PREPOSITION, PHRASAL VERB, NONREFERENTIAL IT AND THERE AS A

SUBJECT

ADVANCED GRAMMAR
Lecturer : Dr. SYAHFITRI PURNAMA, S.H., M.H., M.PD.,
Created by:

NO NAME NPM
1 HERMAWAN JULIYANTO 20187479011
2 AJI SUCIPTO 20187479167

PROGRAM STUDI PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS

FAKULTAS PASCASARJANA
UNIVERSITAS INDRAPRASTA PGRI
2019
 CHAPTER 1
PREPOSITION

A. The Form of Preposition

1. Basic Characteristics
a. Making noun adverbial
● Example : Thomas arrives home at night.
The example here we know that the word home is a noun. It is modified by the
preposition at follow by other noun which is night and it call noun
adverbial.
b. Making noun modifiers
Example : The principle of Vocational High School Prestasi Prima.
As we can see the word principle is noun followed by preposition of. This is what
we call noun modifier.
c. Following verb
Example : Amar come at noon and leave at night.
It is clearly stated that the verb come and leave is followed by preposition at.
d. Following adjectives
Example : She is good at English and Math.
The word good in the sentence is adjective and later followed by preposition at.
e. Stranded preposition on WH question form
Example : Whom are you speaking to?
Preposition does not always come before noun but is also possible to be away from
noun as the example above.
f. Following a Noun Phrase
Example : The gift is for us. / Do you give that to me?
Noun phrase for pronoun comes after the preposition for and to.

2. Basic Characteristics
 a. Co-occurrence with certain Verbs, Adjectives and Noun
There are several prepositions which must follow the certain verbs, adjectives and
nouns. The examples of such are:

No Verb + Prep Adj + Prep

1 rely on To be dependent on
2To detract from To be free from / of
3To consist of To be afraid of
4To substitute for To be sorry for
5To part with To be content with

b. Same verb with two different prepositions

Provide for : You should provide for your old age now.
The sentence above means preparing something because of certain condition.

Provide Noun Phrase with : The new Harris hotel provide us with best
services overall.
The sentence above means giving the service better.

Thus, we can carry out the conclusion that both sentences have different
meaning though they are using the same verb.
c. Different preposition with same verb
Competes with : Joe competes with his older brother too much.
Competes against : Joe compotes against his older brother too much.
The sentence means Joe and his older brother compete in some certain event too
much. Thus, the preposition here has less or even no different meaning. It
has same meaning.
d. Possible for some verb to be optionally followed by a preposition
I believe that. It wasn’t at all what she had planned. (no preposition)
I believe in that. It wasn’t at all what she had planned on.
There is a different meaning, for the preposition has the effect of lessening the
transitivity of the verb creating a distance between the verb and its
arguments.
e. Deletion of Preposition
it is possible to delete the preposition. Sometimes the deletion is optional; at other
times, the preposition must be deleted.
1) Optional Deletion
● When the preposition for expresses a period of time
Example : They have lived here (for) 12 years.
● When the preposition on is used before days of the week (when the
day is used alone or when the day of the week modifies another
temporal noun such as morning, afternoon, night.)
Example : Zahid went cross-country skiing (on) Saturday.
He brought a new pair of skis (on) Friday night.
● In responses to question that would sign temporal use of in, at, on or
for.
Example : How long have you lived here? (For) two years.
When do you wake up? (At) 6 A.M.
2) Obligatory Deletion
● When the temporal noun phrase contains a determiner used
deictically. (It can be seen from the perspective of the speaker such
as last, next, this) or when the head noun of the noun phrase
contains before, after, next, last, or this as part of its meaning
(yesterday, tomorrow, today, tonight)
Example : I was so busy (on) last Friday.
We will be in London (on) tonight.
● When the temporal noun phrase contains a universal quantifier like
every or all.
Example : We stayed in Harris Hotel (for) all week.
● When a locative noun, such as home or downtown, or the pro-
adverbs here and there are used with a verb of motion or direction
 Example : We went (to) home.
Richard walks (to) here every day.

B. The Form of Preposition

1. On abstract definition versus prototypes.
The very difficult thing on learning the prepositions is their meaning for language
separating semantic territory in different ways.
a. Locating Object in Space
Locating an object in space involves two or more entities. The
relationship between the two entities is inherently asymmetrical, in that one
entity is selected for foregrounding while the other entity serves as a
background. The former has been variously referred to as the figure, or
trajectory and the latter is called the ground or landmark.
● At denotes place as a point of orientation.
Example : Meet me at the corner.
● On denotes physical contract between the trajectory and landmark,
necessitating viewing the landmark as a one-dimensional space (a line)
or two-dimensional space (a surface)
Example : Do not sit on the desk.
● In denotes the enclosure of the trajectory in the landmark and,
therefore, views the landmark as two-or three-dimensional space (a
surface or a volume).
● From denotes separation from a pint of orientation.
● Off denotes separation from contact with a line or surface.
● Out of denotes separation from inside of a landmark.
By and with are the proximity prepositions which are adjacent to at on the
diagram because they locate the trajectory in relation to a point of
orientation, just a at does.
● By denotes the idea of “connection”
● With denotes both a point of orientation and the idea of connection but
may do so in a more abstract way to mean association and / or
 accompaniment, in its spatial sense, with can occur only with animate
nouns as a landmark.
Through and about require the landmark to be seen as a surface or a volume
and are therefore positioned on the diagram next to in.
● Through structures space as a tunnel or channel.
Example : Take the first path through the woods.
● About denotes spatial movement in any direction.
Example : He walked about the room searching for where he
had left his keys.
Under and over are vertical space prepositions.
● Under denotes a trajectory that is at a lower point than a landmark.
Example : Don’t sit under the apple tree with anyone else but
me.
● Over denotes a trajectory that is at a higher point than a landmark.
Example : We peered over the fence.

CHAPTER 2

PHRASAL VERB

A. Background

In English, subject and verb are the core of the sentence. When we write a
sentence, we must consider both of them. Our sentence becomes a fragment if the
subject or the verb is missing. That is why subject and verb are important.

Beside one word verb, there is another verb that contains of more than one
word. The verb that consists of two words is called two words verb. If the verbs
consist of three words, the verbs are called three words verbs. Both of them usually
named as phrasal verbs. The Aims This paper has some aims which should be
understood. Those are:

● To know the definition of phrasal verbs

 ● To know its pattern in each tenses
● To know the kinds of phrasal verbs

B. CONTENT

Definition

Phrasal verbs are combinations of a verb and an adverb or preposition in which the
meaning cannot always be understood as the sum of its parts (Thomas R. Beyer
2007: xviii). For example, phrasal verb in “run up a hill” is different from phrasal
verb in “run up a bill”. The first run up still has an original meaning run and up. It
is just a sum of the meaning. However, run up in “run up a bill” brings new
meaning which is different from original meaning. In this condition, run up is
similar with “be in arrears”. The second run up is a phrasal verb.

Differ from Bayer’s opinion L. G. Alexander defines phrasal verbs as combinations

of a verb and a particle or preposition in which the meaning could be idiomatic or
non-idiomatic. Back to example above, Bayer only call run up in “run up a bill” as
phrasal verb, but doesn’t run up in “run up a hill”. In Alexander’s view, run up in
“run up a hill” is included in phrasal verb.

Here are some definitions of phrasal verbs from internet.

Usingenglish.com defines that:

“Phrasal verbs are idiomatic expressions, combining verbs and prepositions to

make new verbs whose meaning is often not obvious from the dictionary definitions
of the individual words.”

Wikipedia states that:

“The term phrasal verb is commonly applied to two or three distinct but related
constructions in English: a verb and a particle and/or a preposition co-occur
forming a single semantic unit. This semantic unit cannot be understood based upon
the meanings of the individual parts in isolation, but rather it can be taken as a
whole. In other words, the meaning is non-compositional and thus unpredictable.”

Gingersoftware.com defines that:

“A phrasal verb is a combination of words (a verb + a preposition or verb +adverb)

that when used together, usually take on a different meaning to that of the original
verb.”

Pattern in Tenses

Phrasal verbs act as a verb in sentence. It follows the rules of verb in each tense.
Look at the table to understand the pattern.

Tenses Pattern Example

present simple S + V1 + O The teacher calls off the exam.

present continuous S + to be + Ving + O The teacher is calling off the

exam.

present perfect S + has/have+ V3 + O The teacher has called

off the exam.

present perfect continuous S + has/have + been + Ving + O The teacher has

been called off the exam.

Past simple S + V2 + O The teacher called off the exam.

Past continuous S + to be (was/were)+ Ving + O The teacher was

calling off the exam.

Past perfect S + had + V3 + O The teacher had called off the

exam.

Past perfect continuous S + had + been + Ving + O The teacher had been
calling off the exam.
Future simple S + will+ V1 + O The teacher will call off the
exam. With modal S + modal + V1 + O The teacher must call off the
exexam.

C. Kinds of Phrasal Verb

Since phrasal verb is one type of verbs, it can be divided into groups: transitive and
intransitive.

Transitive verbs are verbs that need an object to complete the meaning.

Example: He struck the board.

You push the door.

I have to look after my sick grandmother.

Intransitive verbs are verbs that do not need an object because they are
understandable

Example: The cat slept.

The water boils.

The car broke down because it was overheat.

Transitive phrasal verbs could be classified as separable phrasal verbs and

inseparable phrasal verbs.

Separable phrasal verbs are verbs that can be inserted by an object. The object is
placed between the verb and the adverb or preposition, beside it is placed after the
adverb or preposition. In separable phrasal verbs, the object can take in both places.

Example: I picked out three sweaters for you.

I picked three sweaters out for you.

They have called off the game.

They have called the game off.

Bella need to figure out the problem.

Bella need to figure the problem out.

Inseparable phrasal verbs are verbs that cannot be inserted by an object

Example: I ran into my old friend in the station.

She looked for her bracelet.

She waited on the guest well.

Notice that inseparable phrasal verbs become weird or peculiar if the object is
placed between the verb and the particle or preposition.

Example:

I ran my old friend into the station.

She looked her bracelet for.

She waited the guest on well.

It is difficult to distinguish whether a phrasal verbs is separable or inseparable. But,

there are two suggestions how to solve this problem. First, we should notice the
phrasal verb has object or not. If the phrasal verb does not have object, it must be
inseparable phrasal verbs. Then, if the phrasal verb has an object, try to place the
object between the verb and the preposition or particle. Inseparable phrasal verb
will sound strange when the object is placed between the verb and the particle or
preposition.

Phrasal verbs also could be classified base on its number of word. Commonly,
phrasal verbs consist of two words, so it is called two-word verb, but there is
phrasal verbs that consist of three words, it is called three-word verb.

All three-word verbs are inseparable. Three-word verb are two-word verb that gets
an additional word in order to be able followed by a noun. The two-word verbs are
intransitive usually.
 Example:

Two-word verb: Look out! A car is coming!

Three-word verb: Look out for the car!

Some three-word verbs do not have two-word verb equivalent. The example
above, two-word verb has same meaning with the three-word verb. It is called
equivalent. Look at the example below.

Adam looks up to his teacher much.

‘Look up to’ has similar meaning with respect. If we search for the meaning of look
up, we will find that look up is find a word in dictionary.

CHAPTER 3

NONREFERENTIAL IT AND THERE AS SUBHECTS

A. NONREFERENTIAL IT
1. Form
The form of the nonreferential it is fairly straightforward. Since nonimperative
sentences require a subject in English, it fills this function. This form therefore
acts as a subject, always taking a singular verb, usually be.
Example : It was a very blustery autumn day.
What time is it?
2. Meaning
We can say the word it is ambient and is grammatically necessary, but lexically vague.
The meaning of ambient it derives from the rest of the sentence, which makes it
 clear to the listener / reader what is being discussed. It is found commonly in
expressions of:

Time
● It is six-thirty. It is early. It will be my birthday.

It is August 28. It is Wednesday. It was 2018.

Distance
● It is about 100 miles to Boston.
It is not far to Portland.
It is just two stops on the Metro.
Weather
● It is cloudy. It it getting dark. It is 20 degrees!
It is freezing. It is going to snow. It is windy these days.
Environment
● It is never crowded at the Harris Hotel.
It gets a little rowdy on the ninth floor.
3. Meaning
As we have seen, nonreferential it occurs in a number of simple
statements and questions in English dealing with time, distance, weather, and
other environmental features. Use of nonreferential it allows such a question or
statement to be shorter and less redundant than it would be if content nouns
such as “time” and “weather” were used instead. Note that certain nouns do
exist to deal with these notions, which, when used make a statement more
formal or more precise.
Example : The time is (now) 10 o’clock.
The weather today will be fair and cool.
Such formal statements are sometimes used in television or radio
broadcasts. The issue of when speakers of English use a content noun like time
or weather versus when they use nonreferential it.
There is another nonreferential it that is used in subject position as well,
one that has an important discourse management function.
Example : It is human to err; it is divine to forgive.
However, we prefer to call this it by another name, the anticipatory it,
because its referent is established cataphorically by something that follows; in
 this case, the clause that comes at the end of the sentence. This it, therefore, has
a different function.

B. NONREFENTIAL THERE
1. Form

As pro-adverb it can be used anaphorically such as in the sentence Let’s

go to London. There we can see the crown jewels. And deictically−its meaning
is understood within the context in which it occurs. One of the manifestations of
this deictic meaning is that it is usually accompanied by some gesture such as
finger pointing. It is also stressed.
Example : There is the little boy who looks after the sheep.
Deictic there calls attention to a location relative to the speaker.
Contrast deictic there with the unstressed there in the next sentence.
Example : the is a little boy who looks after the sheep; his name is Little Boy
Blue.
The there in this second sentence does not refer to any specific location.
It is not accompanied by any typical gesture and it does not bear stress; in fact,
its vowel may well be reduced. the there in the second is called the
nonreferential there.
In addition to its phonological and nonverbal differences, the
nonreferential there has certain syntactic properties that the deictic there does
not share. One is that the nonreferential there is the subject of the clause; the
deictic there is not. To prove this, we can see that the deictic there, since it is an
adverb, can be moved to another position in the sentence. This is not true of the
nonreferential there because as the subject, it is always clause initial.
Deictic there : The little boy who looks after the sheep is THERE.
Nonreferential there : *A little boy who looks after the sheep is there.
(sequencing the words in this fashion forces a deictic interpretation to the there;
that is, such an order is not possible with nonreferential there.

2. There and Subject-Verb Agreement

As a subject, there is followed by a verb, most often the copula verb be.
In terms of subject-verb agreement, nonreferential there is much more
problematic than nonreferential it, which is always followed by a singular verb.
 In contrast, in sentences with nonreferential there subject, the verb may be
singular or plural depending on the form of the noun phrase following the be.
Example : There is a book on the table.
There are two books on the table.

3. Verbs other than Be with Nonreferential There

Even though be is by far the most frequent verb following nonreferential
there, it is by no means the only one. Other groups of intransitive verbs can
occur with nonreferential there.
● Verbs of existence or position: exist, live, dwell, stand, lie, remain, etc.
Example : There exist several alternatives.
At the edge of the forest there dwelt a troll.
● Event verbs that describe something happening, developing, or
materializing: develop, arise, appear, emerge, ensue, happen, occur, etc.
Example : There arose a conflict.
There ensued a dispute.
● Verbs of motion or direction: come, go, walk, run, fly, approach, etc.
Example : There came three suspicious-looking men down the street.
Along the river there walked an old woman.