Roundtable Discussion: Periodization of Training

© National Strength and Conditioning Association
Volume 26, Number 1, page 50–69
Roundtable
Roundtable Discussion:
Periodization of Training—
G. Gregory Haff, PhD, CSCS
Part 1
Column Editor G. Gregory Haff, PhD, CSCS
Human Performance Laboratory, Midwestern State University,Wichita Falls,Texas
summary Macrocycle, Mesocycle, Micro- One is also dramatically challenged by

cycle, Transition Phase, Volume, the need for “individualization” based on
The concept of periodization is im- Intensity, Restoration, Frequen- physiological status and predisposition
portant for strength and condition- cy, Peaking, Overtraining, and and individual training goals to meet
Overreaching? sport demands (3, 4). So, although the
ing professionals. This roundtable answers to these questions will have
Kraemer: First, one must realize that many different permutations and seem-
covers several aspects of periodiza- with the progress in the study and use of ingly differences in various opinions, the
tion strategies. periodization of resistance training since basis for periodization is the need for
our last roundtable program variation
in 1986, the opera- and programmed
he concept of periodization of tional definitions rest to keep the stim-
T training has been a topic of discus-

sion and debate amongst athletes,
coaches, and sport scientists for many
have been pushed in
many directions of
which one can argue
ulus effective as one
works toward his or
her genetic predis-
decades. Large volumes of research have and debate, but this position for a given
been done on the concept and its rela- provides the intel- physiological or per-
tionship to peak performance of athletes. lectual perspectives formance variable.
In 1986, the National Strength and Con- to work with when
ditioning Association (NSCA) brought using this concept. I Many of the terms
together a group of strength and condi- have had the oppor- used are from the
tioning professionals to discuss the con- tunity to hear so former Soviet Union
cept of periodization from a practical many different ver- and Eastern Euro-
and scientific perspective in the pages of sions and work with pean countries in
the NSCA Journal. The purpose of this a host of different periodization models origin, as I remember reading about
current roundtable discussion is to revis- from practice to laboratory; I am amazed them in 1973 from blue mimeographed
it the topic of periodization with some of at how far it has all come. The concept of sheets sent out by Carl Miller with U.S.
the original participants and add some of periodization is what is most fascinating Weightlifting at the time (22, 23). Over
the latest scientific and practical applica- to me, and so many fine coaches and time, American lifters, coaches, and sci-
tions of this training method. sport scientists are making headway into entists adapted the concepts and the
its understanding. Ultimately, periodiza- terms so that many “hybrids” of the pe-
Question 1: How Would you de- tion of training is mediated by the need riodization concept and terms exist and
fine the Concept of Periodization, for variation in the training stimuli (22). continue to evolve today (3). This shows
50 February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal

the level of utility and creative use of this cally about 2 weeks in duration, and this achieved with frequency of lifting, lower
important concept of training theory. allows for variation to be carefully cus- volumes of exercise, absolute rest, active
So, it is important that each program tomized. My laboratory definition of in- rest, and strict attention to restoration
carefully define what is meant by each of tensity has been related to the resistance techniques when needed (e.g., sleep,
the terms so that better communication used for the exercise of which some call massage, hydrotherapy, etc). Frequency
can be achieved when speaking about “load”. We prescribe this typically in is the number of times per week that we
periodized training programs, as it is not training repetition maximum (RM) lift. Peaking is related to a composite ag-
a single entity anymore. ranges for most exercises (e.g., 3 to gregation of all conditioning stimuli and
5RM, 8 to 10RM) where the athlete sports practice that result in optimal or
Despite the many different versions of does not have to go necessarily to failure record performance in the sport for the
periodization we have used, we essen- on every set because of compression athlete at a specific point in time. The
tially have “periodization” as a concept stress, but he or she should not be able to peaking phase in a resistance-training
that can be defined by programmed volitionally lift more repetitions in a set program is the contributing factor to
variation in the training stimuli with the than the training range prescribed or total conditioning for optimizing a per-
use of planned rest periods to augment then must alter the resistance on the formance at a specific point in time.
recovery and restoration of an athlete’s next set up or down based on percep- Overreaching (OR) is where one in-
potential (16). Again, the key factor to tion. Historically we have found that creases the training stimuli in order to
optimal gains going toward one’s genetic athletes can easily understand and pick create a decrease in performance but one
potential is “variation” in the exercise the resistance to achieve this 3-repeti- that has a “supercompensation” re-
stimulus with systematic rest pro- tion range resistance goal by trail and sponse or a rebound with increased per-
grammed into the equation. How that error. This approach reduces the need formance at some point in time after the
variation is achieved and used is the for multiple 1RM testing in every lift, OR phase is completed (16, 25). Typi-
topic of a wide variety of different train- which is administratively impossible. cally this would occur in the following 1
ing goals and must also be individual- For structural lifts (e.g., cleans, hang to 2 weeks. In our recent work, we have
ized for each athlete and sport to achieve cleans, etc) we use a combination of per- discovered that a training rebound pro-
optimal success in his or her sport. Even centages of their 1RM for a given num- gram was possible after a high-volume
in the model I used in a later question, ber of repetitions in a set. This is espe- phase (25). In this study, before initia-
the basic form is just the template from cially important for certain resistances tion of the 4-week OR program, each
which to work. We have tried to stick used for power training but even when participant underwent 4 weeks of base
with the classic terms and have limited we are associating percentage and load resistance training. This ensured that
excessive term creation, as the need has failure in whole body lifts such as a each subject began the study in a trained
not been there for our applications in power clean. On power training, with state. Base training consisted of 5 exer-
sport and in the laboratory. So, in classic emerging research data in our laboratory cises per workout (squat, bench press,
terms of periodization theory, the and along with those of Robert U. New- lat pull-down, leg press, and shoulder
macrocyle is the longest duration of the ton’s laboratory, we have found that press) for 3 sets of 8 to 10 repetitions
training cycle; typically a year is used for power exercises need to focus on “quali- with 1 to 3 minutes of rest in between
most situations, but some international ty” of each repetition for maximal power sets performed for 2 days per week. See
programs have used a 4-year duration to or velocity of movement, and with the Table 1 for the OR protocol used in the
coincide with peaking for the Olympic use of more sophisticated monitoring study. Multiple-set, periodized resis-
Games. The mesocycle is the next cycle instrumentation and equipment we tance training was performed on 4 con-
duration further defining the amount of have found that this occurs in sets no secutive days with a total-body program.
variation during the macrocycle. Prior longer than 6 repetitions, and that many Because of time limitation constraints
work has shown that more mesocycles of the repetitions do not hit critical cut- with the subjects, the OR program uti-
allow for greater training gains in physi- off levels needed for the quality training lized training each muscle group on con-
ological adaptation and performance, (unpublished data, 18, 24). Therefore, secutive days, thereby limiting recovery.
and thus many have used a 3-month many athletes are not ready for high- The first 2 weeks consisted of a higher
mesocycle allowing 4 to be cycled in a quality power training because of many volume, moderate intensity of resistance
year. The microcycle is the next and factors related to the fatigue state of the exercise, whereas the last 2 weeks con-
probably most important phase of train- athlete (e.g., sport practice demands, sisted of a higher intensity with a lower
ing where changes in the acute program other supplemental training, order volume of resistance exercise. All sets
variables are prescribed to define each problems in a workout design). Restora- were performed with RM loads such
mesocycle and provide change and vari- tion is related to the need for rest and re- that all sets were performed either to or
ation over time. The microcycle is typi- covery over a training cycle. This is near muscular exhaustion. When each
February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 51

Table 1
Resistance Overreaching Training Program Used in Study (26)
Week 1
Monday, Wednesday Tuesday, Thursday Friday

Back squat 3 × 10–12* Leg press 3 × 10–12* 1RM squat
Bench press 3 × 10–12* Incline bench press 3 × 10–12* 1RM bench press
Lat pull-down 3 × 10–12** Bent-over row 3 × 10–12**
Lunge 3 × 10–12** Stiff-leg deadlift 3 × 10–12**
Seated shoulder press 3 × 10–12** Upright row 3 × 10–12**
Dumbbell curl 3 × 10–12** Barbell curl 3 × 10–12**
Lying triceps extension 3 × 10–12** Dips 3 × 10–12**
Leg raise 3 × 20*** Sit-ups 3 × 20***
Week 2
Back squat 3 × 8–10* Leg press 3 × 8–10* 1RM squat
Bench press 3 × 8–10* Incline bench press 3 × 8–10* 1RM bench press
Lat pull-down 3 × 8–10** Bent-over row 3 × 8–10** Jump squats
Lunge 3 × 8–10** Stiff-leg deadlift 3 × 8–10** Ballistic bench press
Seated shoulder press 3 × 8–10** Upright row 3 × 8–10**
Dumbbell curl 3 × 8–10** Barbell curl 3 × 8–10**
Lying triceps extension 3 × 8–10** Dips 3 × 8–10**
Leg raise 3 × 20*** Sit-ups 3 × 20***
Week 3
Back squat 5 × 5* Leg press 5 × 5* 1RM squat
Bench press 5 × 5* Incline bench press 5 × 5* 1RM bench press
Deadlift 5 × 5** High pull 5 × 5**
Lat pull-down 5 × 5** Bent-over row 5 × 5**
Seated shoulder press 5 × 5** Close-grip bench press 5 × 5**
Week 4
Back squat 5 × 3* Leg press 5 × 3* 1RM squat
Bench press 5 × 3* Incline bench press 5 × 3* 1RM bench press
Deadlift 5 × 3** High pull 5 × 3** Jump squats
Lat pull-down 5 × 3** Bent-over row 5 × 3** Ballistic bench press
Seated shoulder press 5 × 3** Close-grip bench press 5 × 3**
Note: * indicates 3 minutes of rest between sets; **, 2 minutes of rest between sets; ***, 1 minute of rest between sets; RM, repetition maximum.
subject was able to complete the desired each participant underwent a 2-week re- Our conclusion was that the initial
number of repetitions with the current duced-volume and -frequency resis- high-volume, moderate-intensity phase
load, weight was added to subsequent tance-training phase. The program used of OR followed by a higher intensity,
sets or during the next workout. All during this phase was identical to the moderate-volume phase appears to be
workouts were supervised by a certified base resistance-training program used very effective for enhancing a rebound
strength and conditioning specialist before initiation of the 4-week OR pro- in muscle strength in resistance-trained
who also monitored the training loads. tocol (i.e., 5 exercises per workout, 8 to men (25). In addition, branch chain
After the 4-week experimental period, 10 repetitions, and 2 days per week). amino acids were also helpful in alleviat-

ing performance decrements in the ational level before preparation of cy, timing, and duration of peaking
alarm phase as well. Thus, training can the next competitive cycle. Others to optimize overall performance.
be composited in different cycles to cre- (6) have also used this phase (termed • OT, in general, may be defined as a
ate the needed effect for a specific point first transition) to link very high- plateauing or a decrease in perfor-
in time and periodized training in which volume, low-intensity training to mance resulting from the inability to
cycles used for OR are a natural part of very high-intensity, low-volume tolerate or adapt to the training load.
this training concept and technology. training. More specifically, there can be OT
This might be thought of as true OR be- • Volume is the total work performed from “monotonous training pro-
cause of its positive performance out- (per exercise, session, week, month, grams” caused by consistent, unvary-
come. Acute overtraining (OT) might etc). Weight-training volume can be ing use of the same type of training
be defined by the lack of this rebound estimated per exercise by volume load exercise. Another cause of OT is
training effect. Real OT is a chronic syn- (repetitions multiplied by weight). “chronic overload,” or when over-
drome not easily observed and often Because of the cumulative effect, vol- work is sustained too long or repeat-
confused with acute OT where perfor- ume of training can be a potent pre- ed too frequently and the athlete can
mance is not restored within a few weeks cursor to physiological stress. no longer adapt in a positive way. Re-
of recovery. Thus, true OT is a long- • Intensity is the quality of effort dur- covery from this type of OT can re-
term chronic decrease in performance ing training or power output (force quire several weeks if not months (3).
capabilities that is a threat to an athlete’s multiplied by velocity). A qualitative • OR is a type of periodization where
career. measure of weight training can be es- short-term (1 to 2 weeks) increases
timated by the average weight being in volume or intensity are followed
O’Bryant: used and can be expressed as absolute by a return to normal training. This
• Periodization may be defined as a (amount of weight lifted) or relative brief phase can result in a delayed
cyclical approach to training where (percentage of maximum for an exer- performance increase approximately
periodic changes in training parame- cise). Speed of movement can be a de- 2 to 5 weeks after return to normal
ters (volume, intensity, loading, ex- termining factor when similar training (2, 5).
ercise selection, etc) are planned in weights and repetitions are com-
order for the athlete to achieve opti- pared. Pendlay:
mal performance at the appropriate • Restoration is necessary because the • Macrocycle is a training period con-
time. physiological and psychological taining at least 1 preparatory, 1 com-
• Macrocycle is generally thought to stress of training can lower work ca- petitive, and 1 transition mesocycle.
be a yearlong program typically be- pacity. Proper rest and recuperation It can be as short as 2 or 3 months
ginning with high-volume, low-in- can renew the athlete’s abilities to but is not usually longer than 1 year.
tensity exercise of the preparatory train. This can occur acutely (set-to- • Mesocycle is a period within a
phase and ending with low-volume, set) or over time (work session-to- macrocycle where a specific goal is
high-intensity exercise of the peak- session). Structured restoration can pursued. It usually lasts 1 or 2
ing phase. However, some Olympic provide for training-induced recov- months but can be shorter or longer.
athletes are known to make use of ery and supercompensation for in- • Microcycle is a division of the meso-
more long-range planning character- creased rates of improvement in per- cycle, which usually lasts 1 week. Di-
ized by a 4- to 8-year cycle with a formance and higher levels of viding the mesocycle into several mi-
peak in performance during a specif- functional capacity. crocycles formalizes the process of
ic Olympic year. • Frequency is the number of training varying the training stress within the
• Mesocycles are shorter cyclical divi- sessions per day, week, etc. mesocycle.
sions within a macrocycle usually • Peaking is maximizing performance • Transition phase is a period where
lasting only a few months. at the appropriate time. In most the athlete recuperates after stressful
• Microcycles are usually very short, sports (football, basketball, track, competition or training to be able to
lasting only a few weeks with slight etc), a “true” peak is generally re- respond optimally to further train-
to moderate variations in training on served for end-of-season champi- ing. This phase is most often
a weekly or daily basis. onships and may last only about 3 thought of as a period of active rest
• Transition phase, sometimes termed weeks. Smaller peaks with shorter after competition and before a subse-
“active rest,” provides a shift in train- durations can also be planned for se- quent preparatory period.
ing emphasis. Some have used this to lective in-season competitions. The • Volume is the amount of work done
recover from end-of-season stress design of periodized training pro- within a time period such as 1 train-
where the athlete trains at a recre- grams should consider the frequen- ing day, a microcycle, or a mesocycle.

• Intensity is the difficulty of the and application of therapeutic and of Hungary in the 1940s and 1950s. Ap-
training done relative to the maxi- regenerative techniques by a sports parently, Nadori was a large part of
mum that the athlete is capable of. medicine professional. Hungary’s success in sports during the
• Restoration is the process of returning • Peaking is one of the basic goals of 1950s and early 1960s (personal com-
to normal or elevated functional ca- periodized training: to exploit communication, I. Balyi and J. Tihanyi).
pacity after training-induced fatigue. plementary training effects and min- Later, Yakolev, Matveyev, Verkoshansky,
• Frequency is how often a training imize fatigue at optimal times. This Bondurchuk, Tchiene, Haare, and many
stimulus is applied. is usually achieved by systematically other sports scientists worked to refine
• Peaking is attempting to achieve reducing volume loads at the end of the concept. To my knowledge, it was
maximum performance at a specific a mesocycle through tactics such as not until the 1960s and 1970s that
time, usually a major competition. restitution microcycles or other “ta- Americans began to seriously consider
• OT is an imbalance between the pering” methods. This term is often periodization as a concept, much of it
training means and the recuperative used as a verb as well (e.g., to de- was discussed in Track News and Track
ability of the athlete, resulting in a scribe these strategies). Technique in articles written or edited by
significant and long-term decrease in • OR is an advanced training strategy Fred Wilt and Vern Gambetta. During
performance. where volume loads are increased for the late 1970s, my colleagues and I
• OR is an imbalance between the train- 2 to 3 weeks and then reduced to began a series of studies, which have
ing means and the recuperative abili- normal levels to enhance adaptation continued until today. These studies pri-
ties of the athlete, resulting in a short- and performance 2 to 5 weeks later marily have dealt with the use of the pe-
term decrease in performance, lasting by virtue of a “rebound” (supercom- riodization concept in a strength-power
from 2 to 3 days to 2 to 3 weeks. pensation) effect. It requires careful training paradigm. Harold O’Bryant is a
planning and understanding of cu- pioneer in these early strength-power
Plisk: mulative and delayed training ef- studies, and his dissertation should be a
• Periodization is the planned distrib- fects. OT is a maladaptation syn- must read for anyone interested in the
ution or variation in training means drome resulting when OR-type concept. Although the concept of peri-
(content) and methods (load) on a workloads are applied inappropri- odization has a long history, the basic
cyclic basis. Macro-, meso-, and mi- ately, for example, over prolonged focus in the development of the concept
crocycles are the long-, intermedi- periods or without adequate recov- has been achieving appropriate varia-
ate-, and short-term units, respec- ery or regard for the additive effects tion, which includes alterations in train-
tively, that periodized training of other stressors. Long-term perfor- ing variables as well as “built in” recov-
programs are structured into. mance decrements and fatigue seem ery and restoration. Thus, conceptually,
• Volume refers to training quantity, to be the universal indicators of OT periodization is directly concerned with
usually expressed in terms of repeti- and may or may not be accompanied the “training process.” Today, periodiza-
tions and sets performed. by other symptoms. tion can be defined as a logical phasic
• Intensity refers to training quality, method of varying training volume, in-
usually expressed in terms of impulse Stone: Periodization as a term was ap- tensity factors, and exercises in order to
or power output during task execu- parently coined around the turn of the optimize training progress. Thus, peri-
tion. In practice, because of the fluc- 20th century and referred to the photo odization is a nonlinear method for
tuating emphasis on these factors (vol- periods of the sun; several coaches and planning the training process.
ume and intensity), the concept of sports scientists of the day noted that
volume-load (mass lifted multiplied athletes usually were able to train and The primary goals of periodization are
by repetitions performed) is more use- perform better during the summer (a) the avoidance of OT and (b) per-
ful as an indicator of training stress months when days were longer, warmer, forming at peak or optimum levels at the
than either one independently. etc. Later, it was also believed that more right time (8). Although the periodiza-
• Frequency is an indicator of training fresh vegetables and produce were avail- tion concept is most associated with cli-
density over a given period and is able during the summer and early au- mactic sports (i.e., peaking), this plan-
therefore associated with other (vol- tumn, and this influenced performance. ning process can be modified and
ume) parameters. During the 1920s and 1930s, periodiza- adapted for seasonal sports (14, 15). The
• Restoration is a multi-pronged strat- tion became more of a term applied to time frame for periodization can be di-
egy to enhance an athlete’s recovery training methods. One of the first sports vided into several different levels—an
from—and adaptation to—training. scientists to attempt to systematically important consideration is that each
It should include rational program study the concept of periodization in re- level can provide additional variation
design, nutritional strategies, sleep, lation to sports training was L. Nadori (14, 15):

• Period is the total length of the
training plans; for example, it can be
a 4-year cycle for Olympic sports.
• Macrocycle (long-length cycle) typ-
ically the macrocycle lasts about a
year. Over this time period, the
macrocycle typically provides for
initial high-volume training (prepa-
ration) moving to high-intensity
technique-oriented training.
• Mesocycle (middle-length cycle),
typically 2 to 3 months, can mimic a
macrocycle in terms of volume and
intensity alterations, or it can be pri-
marily devoted to 1 phase (i.e., gen-
eral preparation [GP], special prepa-
ration [SP], competition).
• Microcycle (short length), typically
1 week, can vary from week to week
and day to day. Figure 1. Paradigm emphasizing strength gains.VL = volume load.
• Summated microcycles are blocks of
microcycles (usually 3 to 6 weeks) in
which each block presents a specific placed in the first week, followed by for a specific exercise or a group of
pattern of volume and intensity decreases in volume load and in- related exercises.
loading. The blocks can then be re- creases in exercise intensity (EI) (i.e., (b) EI is the actual power output of an
peated throughout a mesocycle such power output) from weeks 2 to 4 al- exercise. EI can be expressed as the
that specific stimuli are “re-present- lowing fatigue to dissipate, favors average or peak power output
ed” in a cyclical fashion. Generally, a development of power and speed. achieved during a single movement
block consists of 4 weeks. A typical • Peaking is a specific phase of a cli- or the average power over a series
block, used for enhancing strength, mactic sport usually at the end of a (set) of movements.
would be one in which intensity and mesocycle devoted to bring perfor- • OT is a maladaptation to training as a
typically volume load (i.e., overload) mance up to maximum levels. This is result of the accumulation of stressors
are increased for 3 weeks followed by usually achieved by lowering the vol- (either induced by the additive effect
an “unload” week creating a 3/1 ume of training and raising either TI of the physical and emotional stress of
block (15, 20); the block can then be or EI in line with the performance the training itself or the additive ef-
repeated again offering a similar requirements. fect of accumulative daily stressors).
stimulus (Figure 1). In the example • Frequency is how often a specific The maladaptation can manifest itself
(Figure 1), sets and repetitions are stimulus is applied (per day, per as a plateau or reduction in perfor-
held constant—volume load increas- week, etc). mance potentially accompanied by a
es or decreases as a result of loading • Intensity is related to a work rate or number of stress markers (4). OT
(training intensity [TI]) alterations. power output. From a coaching may manifest as sympathetic charac-
Note in Figure 1 that as the volume standpoint, here are 2 types of inten- teristics (most often occurring among
load is increased across the first 3 sity which are important in this con- strength-power athletes) or parasym-
weeks that accumulated fatigue can text (14, 15): pathetic characteristics (observed in
also increase, thus the need for an (a) TI is equal to the average load (vol- some endurance athletes or as a result
unload week (week 4). This type of ume load and repetitions) and is an of exhaustion after prolonged sympa-
summated microcycle system is not estimate of the work rate across a thetic manifestation). Sympathetic
optimal for power or speed develop- training session. It may be calculat- OT is characterized by chronic fa-
ment because of the persistent in- ed as an average daily, weekly, tigue and many other signs and symp-
crease in accumulated fatigue across monthly, etc, function. TI may also toms mimicking stimulation of the
the first 3 weeks of each block. A be expressed in relation to maxi- sympathetic nervous system. Para-
summated microcycle system in mum ability; the relative intensity is sympathetic OT is characterized by
which the greatest volume load is expressed as a percentage of a 1RM phlegmatic behavior, the inability to

“rise to the occasion,” and other signs Dr Fleck and I have written about this in highest strength and power level possi-
and symptoms mimicking parasym- detail (3, 4). The American form or peri- ble in the time allowed for the whole
pathetic stimulation. OT is a serious odization most often thought of was es- training cycle and peak strength and
condition and requires prolonged re- sentially developed in 1981, when Stone power for a major competition. Time for
covery. Associated with OT is monot- and colleagues (28) in the United States the active rest mesocycle is then allowed,
onous training (MT) in which perfor- developed a hypothetical model for and the entire macrocycle is repeated.
mance may plateau or decline strength and power sports of the more Periodization was originally used to
somewhat without fatigue or overt classic periodization program that had peak for 1 major competition a year,
OT symptoms. MT may be a result of been used by Eastern European such as the world championships. So,
simply making exactly the same weightlifters. The model broke down a each of the mesocycles was 2 to 3
movements repeatedly, resulting in training program into 5 mesocycles. The months long. The greater gains in
lack of necessary variation for the ner- resulting periodization program was strength and power are probably related
vous system. MT can be easily reme- characterized by initiating the training to the basic concept of periodization in
died by making changes in the move- with a high volume of exercise (i.e., that variation in training is needed to
ment pattern (i.e., exercise selection). more sets and repetitions) and using low achieve optimal gains, and multiple
• OR is a condition produced most intensity (i.e., low resistance) as has training cycles provide more variation in
often by sudden increases in training been depicted in many citations over the training.
volume. OR may produce some of years (28). During each of the following
the signs and symptoms of OT but mesocycles, the volume of exercise is de- O’Bryant: When looking at a peri-
not as severe. A reduction in training creased, and the intensity or resistance is odized training program, we can break
volume or intensity and return to increased. In this model, the initial down the overall training into 4 compo-
normal training can produce an in- phase of training is termed the hypertro- nents: (a) preparation, (b) transition 1,
creased performance several weeks phy phase, characterized by high-vol- (c) competition, and (d) transition 2
after the OR. Sometimes a super- ume and low-resistance exercise. The (active rest).
compensation effect will occur major goal of this phase is to increase • Preparation. Early preparation be-
boosting performance to new levels. toleration to resistance exercise and to gins with an emphasis on general fit-
Thus, OR (12) can be planned (care- stimulate initial needed increase muscle ness with high-volume, low-intensi-
fully) into the periodized program mass. The major goal of the strength and ty work. Additional preparation
(usually 1 to 2 weeks of increased power phases is to bring about increases follows with more high-volume,
volume) and may result in a perfor- in maximal strength and power, respec- low-intensity exercise but with
mance boost. tively. The goal of the peaking phase is movements that have somewhat
to peak strength and power for a partic- higher specificity to the sport. The
Question 2:What are the Various ular competition. The decrease in vol- goal of this phase is to stimulate pos-
Phases of a Periodized Training ume helps compensate for the increas- itive body composition changes (in-
Program? In Your Explanation, ingly heavier resistances (increased crease in lean body mass, etc) and
Please Define the Goals of intensity), which must be used to pro- improve short-term endurance and
the Individual Phases of a mote maximal strength and power in- work capacity.
Periodized Training Program. creases. The active rest phase consists of • Transition 1. This provides a shift to
either low-volume, low-intensity resis- lower volume exercise while intensi-
Kraemer: This is a complex question tance training or some other light physi- ty progressively increases with both
and one that is highly related to the type cal activity. The goal of this phase is to resistive (weight) and temporal
of periodized model that you use. We allow the body to recover from the previ- (speed) loading. Exercise selection
have written about this at length (3, 4, ous training, both physically and psy- becomes even more biomechanically
16). In general, one talks about a num- chologically. In fact, this aspect of peri- specific to the sport with an empha-
ber of phases, from the GP phase (where odized training may be the most sis on development of strength and
the athlete builds the necessary general important, as highly motivated athletes power in response to decreasing
fitness needed to move to a periodized will many times not want to take the workloads.
training program) to the transition needed rest that their bodies require for • Competition. The objective here is
phases (for the training needed before optimal adaptations. By not planning to stabilize or improve technique
another cycle) or the recovery phases for periods of rest and recovery within a while improving performance vari-
(where rest is the most important factor training program, the possibility of stal- ables specific to the sport. Power and
in preventing OT, both from a psycho- eness or OT is increased. The goal of the strength can be brought to a peak by
logical and physiological perspective). entire training cycle is to achieve the more volume reductions coupled

with increases in intensity. Power of a different means than the main sport and microcyclic variables (e.g., the de-
athletes need more emphasis on training and of a lower volume and in- gree of workload contrast between
speed of movement, reactive training tensity. mesocycles, microcycles, or individual
(plyometrics), and technique work. training sessions as well as within ses-
A maintenance program can also be Plisk: The “phase” approach to peri- sions). Summated microcycles are one
associated with this phase and is es- odization is just one of at least three such strategy (refer to Figure 1). They
sential for sports with prolonged strategies. In my opinion and experi- usually involve 4-week mesocycles with
competitive seasons. The mainte- ence, it is most applicable for novice an extensive to intensive workload pro-
nance of reasonable levels of physio- athletes. I should qualify that by stating gression and a brief restitution period.
logical conditioning requires suffi- that such strategies may be the most Training-method distribution is the key
cient volume, intensity, and valuable of all because of their broad ap- difference from the basic approach de-
frequency. This total work, in com- plicability. There are many more novice scribed above. Specifically, a microcycle
bination with sport skill practice, athletes in the early stages of develop- rather than mesocycle is allocated for
should be carefully balanced to avoid ment (for whom advanced tactics are in- strength endurance, strength and power,
overwork and subsequent decre- appropriate) than there are elite athletes peaking, and recovery. This pattern of
ments in performance. in later stages. loading, where 3 weeks of increasing
• Transition 2 (active rest). If hard volume or intensity is followed by an
training is attempted immediately The phases associated with steplike unloading week and the progression is
after peaking or prolonged season, Western periodization models are usual- then repeated at higher intensities, al-
long-term progress will be dimin- ly referred to as strength endurance, lows complementary stimuli to be rein-
ished. Active rest is characterized by strength and power, peaking (mainte- troduced in a regular cyclic fashion such
low workloads and intensities and nance), and active recovery (transition). that their effects do not decay signifi-
may involve recreational activity Note that the term “strength endurance” cantly. Discretion should be used with
with complementary movement pat- is chosen instead of “hypertrophy,” be- this approach because the greatest work-
terns and motor skills. cause it more accurately reflects the loads occur in week 3, by which time cu-
• Note that the duration of each phase main objective of this period: increased mulative fatigue may hinder speed-
is dependant upon the athlete’s ma- work capacity. Body-composition strength expression, hence the need for
turity, level of conditioning, sport, changes, though important, are sec- unloading in week 4 to reduce OT po-
and timing relative to season. ondary. This strategy can be viable for tential and promote adaptation.
novice athletes who are learning new
Pendlay: There are 3 main phases of a movement techniques or are unaccus- A summated microcycles strategy seems
periodized training program: preparato- tomed to high intensities. It is potential- to have dual benefits: As a form of in-
ry, competitive, and transition. The ly problematic, however, when relatively tramesocycle variation, they increase the
goals of the preparatory phase should be flat workloads are prescribed over a peri- probability of converging training ef-
to establish higher levels of basic physi- od of several weeks. Consecutive weeks fects while minimizing the likelihood of
cal capacities such as strength and speed spent within such narrow workload overstress or accommodation and invo-
and to improve any weak points that ranges can effectively amount to less lution problems. Furthermore, they add
were apparent during the last competi- than 1 week of novel stimulus followed an aspect of intermesocycle contrast that
tion. The goal of the competitive phase by 2 to 3 weeks of monotonic stress, in- can be advantageous as an adaptive stim-
should be to obtain maximum perfor- creasing the likelihood of accommoda- ulus. Other strategies (e.g., planned
mance at the planned competition. To tion and stagnation problems. These OR) may be more effective for advanced
this end, training in the competition shortcomings may be prevented by athletes.
phase is generally more specific to the using zig-zag progressions where volume
practiced sport, more intense, and of loads are varied within reasonable Advanced periodization strategies are
lesser volume than in the preparatory ranges. characterized by extensive, systematic
period. The goal of the transition phase variation in both content and workload
is to maintain as much of the general Intermediate periodization strategies are at multiple levels of the program (i.e.,
conditioning as possible while allowing characterized by greater levels of varia- between and within respective micro-,
the athlete to rest; to recuperate from tion within—as well as between—re- meso-, and macrocycles). “Conjugate se-
the previous competitive period, both spective cycles. Although a beginner’s quence” training is one such system. It is
physically and mentally; and to become program may consist of simple progres- an intermesocycle variation strategy that
ready to withstand the subsequent sion on a macrocyclic basis, tactical de- involves periods of accumulation or in-
preparatory period. Training is usually cisions are now directed toward meso- tentional OR followed by restitution

integrating responses. These can be
structured in at least two different ways:
as a mesocycle to be subdivided into
multiple microcycles and objectives (for
basic and intermediate applications) or
as a “block” with essentially 1 objective
arranged as part of a series (for advanced
applications).
In terms of long-term developmental

objectives, here are some common
analogies that seem to be useful:
• Beginner or novice: “train to train”;
emphasis on GP.
• Intermediate: “train to compete”;
balance of GP and SP.
Figure 2. Model I (1977). CL = concentrated loading; T = testosterone; T:C = testos- • Advanced: “train to win”; emphasis
terone: cortisol ratio. on SP.
during which supernormal responses can qualities over successive mesocycles such Stone: When considering a periodized
be exploited (refer to Figures 2 and 3). that one potentiates another while mini- training model, the typical phases would
This is achieved through a series of “con- mizing residual fatigue and compatibili- be:
centrated blocks” that are usually 4 ty problems). Proponents of this strategy
weeks in duration. During the first cite several advantages: First, it provides • GP: This phase occurs when a high
block, the athlete performs high-volume the potent training stressors needed to volume of less specialized work is
loads of work with one primary emphasis bring advanced athletes to a new func- performed. It typically lasts 1 to 3
(e.g., strength and power) and minimal- tional state that otherwise cannot be months but may be repeated during
volume loads—presumably maintenance achieved through traditional methods. a macrocycle; the purpose is to raise
type—allocated to other abilities. The Second, it circumvents the cumulative the levels of “fitness” specific to a
objective is to saturate the system with fatigue problems associated with parallel sport. Often the GP or part of the
one type of stress over a period of several or concurrent training of multiple quali- GP is used as a unidirectional con-
weeks, during which temporary decre- ties. Third, it allows long-term work vol- centrated loading block. It should be
ments in certain performance capabili- umes to be reduced. This comes with a noted that the GP phase is not neces-
ties can be expected because of residual price over the short term, however. Dur- sarily general (i.e., exercises speci-
fatigue. Emphasis is essentially reversed ing each accumulation block, athletes ficity) but rather less specific.
during the subsequent restitution block: must be able to tolerate high-volume • SP: This is a relatively high-volume
Strength-training volume load is loads for several consecutive weeks. This phase in which the exercises selec-
markedly reduced, whereas the volume can be particularly problematic without tion becomes more specific to the
load of work allocated to another quality the systematic application of restorative sport performance. As with the GP,
(e.g., speed and technique) is increased and regenerative measures. this phase can be used to aid the ath-
moderately. If implemented skillfully, lete in raising work capacity but in a
the athlete’s performance capabilities re- In all cases, convergence of training ef- more specific manner.
bound by virtue of a delayed training-effects, management of fatigue, and pre- • Competition: This is a lower volume,
fect phenomenon, allowing new levels of vention of stagnation or OT should be higher intensity phase associated with
movement speed and technical execution the bottom-line goals of periodized very specific exercise selections. The
to be achieved. The athlete can then pro- training. Simply put, the respective athlete can stabilize or improve tech-
ceed to the next sequence of blocks with phases should potentiate the effects of nique while improving performance
progressively stronger stimuli. others, in much the same way that sport variables specific to the sport, for ex-
coaches use a play or scheme to “set up” ample, raising strength or power lev-
In contrast to the concurrent approach another. The consensus arising from the els for sprinting or basketball. A spe-
used in many basic and intermediate literature is to organize training pro- cial aspect of the competition phase is
programs, sequenced training is a signifi- grams into 4-week periods, which seem peaking (for climatic sports), during
cant departure (i.e., developing various to be an optimal biological window for which a taper allows sports perfor-

mance attributes to increase to peak
levels (likely as a result of fitness ver-
sus fatigue phenomena).
The length of time spent in each phase

depends upon the (a) level and age of the
athlete, (b) previous training history, (c)
type of sport, and (d) length of the peri-
od. It is important to understand that
these phases can be manipulated in a
manner to fit most sports situations, in-
cluding seasonal sports.
Using these basic concepts, my col-

leagues and I developed several models
Figure 3. Model 3 (1995). * = 4 week concentrated loading phase; ** = 1 week over-
for periodization programs dealing with
reaching phase; T = testosterone; T:C = testosterone: cortisol ratio.
strength-power training. The first of
these models was developed and used
with athletes in late 1977 and early 1978 markedly. This phase is largely uni-
by Harold O’Bryant, who describes this directional (mostly resistance train- Thus, this model starts with a high vol-
model (and others) in his doctoral dis- ing is performed) and is usually part ume and moves to a lower volume in a
sertation, and a first paper was subse- of a GP. stepwise fashion (not linear) offsetting
quently published (13) describing the • Basic strength phase. This phase increases in TI. Although day-to-day
very rudiments of this model on a meso- usually lasts 4 to 8 weeks and is of variation is not as necessary with ab-
cycle level (several weeks). This model moderate volume typically charac- solute beginners, the use of this model
was based on several factors, including terized by repetitions of 3 to 5 per with athletes has always included heavy
arguments made by Tchinene, Haare, set. The primary purpose of this and light days, thus volume load “undu-
Matveyev, and Verkoshansky. Essential- phase was to raise maximum lates” across a week and throughout the
ly (on a mesocycle level) there are 4 strength levels, particularly in com- entire mesocycle (7). It is still my opin-
phases involved (Figure 2): plex multi-joint movements. ion that this model is the superior train-
• Strength-power phase. This phase ing method for novice strength-power
• Concentrated loading (strength-en- usually lasts 4 weeks. Volume is low- athletes. We used this basic model in the
durance) phase. This phase usually ered and is typically characterized by development of several national and in-
lasts 4 weeks. Originally we termed 1 to 3 repetitions per set. The types ternational level athletes, including Joe
this a hypertrophy phase; however, of exercises can become more Majacyzk (20-m + shotput) and Mike
the purpose as described then and power–speed oriented if power and Davis (silver-medal winner in the 1983
now was to make positive alterations speed are a primary goal. If the Pan Games, Olympic Games 1984, 100-
in body composition and, more im- mesocycle ended just before an im- kg weightlifting). Kyle Pierce (U.S.
portantly, to alter the athlete’s high- portant contest, then a peaking Weightlifting Development Center,
intensity exercise endurance—essen- phase or taper was added in which Louisiana State University, Shreveport)
tially, to get the athlete into shape. the volume was lowered and either still uses this basic model in the develop-
We observed (as did Verkoshansky) the TI or the EI was raised in accor- ment of young weightlifters. Shortly
that this phase resulted in the im- dance with the demands of the sport. after this model was developed (1977
provement of certain attributes (i.e., In theory, the peaking phase takes and 1978), it became quite apparent to
body composition and strength en- advantages of the fatigue-fitness re- us that greater variation in training was
durance). However, maximum lationship (see question 3). necessary for advanced athletes, particu-
strength, particularly power and • Active rest. This phase usually lasts 1 larly strength-power athletes.
speed, did not always improve and week and allows the athlete to recov-
often decreased among power ath- er physiologically and psychological- Between 1995 and 1997, we developed a
letes. We further noted that after a ly. This can be low-volume, moder- model of training that we still use with
few weeks of normal training, both ate-intensity resistance training; advanced athletes today. This model
maximum strength and particularly some other activity or a combina- uses the concepts of concentrated load-
power and speed often increased tion. ing and planned OR (Figure 3). Briefly,

planned OR deals with sudden and
marked increases in loading. Typically
this loading lasts one week and may be
termed concentrated loading. Power and
speed are often decreased significantly
during periods of concentrated loading.
However, after a few weeks of normal
training performance can significantly
rebound. If a taper is added to the end of
the mesocycle, then performance may
increase even further. This model is di-
vided into several 4-week blocks (sum-
mated microcycles). The first block be-
gins with a concentrated load (sets of
10), again to ensure the athlete is in
shape to train. The athlete then returns
to normal training (4 weeks) with a
strength-emphasis block. In the next 2
blocks, a planned OR paradigm is used.
The concept is to periodically try to
boost performance through supercom-
pensation (stimulus, fatigue, recovery,
adaptation) through the use of the OR Figure 4. The classic model for periodization using concepts of the Selye’s General
phase and return to normal training and Adaptation Syndrome applied to training technology and theory.The exer-
a taper (12). In consideration of the type cise stress is introduced and is followed by an alarm reaction, a period of
of sport, exercise selection can vary adaptation, a performance plateau, and then a need for rest before the next
through each block depending upon the cycle of training starting at a higher level of function.
parameters of the sport (i.e., strength
emphasis or power emphasis). We have his theory have shown that stress is not been termed the alarm reaction. If the
used variations of this method in the general but very specific in its pattern organism survives, a period of adapta-
training of several national and interna- and responses. These new findings fur- tion to the stimulus follows for a dura-
tional sprinters, jumpers, throwers, and ther support the training principle of tion, leading to a plateau effect. One has
weightlifters, both in the United States specificity, indicating that stimuli are a limited time on this plateau of adapta-
and Great Britain. For example, Meg not a general phenomenon either. Nev- tion to the timulus if it is above the pres-
Stone used a variation of this method in ertheless, Selye’s GAS provided a theo- timuli level. Then, if the stimulus is not
developing the strength-power training retical framework for the need of varia- removed or reduced dramatically, a dra-
program for Jonathan Edwards (gold- tion in training and, more importantly, matic fall-off can occur, caused by the
medal winner, triple jump) leading up to the need for the withdrawal of the stres- organism’s inability to continue to toler-
the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. sor at some point in time to allow the or- ate the level of stress experienced. In
ganism to survive. This was an impor- human terms, this means that if the
Question 3: What is the Physio- tant concept in the evolution of the stress of training is not altered or re-
logical Basis Behind the Con- training principle of “progressive over- duced, or if active rest is not allowed,
cept of Periodization? load” developed in part by the work of then the athlete can become sick, in-
Thomas DeLorme (who just recently jured, experience acute OT, or worse.
Kraemer: In general, the physiological passed away at age of 85) during the This was based on the potential biologi-
basis for periodization historically ap- post–World War II years, focusing on cal backdrop for the concept of peri-
pears to be based on the classic findings the physical rehabilitation of wounded odization in that there is an alarm phase
of Hans Selye, a Canadian endocrinolo- soldiers (2). Thus, GAS has been written followed by an adaptation to a stimulus,
gist who studied various types of biolog- about extensively and is in almost every followed by a plateau of performance
ical stressors to organisms and coined textbook on resistance training. It starts and then staleness or sickness if rest is
the concept of the “general adaptation with the introduction of the stimulus not provided. The programmed rest
syndrome” (GAS; see Figure 4) (26, 27). that is novel, and this results in a reduc- phase then allows one to recover and get
Ultimately, subsequent studies testing tion in performance during what has ready to undertake a new cycle of train-

ing but from a higher level of adaptation
than in the previous cycle. A new cycle is
started, and the same series of events un-
fold, but ultimately higher and higher
plateaus of performance and adaptation
are achieved leading up to one’s genetic
potential for a particular variable. Key to
this principle were again a number of
factors, including a certain period of
adaptation (e.g., 6 to 8 weeks), a plateau
(e.g., 1 to 2 weeks), and exhaustion or
death of the organism if the stimulus
was not removed because of the inability
to continue to adapt to the stress. Thus,
the withdrawal of the stimulus was
needed and to provide relief. The con-
cept of planned cycles with rest and vari-
ation in the exercise-training stimulus
are key to the concept of periodization
(29, 31).
In addition, we have found that the ex-

tension of “size principle” of motor-unit
recruitment is also important to under- Figure 5. A generic total spectrum is represented in this graphic representation of a
standing the biology of periodization theoretical motor unit that has a full array of motor units. RM=repetition
maximum.
(4). The basis of this is related to the
variation of loading resulting in differ-
ent recruitment patterns of muscle. Not patterns of motor units may mediate at all; thus, speed and power activities
all motor units are used for every “set, high-power outputs that require both are accomplished by some level of use of
rep, resistance” in a workout. The varia- force and velocity adjustments. There higher threshold type 1 motor units.
tion in the recruitment of motor units is are even cases of exception to size princi-
vital for providing variation in the stim- ple to augment the speed of recruitment In other words, each motor unit has a
ulus to the muscle-mass recruitment. of the high-threshold motor units by in- given number of muscle fibers associat-
Thus, on a light day, one will not be re- hibition of the lower threshold motor ed with it. This ranges from slow motor
cruiting the same motor units as on a units. Variation in the resistances used, units with low thresholds and few fibers
heavy day, thereby allowing such higher the volume of exercise, and the metabol- at the lower end of a spectrum to high-
motor units active recovery. Although ic demands will create different patterns threshold motor units with many large
this relates to the physiological disposi- of motor unit recruitment supporting type 2 fibers at the upper end of the
tion of the individual, the concept ap- the concept of variation in training. spectrum and mixes in between. These
plies. In Figure 5 you can see a graphic Higher motor units do not like to be re- fibers contain either type 1 or type 2
representation of the size principle as peatedly activated, leading to various muscle fibers and are of various sizes and
applied to recruitment of motor units. types of motor unit recruitment patterns recruitment thresholds. Recruitment
Each circle represents a group of muscle in lower threshold motor units (e.g., starts with the lower motor units and
fibers recruited by a motor neuron. On asynchronous recruitment patterns). goes to higher and higher electrochemi-
the basis of size principle, many sizing Not all motor units have all the ranges of cal threshold as motor units are recruit-
factors can come into play: the size of capability, as this total spectrum unit ed to meet the demands. Not all individ-
the electrical threshold, the size of the portrayed in Figure 5. For example, uals have the same number of motor
motor unit, the size of the fibers, etc. In higher threshold motor units may be units, owing to the differences in force
general, motor units are small and large, lost with aging. With some athletes such and power production capabilities we
and as one ramps up to maximal force as cross-country runners, more type 1 see in different muscles and human be-
production, more and more motor units motor units may exist in a locomotion ings. With periodization, the goals of
are recruited to meet the demands of the muscle, and only a very small percentage using different motor unit recruitment
external load. In addition, specialized of type 2 motor units would be present if patterns is vital, as muscle-mass recruit-

ed and total work done has dramatic im- periods of training that promote grams as well. It can be easy to get into
plications on a host of physiological power followed by periods of train- a specificity trap with elite athletes by
support systems and adaptations that ing that emphasize speed of move- excluding many viable GP methods. In
take place outside the muscle tissue it- ment will tend to increase the poten- principle, it is true that such methods
self. Such recruitment patterns dictate tial for improvements in speed. play a limited role for qualified ath-
cardiovascular stress, endocrine respons- letes. In practice, however, we run the
es, immune responses and repair, and Pendlay: Hans Selye described the GAS risk of monotony and stagnation prob-
connective tissue responses, to mention as consisting of an alarm stage, a resis- lems if we do not prescribe enough
a few major systems. Remember, all tance-development stage, and an ex- stimulus variation. In my experience,
physiological responses to resistance haustion stage (5). If the same training this is where training tactics based on
training start with the workout resis- stimulus is presented again and again, it “acute after-effect” phenomena (e.g.,
tances and muscle mass used to perform will eventually either fail to elicit an postactivation potentiation) are most
the exercises (16). This leads to a very alarm or will lead to exhaustion. In a pe- useful. Examples of these include com-
specific pattern of physiological re- riodized program, training stress is var- bination and hybrid exercises, complex
sponse to a workout and training pro- ied over time to continue to reach the re- training, wave loading, and so on,
gram. Variation is a key to the progres- sistance-development stage but not to where one type of stimulus is used to
sion of resistance training. reach the exhaustion stage. enhance impulse or power output in
another. In this way, movements that
Finally, periodization is the needed con- Plisk: Selye’s GAS concept seems to be are not mechanically specific to an ath-
cept, as it relates to the principle of train- the prevailing theory upon which peri- lete’s sport can still be used to augment
ing variation and further defines the prin- odization is based. The fitness-fatigue the effects of those that are.
ciple and method of progressive overload model is another important theory with
with long-term training (13, 16). important implications for program Stone: There are several underlying
planning and management. I will limit mechanistic concepts and theories that
O’Bryant: my comments to some practical consid- can be discussed in this context.
• Physiological fatigue can act as a erations, as I am not as qualified to ad-
stimulus. When this stimulus is fol- dress these issues as are Drs Kraemer, • Selye’s GAS. Although GAS was not
lowed by adequate recovery, physio- O’Bryant, and Stone. originally created to deal directly
logical adaptations occur (biochemi- with sports, many of its tenants do
cal, cellular structure, etc) which From a chronic programming stand- help explain some of the observed
may include increases in muscle hy- point, we should appreciate that the phenomena associated with physical
pertrophy, energy reserves, and other GAS becomes more of a specific adapta- training. Although we know now
changes, both muscular and neuro- tion syndrome as each athlete’s develop- that the GAS does not explain all re-
logical. Repeated over time, the cu- ment advances (in keeping with the said actions to stress (reactions to stress
mulative effect can lead to enhanced principle). In novices, however, basic or are not necessarily that general),
physical performance. However, in- nonspecific training methods can yield GAS can serve as a model to help un-
adequate recovery leads to accumu- relatively broad improvements in per- derstand the need for variation in
lated fatigue and can be counterpro- formance. This has important ramifica- sports training. This concept basical-
ductive. Periodized training is tions when interpreting the research be- ly deals with the idea that stress (in
designed to properly manage fatigue cause many studies involve previously small amounts) can cause beneficial
and recovery to maximize the benefi- untrained athletes, and thus results can- adaptation but can also become ac-
cial effects of supercompensation not be generalized to advanced popula- cumulative, and that if total stressors
while reducing the potential for OT. tions (fortunately, the body of evidence become too great the normal adap-
• Sequenced training can lead to im- examining intermediate and advanced tive systems no longer operate effi-
proved physical performance. Pro- subjects is steadily growing). It also ciently and breakdown eventually
gression from one type of training means that training methods used by ad- occurs. Thus, to survive and adapt,
may enhance the benefits obtained vanced athletes are not necessarily the an organism needs periodic breaks
from subsequent training of a differ- best way for beginners to become ad- for stressors. The breakdown process
ent type. Training protocols that vanced. Some coaches and athletes do for athletes is believed to progress
promote basic strength followed by not believe or understand that. through various stages such as accu-
protocols that focus more on power mulative fatigue, OR, and OT, with
will tend to increase the potential for This issue has important implications each stage having more serious con-
improvements in power. Likewise, when planning advanced training pro- sequences and taking longer for re-

covery. Thus, relief (i.e., variation) tigue model proposes that they riods that are vital for recovery and
from constant or overwhelming have opposing and antagonistic ef- restoration of physiological mechanisms
stress is paramount. Garhammer (5) fects. This has an important impli- and body structures (e.g., muscle
has presented an excellent descrip- cation: Performance is optimized fibers). Another key is the variation in
tion of the adaptation of GAS to resulting from a training process loading and intensity over time. We
sports training. that minimizes the fatigue respons- have found that if you provide complete
• Stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adap- es to training and exercise stimuli days of rest even with very heavy lifting
tation. This mechanistic theory while maximizing the fitness re- (multiple 1RMs) or even high-volume
deals with the concept of supercom- sponses. It should also be noted training, OT can be avoided (6). Others
pensation, which is basically an that this theory is the basis of a may have their impressions, but it is as
adaptation to an appropriate stimu- taper effect. simple to me as rest at the right time of
lus. Basically, an organism is exposed • Sequenced potentiation. Associated the training cycle. one have written ex-
to a stimulus that, while causing fa- with the concentrated loading theo- tensively on how one can make mistakes
tigue, sets in motion underlying ry is the concept of sequenced train- in program design by allowing the rate
physiological mechanisms (i.e., bio- ing and one training phase potenti- of progression to move up too quickly in
chemical, hormonal), which, during ating the subsequent phase. For its stress level (19). Beyond making dra-
the recovery process, cause adapta- example, Wilson et al. (19) demon- matic mistakes in designing the workout
tions allowing the organisms to “per- strated that among heavy weight- protocol, rest is the key.
form” at a higher level. These poten- trained subjects with reasonable
tial supercompensations could maximum strength levels, switching Again, operationally one can recover
include increases in energy stores, to high-power training (squats) im- from acute OT that may not show a re-
hypertrophy, neuromuscular adapta- proved a variety of performance vari- bound in performance and might be
tions, or hormonal alterations. ables beyond those of continued termed staleness. But such staleness
These physiological adaptations heavy weight training. Similar obser- may well be the precursor to chronic
would then lead to enhanced perfor- vations have been made among elite OT if not addressed. The key is to pro-
mance. This concept is not limited weightlifters (9) and American colle- vide rest and the removal of the OT
to a single exercise-stimulus response giate football players (6). This sug- stimuli in the workout program. Be-
but may be viewed on a longer basis gests that for increasing power and cause OT has many different faces relat-
producing training adaptations. For speed, a training and periodized/ ed to its etiology, the coach must care-
example, Verkoshansky (17, 18) variation sequence emphasizing fully view the athlete on holistic terms.
noted that a concentrated load of strength, power, and speed may pro- In addition, we often focus so much on
strength or strength-endurance duce superior results. the weight room that we forget to real-
training for several weeks could re- ize that the sport coach can do more
sult in a diminished speed-strength Question 4: Periodization is damage to quality workouts and create
(power) capability among track-and- Often Suggested to Allow for OT in arising from their practice de-
field athletes. Upon returning to the Avoidance of OT. What is the mands and supplemental training.
normal training, increased power Mechanism Within the Peri- Thus, in the case of true OT the key is
performance can often be observed, odized Training Model That Al- to start a rest and restoration phase in
sometimes beyond baseline values. lows for the Avoidance of OT? your training cycle while you further
Similar results have been observed How Should Training Variables analyze the situation and plan the pro-
among young weight-lifters after a be Altered in the Event that OT gression back to a baseline of expected
planned high-volume OR phase (3, Does Occur? improvement or maintenance. Sport
12) and may be linked to alterations practice and demands play a big role in
in anabolic and catabolic hormones. Kraemer: With one of the contribu- the total stress on an athlete. Although
• Fitness-fatigue relationship. Ac- tors to this roundtable and a former beyond the scope of this roundtable,
cording to this theory, sport pre- member of my laboratory group, An- psychological factors, coping skills,
paredness is defined as the summa- drew Fry and I have done many studies school learning skills, and nutrition also
tion of 2 after-effects of training on acute OT in my laboratory over the affect the total OT phenomenon.
stress: fatigue and fitness (20). In years, and the key factor in these studies
contrast to the supercompensation has been the use of complete rest to O’Bryant:
theory based on a cause-and-effect eliminate or reduce the impact of a per- Within an appropriately planned train-
relationship between these factors formance decrement being observed ing cycle, small day-to-day adjustments
(i.e., adaptation), the fitness-fa- (5–10, 19). Periodization plans rest pe- can be made to carefully manage fatigue

and recovery, maximizing the beneficial mediate rest for several weeks followed the program. As scientists, we have care-
effects (see response to previous ques- by slowly moving back to normal train- fully tried to quantify this in both spe-
tion 3) while reducing the potential for ing is a necessity (all done using careful cific and general models as being more
OT. monitoring for the signs and symp- optimal than other forms of training
toms of OT). progressions. We have tried to get be-
A more prolonged intervention is usu- yond the level of opinion and provide
ally necessary when “true” OT has oc- Question 5: There is a lot of De- some data to work with. This is key to
curred (see response to question 1). A bate in the Current Literature my approach in training-program de-
drastic reduction in training volume about Nonlinear and Linear velopment. Such data seem to support
or intensity, if not total rest for several Periodization. Can you Com- the use of very dramatically different
training sessions (up to several weeks ment About These Suggested training days, ranging from a base of 3
if not months), can be required. This Permutations of Periodization different training days, for example, to
should be followed with a gradual in- and How They May be Utilized many more with completely different
crease in training volume or intensity in the Preparation of Athletes? target goals for that training session and
over several training sessions before very little cross-over of another style of
normal training levels can be re- Kraemer: My laboratory group and training during that session to allow
sumed. collaborators over the years have used motor units to be very selectively re-
this concept out of necessity because of cruited. Thus, when we are training on
Pendlay: The variation of training its suitability for academic sports train- a heavy day, for example, with a 3 to
stress and the variation of training ing situations and ease in administra- 5RM zone for our exercises, there are
means present within a periodized tion in multi-competition sports with not a lot of light repetitions performed
program should help avoid OT. A long seasons (4, 12, 17, 20). The termi- except for needed warm-up. On light
good coach should also be mindful of nology and support that the idea that days, one never gets into the resting
how the athlete responded to the last we are periodizing the training program heavy and power recruitment patterns,
training period. For example, if the are vital, but the so-called nonlinear ap- thus providing a very different physio-
preparatory period before the last proach is just a way that appears to be logical experience for the workout that
competition was successful, a coach more dramatic in its temporal variation day.
might plan a slightly higher volume during a microcycle than are the stan-
for the present preparatory period. Or, dard classical methods. We have had Here is an example of a nonlinear peri-
if a coach has an athlete coming out of much success here at the University of odized training program that has been
a preparatory period who is showing Connecticut over the past couple of developed to maintain variation in the
signs of impending OT, he or she years in our research and with sport training stimulus. The nonlinear pro-
might lower the volume of this com- teams using this general approach. Our gram allows for variation in the intensi-
petitive period as compared with the strength coach, Andrea Hudy, has used ty and volume within each week over
last one to allow for regeneration and the undulating format design of train- the course of the training program
plan a longer than usual transition pe- ing with our women’s basketball pro- mesocycle (e.g., 16 weeks). The change
riod after the competition. In the gram and has had a great deal of success in the intensity and volume of training
event of OT, volume and intensity that we hope to quantify in the near fu- will vary within the 7- to 14-day rota-
should be lowered, and the means of ture in research and journal articles. I tion periods. An example of a nonlinear
training should be changed. The goal like to think that this type of periodiza- periodized training program over a 16-
of training should be the same as a tion model evolved in the academic cal- week mesocycle would be:
transition period: to preserve general endars with student athletes and sports
conditioning while allowing rest and that were not a so-called single-compe- Monday
recuperation. tition peaking sport. Nevertheless, the 4 sets of 12 to 15RM
variation in the 7- to 10-day cycle is ei-
Stone: See the answers to question 3. ther planned or can be reactive to the Wednesday
Training variables are altered in a man- changing terrain of the athlete’s health, 4 sets of 8 to 10RM
ner consistent with the cycle level (i.e., schedule, practice demands, etc. For ex-
macro, meso, etc)—the primary por- ample, if the coach has a hard practice, a Friday
tion of a periodized training scheme, planned power day may not be optimal, 3 to 4 sets of 4 to 6RM
which minimizes the OT potential, is so one can switch in the session to a
at the microcycle level (i.e., day-to-day light day for local muscular endurance. Monday
variation). If true OT does occur, im- This gives a great deal of flexibility to 4 to 5 sets of 1 to 3RM

This protocol uses a 4-day rotation with
1 day of rest between workouts. Table 2
Example Training Day Continuum for Strength and Power Loadings for
The variation in training is much greater a Nonlinear Periodized Training Program. Any 3-Repetition Range Can
within the week. One can easily see that Be Used and is Specific to the Type of Exercise and Equipment
Being Used in a Training Program
intensity spans over a maximum of a
14RM range (possible 1RM sets versus
Training zone (RM) Intensity of training day
15RM sets in the week cycle). This span
in training variation appears to be as ef- 1–3 Very, very heavy to very heavy
fective as linear programs. One can also 4–6 Very heavy to heavy
add a “power” training day where loads 7–9 Heavy to moderate
may be from 30 to 45% of 1RM and re- 10–12 Moderate to light
lease of the mass is allowed if no deceler- 13–15 Light to very light
ation exists with the movement of the >15 Very light to very, very light
joint or joints. In fact, we have a whole
continuum of choice for the nonlinear Power Day Training Day: Plyo’s, medicine ball exercises, high velocity, and light
workout possibilities that can be cycled percentage using 3–6 repetition limits for attaining peak velocities and maximum
though over a 14-day microcycle, de- accelerations in the workout. RM indicates repetition maximum.
pending upon the goals of the athlete
(Table 2).
form it on Wednesday and continue and intensity that occur within a mi-
Different from the linear programs is with the rotation sequence. In this way, crocycle—also represented by microcy-
the practice that one trains the different no workout stimulus is missed in the cles in a mesocycle and mesocycles in a
components of muscle size and strength training program. One can also say that macrocycle—exhibit a nonlinear pat-
within the same week. Different from a mesocycle will be completed when a tern. Therefore, all periodization is
the linear methods, nonlinear programs certain number of workouts are com- characterized by periods of high inten-
attempt to train different adaptational pleted (e.g., 48) and do not use training sity or volume alternating with periods
aspects of the neuromuscular system weeks to set the program length. of lower intensity or volume to facili-
within the same microcycle. Thus, one tate recovery and to maximize perfor-
is working at different physiological Again, the primary exercises are typical- mance (6).
adaptations together within the same 7- ly periodized, but one can also use a 2-
to 14-day period of the 16-week mesocycle program to vary the small-muscle Pendlay: Periodization is, by nature,
cycle. A rest or restoration cycle then group exercises. For example, in the “tri- nonlinear. A particular periodized
follows this training cycle. This appears ceps push-down” one could rotate be- training program appears linear only if
possible and may be more conducive to tween the moderate (8 to 10RM) and it is viewed in too small a timeframe.
many individuals’ schedules, especially the heavy (4 to 6RM) cycle intensities. Periodized programs can have vastly
when competitions, travel or other This would provide the hypertrophy different frequencies of undulation:
schedule conflicts, practice demands, needed for such isolated muscles of a One may appear nonlinear when
sickness, etc, can make the traditional joint but also provide the strength need- viewed for only a month, whereas an-
linear method structures difficult to ad- ed to support heavier workouts of the other may appear linear unless viewed
here to and train large groups of ath- large-muscle groups. for more than a year. For example,
letes. Chandler (2) noted that the program
O’Bryant: Some have described linear presented by Stone (6) had been de-
In this program, one just rotates periodization as variation of the TI over scribed as linear but would appear
through the different protocols. The several weeks of training with nonlin- nonlinear if one were to view repetitive
workout rotates between very heavy, ear periodization as variation of the TI applications of the program. Poloquin
heavy, moderate, and light training ses- and volume over a week with differ- (4) asserts that linear overloading is
sions. If one misses the Monday work- ences from day to day (1). However, by hardly advisable for the athlete and of-
out, the rotation order is pushed for- definition, any periodization should be fers an undulating approach, yet his
ward, meaning one performs the rotated considered nonlinear. Although the program could be termed linear if
workout scheduled. For example, if the general loading process (with respect to viewed for only 4 weeks. Although
light 12 to 15 workout was scheduled initial training levels) overtime may be there are data that show periodized
for Monday and you miss it, you per- considered linear, variations in volume programs, which both undulate (3)

and do not undulate (7) within the ex- Stone: By definition, linear periodiza- manipulated (i.e., macro, meso, micro,
perimental time frame, are superior to tion is not possible. Therefore, linear pe- daily, summated microcycles).
nonperiodized programs, the optimal riodization cannot be used in any popu- • The degree of undulation depends
frequency of undulation for a peri- lation because it is not possible to upon the type of sport (i.e., seasonal, cli-
odized program is likely to be specific achieve (16). Part of the confusion as to matic, etc).
to the athlete. terminology stems from 2 common er- • The degree of undulation depends
rors: upon the level of athlete with the degree
Plisk: The term linear periodization of undulation increasing with the ad-
has been used to describe training cy- The first is equating volume of training vancement of the athlete. ♦
cles involving gradual, progressive in- with repetitions. Although repetitions
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William J. Kraemer, PhD, is currently a

full professor in the Human Performance
Laboratory in Department of Kinesiology
with a joint appointment as a full profes-
sor in the Department of Physiology and
Neurobiology at the University of Con-
necticut, Storrs, CT.
Harold O’Bryant, PhD, is currently the

Exercise Science Program Director and
also directs the Biomechanics Laboratory
at Appalachian State University, Boone,
NC.
Glenn Pendlay, MS, is the head coach for

the Wichita Falls Weightlifting Team
based in Wichita Falls,TX.
Steven Plisk, MS, CSCS, *D, is the Sports

Performance Director at Velocity Sports
Performance in Norwalk, CT.
Michael H. Stone, PhD, is currently the

Head of Sports Physiology for the
USOC. Previously he was Chair of Sport
at Edinburgh University, Edinburgh,
Scotland.

Roundtable Discussion: Periodization of Training

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© National Strength and Conditioning Association

Volume 26, Number 1, page 50–69

summary Macrocycle, Mesocycle, Micro- One is also dramatically challenged by

T training has been a topic of discus-

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Monday, Wednesday Tuesday, Thursday Friday

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In terms of long-term developmental

58 February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal

The length of time spent in each phase

Using these basic concepts, my col-

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In addition, we have found that the ex-

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William J. Kraemer, PhD, is currently a

Harold O’Bryant, PhD, is currently the

Glenn Pendlay, MS, is the head coach for

Steven Plisk, MS, CSCS, *D, is the Sports

Michael H. Stone, PhD, is currently the

February 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 69

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