burning of metal, Thermal decomposition of nitrate or carbonate
neutralization, respiration, rusting of iron, salts, reaction of acid with hydrogen carbonate,
reaction of a reactive metal with acid photosynthesis, melting, boiling
Table 1: Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions Comparison

The calorie (cal) is the unit used to express energy. It is defined as the amount of heat needed to
increase the temperature of 1 gram of pure water by 274 K (1 °C). Its equivalent SI unit is joule or
kg . m2/s2.

1 J = 0.2390 cal

To convert J to liter-atmosphere (L-atm) or liter-pascal (L-pa), the R value can be 0.08205

L-atm/mol-K (8.314 L-Pa/mol-K) or 8.314 J/mol-K.

The First Law of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is the study of energy and its transformations. There are three laws associated
with thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamics states that the energy of the universe is
constant. This is also referred to as the law of conservation of energy, which states that energy cannot
be created nor destroyed. In thermodynamics, the total energy from the summation of potential and
kinetic energy is called the internal energy (U). Heat is represented by q, and work is represented by w.
to determine the accompanying energy change, ΔU:

ΔU = q + w Equation 1

Equation 1 implies that every chemical reaction is always accompanied with an energy change,
and that energy change is driven by the transfer of heat and work done by either the system or the
surrounding. Also, because you have to consider the direction of the flow of energy, a positive or
negative (+/-) sign is used. If q is positive ( q = +), then the energy of the system is increased; therefore,
energy flows into the system. If q is negative (q = -), then energy flows from the system to the
surrounding, indicating a decrease in the energy of the system.

q = + (endothermic); ΔU> 0

q = - (exothermic); ΔU < 0
 The same convention is also true in the case of work. If work is done by the system, then w is
negative. However, if work is done to the system, then w is positive.

Examples:

1. The system releases 700 J of heat energy and 300 J of work is done by the system. Calculate
the change in the internal energy of the system.

Given: Required: ΔU Solution:

ΔU = q + w

ΔU = -300 J – 700 J

300 J ΔU = -1000 J

700 J

2. What is the change in the internal energy of the system if the surroundings gain 250 J of heat
energy and if 470 J of work was performed by the surroundings?

Given: Required: ΔU Solution:

ΔU = q + w

470 J ΔU = -250 J +470 J

250 J ΔU = 220 J

Now, consider a cylinder that contains a gas and is equipped with a movable piston, as shown in
Figure 2. This time, the system is the gas inside the cylinder.

Figure 2

Work done = F x change of distance

Wd = F . Δd
𝐹
But, P = 𝐴 F = PA

So, Wd = PAΔd

And, the volume of a cylinder is

ΔV = A. Δd

Therefore, Wd = PΔV Equation 2

Example:

Calculate the change in the internal energy of a piston expanding against a pressure of 0.75 atm
from 10.3 L to 22.4 L. in the process, 1030 J of heat is absorbed.

Given: P = 0.75 atm V2 = 22.4 L

V1 = 10.3 L q = 1030 J

Required: ΔU

Solution:

w = -PΔV (negative because work is done by the system)

ΔV = 22.4 L– 10.3 L

= 12.1 L

w = - 0.75 atm (12.1 L)

101.325 𝐽
w = - 9.1 L-atm(1 𝐿−𝑎𝑡𝑚 ) (convert L-atm to J using 1 L-atm = 101.325 J)

w = -922 J

using Equation 1, ΔU = q + w

ΔU = 1030 J + (-922 J) = 101 J

Exercise 1: Do not answer on the printed module. Use a separate paper for all your answers in this
module. Use long or short bond papers only. Answers written on the back side of the paper will not be
checked. Box your final answers.

1. Calculate the change in internal energy of a system if 300 J of heat energy is absorbed by the system
and if 400 J of work is done on the system.

2. How much work is performed by a gas as it expands from 25 L to 40 L against a constant external
pressure of 2.5 atm?

Enthalpy or Heat of a Chemical Reaction: Thermochemical equations

In addition to internal energy, pressure, and volume, another state function is enthalpy. For a
system at constant pressure, PV work is employed. Thus,

ΔU = qp + w Equation 3

ΔU = qp + (-PΔV) w = -PΔV Equation 4

qp = ΔU + PΔV Equation 5

where qp is heat at constant pressure. Enthalpy is defined as

H = U + PV Equation 6

Accordingly, a change in enthalpy is given by

ΔH = ΔU + ΔPV Equation 7

However, at constant pressure,

ΔH = ΔU + PΔV Equation 8

Therefore, PV work causes change in volume only. As such, it follows that qp = ΔH at constant
pressure. Therefore,
 qp = ΔU + PΔV Equation 9

As mentioned in the previous lessons, for a chemical reaction to take place, reactants are
necessary to yield the desired product.

reactants products

The change in enthalpy for a given chemical reaction can be taken as

ΔHreaction = ΔHproducts - ΔHreactants Equation 10

If ΔHreaction is positive, then the reaction is endothermic at constant pressure. On the other hand,
if ΔHreaction is negative, then the reaction is exothermic at constant pressure.

Isothermal (ΔT = 0) Expansion and Compression of an Ideal Gas

The energy of an ideal gas changes with a change in temperature. Thus, in an isothermal process
wherein the temperature of both the system and the surroundings remain constant, ΔU = 0. So,

ΔU = 0 = q + w

q = -w

On the other hand, no work is involved in free expansion (w = 0). There is no work because there
is no external pressure, Pex, that pushes against the expansion of the ideal gas. Meanwhile, when an
ideal gas expands, it is generally accompanied with volume change to give Equation 2.

Figure 3: Isothermal Expansion and Free Expansion of an Ideal Gas

The external pressure indicated in Equation 2 is equal to the pressure exerted by the gas during
expansion, such that P = Pex. To make the process reversible, a system always has to be at equilibrium,
that is, the heat released during compression is equal to the heat absorbed during the expansion. The
work can be determined by

Equation 11

Where; Vi and
Vf are initial and
final volume,
respectively.

n = no. of moles
Example:

Consider a 10.0-g CO2 as an ideal gas, expanding isothermally and reversibly from a volume of 4
L to 12 L at 303 K. what is the work done by CO2? Calculate q and ΔU.

Given: mass = 10.0 g CO2

V1 = 4 L V2 = 12 L

T = 303 K

Required: w

q and ΔU

Solution:
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
n = 10.0 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2( 44 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2 )

n = 0.227 mol CO2

w = - nRT ln(V2/V1)

w = 0.227 mol (8.314 J/mol-K) ln (12 L/4 L)

w = - 629 J (negative because work is done by the system)

therefore, q = 629 J ( q = -w)

Because the ideal gas is expanding isothermally, ΔU = 0

Calorimetry

Calorimetry is a scientific way of determining the quantity of heat by measuring the changes in
the temperature of a system. The system is isolated from the surroundings, such that whatever
response that the system generates as it is heated will be due to the system only.

A calorimeter is used for such purpose; it is used to measure

the amount of heat involved in a chemical reaction or other
processes.

An improvised calorimeter can be prepared

from two Styrofoam cups with a cover
through which a stirrer and a
thermometer are attached. The outside
cup will provide the necessary barrier to
isolate the system from the surrounding.
The second cup contains the system and
is found inside the outer cup.

A substance possesses the property of heat capacity, C, which is mathematically represented as

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 (𝑖𝑛 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠)
𝐶=
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (ΔT,in kelvin)

The heat capacity of a substance is dependent on both its mass and its chemical composition.
Different substances manifest different heat capacities. For example, an iron bar may absorb heat more
strongly than a piece of cloth. Also, a glass of water will have a heat capacity higher than a tablespoon of
water.
 If the heat capacity is expressed as per gram of the
substance, it is termed specific heat capacity. Molar heat
capacity (J/g-K), on the other hand, pertains to the heat
capacity expressed per mole of the substance (J/mol-K).

Table 2: Specific Heat of Common Materials

In calorimetry problems, the heat released or absorbed by the reaction, can be obtained by the
equation

Heat released by the reaction = heat absorbed by the solution

q = mCΔT where m = mass of solution Equation 12

Example: How much energy is needed to change the temperature of 50.0 g of water by 15.0 °C?

Given: m = 50 g H2O ΔT = 15 °C

Required: q

Solution: q = mCΔT

q = 50 g (4.184 J/ g-°C)(15°) = 3135 J

PV Work at Constant Pressure (isobar or ΔP = 0)

At constant pressure,

Equation 13

From the ideal gas relationship, PV = nRT, this equation may be written as

PΔV = ΔngRT Equation 14

where; Δng = moles of gaseous products – moles of gaseous reactants

substituting ΔV = ΔngRT/P to w = -PΔV, we have

w = ΔngRT Equation 15
 PV Work at Constant Volume

A bomb calorimeter is used to measure the energy changes in

reactions at constant volume. At constant volume, there is no
change in volume; therefore no work is done. Thus ΔE = q. but
because a combustion reaction, which happens inside a bomb
calorimeter, releases energy, then ΔE = -q.

SUMMARY FOR PV WORK

These are the equations you can use for specific processes.

Process Work (w) Heat (q) Change in Internal Work is area under the
Energy (ΔU) curve

Isochoric w=0 q = nCv ΔT ΔU = q – w

ΔV = 0 T P P1/T1 = P2/T2 ΔU = q

constant volume

Isobaric w = p ΔV q = nCp ΔT ΔU = nCv ΔT

ΔP = 0 w = nR ΔT T V V1/T1 = V2/T2

constant pressure

Isothermal w=q w=q ΔU = 0

ΔT = 0 w = nRTln[V2/V1] q = w = nRTln[P1/P2] P1V1 = P2V2

constant temperature

Adiabatic w = -nCv ΔT q=0 ΔU = -w

q=0 Cv = 3/2R for

monatomic ideal
heat cannot flow in or
gas
out of the system

R = 8. 314 J/mol-K

NOTE: -don’t be confused with the sign convention (-) if work is done BY THE SYSTEM, (+) if work is
done ON THE SYSTEM.

-don’t be confused with the subscripts. Cv refers to specific heat at constant volume, Cp refers to
specific heat at constant pressure.

-if C is per mass, just convert moles to mass using molar mass.

Conversion Factors: 101.3 J = 1 L-atm 1 KJ = 1000 J 1 cal = 4.184 J

CH2O = 4.184 J/ g - °C
 Module Assessment: Do not answer on the printed module. Use a separate paper for all your
answers in this module. Use long or short bond papers only. Answers written on the back side of the
paper will not be checked. Box your final answers.

Solve the following problems. Each required is worth 5 points

1. What is the change in the internal energy of the system if the surrounding releases 300 J of
heat energy and if the system does 550 J of work on the surrounding?

2. 500 J of heat energy was absorbed from the surroundings and the gas expanded from 30 L to
70 L against a constant pressure of 2.8 atm. Calculate the change in internal energy in joules.

3. Samples of aluminum and iron, both 1 kg in mass, absorb 9.5 KJ. Which substance would yield
a larger change in temperature? Consider the heat capacities of aluminum (0.89 J/ g-K) and iron
(0.45 J/g-K).

4. How much work is required to compress a gas from 50 L to 35 L at a constant pressure of 8

atm?

5. 5 mol of N2 gas expands at a constant temperature of 400 K from 3 L at 6 atm to 9 L at 2 atm.

How much work is performed by the gas in KJ? How much heat is absorbed by the surrounding?

6. The pressure of a gas inside a rigid 5L container changes from 4 atm to 2 atm. How much
work is performed during this process?

7. How many grams of water can be heated from 20 °C to 75°C using 12500.0 J?