Edexcel IGCSE Further Pure Mathematics Notes: Work in Progress

Edexcel IGCSE
Further Pure Mathematics Notes∗

Steve Cheung
13/5/2018
∗
Work in Progress
1 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

Contents
1 Basic Mensuration Formulas 4
2 Arc and Sector 6
3 Linear Programming 8
4 Quadratic Inequalities 9
5 Discriminant 10
6 Completing the Square 11

6.1 Axis of Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.2 Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.3 Recommended Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7 Basic Differentiation 15
7.1 Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.2 Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.3 Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
8 Solve by Graphing 17
9 Arithmetic Sequences and Series 18
10 Geometric Sequences and Series 19
11 Summation, Sigma Notation 22
12 Alpha Beta, Vieta’s Formulas 24
13 Simultaneous Equations 26
ax + b
14 Rational Function f (x) = 27
cx + d
15 Integration 28
15.1 Indefinite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
15.2 Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
16 Binomial Expansion 30
17 Trigonometric Equations 33
18 Trigonometric Identities 36
19 Trigonometry 40
19.1 Ambiguous Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
19.2 3D Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
20 Area under a Curve 41
21 Area between Curves 44

22 Volume by Revolution 48
22.1 y-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
23 Kinematics 57
24 Exponential and Logarithm 63

24.1 e as a mathematical constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
24.2 Cancellation Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
25 Cubic Functions 67
25.1 Remainder Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
25.2 Polynomial Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
25.3 Rational Root Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
26 Unit Vectors 71
27 Vector Diagrams 72
27.1 Ratios of Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
28 Optimisation 77
29 Related Rates 78

1 Basic Mensuration Formulas
These will be tested in ’Related Rates’ and ’Optimisation’ in Calculus. Know them!
Cone
πr2 h
Volume =
h l 3
Surface Area = πr2 + πrl, where l is the slanted height
l2 = h2 + r2
r
Cylinder
Volume = πr2 h
h
Surface Area = 2πr2 + 2πrh
Pyramid
h base area × height

Volume =
3
base area
Note: The base will usually be a square, rectangle, or triangle in this course.
A tetrahedron is another name for triangular-based pyramid.

Sphere
4πr3
r Volume =
3
Surface Area = 4πr2
Cuboid
h
Volume = l × w × h
Surface Area = 2lw + 2wh + 2lh
w

2 Arc and Sector
• arc length = rθ
1 2
• sector area = r θ
2
Questions may involve:
• find the angle, radius, arc length, sector area
• area of triangle using sine rule, isosceles triangle
• find the area of a segment.
• related rates with angle θ and its arc length, sector area, or area of segment

e.g.
20 cm
θ
O
12 cm
Figure 1
Figure 1 shows an arc P Q of a circle with centre O.

The arc P Q has length 20 cm.
The radius of the circle 12 cm.
The arc subtends angle θ.
Find the shaded area.
12θ = 20
20
θ=
12
5
=
3
1 5
sector area of OP Q = (12)2
2 3
= 120

1 5
area of 4OP Q = (12)(12) sin remember it’s in radian mode!
2 3
= 71.66937296
shaded area = sector area of OP Q − area of 4OP Q
= 120 − 71.66937296
≈ 48.3 cm (3 s.f.)

3 Linear Programming
For linear inequalities,
• set x = 0 to get y-coordinate, which will be the y-intercept. (0, y)
• set y = 0 to get x-coordinate, which will be the x-intercept. (x, 0)
e.g. 3x + 2y = 5
Set x = 0,
3(0) + 2y = 55
2y = 55
55
y= 2
→ (0, 55
2
) x-intercept
Set y = 0,
3x + 2(0) = 5
3x = 5
5
x= 3
→ ( 35 , 0) y-intercept
Join these two points with a line and extend to the border of the grid provided.
If the intersecting points NOT on the lattice points (integer coordinates), solve the equations to find
the exact coordinates.

4 Quadratic Inequalities
√ √
If x2 > p, then x > p or x < p
√ √
If x2 < p, then − p < x < p
If (x − a)(x − b) > p, then x < a or x > b, a > b
If (x − a)(x − b) < p then a < x < b
In the above cases, a is less than b. If not, switch values around so that they are.
e.g. Find the range of values for x in which x2 − 2x − 3 > 0
x2 − 2x − 3 > 0
(x − 3)(x + 1) > 0 sketch the curve

−1 3
critical values = 3, −1
x 6 −1 or x > 3
+ − +
sign diagram
−1 3
e.g. Find the range of values of x for which (2x − 3)2 < 3(2x + 3)
(2x − 3)2 < 3(2x + 3)
4x2 − 12x + 9 < 6x + 9
4x2 − 18x < 0 sketch the curve

0 4.5
2x(2x − 9) < 0
9
critical values = 0,
2
9 + − +
0<x< sign diagram
2 0 4.5
You can sketch the curve or use a sign diagram. (Use a GDC to confirm if you have time.)
You don’t have to draw both, I am just showing you their relationships.

5 Discriminant
Given ax2 + bx + c, the discriminant, denoted by the symbol ∆ (delta), is
∆ = b2 − 4ac
If a quadratic has two (different, distinct) real roots, ∆ > 0.

If a quadratic has equal roots, ∆ = 0
If a quadratic has no real roots, ∆ < 0.
e.g. Find the set of values of p for which 2x2 − px + 3 has no real roots.
∆ = b2 − 4ac
= (−p)2 − 4(2)(3)
= p2 − 24
Set ∆ < 0,
p2 − 24 < 0
p2 < 24
√
|p| < 24
√
|p| < 2 6
√ √
−2 6 < p < 2 6

6 Completing the Square
Rewrite equation in DESCENDING powers first, factorise the first coefficient out of the first two terms,
half the linear term, square it and subtract it. Distribute and collect the constant terms.
e.g. f (x) = 2x2 − 5x + 8

Find the coordinates of the vertex, state whether it is a maximum or minimum.
f (x) = 2x2 − 5x + 8

2 5
=2 x − x +8
2
2 2 !
5 5 5
= 2 x2 + 2x − + − − − +8 Recall : x2 + 2xy + y 2 = (x + y)2
4 4 4
" 2 2 #
5 5
=2 x− − +8 note the extra set of brackets
4 4
" 2 #
5 25
=2 x− − +8
4 16
2
5 25
=2 x− − +8
4 8
2
5 39
=2 x− +
4 8

5 39
The vertex is , . It is a minimum because the coefficient of x2 (=2) is positive.
4 8
5
In other words, the x-coordinate for which this minimum occurs is the x-coordinate, x = .
4
39
The minimum value is just the constant term .
8
To write out, I would skip some of the steps above.

f (x) = 2x2 − 5x + 8

2 5
=2 x − x +8
2
" 2 #
5 25
=2 x− − +8
4 16
2
5 25
=2 x− − +8
4 8
2
5 39
=2 x− +
4 8

e.g. g(x) = 6 − 3x − 4x2
(i) Find the value of x for which g(x) has a maximum,
(ii) Find the maximum value.
g(x) = −4x2 − 3x + 6 ← reorder in descending powers

2 3
= −4 x + x + 6
4
2 2 !
3 3 3
= −4 x2 + 2x + − +6
8 8 8
" 2 2 #
3 3
= −4 x + − +6
8 8
" 2 #
3 9
= −4 x + − +6
8 64
2
3 9
= −4 x + + +6 note the change of signs
8 16
2
3 105
= −4 x + +
8 16
3
(i) x = −
8
105
(ii)
16
Again, to save time.

g(x) = −4x2 − 3x + 6

2 3
= −4 x + x + 6
4
" 2 #
3 9
= −4 x + − +6
8 64
2
3 9
= −4 x + + +6
8 16
2
3 105
= −4 x + +
8 16

6.1 Axis of Symmetry
−b
Each quadratic equation is symmetric at x = . This is the result of completing the square!
2a
−b
When x = , the perfect square will tend to zero, and the remaining term must be the minimum
2a
or maximum value.
Using the two examples above,

f (x) = 2x2 − 5x + 8
−(−5) 5
x= =
2(2) 4
2
5 5 5 39
f =2 −5 +8=
4 4 4 8
g(x) = 6 − 3x − 4x2
= −4x2 − 3x + 6
I still recommend rearranging the powers in descending order, so you don’t erroneously pick out the
wrong coefficients of a, b, and c.
−(−3) 3
x= =−
2(−4) −8
2
3 3 3 105
g =6−3 −4 =
−8 −8 −8 16
We can use the results and combine it back into the form a(x − h)2 + k.
6.2 Differentiation
You can differentiate to find the maximum/minimum.

f (x) = 2x2 − 5x + 8
f 0 (x) = 4x − 5
Set f 0 (x) = 0,
4x − 5 = 0
5
x=
4 2
5 5 5 39
f =2 −5 +8=
2 2 2 8
g(x) = −4x2 − 3x + 6
g 0 (x) = −8x − 3

Set g 0 (x) = 0
−8x − 3 = 0
3
x=
−8 2
3 3 3 105
g =6−3 −4 =
−8 −8 −8 16
6.3 Recommended Read
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_function

7 Basic Differentiation
Basic Table for Differentiation

d n d 1 −n
[x ] = nxn−1 =
dx dx xn xn+1
d x d ax
[e ] = ex [e ] = aeax
dx dx
d d
[sin x] = cos x [sin ax] = a cos ax
dx dx
d d
[cos x] = − sin x [cos ax] = −a sin ax
dx dx
7.1 Product Rule

d
[f (x) · g(x)] = f 0 (x) · g(x) + f (x) · g 0 (x)
dx
e.g. Differentiate 3x3 cos 2x.

f (x) = 3x3 g(x) = cos 2x
f 0 (x) = 9x2 g 0 (x) = −2 sin 2x

d
[3x3 cos 2x] = 9x2 (cos 2x) + 3x3 (−2 sin 2x)
dx
= 9x2 cos 2x − 6x3 sin 2x
7.2 Quotient Rule

f 0 (x) · g(x) − f (x) · g 0 (x)

d f (x)
=
dx g(x) [g(x)]2
2x
e
e.g. Differentiate 3 .
x
f (x) = e2x g(x) = x3
f 0 (x) = 2e2x g 0 (x) = 3x2

" #
d e2x 2e2x (x3 ) − e2x (3x2 )
=
dx x3 [x3 ]2
2x3 e2x − 3x2 e2x
=
x6
e (2x − 3x2 )
2x 3
= factorisation is optional here*
x6

*You will find it helpful to factorise if this equation is to be used in later steps, such as finding the
second derivative or solving for 0.
7.3 Chain Rule

d
[f (g(x))] = f 0 (g(x)) · g(x)
dx
or
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
This can be further extended to:
dy dy du dw
= × × ... ×
dx du dv dx

8 Solve by Graphing
• Use a calculator to substitute values, highly recommend storing X as a variable and replace
the value of X to reduce human error.
• I find it easier to change the target equation back to the reference curve. But it is entirely
possible to go the other way around.
• Check your final answer by plugging it into the target equation, the left-hand-side and right-
hand side should be really close. Not only that, by check one unit of accuracy to the left and
the right and make sure you answer is the closest.

9 Arithmetic Sequences and Series
nth term: tn = a + (n − 1)d

t1 = a
t2 = a + d
t3 = a + 2d
t4 = a + 3d
t5 = a + 4d
..
.
a is the first term, (t1 ); l is the last term (tn ); d is the common difference
n
Sn = [a + l]
2
n
= [2a + (n − 1)d] replace l = a + (n − 1)d
2
To find the common difference, it usually requires you to set two expressions in the form of a+(n−1)d,
then form a linear equation and solve. This could potentially lead to solving simultaneous equations
in linear.
e.g. In an arithmetic sequence, the third term is four times the sixth form. The fifth term is
42.
Find the first term and the common difference.
Solution:
t3 = 4t6 (t5 = a + 4d) a = −6d
a + 2d = 4(a + 5d) a + 4d = 42 = −6(−21)
a + 2d = 4a + 20d −6d + 4d = 42 = 126
−3a = 18d −2d = 42
a = −6d d = −21

10 Geometric Sequences and Series
nth term: tn = arn−1

t1 = a
t2 = ar
t3 = ar2
t4 = ar3
..
.
a is the first term, (t1 ); r is the common ratio
a(1 − rn )
Sn = (finite number of terms)
1−r
a
S∞ = , |r| < 1 (infinite number of terms)
1−r
r 6= 0 for both summation formulas above.
Similar to arithmetic sequences, to find the common ratio, it usually requires you to set two expres-
sions in the form of arn−1 , then form an equation and solve by factorisation. You may also divide
powers of r for this type of question because r is presumed to not equal to 0. This could potentially
lead to solving simultaneous equations in non-linear, and the trick is to divide the equations.

e.g. In a geometric series, the sixth term is three times the second term. The fourth term is 30.
(a) Find the common ratio of the sequence.
(b) The first term of this geometric series is a. State the range of a for which this geometric series
has an infinite sum.
Solution:
(a) t6 = 3t2 t4 = 30
ar5 = 3ar ar3 = 30
ar5 3ar
3
=
ar 30
ar
r2 =
10
a
r=
10
(b) |r| < 1

a
<1
10
|a| < 10
e.g. In a geometric series, the sum of the second and fourth term is equal to the sixth term.
(a) Find the common ratio.
(b) Given that the first term is 4, r > 0. Find the least value of n for which Sn > 760.
Solution:
(a) t2 + t4 = t6
ar + ar3 = ar5
ar(1 + r2 ) = ar5
1 + r2 = r4
0 = r4 − r2 − 1
p
−(−1) ± (−1)2 − 4(1)(−1)
r2 =
2(1)
√
1± 5
r2 =
s2 √
1± 5
r=±
2

(b) Sn > 760
a(1 − rn )
> 760
1 − r
√ !n
 r 
1+ 5 
4 1 −
2
r √ > 760
1+ 5
1−
s 2 n  
√ s √
 1 + 5 760  1 + 5
1−  < 1 −
2 4 2

s n  
√ s √
1 + 5 1 + 5
−  < 190 1 − −1
 
2 2
s n  
√ s √
1 + 5 1 + 5
 > 1 − 190 1 −
 
2 2
 
s n   
√ s √
1 + 5  1 + 5 
log   > log  1 − 190 1 −
 

2  2 
s    
√ s √
1 + 5  1 + 5 
n log   > log  1 − 190 1 −
 

2  2 
√ !
 r 
1+ 5 
log 1 − 190 1 −
2
n> r √ !
1+ 5
log
2
n > 16.47634799
n = 17
Notice that n follows the form:

s
log 1 − (1 − r)
a
n>
log r
where s is the bound of the sum.
This is true for r > 0 but not for r < 0.

11 Summation, Sigma Notation
Summations in this course can usually be thought as arithmetic series. The easiest approach is to
evaluate the arithmetic sum using the first and the last term. Count the number of terms carefully!
j
X j − i + 1
(pr + q) = pi + q + pj + q
r=i
2
j − i + 1
= p(i + j) + 2q
2
I do not suggest memorising this. Breaking it down in parts is easier.
22
X
e.g. Evaluate (2r − 3).
r=12
It is a good idea to write down the first few terms to confirm that it is an arithmetic series first.
22
X
(2r − 3) = (2(12) − 3) + (2(13) − 3) + (2(14) − 3) + ... + (2(22) − 3)
r=12
= 21 + 23 + 25 + ... + 41
a = 2(12) − 3 = 21
l = 2(22) − 3 = 41
n = 22 − 12 + 1 = 11 (remember to add 1!)
22
X n
(2r − 3) = (a + l)
r=12
2
11
= (21 + 41)
2
11
= (62)
2
= 341

20
X
e.g. Evaluate 2(3)r .
r=1
20
X
2(3)r = 2(3) + 2(3)2 + 2(3)3 ... + 2(3)20
r=1
= 6 + 18 + 54 + ...
This is actually a geometric series!

a=6
r=3
n = 20 − 1 + 1 = 20
20
X
r a(1 − rn )
2(3) =
r=1
1−r
6(1 − 320 )
=
1−3
≈ 6.18 × 1014
m
X
Given that (5r + 6) = 2618, solve for m.
r=4
a = 5(4) + 6 = 26
l = 5m + 6
n=m−4+1=m−3
Xm
(5r + 6) = 2618
r=4
n
(a + l) = 2618
2
m − 3
26 + (5m + 6) = 2618
2
(m − 3)(5m + 32) = 5236
5m2 + 32m − 15m − 96 = 5236
5m2 + 17m − 96 = 5236
5m2 + 17m − 5332 = 0

p
−17 ± (−17)2 − 4(5)(−5232)
m=
2(5)
−17 ± 327
m=
10
−172
m = 31 or (reject)
5
m = 31

12 Alpha Beta, Vieta’s Formulas
Given a quadratic in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, the two roots α, and β, which come from the factored
form a(x − α)(x − β) = 0, form the following relations:
−b
• α+β =
a
c
• αβ =
a
Proof:
a(x − α)(x − β) = a(x2 − xβ − xα + αβ)
= a(x2 − x(β + α) + αβ)
= a(x2 − (α + β)x + αβ)

Equate the two quadratic forms:
a(x2 − (α + β)x + αβ) = ax2 + bx + c
b c
x2 − (α + β)x + αβ = x2 + x +
a a
Matching the coefficients, we get:

b −b
−(α + β) = ⇒ α + β =
a a
c
α+β =
a
The following combinations of the roots are often tested:
• α2 + β 2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ
• α3 + β 3 = (α + β)(α2 − αβ + β 2 ) = (α + β)(α2 + β 2 − αβ) = (α + β)[(α + β)2 − 3αβ]
• α3 − β 3 = (α − β)(α2 + αβ + β 2 ) = (α − β)(α2 + β 2 + αβ) = (α − β)[(α + β)2 − αβ]
• α4 + β 4 = (α2 + β 2 )2 − 2(α2 β 2 ) = (α2 + β 2 )2 − 2(αβ)2 = [(α + β)2 − 2αβ]2 − 2(αβ)2

p
• α − β = ± (α + β)2 − 4αβ
p
– if α > β, then α − β = (α + β)2 − 4αβ
p
– if α < β, then α − β = − (α + β)2 − 4αβ
* α4 − β 4 = (α2 + β 2 )(α2 − β 2 ) = (α2 + β 2 )(α + β)(α − β)

p
= ±[(α + β)2 − 2αβ](α + β) (α + β)2 − 4αβ
I don’t recommend memorising the final form. α − β should be given to use this.

I personally prefer the underlined versions, but it would require you to find the sum of squares
(α2 + β 2 ) first. This will often be asked in a previous part anyway. If not, you find it and write on
the top of the page for easy access.
Tip: Write the values of α + β, αβ, and α2 + β 2 at the beginning, even if they are given. You will
always need to refer back to them as you do calculations.

13 Simultaneous Equations
Always substitute a linear equation into a non-linear one. Sometimes a change of variable (substitu-
tion) is required to change it into a recognisable form.

ax + b
14 Rational Function f (x) =
cx + d
• horizontal asymptote: substitute a very large number for x, say, 999 999.
• vertical asymptote: set the denominator equal to zero, and solve for x.
Potential problems may involve the following:
• find the coordinates where the graph crosses the axes ⇒ find x and y-intercepts
• find the equation of the tangent line at a given x-coordinate (x = p) or point (p, q) where
q = f (a)

dy
1. find , this will be m (requires using ’quotient rule’)
dx x=p
2. use y − q = m(x − p) and rearrange
−1
• find the equation of the normal ⇒ replace m with in step 1 above
m
• use the tangent or normal to find where it crosses the curve once again, potentially leading the
solving a quadratic equation

15 Integration
15.1 Indefinite Integrals

Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C needs a constant (of integration) C at the end of the expression
Basic Table for Integration
xn+1
Z
xn dx = +C
n+1
eax
Z Z
ex dx = ex + C eax dx = +C
a
− cos ax
Z Z
sin x dx = − cos x + C sin ax dx = +C
a
Z Z
sin ax
cos x dx = sin x + C cos ax dx = +C
a
You should differentiate your answer to see if it gets back to the integrand, then you would know if
it is correct or not, provided that you write down the constant C.
Z
1
e.g. Find (x3 + x2 + 6) dx.
2 !
Z 4 3
1 x 1 x
(x3 + x2 + 6) dx = + + 6x + C
2 4 2 3
x4 x3
=
+ + 6x + C
4 6
Check answer !
4 3
d x x 4x3 3x2
+ + 6x + C = + +6+0
dx 4 6 4 6
x2
= x3 + +6 X
2
15.2 Definite Integrals

=0
Z b h ib h ib h i
b h ib
f (x) dx = F (x) + C = F (x) + C = F (x) = F (b) − F (a)
a a a a a

Z π
2
e.g. Evaluate 4 sin 2θ dθ.
0
Z π π
2 −4 cos 2θ 2
4 sin 2θ dθ =
0 2 0
h i π2
= − 2 cos 2θ
0
! !
π
= −2 cos 2 − − 2 cos 2 0
2
= (−2 cos π) − (−2 cos 0)
= (−2 × −1) − (−2 × 1)
= 2 − (−2)
=4
Z 3
e.g. Evaluate (2x3 − 3x2 + x − 6) dx.
0 " #3
Z 3 4 3 2
2x 3x x
(2x3 − 3x2 + x − 6) = − + − 6x
0 4 3 2
0
" #3
x4 x2
= − x3 + − 6x
2 2
0
! :=

!
0
4 2 4 2
(3) (3) (0) (0)
= − (3)3 + − 6(3) − −(0)3
+ − 6(0)

(∗)
2 2 2

2

=0−0
=0
Tip: When dealing with polynomials, you can save time when you substitute 0 as one of your
limits. You can replace the (*) line with
!
(3)4 (3)2
= − (3)3 + − 6(3) − 0
2 2
I also recommend substituting your values with an expression in your calculator, store the
limits as x values, and run it through the expression. Check your answer by integrating
directly using your calculator.
Note: Polynomials are functions like x3 + 5x2 − 13 x, 2x2 − 5.

Don’t do it for sin x, cos x, tan x, ex , ln x, log x, and the like! (See the previous example.)

16 Binomial Expansion
When n is a natural number, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...,

n
n
X n n−r r
(a + b) = a b
r=0
r

n n 0 n n−1 1 n n−2 2 n 1 n−1 n 0 n
= a b + a b + a b + ... + ab + ab
0 1 2 n−1 n

n n n−1 n n−2 2 n
=a + a b+ a b + ... + abn−1 + bn
1 2 n−1

n n n n−1 n n−2 2 n
(a + b) = a + a b+ a b + ... + abn−1 + bn
1 2 n−1

n n n n−1 n n−2 2 n
(1 + px) = 1 + 1 (px) + 1 (px) + ... + 1(px)n−1 + (px)n
1 2 n−1

n n n
=1+ px + (px)2 + ... + (px)n−1 + (px)n
1 2 n−1

n n n 2 n
(1 + px) = 1 + px + (px) + ... + (px)n−1 + (px)n
1 2 n−1
e.g. Expand (3x + 4)5 .

5 5 5 4 5 3 2 5 2 3 5
(3x − 4) = (3x) + (3x) (−4) + 3x (−4) + (3x) (−4) + (3x)1 (−4)4 + (−4)5
1 2 3 4
= 243x5 − 1620x4 + 4320x3 − 5760x2 + 3840x − 1024
4
1
e.g. Expand 1 + x .
3
4 2 3 4
1 4 1 4 1 4 1 1
1+ x =1+ x + x + x + x
3 1 3 2 3 3 3 3
4 2 4 1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4
3 3 27 81
When n is not a natural number, |px| < 1 (e.g. n = −2, 12 , − 31 , 0.2, π)

n n n 2 n
(1 + px) = 1 + px + (px) + (px)3 + ...
1 2 3
n(n − 1) n(n − 1)(n − 2)
= 1 + npx + (px)2 + (px)3 + ...
2! 3!
n(n − 1) n(n − 1)(n − 2) 1
(1 + px)n = 1 + npx + (px)2 + (px)3 + ... |x| <
2! 3! |p|
Sometimes, this requires factorisation in order to be used. !

n 2 3
b b n(n − 1) b n(n − 1)(n − 2) b
(a + bx)n = an 1 + x = an 1 + n x + x + x + ...
a a 2! a 3! a

√
e.g. Expand and give a simplified expression for 1 − 5x up to and including the term x3 . Write
down the values of x in which this expansion
is valid.

1 −1 1 −1 −3
1
√ 2 1 2 2 2 2 2
1 − 5x = (1 − 5x) = 1 + (−5x) + (−5x)2 + (−5x)3 + ...
2 2! 3!
5 25 125 3
= 1 − x − x2 − x + ...
2 8 16
1
|x| <
5
1
e.g. Expand and give a simplified expression for 2
up to and including the term x4 . Write
4x + 1
down the values of x in which this expansion is valid.
1
2
= (4x2 + 1)−1
4x + 1
= (1 + 4x2 )−1
(−1)(−2)
= 1 + (−1)(4x2 ) + (4x2 )2 + ...
2!
= 1 − 4x2 + 164 + ...
1
|x2 | <
4
1
x2 <
4
r
1
|x| <
4
1
|x| <
2
√
1 − 5x
e.g. Expand in ascending powers, up to and including the term x3 . Write down the
4x2 + 1
values of x in which this expansion is valid
√
1 − 5x 5 25 2 125 3
2
= 1− x− x − x + ... (1 − 4x2 + 8x4 + ...)
4x + 1 2 8 16
5 25 125 3
= 1 − x − x2 − x − 4x2 + 10x3 + ...
2 8 16
5 57 2 35 3
=1− − x + x
2x 8 16
√
From the restrictions of 1 − 5x and (4x2 + 1), we have
1 1
|x| < and |x| <
5 2
1
The intersection is |x| < .
5
√
e.g. Expand and give a simplified expression for 3
9 + 3x up to and including the term x3 . Write
down the values of x in which this expansion is valid.

1
√
3
3
9 + 3x = (9 + 3x)
1 1
3 1 3
=9 1+ x
3
 
1 −2 1 −2 −5
1 2 3
3
 1 1 3 3 1 3 3 3 1 
= 9 1 + x + x + x + ...
 
 3 3 2! 3 3! 3 
1
3 1 1 2 5 3
=9 1+ x− x + x + ...
9 81 2187
1
|x| <
1
3
|x| < 3
Questions may further include:
• find an approximation by substituting a suitable value for x into the expansion

Z 0.12 √
1 − 5x
• approximate dx
0 4x2 + 1
• find p, given the coefficient of a term (e.g. Given that the coefficient of the x3 term in (1 + px)8
is 448, find p)
• simultaneous equations that involve coefficients
• discriminant, quadratic inequalities (very rare)

17 Trigonometric Equations
π − θref
II
Sin I
All S A
180 − θref
θref
π + θref 2π − θref
III
Tan IV
Cos T C
180 + θref 360 − θref
The CAST diagram above tells us which trigonometric ratio is positive in the four quadrants.
General solutions:
• sin θ = r
θref = sin−1 r
θ = θref + 2πk or π − θref + 2πk, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ... (in radians)
θ = θref + 360◦ k or 180◦ − θref + 360◦ k, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ... (in degrees)
• cos θ = r
θref = cos−1 r
θ = θref + 2πk or 2π − θref + 2πk, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ... (in radians)
θ = θref + 360◦ k or 360◦ − θref + 360◦ k, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ... (in degrees)
• tan θ = r
θref = tan−1 r
θ = θref + 2πk or π + θref + 2πk, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ...
θ = θref + πk, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ... (in radians)
θ = θref + 180◦ k, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ... (in degrees)
Observe that:
• θref (reference angle) can be negative, it’s a just a particular solution
• sin, cos each has a period of 2π, tan has a period of π
• tan’s solution can be combined into one single case, unlike sin and cos
• π = 180◦ in angle measures

e.g. Solve sin 3x = −1 for −π 6 x 6 π
sin 3x = −1
3x = sin−1 (−1) + 2πk or π − sin−1 (−1) + 2πk, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ...
−π −π
3x = + 2πk or π − + 2πk, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3...
2 2
−π 2 3π 2
x= + πk or + πk, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3...
6 3 6 3
−π 4 3π 4
x= + πk or + πk, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3...
6 6 6 6
−5π −π π 3π
x= , , =
6 6 2 6
By converting to common denominators, it’s easy to generate the desired solutions.

−6π 6π
−π 6 x 6 π → 6x6
6 6
To save time, I suggest writing down the following:
sin 3x = −1
−π −π
3x = or π − (±2πk)
2 2
−π 3π 2
x= or + (± πk)
6 6 3
−π 3π 4
x= or + (± πk)
6 6 6
−5π −π π
x= , ,
6 6 2
e.g. Solve 4 cos2 (θ − 30◦ ) + 3 cos (θ − 30◦ ) = 1 for −90◦ 6 θ 6 180◦ , giving your answer correct
to 1 decimal place.
4 cos2 (θ − 30◦ ) + 3 cos (θ − 30◦ ) − 1 = 0
(4 cos (θ − 30◦ ) − 1)(cos (θ − 30◦ ) + 1) = 0
4 cos (θ − 30◦ ) − 1 = 0 or cos (θ − 30◦ ) + 1 = 0

1
cos (θ − 30◦ ) = cos (θ − 30◦ ) = −1
4
θ − 30◦ = 75.522◦ or 360◦ − 75.522(±360◦ k) θ − 30◦ = 180◦ or 360◦ − 180◦ (±360◦ k)
θ = 105.522, 314.478, 210(±360◦ k)
θ = −45.5◦ , 105.5◦

−3π
e.g. Solve sin2 θ = 2 cos2 θ, for 6 θ 6 π, giving your answers correct to 3 significant figures.
2
sin2 θ = 2 cos2 θ
sin2 θ
=2
cos2 θ
tan2 θ = 2
√
tan θ = ± 2
√ √
tan θ = 2 or tan θ = − 2
θ = 0.95532(±πk) θ = −0.95532(±πk)
θ = −4.10, −2.19, −0.955, 0.955, 2.19
You should substitute all values back into the calculator to see if they are correct. Plot the function
on a GDC by setting the original equation to 0 and check how many roots are there to ensure you
have the correct number of answers.

18 Trigonometric Identities
You need to know:
• sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
sin x
• tan x =
cos x
The following will be given when needed, but it’s good to know the results and how to prove:
• sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
• sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
• cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
• cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
sin(A + B)
• tan(A + B) =
cos(A + B)
sin A cos B + cos A sin B
=
cos A cos B − sin A sin B
sin A cos B + cos A sin B
= cos A cos B
cos A cos B − sin A sin B
cos A cos B
sin A sin B
+
= cos A cos B
sin A sin B
1−
cos A cos B
tan A + tan B
=
1 − tan A tan B
Know this proof. Key point is remembering to divide by cos A cos B . The hint is in the
bottom left term in the denominator because it needs to go to 1 in the end.
tan A − tan B
• tan(A − B) =
1 + tan A tan B
sin(A − B)
Similar proof as above, just the first step with .
cos(A − B)

• sin 2A = sin(A + A)
= sin A cos A + cos A sin A
= 2 sin A cos A
• cos 2A = cos(A + A)
= cos A cos A − sin A sin A
= cos2 A − sin2 A
= (1 − sin2 A) − sin2 A or = cos2 A − (1 − cos2 A)
= 1 − 2 sin2 A = 2 cos2 A − 1
• tan 2A = tan(A + A)
tan A + tan A
=
1 − tan A tan A
2 tan A
=
1 − tan2 A
• cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin2 A or cos 2A = 2 cos2 A − 1
2 sin2 A = 1 − cos 2A 2 cos2 A = 1 + cos 2A

1 1
sin2 A = (1 − cos 2A) cos2 A = (1 + cos 2A)
2 2
These results are important when we want to integrate sin2 x or cos2 x.

Z Z
2 1 1 1
i.e. sin x dx = (1 − cos 2A) dx = x − sin 2A + C
2 2 4
Z Z
1 1 1
cos2 x dx = (1 + cos 2A) dx = x + sin 2A + C
2 2 4
In exams, the last line is usually asked to be shown to be true, so:
1 1
• sin2 A = (1 − cos 2A) similarly cos2 A = (1 + cos 2A)
2 2
1 2 2
1 2 2

= 1 − (cos A − sin A) = 1 + (cos A − sin A)
2 2
1 1
= 1 − (1 − sin2 A) − sin2 A = 1 + cos2 A − (1 − cos2 A)
2 2
1 1
= 1 − (1 − 2 sin2 A) = 1 + (2 cos2 A − 1)
2 2
1 1
= (2 sin2 A) = (2 cos2 A)
2 2
= sin2 A = cos2 A
LHS = RHS LHS = RHS

• sin 3A = sin(2A + A)
= sin 2A cos A + cos 2A sin A
= (2 sin A cos A) cos A + (1 − 2 sin2 A) sin A
= sin A(2 cos2 A + (1 − 2 sin2 A))
= sin A(2(1 − sin2 A) + 1 − 2 sin2 A)
= sin A(3 − 4 sin2 A)
= 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A
• cos 3A = cos(2A + A)
= cos 2A cos A − sin 2A sin A
= (2 cos2 A − 1) cos A − (2 sin A cos A)(sin A)
= cos A(2 cos2 A − 1 − 2 sin2 A)
= cos A(2 cos2 A − 1 − 2(1 − cos2 A)
= cos A(4 cos2 A − 3)
= 4 cos3 A − 3 cos A
• tan 3A = tan(2A + A)
tan 2A + tan A
=
1 − tan 2A tan A
2 tan A
2
+ tan A
= 1 − tan A
2 tan A
1− tan A
1 − tan2 A
2 tan A tan A(1 − tan2 A)
2
+
= 1 − tan A 1 − tan2 A
1 − tan2 A 2 tan2 A
−
1 − tan2 A 1 − tan2 A
2 tan A + tan A(1 − tan2 A)
= 1 − tan2 A
1 − tan2 A − 2 tan2 A
1 − tan2 A
3 tan A − tan2 A
=
1 − 3 tan3 A

• sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
sin2 x cos2 x 1
+ =
cos2 x cos2 x cos2 x
1
tan2 x + 1 =
cos2 x
Reversely,
1
• tan2 x + 1 =
cos2 x
sin2 x 1
+1=
cos2 x cos2 x
sin2 x cos2 x 1
+ =
cos2 x cos2 x cos2 x
sin2 x + cos2 x 1
=
cos2 x cos2 x
1 1
=
cos2 x cos2 x
LHS = RHS

19 Trigonometry
a b c sin A sin B sin C
• sine rule: = = ; = =
sin A sin B sin C a b c
!
2 2 2
a +b −c
• cosine rule: c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C ; C = cos−1
2ab
1
• area of triangle using sine: ab sin C
2
B
c
a
C b A
19.1 Ambiguous Triangle
When using sine rule, there are two potential answers when solving for an unknown angle. This
does NOT apply for unknown side as you would be given 2 angles and a side, hence the 3rd angle is
fixed.
The second solution comes straight from solving sine equations:
θ or 180◦ − θ
A
180◦ − 2θ◦
b
c c
180◦ − θ◦
θ◦ θ◦
B B0 a2 C
a1
19.2 3D Trigonometry
Draw in lines and angles to help you better visualise what you need to solve. In a lot of cases, you
need to construct the diagonals of the base.

20 Area under a Curve
y
y = f (x)
a x
b
To find the area underneath a curve, we evaluate the following:
Z b Z b h ib
f (x) dx = y dx = F (x)
a a a
= F (b) − F (a)
Special care needs to be taken if the area falls under the x-axis. In which case, we need to subtract
the definite integral to ensure a positive value representing the area.
y
y = f (x)
a c x
b
Z b Z c
area = y dx − y dx
a b
Z c
= |y| dx you can plug this statement in the calculator to check the final answer
a

e.g. Find the area bounded by the curve y = 3 + 5x − 2x2 and the x-axis.
Do a sketch of the curve.
y
a b x
Shade in the area of interest.

y
a b x
Notice that we need the x-coordinates of the intersections with the x-axis.
3 + 5x − 2x2 = 0
−2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0
−(2x2 − 5x − 3) = 0
−(2x + 1)(x − 3) = 0
−1
x= ,3
2
Integrate " #3
Z 3 2 3
5x 2x
(3 + 5x − 2x2 ) dx = 3x + −
−1
2
2 3 −1
2
 2 3 
−1 −1
!  5 2
5(3)2 2(3)3

 −1 2 2 
= 3(3) + − −
3 2 + − 
2 3  2 3 


27 −19
= −
2 24
343
=
24
e.g. Given that (x − 3) is a factor in y = x3 − 4x2 + x + 6.
Find the area bounded by the curve y and the x-axis.
x2 − x − 2
x − 3)x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 y
x3 − 3x2 + 0x + 0
−x2 + x + 6
−x2 + 3x + 0
−2x + 6
a b c x
−2x + 6
0
y = (x − 3)(x2 − x − 2)
= (x − 3)(x − 2)(x + 1)
Z b Z c
area = y dx − y dx
a b
Z 2 Z 3
3 2
= (x − 4x + x + 6) dx − (x3 − 4x2 + x + 6) dx
−1 2
" #2 " #3
x4 4x3 x2 x4 4x3 x2
= − + + 6x − − + + 6x
4 3 2 4 3 2
−1 2
 ! !
3 3 2 3 3 2
(2) 4(2) (2) (−1) 4(−1) (−1)
= − + + 6(2) − − + + 6(−1) 
4 3 2 4 3 2
 ! !
4 3 2 3 3 2
(3) 4(3) (3) (2) 4(2) (2)
− − + + 6(3) − − + + 6(2) 
4 3 2 4 3 2
" # " #
22 −47 27 22
= − − −
3 12 4 3

45 −7
= −
4 12
71
=
6
Check that:
Z 3
x − 4x2 + x + 6 dx = 71 X
3
−1 6

21 Area between Curves
y
y1 = f (x)
y2 = g(x)
a b x
The area between two curves can be obtained by:
area below the top curve − area below the bottom curve
Z b Z b
= f (x) dx − g(x) dx
a a
Z b

= f (x) − g(x) dx
a
Z b
= (y1 − y2 ) dx
a
In a way, you can think of area below a curve, bounded by the x-axis, as y1 = f (x) being the top
curve, and y2 = 0 being the bottom:
y
y1 = f (x)
Z b
f (x) − g(x) dx
a
Z b
f (x) − 0 dx
a
Z b
= f (x) dx a b x
a y2 = 0

This is why if the area is below the x-axis, we subtract the integral to obtain a positive area.
y
Z b
f (x) − g(x) dx
a
Z b
0 − g(x) dx
a
Z b Z b
= −g(x) dx = − g(x) dx
a a
a b x
y1 = 0
y2 = g(x)

e.g.
y
y = x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24
1 x
2
l
Figure 2
Figure 2 shows the curve y = x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24. The line l is the tangent to the curve at x = 12 .
(a) Show that the line l crosses the x-axis at x = 4.
(b) Find the area bounded by the curve y and the line l.
Solution:
dy
(a) = 3x2 − 10x − 2
dx 2
dy 1 1
=3 − 10 −2
dx 1 2 2

x= 2
−25
=
4 3 2
1 1 1 1
When x = , y = −5 −2 + 24
2 2 2 2
175
=
8
1 175
l passes through , .
2 8

Equation of l is:

175 −25 1
y− = x−
8 4 2

1
8y − 175 = −50 x −
2
8y − 175 = −50x + 25
8y = −50x + 200
−25
y= x + 25
4
−25
When x = 4, y = (4) + 25
4
=0
l crosses the x-axis at x = 4.
Z 4 " #
−25
(b) area = x + 25 − (x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24) dx
1
2
4
Z 4
3 2 17
= −x + 5x − x + 1 dx
1
2
4
" #4
−x4 5x3 17x2
= + − +x
4 3 8 1
2
 
4 3 2
" # − 1 5
1
17
1
4 3 2

−(4) 5(4) 17(4)  2 2 2 1 
= + − + (4) −  + − + 
4 3 8 
 4 3 8 2 

38 31
= −
3 192
2401
=
192
y = x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24
1 x
2
l

22 Volume by Revolution
Suppose we want to obtain a solid shape by revolving a curve about the x-axis by 360◦ . We can add
up all the disks (in the form of cylinders) via the integral:
Z b
π[f (x)]2 dx
a
Z b
= πy 2 dx
a
Z b
=π y 2 dx
a
y y
y = f (x)
a b x x
If the region to be revolved is bounded between two curves, say y1 and y2 , then
Z b Z b
2
V = π(y2 ) dy − π(y1 )2 dy
a a
Z b
= π(y2 2 − y1 2 ) dy
a
Z b
=π (y2 2 − y1 2 ) dy
a
where y2 lies above y1 in the interval of interest.

Use basic shapes for integration whenever possible, in particular, horizontal or slanted lines.

Let’s give some values to the previous example:
y
√
y= x
1 3 x
√
Suppose we are interested in finding the volume obtained by revolving the curve y = x upon the
x-axis by 360◦ and between the lines x = 1 and x = 3. Then we have:
Z 3 √
V = π( x)2 dx
1
Z 3
=π x dx π can be factored out for volume by revolution
1
" #3
x2
=π
2
1
 ! !
2 2
(3) (1)
= π − 
2 2

9 1
=π −
2 2
= π(4)
= 4π

e.g. Extracted from 1994 January Paper 2 Question 9.
y
O
A x
Figure 3
√
Figure 3 shows part of the curve with equation y = 2 sin x. P is the point with coordinates ( π3 , 3).
The normal to the curve at P cuts the x-axis at A.
(a) Show that an equation of the normal AP is
π √
y+x= + 3.
3
d
(b) Show that (2x − sin 2x) = 4 sin2 x.
dx
The shaded area is rotated through 360◦ about the x-axis.

(c) Using the result of (b), or otherwise, calculate, in terms of π, the volume of the solid generated.
Try it yourself and then read the solution:

Solution:
(a)
dy
= 2 cos x
dx
dy π
= 2 cos = 1
dx π 3

x= 3
−1 −1
gradient of normal = = = −1
dy 1
dx

x= π3
Equation of normal AP :
√ π
y − 3 = −1(x − )
3
p π
y − (3) = −x +
3
π √
y+x= + 3
3
(b)
d
(2x − sin 2x) = 2 − 2 cos 2x
dx
= 2 − 2(1 − 2 sin2 x)
= 2 − 2 + 4 sin2 x
= 4 sin2 x
(c)
When y = 0, from the normal AP ,
π √
0+x= + 3
3
π √
x= + 3
3
π √

A has x-coordinate + 3
3

π π
√ 2
+ 3
π √
Z Z
3 3
2
V = π(2 sin x) dx + π + 3 − x dx
0 π
3
3
Z π Z π + √3 √
!2
3 3 π
=π 4 sin2 x dx + π + 3 −x dx
0 π
3
3
Z π Z π + √3 √
2
√
!
3 3 π π
=π 4 sin2 x dx + π + 3 −2 + 3 x + x2 dx
0 π
3
3 3
" # π3 " 2 # π3 +√3
π √ π √ 3

x
= π 2x − sin 2x + π + 3 x− + 3 x2 +
3 3 3 π
0 3
 
!
π π
= π 2 − sin 2 − 2(0) − sin 2(0) 
3 3
 
:
= 0
√ 3 

 π

 π √ 2 π √ π √
√
2 + 3  
π 3  
+ π  + 3 + 3 − + 3 + 3 +
 

  3 3 3 3 3 



 
 
3 
 π
 π √ 2 π π √ π 2 
3  
−  + 3 − + 3 +
  
 3 3 3 3 3  
 
 3 3 
π √ π
√ !
 
 + 3
√
2
√
2 
2π 3  3 π π π π 3 
=π  − − (0) − π 
  − + 3 + + 3 − 
3 2  3 3 3 3 3 3  
√ !
  " 2 3 #
√ 3 √ 2 π √

2π 3 π π π π π π
= π − − + 3 −3 + 3 +3 + 3 −
3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
√ !
  " 3 #
√ 3 √ 2
2
√

2π 3 π π π π π π π
= π − − + 3 +3 + 3 − +3 + 3 − + −
3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
√ !
 
!3
√

2π 3 π π −π
= π − + + 3 + this is actually a binomial expansion!
3 2 3 3 3
√ ! √ 3 √
 
2π 3 π √ 3 ( 3) 3 3 √
= π − +( 3) Note: = = 3
3 2 3 3 3
√ ! √ !
 
2π 3 √ 2π 3
= − + 3 π = + π
3 2 3 2
Before you freak out, of course there’s an easier way. But hey, at least the standard procedure
works! But please use basic geometry shapes whenever possible.

Let’s break down the two integrals:
π π
√ 2
+ 3
π √
Z Z
3 3
2
Volume = π(2 sin x) dx + π + 3−x dx
0 π
3
3
Z π Z π
3 3
2
π(2 sin x) dx = π 4 sin2 x dx
0 0
" # π3
= π 2x − sin 2x
0
 
!
π π
= π 2 − sin 2 − 2(0) − sin 2(0) 
3 3
√ !
 
2π 3
= π − − (0)
3 2
√ !
 
2π 3 
= − π
3 2
O
x

2 π
√
π √ + 3
Z
3
The region that π + 3 − x dx captures is actually just a cone pointing the right with
π
3
3
π √ π √ √

height + 3 − = 3 , radius 3.
3 3
Hence,
π
√ 2 √ √
+ 3
π √ π( 3)2 ( 3)
Z
3
π + 3−x dx =
π
3
3 3
√
3 3π
=
3
√
= 3π This looks familiar, doesn’t it?
√
3
O
A x
√
3

Combining the two volumes:
√ !
 
2π 3  √
 − π + 3π
3 2
√ !
 
2π 3 √
= − + 3) π
3 2
√ !
 
2π 3 
= + π
3 2
If you got it right, congratulations! Here’s a chocolate-dipped strawberry ice-cream cone, or chocolate
cupcake, whichever you fancy.
y
O
x

22.1 y-axis
Similar procedure follows for revolution upon the y-axis.
Z b
V = π[f −1 (y)]2 dy
a
Z b
= πx2 dy
a
Z b
=π x2 dy
a
y y
y = f (x)
x x
Questions are usually given in the form where x2 can be isolated easily. An immediate step may
involve solving for the lower and upper limits, a and b, respectively, before integrating it.
If the region lies between curves, say y1 and y2 , you may need to subtract the volumes to obtain the
final answer. Namely,
Z b Z b
2
π(x2 ) dy − π(x1 )2 dy
a a
Z b
= π(x2 2 − x1 2 ) dy
a
Z b
=π (x2 2 − x1 2 ) dy
a
where y2 lies above y1 in the interval of interest.

23 Kinematics
s s2 − s1 ∆s s2 − s1 s d
(position) (displacement) (position) (distance)
Z t2 Z Z
ds
v dt v dt |v| dt
dt t1
v v |v| |v|
(velocity) (velocity) (speed)
Z Z
dv d2 s
= 2 a dt a dt
dt dt
a a
(acceleration) (acceleration)
Kinematics Flowchart
All of the above are assumed to be functions in terms of time (t). (i.e. s = s(t), v = v(t), a = a(t))
We sometimes use subscripts as shorthand. i.e. (s0 = s(0), v(2) = v2 , st = s(t) = s, etc.)
Kinematics Formulae: Z
ds ds
v= v(ti ) = s= v dt
dt dt
t=ti Z
d= |v| dt
dv
a=

dt dv speed = |v|
a(ti ) =
d2 s dt
= 2 t=ti
dt 2

d s Z t2
= 2
dt ∆s = v dt
t=ti t1
= s(t2 ) − s(t1 )
Note: s is the spatium (Latin for space) of an object which describes its position.

In this couse, we simplify things a bit.
When dealing with displacement, it’s assumed to be relative to s0 , which implies t1 = t0 = 0,
effectively rending position and displacement to be the same.
Distance will be between two time points, because finding the antiderivative for the general case is
beyond the scope of this course. To my knowledge, it is rarely done in practice.
s s d
(displacement) (displacement) (distance)
Z Z t2
ds
v dt |v| dt
dt t1
v |v| |v| v
(velocity) (speed) (velocity)
dv d2 s
= 2
dt dt
a a > 0 (velocity is a minimum)

(acceleration) a < 0 (velocity is a maximum)
Further Pure Mathematics Kinematics Flowchart
Kinematics Formulae: Z
ds ds
v= v(ti ) = s= v dt
dt dt
t=ti
dv Z t2
a=

dt dv d= |v| dt
a(ti ) = t1
d2 s dt
= 2 t=ti
dt 2

d s
= 2
dt
t=ti
ds
Finding the maximum or minimum velocity requires setting = 0 or v = 0 to find critical values
dt
and checking the endpoints (t1 and t2 ) - Absolute Extrema
Finding the maximum speed requires taking the absolute value (magnitude) of the velocity values
above and pick out the greatest. Minimum requires taking the least, but the lowest being 0.

e.g. The velocity of a particle, v m/s, is given by the equation
v = 3t2 − t − 2, t > 0
(a) Find the time when the particle is instantaneously at rest.

(b) Find the acceleration of the particle when t = 2.
(c) Find the distance travelled until the particle stops momentarily.
Solution:
(a) Set v = 0,
3t2 − t − 2 = 0
(3t + 2)(t − 1) = 0
−2
t= (reject) or t = 1
3
t=1
(b)
dv
= 6t − 1
dt
dv
= 6(2) − 1
dt
t=2
= 11 m/s2
(c) Sketch the velocity curve.

Notice that the area that we want is below the x-axis. Therefore,
Z 1
d= 3t2 − t − 2 dt
0
Z 1
=− (3t2 − t − 2) dt below the x-axis v
0
" #1
2
t
= − t3 − − 2t
2
0 t
 ! 
− 32 1
2
(1)
= −  (1)3 − − 2(1) − 0
2

−3
=−
2
3
= m
2

e.g. The displacement of a particle, s m, is given by the equation
s = sin2 x + cos x
π
Find the acceleration of the particle when t = .
2
Solution:
ds
= 2 sin x · cos x − sin x
dt
= sin 2x − sin x sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
d2 s
= 2 cos 2x − cos x
dt2

d2 s

π π
= 2 cos 2 − cos
dt2 2 2

t= π2
= 2(−1) − (0)
= −2 m/s2
e.g. A gamma particle moves along the x-axis so that at time t seconds its displacement from
O is x metres. Its velocity is given by the equation
v = e−0.5t + 2, t>0
The displacement of the particle at t = 0 is 4 m. Find an expression of x in terms of t.
Solution:
Z
x = e−0.5t + 2 dt When t = 0, x = 4,
e−0.5t 4 = −2e−0.5(0) + 2(0) + C
= + 2t + C
−0.5
4 = −2(1) + 0 + C
= −2e−0.5t + 2t + C
6=C
x = −2e−0.5t + 2t + 6

e.g. The velocity of a car, v m/s, is given by the equation
v = 5x − 2x2 , t>0
(a) Find the maximum speed during the first four seconds.
(b) Find the distance travelled during the first four seconds.
Solution:
(a)
dv
= 5 − 4x
dt
dv
Set =0
dt
5 − 4x = 0
5 = 4x
5
=x
4
2
5 5 5 25
v =5 −2 = m/s
4 4 4 8
v(0) = 5(0) − 2(0)2 = 0 m/s
v(4) = 5(4) − 2(4)2 = −12 m/s
The maximum is speed is 12 m/s.

25
Note: Although not asked, the maximum velocity is m/s
8

(b) Sketch the velocity curve.
v
t=4
5x − 2x2 = 0
0 5
t
x(5 − 2x) = 0 2
5
x = 0,
2
Z 4
d= 5x − 2x2 dt
0
5
Z
2
Z 4
2
= (5x − 2x ) dt − (5x − 2x2 ) dt
5
0 2
" # 52 " #4
5x2 2x3 5x2 2x3
= − − −
2 3 2 3 5
0
   2 
!  3 
5 2 5 3
5
2 5
 5 2 2  5(4)2 2(4)3 5 2 2
=  2 − −
 − (0) − − 2 − 
2 3 2 3 2 3


125 −8 125
= − −
24 3 24
157
= m
12

24 Exponential and Logarithm
Table for Exponentials and Logarithms

xm · xn = xm+n log a + log b = log ab ln a + ln b = ln ab
xm a a
= xm−n log a − log b = log ln a − ln b = ln
xn b b
x0 = 1, x 6= 0 log 1 = 0 ln 1 = 0
(xm )n = xmn log an = n log a ln an = n ln a

log a ln a
(xy)n = xn · y n logx a = lnx a =
n log x ln x
x xn 1 1
= n = =
y y loga x lna x
1 1 1
x−n = n log = − log a ln = − ln a
x a a
1 log a √ ln a √
= xn = log n a = ln n a
x−n n n
−n n
x y √ √
= logxn a = logx n a lnxn a = lnx n a
y x
m √ loge a = ln a
x n = n xm
log 1 = 0, log 10 = 1, log 100 = 2, log 1000 = 3, ... log2 1 = 0, log2 2 = 1, log2 4 = 2, log2 8 = 3, ...
ln 1 = 0, ln e = 1, ln e2 = 2, ln e3 = 3, ...
24.1 e as a mathematical constant
e is a constant that was first defined for the effective interest rate of continuously compounded interest.
n
1
e = lim 1 +
n→∞ n
≈ 2.718281828
Using base e for the exponential model turns out to have some nice properties, namely easy dif-
ferentiation and integration. Many models use e and transformations are applied afterwards to give
us better fit, such as:
growth and decay: P (t) = Aekt + P0 or P (t) = Ae−kt + P0 (population)
continuous compound interest: P (t) = P0 ert (principal)

1 1
standard normal distribution: φ(x) = √ e− x2 (probability)
2π

24.2 Cancellation Properties
ax = b ⇔ loga b = x
This is the usual definition of logarithm but its use is quite limited. For example:
log2 256 = 8 since 28 = 256.
But log2 5 = ? since 2? = 5 . Logarithm can then help us look for solutions in this form.
From the definition, if we substitute x = loga b, we get:
aloga b = b
Similarly, if we substitute b = ax , we get:
loga ax = x
From the above cancellation properties, we can deduce that exponential and logarithm are inverse
functions! Recall from last year that:
f f −1 (x) = x and f −1 f (x) = x
Since exponential and logarithm are both monotonic (strictly increasing or decreasing), we can take
the logarithm of or raise each side of the equation or inequality without worrying the change of sign.
e.g. Solve 2x−3 = 7.

Solution:
2x−3 = 7
log 2x−3 = log 7
(x − 3) log 2 = log 7
log 7
x−3=
log 2
log 7
x= +3
log 2
≈ 5.807354922 (5.81)

3x
e.g. Solve 9x × √ − 1 = 0
3
Solution:
3x
9x × √ − 1 = 0
3
3x
32x × 1 = 1
32
1
32x × 3x− 2 = 30
1
32x+(x− 2 ) = 30
1
33x− 2 = 30
1
3x − =0
2
1
x=
6
e.g. [Disguised Quadratic] Solve 32x+1 − 10(3x ) + 8 = 0
Solution:
32x+1 − 10(3x ) + 8 = 0
32x · 3 − 10(3x ) + 8 = 0
3 · 32x − 10(3x ) + 8 = 0
Let y = 3x , then
3y 2 − 10y + 8 = 0
(3y − 4)(y − 2) = 0
4
y= or y=2
3
4
3x = 3x = 2
3
4
log log 2
x= 3 x=
log 3 log 3
x ≈ 0.631 x ≈ 0.262

√ !
p3 q
e,g. Given that log3 p = x, log3 q = y, express log9 in terms of x and y.
27
Solution: √ !
p3 q
√ ! log 27
p3 q
log9 =
27 log 9
√ !
p3 q
log
27
=
2 log 3
3√
 !
1 p q
= log3 
2 27
1 √
= (log3 p3 + log3 q − log3 27)
2
1 1

= log3 p3 + log3 q 2 − log3 33
2 !
1 1 *1
3 log3 p + log3 q − 3

= log
3 3

2 2

1 1
= 3x + y − 3
2 2
3 1 3
= x+ y−
2 4 2
e.g. [Disguised Quadratic] Solve logx 9 + 6 log9 x = 5

Solution:
logx 9 + 6 log9 x = 5
1
+ 6 log9 x = 5
log9 x
Let y = log9 x, then

1
+ 6y = 5
y
1 + 6y 2 = 5y
6y 2 − 5y + 1 = 0
(3y − 1)(2y − 1) = 0
1 1
y= or y=
3 2
1 1
log9 x = log9 x =
3 2
1 1
x = 93 x = 92
√
3
= 9 =3
≈ 2.08

25 Cubic Functions
A cubic equation
y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d a, b, c, d ∈ R
can always be written as
y = a(x − α1 )(x2 + ex + f ) a, e, f, α1 ∈ R
and sometimes
y = a(x − α1 )(x − α2 )(x − α3 ) a, α1 , α2 , α3 ∈ R
Several techniques help us deduce whether a number p is a root or not, how to reduce a polynomial
if such a root p is found, and how to select such candidates of p.
25.1 Remainder Theorem
When dividing a polynomial p(x) by a linear factor (ax − b), it can be expressed in the following
quotient-remainder form:
p(x) = (ax − b)q(x) + r(x)
Think about how you can write 13 ÷ 4 as 13 = 3 × 4 + 1.

b
To find the remainder, we substitute x = , observe that
a
! :0
b b b b
p = a − b q( +r

a a a a

b
=r
a
When a = 1, the linear factor will often be in the form (x − b). So you will see p(b) used more often

b
than p .
a
e.g. Find the remainder of f (x) = x3 − x + 2 when divided by (x + 2).

Solution:
f (−2) = (−2)3 − (−2) + 2 = −4.
The remainder is −4.

e.g. Show that (2x − 1) is a factor in y = 8x3 − 14x2 − 7x + 6.
Solution:
3 2
1 1 1 1
y=f =8 − 14 −7 +6
2 2 2 2
7 7
=1− − +6
2 2
=0
e.g. Show that x = −3 is a root in f (x) = (x2 + 5x + 6)(x − 3)

Solution:
f (−3) = (−3)2 + 5(−3) + 6 (−3) − 3

= (0)(−6)
=0
You should notice that x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3), which also shows x = −3 is a root.
25.2 Polynomial Division
We can employ polynomial division to reduce a polynomial once a root is found. This works similarly
to long division with a few caveats.
e.g. Given that (x − 3) is a factor in y = x3 − 3x2 − 4x + 12, factorise completely.

Solution:
x2 − − 4 y = (x − 3)(x2 − 4)
x − 3)x3 − 3x2 − 4x + 12 = (x − 3)(x + 2)(x − 2)
x3 − 3x2 + 0x + 00
4x + 12
4x + 12
0
e.g.
(a) Show that x = 1 is a root in f (x) = 3x3 − x2 − 10x + 8
(b) Hence or otherwise, factorise f (x) completely.
Solution:

(a) f (1) = 3(1)3 − (1)2 − 10(1) + 8
= 3 − 1 − 10 + 8
=0
(b) 3x2 + 2x − 8 f (x) = (x − 1)(3x2 + 2x − 8)

x − 1)3x3 − x2 − 10x + 8 = (x − 1)(3x − 4)(x + 2)
3x3 − 3x2 + 00x + 0
2x2 − 10x + 8
2x2 − 2x + 0
−8x + 8
−8x + 8
0
25.3 Rational Root Theorem

p
Let f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, if a rational root exists, it must be in the form of , where p divides
q
d, q divides a, p and q are coprime.
e.g. Completely factorise x3 − x2 − 14x + 24.
Solution:
Test x = ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±8, ±12, ±24, until f (x) = 0.
f (1) = 10
f (−1) = −12
f (2) = 0
(x − 2) is a factor. Carry out out polynomial division and further factorise. Steps omitted here.
f (x) = (x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 4)
e.g. Completely factorise f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 + 7x + 3.

Solution
1 3
Test x ± 1, ±3, ± , ±
2 2
f (1) = 15
f (−1) = −3
f (2) = 45

f (−2) = −15

1 15
f =
2 2
−1
f =0
2
1
x+ is a factor, therefore (2x + 1) is a factor.
2
x2 + x + 3 f (x) = (2x + 1)(x2 + x + 3)

2x + 1)2x3 + 3x2 + 7x + 3 cannot be factorised further since
2x3 + x2 + 0x + 3 ∆ = 1 − 4(3) = −11 < 0
2x2 + 7x + 3
2x2 + x + 3
6x + 3
6x + 3
0

26 Unit Vectors
   
p r 
Let, a = pi + qj =   b = ri + sj =  
q s
 
p + r 
Addition a + b = (p + r)i + (q + s)j =  
q+s
 
p − r 
Subtraction a − b = (p − r)i + (q − s)j =  
q−s
Multiplication by a scalar ca = c(pi + qj)

 
cp
= cpi + cqj =  
cq
p
Length or Magnitude of a vector |a| = p2 + q 2
a 1
A unit vector of a = a
|a| |a|
e.g. Suppose p = (4i − j), q = (i − 2j),

(a) Find 4p − q.
(b) Find the magnitude of 4p − q.
(c) Hence or otherwise, find a unit vector for 4p − q.
Solution:
(a) 4p − q = 4(4i − j) − (i − 2j)
= 16i − 4j − i + 2j
= 15i − 2j
p
(b) |4p − q| = (15)2 + (−2)2
√
= 229
1
(c) √ (15i − 2j)
229

27 Vector Diagrams
A
# » # » # » # »
AB = AO + OB AB
# » # » a
B
= −OA + OB
# » # »
= OB − OA b
If A, B have position vectors a, b, respectively, then
# »
AB = b − a
This is a very useful result and is often asked.
If P is a point that divides AB internally by the ratio m : n, then AP can be thought as travelling
m
of the way from A to B, starting from A. Therefore,
m+n
# » # » # »
AP = OA + AP
# » # »

m
= OA + AB
m+n
A # »
m AB
=a+ (b − a) P
m+n m
m+n m n B
= a+ (b − a) a
m+n m+n
ma
+ na + mb − ma

= b
m+n
na + mb O
=
m+n
n m
= a+ b
m+n m+n
This is where the familiar form

nx1 + mx2 ny1 + my2
P = ,
m+n m+n
comes from, where

x1 = i-component of a, x2 = i-component of b, y1 = j-component of a, y2 = j-component of b.

Two vectors are parallel if they can be expressed as scalar multiples of one another. In other words,
# » # »
AB k CD if
# » # » # » # »
AB = k(CD) or CD = l(AB), where k, l ∈ R
In addition, P QR is a straight line (term: collinear) if any two vectors
# » # » # »
P Q, QR, P R
are parallel.
27.1 Ratios of Triangles
Most questions follow this basic structure. Quadrilaterals will be an exception. You are much better
off finding the area of the shapes and simplify as needed.
Attempt to find a pair of equal angles and apply area of triangle using sine. These include same
angle, vertically opposite angles, and supplementary angles. Remember that sin(180 − x)◦ = sin x.

e.g. Extracted from 1988-6-Paper 1 Q.13
C
D
B
X
E
Fig. 5
# » # »
In Fig. 5, AB = p and AC = 2q. D is the point on BC such that BD : DC = 1 : 3 and E is the
mid-point of AC.
(a) Write down, in terms of p and q, expressions for

# » # »
(i) BE, (ii) BD.
# » 3 1
(b) Show that AD = p + q.
4 2
# » # » # » # »
AX = λAD and BX = µBE, where λ and µ are scalar constants.
By considering the triangle BXA
(c) find a relationship between λ, µ, p and q.
(d) Deduce the values of λ and µ.
(e) Write down the ratios
(i) area 4 BXA : area 4 BXD,
(ii) area 4 BXA : area 4 EXA,
(iii) area 4 BXD : area 4 EXA.

Solution:
# » # » # » # » 1# »
(a) (i) BE = BA + AE (ii) BD = BC
4
1# » 1 # » # »
= −p + AC = (BA + AC)
2 4
1
= −p + q = (−p + 2q)
4
=q−p 1
= (2q − p)
4
# » # » # »
(b) AD = AB + BD
1
= p + (2q − p)
4
1 1
=p+ q− p
2 4
3 1
= p+ q
4 2
# » # » # »
(c) BA = BX + XA
# » # »
p = µBE − λBD
3 1
p = µ(q − p) − λ( p + q)
4 2
3 1
p = µq − µp − λp − λq
4 2
3 1
p = (−µ − λ)p + (µ − λ)q
4 2
3 1
(d) −µ − λ = 1 µ= λ
4 2
1 2 4
(+) µ − λ = 0 =
2 5 5
5 2
− λ=1 =
4 5
4
λ=
5

Labelling the diagram using µ and λ.
C
D
B 1
2X
3
E
4
(e)
(i) area 4 BXA : area 4 BXD
1 1
= (XA)(XB) sin BXA : (XD)(XB) sin BXD
2 2
=4×2:1×2
=4:1
(ii) area 4 BXA : area 4 EXA,

1 1
= (XB)(XA) sin BXA : (XE)(XA) sin EXA
2 2
=2×4:3×4
=2:3
(iii) area 4 BXD : area 4 EXA

1 1
= (XB)(XD) sin BXD : (XE)(XA) sin EXA
2 2
=2×1:3×4
= 2 : 12
=1:6
Note that in part (i) and (ii), the answers are obvious, since only one side of the triangle is changing
if you compare the triangles to 4 BAD.
If I ask you to find the ratio 4 BAE : 4 BAC, the angle used will be BAC for both triangles.
Hopefully you gained some new insights from this. This was the example I showed in class which I
think I explained differently.

28 Optimisation
Questions usually involve finding the maximum volume or minimum surface area if it is a 3D-shape,
maximum area if it is 2D. You will need to know how to differentiate negative exponents in many
cases.
Remember that the question usually asks for a minimum or maximum value, so plug in the critical
value back into the volume or area expression.
dA dV
Critical values come from setting = 0 or = 0, etc. If there are more than one, you might
dx dx
have to reject some (usually the negative value, since a dimension must be non-negative).
To show that it is a maximum or minimum, use the second derivative test.

2
d A
• If > 0, A attains a minimum at x = p.
dx2

x=p

d2 V
• If < 0, V attains a maximum at x = p, where p is a critical value.
dx2

x=p
If second derivative test fails, which I have never encountered in this course, use first derivative test
by drawing a sign diagram which states:
• If the first derivative switches from +ve to −ve at the critical value, then it is a maximum.
• If the first derivative switches from −ve to +ve at the critical value, then it is a minimum.

29 Related Rates
By chain rule,
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
If we let x = y, then
dy dy du
= ×
dy du dy
dy du
1= ×
du dy
1 du
=
dy dy
du
1
This result is particularly important when we do related rates. This is like loga x = .
logx a
dr
Many times, questions involve finding , which can be broken down as such:
dt
dr dr dV
= ×
dt dV dt
dr 1 dV
= ×
dt dV dt
dr
dV
dr
= dt
dt dV
dr
You should know be familiar with the manipulations.

The objective of the question is usually finding the rate at a specific point. r may not may not be
given directly. If given indirectly, solve a simple equation such as πr2 = 36π.
You can read the full solutions of related rates questions for more details.

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Edexcel IGCSE Further Pure Mathematics Notes: Work in Progress

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Edexcel IGCSE

Further Pure Mathematics Notes∗

1 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

1 Basic Mensuration Formulas 4

2 Arc and Sector 6

6 Completing the Square 11

9 Arithmetic Sequences and Series 18

10 Geometric Sequences and Series 19

11 Summation, Sigma Notation 22

12 Alpha Beta, Vieta’s Formulas 24

20 Area under a Curve 41

21 Area between Curves 44

2 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

24 Exponential and Logarithm 63

3 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

h base area × height

A tetrahedron is another name for triangular-based pyramid.

4 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

5 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

Questions may involve:

• find the angle, radius, arc length, sector area

• area of triangle using sine rule, isosceles triangle

• find the area of a segment.

6 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

Figure 1 shows an arc P Q of a circle with centre O.

shaded area = sector area of OP Q − area of 4OP Q

7 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

For linear inequalities,

• set x = 0 to get y-coordinate, which will be the y-intercept. (0, y)

• set y = 0 to get x-coordinate, which will be the x-intercept. (x, 0)

8 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

(x − 3)(x + 1) > 0 sketch the curve

(2x − 3)2 < 3(2x + 3)

4x2 − 12x + 9 < 6x + 9

4x2 − 18x < 0 sketch the curve

9 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

Given ax2 + bx + c, the discriminant, denoted by the symbol ∆ (delta), is

If a quadratic has two (different, distinct) real roots, ∆ > 0.

10 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

e.g. f (x) = 2x2 − 5x + 8

To write out, I would skip some of the steps above.

11 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

g(x) = −4x2 − 3x + 6 ← reorder in descending powers

Again, to save time.

12 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

Using the two examples above,

You can differentiate to find the maximum/minimum.

13 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

6.3 Recommended Read

14 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

7.1 Product Rule

e.g. Differentiate 3x3 cos 2x.

f 0 (x) = 9x2 g 0 (x) = −2 sin 2x

7.2 Quotient Rule

f (x) = e2x g(x) = x3

f 0 (x) = 2e2x g 0 (x) = 3x2

15 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung

7.3 Chain Rule

16 Last revised on 13/5/2018 by Steve Cheung