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Cast Iron

The term ‘cast iron’ identi es a large family of ferrous alloys. Cast irons
are multi component ferrous alloys, which solidify with a eutectic. They
contain major elements such as iron (Fe), carbon (C), and silicon (Si),
minor elements (less than 0.1 %), and often alloying elements (higher than
0.1 %). Cast iron has higher C and Si contents than steel. Because of the
higher C content, the structure of cast iron, as opposed to that of steel,
shows a rich C phase.

Cast iron in its basic form is a brittle material which has a very little impact
strength. It has a little or practically no toughness when compared to low C
steels.  It has a fraction of the tensile strength of low C steels.  When a
cast iron piece fails, it does not deform in a noticeable way and appears to
snap apart or break in a manner consistent with a snap.  There is no early
warning of a failure.

Typical percent of C in cast iron rages from 2.5 % to 4 %. Cast iron is very
brittle, not amenable to deform. It is easy to cast (due to lower melting
point) into complicated shapes and is a low cost material. With alloying,
good foundry practice and heat treatment, properties of cast iron can be
varied over wide range.

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Depending primarily on composition, cooling rate, and melt treatment, cast

iron can solidify according to the thermo-dynamically meta-stable Fe-Fe3C
(iron-iron carbide) system or the stable iron- graphite system (Fig 1). When
the metastable path is followed, the rich C phase in the eutectic is the iron
carbide (Fe3C). When the stable solidi cation path is followed, the rich C
phase is graphite.

Fig 1 Iron-carbon diagram showing stable and metastable phases

Referring only to the binary Fe-Fe3C or iron- graphite system, cast iron can
be de ned as an iron-carbon alloy with more than 2 % C. However, Si and
other alloying elements can considerably change the maximum solubility
of C in austenite. Hence, in exceptional cases, alloys with less than 2 % C
can solidify with a eutectic structure and hence still belong to the family of
cast iron.

The formation of stable or metastable eutectic is a function of many

factors including the nucleation potential of the liquid, chemical
composition, and cooling rate. The rst two factors determine the
graphitization potential of the iron. A high graphitization potential results
in cast irons with graphite as the rich C phase, while a low graphitization
potential results in cast irons with iron carbide. A schematic of the
structure of the commercial types of different cast irons, as well as the
processing needed to obtain them, is shown in Fig 2.

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Fig 2 Basic micro-structures and processing for obtaining commercial

cast irons

The two basic types of eutectics namely (i) the stable austenite-graphite,
or (ii) the metastable austenite-iron carbide (Fe3C), have wide differences
in their mechanical properties, such as strength, hardness, toughness, and
ductility. Hence, the basic scope of the metallurgical processing of cast
iron is to manipulate the type, amount, and morphology of the eutectic in
order to achieve the desired mechanical properties.

Historically, the rst classi cation of cast iron was based on its fracture.
Two types of iron namely (i) white cast iron, and (ii) gray cast iron, were
initially recognized.

White cast iron – It shows a white, crystalline fracture surface since

fracture occurs along the iron carbide plates. It is the result of metastable
solidi cation (Fe3C eutectic).

Gray iron – It shows a gray fracture surface since fracture occurs along
the graphite plates ( akes). It is the result of stable solidi cation (graphite
eutectic).

With the advent of metallography, and as the knowledge related to cast

iron increased, the following other classi cations based on micro-
structural features became possible.

Graphite shape – As per the graphite shape, cast iron is classi ed as

lamellar ( ake) graphite (FG), spheroidal (nodular) graphite (SG),
compacted (vermicular) graphite (CG), and temper graphite (TG). Temper
graphite results from a solid-state reaction (malleabilization).

Matrix – As per the matrix, cast iron is classi ed as ferritic, pearlitic,

austenitic, martensitic, and bainitic (austempered).

These classi cations are seldom used by the foundries. The most widely
used terminology is the commercial one. A rst division can be made in
two categories. The rst one is the common cast irons which are for
general-purpose applications and these are unalloyed or low alloy cast
irons. The second one is special cast irons which are for special
applications and are normally high alloy cast irons. The relationship
between classi cation by designation, micro-structure and the fracture of
cast iron after the nal processing stage is given in Tab 1.

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Tab 1  Classi cation of cast iron by designation, micro-structure and  fracture

Final
Sl. Commercial Carbon-
Matrix Fracture structure
No. designation rich phase
after

Lamellar
1 Gray iron Pearlite Gray Solidi cation
graphite

Ferrite, Solidi cation

Spheroidal Silver
2 Ductile iron Pearlite, or heat
graphite gray
Austenite treatment

Compacted
Compacted Ferrite,
3 vermicular Gray Solidi cation
graphite iron Pearlite
graphite

Solidi cation
Pearlite,
4 White iron Fe3C white or heat
Martensite
treatment*

Lamellar
5 Mottled iron graphite + Pearlite Mottled Solidi cation
Fe3C

Malleable Temper Ferrite, Silver Heat

6
iron graphite Pearlite gray treatment

Austempered Spheroidal Austempered Silver Heat

7
ductile iron graphite (bainite) gray treatment

* White irons are not usually heat treated, except for stress relief and to continue austenite
transformation

Special cast irons differ from the common cast irons mainly in the higher
content of alloying elements (higher than 3 %), which promote micro-
structures having special properties for elevated-temperature applications,
corrosion resistance, and wear resistance. A classi cation of the main
types of special cast irons is shown in Fig 3.

Fig 3 Classi cation of special high alloy grade cast irons

Metallurgical principles of cast iron

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The main factors which have in uence on the structure of cast iron (i)
chemical composition, (ii) cooling rate, (iii) liquid treatment, and (iv) heat
treatment. In addition, there are some aspects of combined C in cast irons
which are required to be considered. These are described below.

In the original cooling or through subsequent heat treatment, a matrix can be internally decarburized

or carburized by depositing graphite on existing sites or by dissolving C from them.

Depending on the Si content and the cooling rate, the pearlite in cast iron can vary in C content. This

is a ternary system, and the C content of pearlite can be as low as 0.50 % with 2.5 % Si.

The conventionally measured hardness of graphitic cast irons is in uenced by the graphite,

especially in gray iron. Martensite micro-hardness can be as high as 66 HRC, but measures as low

as 54 HRC conventionally in gray cast iron (58 HRC in ductile cast iron).

The critical temperature of cast iron is in uenced (raised) by Si content, not by C content.

Gray cast iron ( ake graphite cast iron)

When the composition of the cast iron and the cooling rate at solidi cation
are suitable, a substantial portion of the C content separates out of the
liquid to form akes of graphite. The fracture path of such cast iron
follows the graphite akes. The fracture surface of this cast iron appears
gray because of the predominance of exposed graphite.

The composition of gray cast iron is to be selected in such a way as to

satisfy three basic structural requirements namely (i) required graphite
shape and distribution, (ii) carbide-free (chill-free) structure, and (iii)
required matrix. For common cast iron, the main elements of the chemical
composition are C and Si. Fig 4 shows the range of C and Si in steels and
cast irons. It can be seen that the cast irons have C in excess of the
maximum solubility of C in austenite, which is shown by the lower dashed
line. A high C content increases the quantity of graphite or Fe3C. High C
and Si contents increase the graphitization potential of the cast iron as
well as its castability.

Fig 4 C and Si percent ranges in cast irons and steels

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The combined in uence of C and Si on the structure is usually taken into

account by the CE (carbon equivalent) which is given by the equation CE =
% C + 0.3 (% Si) + 0.33 (% P) – 0.027 (% Mn) + 0.4 (% S). Although
increasing of the C and Si contents improves the graphitization potential
and thus decreases the chilling tendency, the strength is adversely
affected. This is due to ferrite promotion and the coarsening of pearlite.

The Mn (manganese) content varies as a function of the desired matrix.

Typically, it can be as low as 0.1 % for ferritic cast irons and as high as 1.2
% for pearlitic cast irons, since Mn is a strong pearlite promoter. From the
minor elements, P (phosphorus) and S (sulphur) are the most common
and are always present in the composition. These elements can be as high
as 0.15 % for low-quality cast irons and are signi cantly less for high-
quality cast irons, such as ductile iron or compacted graphite iron.

The effect of S is to be balanced by the effect of Mn. Without Mn in the

cast iron, undesired iron sulphide (FeS) is formed at grain boundaries. If
the S content is balanced by Mn, manganese sulphide (MnS) is formed,
which is harmless since it is distributed within the grains. The optimum
ratio between Mn and S for a FeS free structure and maximum amount of
ferrite is given by the equation % Mn = 1.7 (% S) + 0.15.

Other minor elements, such as Al (aluminum), Sb (antimony), As (arsenic),

Bi (bismuth), Pb (lead), Mg (magnesium), Ce (cerium), and Ca (calcium),
can considerably change both the graphite morphology and the micro-
structure of the matrix. Typical range of composition for the unalloyed
cast irons is given in Tab 2.

Tab 2 Typical composition ranges of unalloyed cast irons

Composition in percent
Sl.
Type of iron
No.
C Si Mn P S

0.02
2.5 1– 0.2 0.002
1 Gray (FG) –
–4 3 -1 –1
0.25

0.01
Compacted graphite 2.5 1– 0.2 – 0.01 –
2 –
(CG) –4 3 1 0.1
0.03

1.8
3– 0.1 – 0.01 – 0.01
3 Ductile (SG) –
4 1 0.1 -0.03
2.8

1.8 0.5
0.25 0.06 – 0.06
4 White – –
– 0.8 0.2 – 0.2
3.6 1.9

0.9
2.2 0.15 0.02 – 0.02-
5 Malleable (TG) –
-2.9 – 1.2 0.2 0.2
1,9

Both the major and the minor elements have a direct in uence on the
morphology of ake graphite. Fig 5 shows typical ake graphite shapes.
Type A graphite is found in inoculated cast irons cooled with moderate
rates. Normally, it is associated with the best mechanical properties and
cast irons with this type of graphite show moderate under-cooling during
solidi cation. Type B graphite is found in cast irons of near eutectic
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composition, solidifying on a limited number of nuclei. Large eutectic cell

size and low undercoolings are common in cast irons showing this type of
graphite. Type C graphite occurs in hyper-eutectic irons as a result of
solidi cation with minimum undercooling. Type D graphite is found in
hypoeutectic or eutectic irons solidi ed at rather high cooling rates, while
type E graphite is characteristic for strongly hypo-eutectic irons. Types D
and E are both associated with high undercoolings during solidi cation.
Not only graphite shape but also graphite size is important, because it
is directly related to strength.

Fig 5 Types of ake graphite shapes

Alloying elements can be added in common cast iron to improve some

mechanical properties. They in uence both the graphitization potential
and the structure and properties of the matrix. Elements with high positive
graphitization potential (in decreasing order of positive potential) are (i) C,
(ii) Sn (tin), (iii) P, (iv) Si, (v) Al, (vi) Cu (copper), and (vii) Ni (nickel). Fe
(iron) has neutral graphitization potential. Elements with high negative
graphitization potential (increasing order of negative potential) are (i) Mn,
(ii) Cr (chromium), Mo (molybdenum), and V (vanadium). This
classi cation is based on the thermodynamic analysis of the in uence of a
third element on C solubility in the Fe-C-X system, where X is a third
element.

Although listed as a graphitizer (which is true thermodynamically), P also

acts as a matrix hardener. Above its solubility level (perhaps around 0.08
%), P forms a very hard ternary eutectic. The above classi cation is also to
include S as a carbide former, although Mn and S can combine and
neutralize each other. The resultant MnS also acts as nuclei for ake
graphite. In industrial processes, nucleation phenomena can sometimes
override solubility considerations. In general, alloying elements can be
classi ed into three categories.

Silicon and aluminum – These elements increase the graphitization

potential for both the eutectic and eutectoid transformations and increase
the number of graphite particles. They form solid solutions in the matrix.
Since they increase the ferrite/pearlite ratio, they lower strength and
hardness.

Nickel, copper, and tin – They increase the graphitization potential during
the eutectic transformation, but decrease it during the eutectoid
transformation, hence raising the pearlite / ferrite ratio. This second effect
is due to the retardation of C diffusion. These elements form solid solution
in the matrix. Since they increase the amount of pearlite, they raise
strength and hardness.

Chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, and vanadium – They decrease the

graphitization potential at both stages. Hence, they increase the amount of
carbides and pearlite. They concentrate in principal in the carbides,
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forming (FeX)nC type carbides, but also alloy the alpha Fe solid solution.
As long as carbide formation does not occur, these elements increase
strength and hardness. Above a certain level, any of these elements
determine the solidi cation of a structure with both graphite and Fe3C
(mottled structure), which have lower strength but higher hardness.

In alloyed gray iron, the typical ranges for the elements are Cr – 0.2 % to
0.6 %, Mo – 0.2 % to 1 %, V – 0.1 % to 0.2 %, Ni – 0.6 % to 1 %, Cu – 0.5 %
to 1.5 % and Sn – 0.04 % to 0.08 %. The in uence of composition and
cooling rate on tensile strength can be estimated using an empirical
equation.

The cooling rate, like the chemical composition, can signi cantly in uence
the as cast structure and hence the mechanical properties. The cooling
rate of a casting is primarily a function of its section size. The dependence
of structure and properties on section size is termed section sensitivity.
Increasing of the cooling rate results into (i) re ne both graphite size and
matrix structure which results in increased strength and hardness and (ii)
increase the chilling tendency which can result in higher hardness, but can
decrease the strength. Thus, composition is to be adjusted in such a way
so as to provide the correct graphitization potential for a given cooling
rate. For a given chemical composition and as the section thickness
increases, the graphite becomes coarser, and the pearlite / ferrite ratio
decreases, which results in lower strength and hardness. Higher C
equivalent (CE) has similar effects.

The liquid treatment of cast iron is of vital importance in the processing of

cast iron since it can dramatically change the nucleation and growth
conditions during solidi cation. As a result, graphite morphology, and
hence, properties can be signi cantly affected. In gray iron practice, the
liquid treatment used is termed inoculation and consists of minute
additions of minor elements before pouring. Typically, ferro-silicon with
additions of Al and Ca or proprietary alloys are used as inoculants.

The main effects of inoculation are (i) an increased graphitization

potential because of decreased undercooling during solidi cation, as a
result of this, the chilling tendency is diminished, and graphite shape
changes from type D or type E to type A, and (ii) a ner structure, that is,
higher number of eutectic cells, with a subsequent increase in strength.
Inoculation also improves tensile strength. This in uence is more
pronounced in the cast irons with low CE.

Heat treatment can signi cantly change the matrix structure, although
graphite shape and size remain basically unaffected. A rather low
proportion of the total gray iron produced is heat treated. Common heat
treatment can consist of stress relieving or of annealing to decrease
hardness.

Ductile iron (spheroidal graphite iron)

The main effects of chemical composition are similar to those for gray
iron, with quantitative differences in the extent of these effects and
qualitative differences in the in uence on graphite morphology. The CE
has only a mild in uence on the properties and structure of the ductile
iron, since it affects graphite shape signi cantly less than in the case of
gray iron. However, to prevent excessive shrinkage, high chilling tendency,
graphite otation, or a high impact transition temperature, optimum
amounts of C and Si are to be selected.
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Further, minor elements can signi cantly change the structure in terms of
graphite morphology, chilling tendency, and matrix structure. Minor
elements can promote the spheroidization of graphite or can have an
adverse effect on graphite shape. The minor elements which adversely
affect graphite shape are said to degenerate graphite shape. A variety of
graphite shapes can occur (Fig 6). Graphite shape is the single most
important factor affecting the mechanical properties of cast iron.

Fig 6 Typical graphite shapes

Based on the generic in uence of various elements on graphite shape,

they can be divided into three groups. The spheroidizer elements (group 1)
are Mg, Ca, rare earths such as Ce, and lanthanum (La) etc., and yttrium
(Y). The neutral elements (group 2) are Fe, C, and alloying elements. The
anti spheroidizer elements (group 3) are Al, As (arsenic), Bi (bismuth), Te
(tellurium), (Ti) titanium, Pb (lead), S, and Sb (antimony).

The elements in the rst group, i.e. the spheroidizing elements, can
change graphite shape from ake through compacted to spheroidal. The
most widely used element for the production of spheroidal graphite is Mg.
The amount of residual magnesium, Mg (residual) required to produce
spheroidal graphite is generally in the range 0.03 % to 0.05 %. The precise
level depends on the cooling rate. A higher cooling rate requires less Mg.
The amount of Mg to be added in the cast iron is a function of the initial S
level, S (initial), and the recovery of Mg, and a constant ‘K’ depending on
the particular process used. The relationship equation is Mg (added) =
[0.75 S (initial) + Mg (residual)]/ K.

A residual Mg level which is too low results in insu cient nodularity (that
is, a low ratio between the spheroidal graphite and the total amount of
graphite in the structure). This in turn results in a deterioration of the
mechanical properties of the cast iron. If the Mg content is too high,
carbides are promoted. The presence of anti spheroidizing (deleterious)
minor elements can result in graphite shape deterioration, upto complete
graphite degeneration. Hence, upper limits are set on the amount of
deleterious elements to be accepted in the composition. These values can
be in uenced by the combination of various elements and by the presence
of rare earths in the composition. In addition, some of these elements can
be deliberately added during liquid processing in order to increase the
nodule count.

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Alloying elements have in principle the same in uence on structure and

properties as for gray iron. Because better graphite morphology allows
more e cient use of the mechanical properties of the matrix, alloying is
more common in ductile iron than in gray iron.

Cooling rate – When changing the cooling rate, effects similar to those
described in the case of gray iron also occurs in ductile iron, but the
section sensitivity of ductile iron is lower. This is since spheroidal graphite
is less affected by cooling rate than ake graphite.

The liquid treatment of ductile iron is more complex than that of gray iron.
The two stages for the liquid treatment of ductile iron are (i) modi cation,
which consists of Mg or Mg alloy treatment of the melt, with the purpose
of changing graphite shape from ake to spheroidal, and (ii) inoculation
(normally, post inoculation, that is, after the Mg treatment) to increase the
nodule count. Increasing the nodule count is an important goal, since a
higher nodule count is associated with less chilling tendency and a higher
as-cast ferrite / pearlite ratio.

Heat treatment – It is extensively used in the processing of ductile iron

since better advantage can be taken of the matrix structure than for gray
iron. The heat treatments usually applied are (i) stress relieving, (ii)
annealing to produce a ferritic matrix, (iii) normalizing to produce a
pearlitic matrix, (iv) hardening to produce tempering structures, and (v)
austempering to produce a ferritic bainite. The advantage of austempering
is that it results in ductile irons with twice the tensile strength for the same
toughness.

Compacted graphite irons

Compacted graphite (CG) cast irons have a graphite shape intermediate

between spheroidal and ake. Typically, compacted graphite looks like
type IV graphite (Fig 6). Hence, most of the properties of CG cast irons lie
in between those of gray and ductile iron. The chemical composition
effects are similar to those described for ductile iron. CE in uences
strength less obviously than for the case of gray iron, but more than for
ductile iron. The graphite shape is controlled, as in the case of ductile iron,
through the content of minor elements. When the goal is to produce
compacted graphite, it is easier from the stand point of controlling the
structure to combine spheroidizing (Mg, Ca, and / or rare earths) and anti
spheroidizing (Ti and /or Al) elements.

The cooling rate affects properties less for gray iron but more for ductile
iron. In other words, CG iron is less section sensitive than gray iron.
However, high cooling rates are to be avoided because of the high
propensity of CG cast iron for chilling and high nodule count in thin
sections.

Liquid treatment can have two stages, as for ductile iron. Modi cation can
be achieved with Mg, magnesium, Mg + Ti, Ce + Ca, and so on. Inoculation
is to be kept at a low level to avoid excessive nodularity. Heat treatment is
not common for CG cast irons.

Malleable cast irons

Malleable cast irons differ from the types of other cast irons in that they
have an initial as-cast white structure, that is, a structure consisting of iron
carbides in a pearlitic matrix. This white structure is then heat treated
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(annealing at 800 deg C to 970 deg C), which results in the decomposition
of Fe3C and the formation of temper graphite. The basic solid state
reaction is given by equation Fe3C = gamma iron + graphite. The nal
structure consists of graphite and pearlite, pearlite and ferrite, or ferrite.
The structure of the matrix is a function of the cooling rate after annealing.

Most of the malleable iron is produced by this technique and is called

black-heart malleable iron. Some malleable iron is produced by
decarburization of the white as-cast iron, and it is called white-heart
malleable iron.

The composition of malleable cast irons is to be selected in such a way as

to produce a white as-cast structure and to allow for fast annealing times.
Although higher C and Si reduce the heat treatment time, they are to be
limited to ensure a graphite-free structure upon solidi cation.

Both tensile strength and elongation decrease with higher CE.

Nevertheless, it is not enough to control the CE. The annealing time
depends on the number of graphite nuclei available for graphitization,
which in turn depends on, among other factors, the C / Si ratio. A lower C /
Si ratio (that is, a higher Si content for a constant CE) results in a higher
temper graphite count. This in turn translates into shorter annealing times.

Mn content and the Mn / S ratio are to be closely controlled. In general, a

lower Mn content is used when ferritic rather than pearlitic structures are
desired. The correct Mn / S ratio can be calculated by equation ‘% Mn = 1.7
(% S) + 0.15’. Below this, all S is stoichiometrically tied to Mn as MnS. The
excess Mn is dissolved in the ferrite. In the range delimited by the S
stoichiometrically tied to Mn and Mn/S = 1, a mixed sulphide, (Mn,Fe)S, is
formed. For Mn/S ratios smaller than 1, pure FeS is also formed. It is
assumed that the degree of compacting of temper graphite depends on
the type of sulphides occurring in the cast iron. When FeS is predominant,
very compacted, nodular temper graphite forms, but some undissolved
Fe3C can persist in the structure, resulting in lower elongations. When
MnS is predominant, although the graphite is less compacted, elongation
is higher because of the completely Fe3C-free structure.  The Mn/S ratio
also in uences the number of temper graphite particles. From this
standpoint, the optimum Mn/S ratio is around 2 to 4.

Alloying elements can be used in some grades of pearlitic malleable irons.

The Mn content can be increased to 1.2 %, or Cu, Ni, and / or Mo can be
added. Cr is to be avoided since it produces stable carbides, which are
di cult to decompose during annealing.

Cooling rate – Like all other cast irons, malleable cast irons are sensitive
to cooling rate. However, since the nal structure is the result of a solid-
state reaction, they are the least section sensitive cast irons.

The liquid treatment of malleable cast iron increases the number of nuclei
available for the solid-state graphitization reaction. This can be achieved
in two different ways. The rst is by adding elements which increase
undercooling during solidi cation. Typical elements in this category are
Mg, Ce, Bi, and Te. Higher undercooling results in ner structure, which in
turn means more gamma iron-Fe3C interface. Because graphite nucleates
at the gamma iron-Fe3C interface, this means more nucleation sites for
graphite. Higher undercooling during solidi cation also prevents the

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formation of unwanted eutectic graphite. The second is by adding nitrite-

forming elements to the melt. Typical elements in this category are Al, B,
Ti, and Zr (zirconium).

Heat treatment – The heat treatment of malleable iron determines the

nal structure of this cast iron. It has two basic stages. In the rst stage,
the Fe3C is decomposed in austenite and graphite. In the second stage,
the austenite is transformed into pearlite, ferrite, or a mixture of the two.
Although there are some compositional differences between ferritic and
pearlitic irons, the main difference is in the heat treatment cycle.

When ferritic structures are to be produced, cooling rates in the range of 3

deg C/hour to 10 deg C/hour are needed through the eutectoid
transformation in the second stage. This is necessary to allow for a
complete austenite to ferrite reaction. When pearlitic irons are to be
produced, different schemes can be used. The goal of the treatment is to
achieve a eutectoid transformation according to the austenite-to-pearlite
reaction. In some limited cases, quenching-tempering treatments are used
for malleable irons.

Special cast irons

Special cast irons are alloy cast irons which take advantage of the radical
changes in structure produced by rather large amounts of alloying
elements. Abrasion resistance can be improved by increasing hardness,
which in turn can be achieved by either increasing the amount of carbides
and their hardness or by producing a martensitic structure. The least
expensive material is white iron with a pearlitic matrix. Additions of 3 % to
5 % Ni and 1.5 % to 2.5 % Cr result in cast irons with (FeCr)3C carbides and
an as-cast martensitic matrix. Additions of 11 % to 35 % Cr produce
(CrFe)7C3 carbides, which are harder than the iron carbides. Additions of 4
% to 16 % Mn result in a structure consisting of (FeMn)3C, martensite, and
work-hardenable austenite.

Heat resistance depends on the stability of the microstructure. Cast irons

used for these applications can have a ferritic structure with graphite (5 %
Si), a ferritic structure with stable carbides (11 % to 28 % Cr), or a stable
austenitic structure with either spheroidal or ake graphite (18 % Ni, 5 %
Si). For corrosion resistance, irons with high Cr (upto 28 %), Ni (upto 18 %),
and Si (upto 15 %) are used.

Ispat Digest

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