ACI 343.

1R-12

Guide for the Analysis and Design

of Reinforced and Prestressed
Concrete Guideway Structures

Reported by Joint ACI-ASCE Committee 343

 First Printing
November 2012

Guide for the Analysis and Design of Reinforced and Prestressed

Concrete Guideway Structures

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ISBN 13: 978-0-87031-804-7
 ACI 343.1R-12

Guide for the Analysis and Design of Reinforced and

Prestressed Concrete Guideway Structures
Reported by Joint ACI-ASCE Committee 343
Nur Yazdani Danielle D. Kleinhans
Chair Secretary

Hossam M. Abdou David Hieber Claudia P. Pulido Consulting members

Hamid Ahmady Thomas T. C. Hsu Ayman E. Salama F. Arbabi
Sameh S. Badie Mohsen A. Issa Harold R. Sandberg John L. Carrato
Shrinivas B. Bhide Richard G. Janecek Johan C. F. Schor V. M. Davidge
Selvakumar Buvanendaran Bruce C. Kates*† Jeffrey L. Smith Tim Delis
W. Gene Corley Zhongguo John Ma Khaled S. Soubra Mingzhu Duan
Om P. Dixit Barney T. Martin Jr.* Steven L. Stroh Allan C. Harwood
Mamdouh M. El-Badry Alan B. Matejowsky Maria M. Szerszen Jenn-Shin Hwang
Noel J. Everard Amir Mirmiran Gamil S. Tadros Clellon L. Loveall
Apostolos Fafitis Aftab A. Mufti Raj Valluvan*
Andrew J. Foden Hani H. A. Nassif Jim J. Zhao
Amin Ghali John P. Newhook Qun Zhong-Brisbois*
Angel E. Herrera Andrzej S. Nowak

*
Indicates members of the subcommittee that prepared this guide.
†
Subcommittee Chair.
The committee acknowledges C. A. Banchik, D. Bilow, K. Hjorteset, T. T. C. Hsu, A. S. Nowak, A. M. Okeil, G. S. Tadros, and K. Wongkaew for their contributions to this guide.
A special acknowledgment is due to M. Y. Riad* for his significant contributions to this guide.

This guide presents a procedure for the design and analysis of CONTENTS
reinforced and prestressed concrete guideway structures for public
transit, and design guidance for elevated transit guideways. The Chapter 1—Introduction and scope, p. 2
engineer is referred to the appropriate highway and railway bridge 1.1—Introduction
design codes for items not covered in this document.
1.2––Scope
Limit state philosophy is applied to develop design criteria. A reli-
ability approach is used in defining load combinations and deriving
load and resistance factors. Different target reliability indexes (4.0 Chapter 2––Notation and definitions, p. 2
for design strength, 2.5 for serviceability design for cracking, and 2.1—Notation
2.0 for serviceability design for fatigue) and a service life of 75 2.2—Definitions
years were used as the basis for safety analysis. A 75-year service
life is consistent with the American Association of State Highway Chapter 3—General design considerations, p. 4
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Load and Resistance 3.1—Scope
Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specifications. 3.2—Structural considerations
3.3—Functional considerations
Keywords: cracking; deformation; fatigue; guideway structures; precast
concrete; prestressed concrete; prestressing loads; reinforced concrete; vibration.
3.4—Economic considerations
3.5—Urban impact
3.6—Transit operations
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, and Commentaries are 3.7—Structure/vehicle interaction
intended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and 3.8—Geometries
inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use
of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance 3.9—Construction considerations
and limitations of its content and recommendations and who 3.10—Rails and trackwork
will accept responsibility for the application of the material it
contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and
all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall
ACI 343.1R-12 was adopted and published November 2012..
not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Copyright © 2012 American Concrete Institute.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
documents. If items found in this document are desired by means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or
the Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents, mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduc-
they shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation tion or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in
by the Architect/Engineer. writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.

1
2

Chapter 4—Loads, p. 17 these criteria for advanced technologies other than those
4.1—General discussed in this guide requires an independent assessment.
4.2—Sustained loads AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO
4.3—Transient loads 2012) and ACI 343R are referenced for specific items not
4.4—Loads due to volumetric changes covered in these recommendations, including materials,
4.5—Exceptional loads construction considerations, and segmental construction.
4.6—Construction loads
CHAPTER 2––NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS
Chapter 5—Load combinations, load factors, and
strength reduction factors, p. 23 2.1—Notation
5.1—Scope A = exposed area of pier perpendicular to the direction
5.2—Basic assumptions of stream flow, ft2 (m2)
5.3—Service load combinations Acp = area enclosed by the outer boundary of cross
5.4—Strength load combinations section, in.2 (mm2)
Al = area of longitudinal reinforcement in a member,
Chapter 6—Serviceability design, p. 24 in.2 (mm2)
6.1—General Ao = lever arm area enclosed by the centerline of the
6.2—Basic assumptions shear flow, in.2 (mm2)
6.3—Permissible stresses Aoh = area enclosed by the centerline of the outermost
6.4—Loss of prestress closed transverse torsion reinforcement, in.2 (mm2)
6.5—Fatigue Ar = cross-sectional area of a rail, in.2 (mm2)
6.6—Vibration and dynamic response As′ = area of compression reinforcement, in.2 (mm2)
6.7—Deformations and rotations At = area of one leg of a closed stirrup resisting torsion,
6.8—Crack control in.2 (mm2)
Av = area of shear reinforcement, or area of shear rein-
Chapter 7—Strength design, p. 29 forcement perpendicular to main reinforcement for
7.1—General design and analysis considerations deep beams, in.2 (mm2)
7.2—Design for flexure and axial loads a = center-to-center distance of shorter dimension of
7.3—Shear and torsion closed rectangular stirrup, in. (mm)
B = buoyancy
Chapter 8—References, p. 31 BR = broken rail forces
b = center-to-center distance of longer dimension of
CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE closed rectangular stirrup, in. (mm)
CD = flowing water drag coefficient
1.1—Introduction Cd = horizontal wind drag coefficient
The recommendations in this guide provide public agen- CE = centrifugal force, lb (N)
cies, consultants, and other interested personnel with Ce = wind exposure coefficient
comprehensive criteria for the design and analysis of Cg = wind gust effect coefficient
concrete guideways for public transit systems. They differ COLFH = horizontal collision load, lb (N)
from those given for bridge design and analysis in ACI 343R, COLFV = vertical collision load, lb (N)
American Association of State Highway and Transportation CR = forces due to creep in concrete, lb (N)
Officials (AASHTO) bridge specifications (AASHTO 2002, CT = collision load, lb (N)
2009, 2011, 2012), and the American Railway Engineering c = clear concrete cover, in. (mm)
and Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA) Manual DC = dead load, lb (N)
of Railway Engineering (AREMA 2012). This document DR = transit vehicle mishap load, due to vehicle derail-
provides guidance related chiefly to the design of guideway ment, lb (N)
superstructures. For the design of substructure units, the DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities, lb (N)
reader is referred to other references such as AASHTO d = distance from extreme compressive fiber to centroid
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO 2012). of longitudinal tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
dv = distance from centroid of tensile steel to centroid of
1.2––Scope concrete struts, in. (mm)
Design criteria specifically recognize the unique features Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (MPa)
of concrete transit guideways—namely, guideway/vehicle Eci = modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer of
interaction, rail/structure interaction, special fatigue require- prestress, psi (MPa)
ments, and aesthetic requirements in urban areas. Criteria Er = modulus of elasticity of rail steel, psi (MPa)
are based on current state-of-the-art practice for moderate- Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, psi (MPa)
speed (up to 100 mph [160 km/h]) vehicles. Application of EH = loads due to weight and pressure of soil, water in
soil, or other material, lb (N)
3

EI = flexural stiffness of compression members, lb-in.2 jd = distance between tensile and compression forces at
(kN-mm2) a section based on an elastic analysis, in. (mm)
EL = accumulated locked-in force effects resulting from l = span length, ft (m)
construction process, including secondary forces L = live load during construction, lb (N); wave length,
from post-tension ft (m)
EQ = earthquake force, lb (N) LFe = emergency longitudinal braking force, lb (N)
ER = external restrained force, lb (N) LFn = normal longitudinal braking force, lb (N)
Fh = horizontal design drag load due to wind, psi (Pa) LF = longitudinal force, lb (N)
FR = radial force per unit length due to curvature of LL = vertical standard vehicle load, lb (N)
continuously welded rail, k/in. (Pa/mm) LR = load on safety railing, lb (N)
Fr = axial force in the continuously welded rail, kip (kN) LS = live load surcharge, lb (N)
Fsj = jacking force in a post-tensioning tendon, kip (kN) M = mass per unit length of guideway, lb/in.-s2/in.
Fv = vertical design drag load due to wind, psi (Pa) (kg/m)
f1 = first mode flexural (natural) frequency, Hz Ma = maximum moment in member due to service loads
fc = extreme fiber compressive stress in concrete at at stage for which deflection is being computed,
service loads, psi (MPa) in.-lb (N-mm)
fc′ = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa) Mcr = cracking moment, in.-lb. (N-mm)
fci′ = specified compressive strength of concrete at time P = live load on service walkway, lb (N)
of initial prestress, psi (MPa) PD = dynamic wind pressure, lb/ft2 (MPa)
fr = cracking strength of concrete, psi (MPa) PL = pedestrian live load, lb (N)
fcri = cracking stress of concrete at time of initial PS = secondary force effects due to prestressing
prestress, psi (MPa) pcp = periphery of outer boundary of the member, in. (mm)
ff = stress range in straight flexural reinforcing steel, ksi qy = shear flow at yield, lb/in. (N/mm)
(MPa) r/h = ratio of base radius to height of transverse defor-
fmin = algebraic minimum stress, tension positive, mations of reinforcing bars; when actual value is
compression negative, ksi (MPa) unknown, use 0.3
fpbt = stress in prestressing steel immediately prior to R = radius of curvature, ft (m)
transfer, psi (MPa) RS = rail-structure interaction, lb (N)
fpe = effective stress in prestressing steel after losses, psi S = service load combinations
(MPa) SE = differential settlement effects
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing steel, psi SH = forces due to shrinkage in concrete, lb (N)
(MPa) s = spacing of reinforcement to resist bursting, shear,
fpy = specified yield strength of prestressing steel, psi or pitch of spiral reinforcement, center- to-center
(MPa) spacing of longitudinal shear, or torsion reinforce-
frr = axial stress in the continuously welded rail, ksi (MPa) ment, in. (mm)
fs = calculated tensile stress in reinforcement at service sl = spacing for longitudinal reinforcement, in. (mm)
loads, psi (MPa) st = spacing of hoop reinforcement, in. (mm)
fsr = stress range in shear reinforcement or in welded T0 = stress-free temperature of the continuously welded
reinforcing bars, ksi (MPa) rail, °F (°C)
fst = change in stress in torsion reinforcement due to T1 = final temperature in the continuously welded rail,
fatigue loadings, ksi (MPa) °F (°C)
fsv = change in stress in shear reinforcement due to Tu = torsional moment, in.-lb (N-mm)
fatigue loadings, ksi (MPa) TG = loads due to temperature gradient in the structure
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement, psi (MPa) exclusive of rail forces, lb (N)
g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ft/s2 (9.81 m/s2) TU = loads due to uniform temperature in the structure
H = height from ground level to the top of the exclusive of rail forces, lb (N)
superstructure t = time, days
HF = hunting force, lb (N) td = shear flow zone thickness of a member subjected to
h = overall thickness or height of member, in. (mm) torsional forces, in. (mm)
Icr = moment of inertia of cracked section transformed U = ultimate load combinations
to concrete, in.4 (m4) V = speed, ft/s (m/s)
Ie = effective moment of inertia for computation of Vcr = critical speed, ft/s (m/s)
deflections, neglecting the reinforcement, in.4 (m4) Vu = ultimate shear force, lb (N)
Ig = moment of inertia of gross concrete section about the v = velocity of stream flow, mean hourly velocity of
centroidal axis neglecting reinforcement, in.4 (m4) wind, or maximum operating speed of the vehicle,
IC = ice pressure, lb (N) ft/s (m/s)
IM = impact factor WA = stream flow load, lb (N)
ILst = impact load, lb (N) WL = wind load on vehicle, lb (N)
4

WS = wind load on structure, lb (N) environment (Fig. 3.1.1b), the operation of the transit system,
wc = unit weight of concrete, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) the system suppliers, and the structural options available.
wn = natural frequency of the structure (rad/s) A guideway becomes a permanent feature of the urban
yt = distance from the centroidal axis of cross section, scene. Materials and features, therefore, should be effi-
neglecting the reinforcement, to the extreme fiber ciently used and built into the guideway to produce a struc-
in tension, in. (mm) ture that will support an operating transit system and fit the
a = coefficient of thermal expansion environment.
DT = change in torsion at section due to fatigue loadings, This guide provides an overview of key issues to be
in.-kip (N-mm) considered in guideway design. It is intended to suggest
DV = change in shear at section due to fatigue loading, minimum materials, workmanship, technical features,
kip (kN) design, and construction for producing a guideway that
f = strength reduction factor performs satisfactorily. Serviceability and strength consider-
g = mass density of water = 62.4 lb/ft3 (1000 kg/m3) ations are also given. It includes analysis and design guide-
l = multiplier for additional deflection due to long- lines to meet serviceability and strength limit states. Sound
term effects engineering judgment should be used in implementing these
q = angle in degrees between the wind force and a line recommendations.
normal to the guideway centerline 3.1.2 Guideway structures—A guideway structure should
r = density of air at sea level at 32°F (0°C) = 0.0765 lb/ support a transit vehicle, guide it through the alignment,
ft3 (1.226 kg/m3) and restrain stray vehicles. Guidance of transit vehicles
x = time-dependent factor for sustained load includes the ability to switch vehicles between guideways. A
guideway should also generally provide emergency evacua-
2.2—Definitions
ACI provides a comprehensive list of definitions through
an online resource, “ACI Concrete Terminology,” http://
terminology.concrete.org. Definitions provided herein
complement that resource.
bogie—wheeled frame connected via a suspension system
to a railway vehicle body or underframe.
broken rail—fracture of a continuously welded rail.
continuously welded rail (CWR)—running rails that act
as a continuous structural element as a result of full pene-
tration welding of individual lengths of rail; continuously
welded rails may be directly fastened to the guideway, in
which case their combined load effects should be included
in the design.
flexural natural frequency—first vertical frequency of
vibration of a guideway, including all the sustained load,
based on the flexural stiffness and mass distribution of the
Fig. 3.1.1a—Example of a transit structure that blends with
superstructure.
the environment (courtesy of MGM Mirage, Inc.).
linear induction motor (LIM)—AC linear motor that
works by the same general principles as other induction
motors but which has been designed to directly produce
motion in a straight line.
standard vehicle—loading, design vehicle-forces repre-
senting the wheel pattern and total weight including carriage,
bogie, and passenger loads, of a railway vehicle.

CHAPTER 3—GENERAL DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS

3.1—Scope
3.1.1 General—Transit structures frequently carry loads
through urban areas. Demands for aesthetics (Fig. 3.1.1a),
performance, cost, efficiency, and minimum urban disrup-
tion during construction and operation are greater than for
most bridge structures.
The design of transit structures requires an understanding Fig. 3.1.1b—Example of a transit structure in an urban
of transit technology, constraints and the impact to an urban setting (courtesy of PCA).
5

Fig. 3.1.3b––Vehicle style (courtesy of Clarian Health).

Fig. 3.1.2—Repetition of span lengths and column details

(courtesy of PCA).

Fig. 3.1.3c––Vehicle style (courtesy of Hitachi Corporation).

vehicles. Transit vehicles may be configured as individual

Fig. 3.1.3a––Vehicle style (courtesy of Jacksonville Trans- units or combined into trains. Their styles vary as shown in
portation Authority). Fig. 3.1.3a through 3.1.3d.

tion, support wayside power distribution services, and house 3.2—Structural considerations
automatic train controls. 3.2.1 General—Transit systems are constructed in four
Within a modern transit guideway, there is a high degree types of right-of-way (ROW): exclusive; shared-use rail
of repeatability (Fig. 3.1.2) and nearly an equal mixture of corridor; shared-use highway corridor; and urban arterial.
tangent and curved alignments. Guideways often consist Constraints of ROW affect the type of structural system
of post-tensioned concrete members. Post-tensioning may that can be employed for an individual transit operation.
provide principal reinforcement for simple-span structures Constraints resulting from a particular ROW might include
and continuity reinforcement for continuous structures. limited construction access; restricted working hours; limits
Bonded post-tensioned tendons are recommended for all on environmental factors such as noise, dust, foundation,
primary load-carrying guideway applications, and their use and structure placement; and availability of skilled labor and
is assumed in this guide. Unbonded tendons, however, may equipment. Various guideway locations within the ROW are
be used where approved, especially for strengthening or shown in Fig. 3.2.1a through 3.2.1c.
expanding existing structures. 3.2.2 Concrete girder types—Categorized by construction
3.1.3 Vehicles—Transit vehicles have a wide variety of methods, three types of concrete girders are used for transit
physical configurations, propulsion, and suspension systems. superstructures: precast, cast-in-place, and composite.
The most common transit vehicles are steel-wheeled vehicles 3.2.2.1 Precast girder construction—When site condi-
running on steel rails, powered by conventional guidance tions are suitable, entire beam elements can be prefabricated
systems. Transit vehicles also include rubber-tired vehicles and transported to the site. Box girder sections are frequently
and vehicles with more advanced suspension or guidance used for their torsional stiffness, especially for short-radius
systems, such as air-cushioned or magnetically levitated
6

Fig. 3.2.1c––ROW at median location (courtesy of PCA).

Fig. 3.1.3d––Vehicle style (courtesy of PCA).

Fig. 3.2.2.1a—Precast box girders for sharp curvature (cour-

tesy of PCA). Continuity has been provided through curved
Fig. 3.2.1a––Shared ROW (courtesy of PCA). alignment.

to simple-span or two-span continuous structures to accom-

modate thermal movements between the rails and structure.
Longer lengths of continuous construction are used more
readily in systems with rubber-tired vehicles. Examples of
girder types and continuity may be seen in Fig. 3.2.2.1a
through 3.2.2.1d.
Segmental construction techniques may be used for major
structures, such as river crossings or where schedules or
access to the site favors delivery of segmental units. The use
of segmental construction is discussed in ACI 343R.
3.2.2.2 Cast-in-place structures—Cast-in-place construc-
tion is used when site limitations preclude delivery of large
precast elements or the guideway structure has a complex
geometry, like being located on sharp curves. Cast-in-place
Fig. 3.2.1b––Side of ROW (courtesy of Las Vegas Monorail construction has not been used extensively in modern transit
Company). structures unless warranted by the specific project situation.
3.2.2.3 Composite structures—Transit structures can
curves. Some transit systems with long-radius horizontal be constructed in a similar manner to highway bridges,
curves have used double-T beams for the structure. using precast concrete or steel girders with a cast-in-place
Continuous structures are frequently used. Precast composite concrete deck. Composite construction is espe-
beams are made continuous by developing continuity at the cially common for special structures such as switches,
supports. A continuous structure has less depth and increased turnouts, and long spans where the weight of an individual
structural redundancy than a simple-span structure. Rail precast element limits its shipping to the site. The girder
systems using continuously welded rail are typically limited
7

Fig. 3.2.2.1b––Precast concrete girders (courtesy of MGM Fig. 3.2.2.1d––Precast box girder on tangent (courtesy of
Mirage, Inc.). Example of simple span construction. PCA). May be simple span or continuous over multiple spans.
May be span-by-span or balanced cantilever construction.

Fig. 3.2.2.1c––Precast box girder on curve (courtesy of Fig. 3.3.2a––Walkway between rails (courtesy of Jackson-
PCA). Balanced cantilever construction provides continuity ville Transportation Authority).
over the pier.
speeds, environmental factors, transit operations, collision
conditions, and vehicle retention should also be considered.
provides a working surface that allows accurate placement The geometric envelope of a disabled vehicle is a function for
of transit hardware on the cast-in-place deck. the suspension system, support system, and vehicle design.
This information must be provided by the system supplier.
3.3—Functional considerations Human safety addresses emergency evacuation and access,
3.3.1 General—The structural functions are to support structural maintenance, and fire control. Transit operations
present and future transit applications, satisfy serviceability require facilities for evacuating passengers from stalled or
requirements, and provide for passenger safety. The transit disabled vehicles and access for emergency personnel. In
structure may also be designed to support other loads such most cases, emergency evacuation is accomplished by a
as automotive or pedestrian traffic. However, mixed-use walkway that may be adjacent to the guideway or incorpo-
applications are not included in the loading requirements of rated into its structure. Figure 3.3.2a and 3.3.2b show walk-
Chapters 4 and 5. ways provided between the guideway rails.
3.3.2 Safety considerations—Considerations for a transit The exact details of the emergency access and evacua-
structure should include transit technology, human safety, tion methods on the guideway should be resolved among the
and external safety in accordance with the requirements of transit operator, transit vehicle supplier, and engineer. NFPA
the National Fire Protection Association document NFPA 130 (NFPA 2003) gives detailed requirements for safety
130 (NFPA 2003). provisions on fixed guideway transit systems.
Transit technology considerations include both normal External safety considerations include safety precautions
and extreme longitudinal, lateral, and vertical vehicle loads. during construction, prevention of local street traffic colli-
Passing clearances for normal and disabled vehicles, vehicle sion with the transit structure, and avoidance of naviga-
8

Longitudinal drainage of transit structures is usually

accomplished by providing a longitudinal slope to the struc-
ture; with a minimum slope of 0.5 percent preferred. Scup-
pers or inlets of a size and number that are designed and
detailed to drain the structure should be provided. Down-
spouts, where required, should be of a rigid, corrosion-
resistant material preferable a minimum of 6 in. (150 mm)
but not less than 4 in. (100 mm) in diameter. Downspouts
should be provided with cleanouts. Details of the downspout
and its deck inlet and outlet should prevent water discharge
against any portion of the structure and erosion at ground
level. Slopes should be arranged so that runoff drains away
from stations. Longitudinal grades to ensure drainage should
be planned with the natural topography of the site to avoid an
Fig. 3.3.2b––Walkways between rails (courtesy of Las Vegas unusual structural appearance.
Monorail Co.). Architectural treatment of exposed downspouts is impor-
tant to the aesthetic appearance of the facility. When treat-
ment becomes complicated, the use of internal or embedded
downspouts is preferred. For internal or external downspouts,
prevention of ice accumulation in cold-weather climates
should be considered. This may require localized heating of
the drain area and downspout. All overhanging portions of
the concrete deck should have a drip bead or notch.
3.3.5 Expansion joints and bearings—Expansion joints
should be provided at span ends, allowing beam ends to
accommodate movements from volumetric changes within
the structure. These movements come from several primary
sources: temperature change, concrete shrinkage, creep
effects from prestressing, and post-tensioning shortening.
Joints should be designed to reduce noise transmission and
prevent moisture from seeping to the bearings.
Adequate detailing should be provided to facilitate main-
tenance of bearings and their replacement if or when needed
during the life of the structure. Figure 3.3.5 shows bearings
between the box girder and the bent cap that are clearly
visible. Access for jacking the structure for bearing replace-
ment is enhanced.
When using aprons or finger plates, they should be
designed to span the joint and prevent debris accumulation
on the bearing seats.
3.3.6 Durability—To satisfy a design life of 75 years or
more, details affecting durability of the structure—mate-
Fig. 3.3.5––Bearings should be designed for rials selection, structural detailing, and construction quality
easy replacement (courtesy of PCA). control—should be given adequate consideration.
Materials selection includes concrete and its mixture
proportion, allowing for a low water-cementitious mate-
tional hazards when transit structures pass over navigable rial ratio (w/cm) and air entrainment in areas subject to
waterways. freezing-and-thawing action. Epoxy-coated reinforcement
3.3.3 Lighting—The requirements for transit structure and concrete sealers may be beneficial if:
lighting should be followed in accordance with provisions a) Chloride use is anticipated as part of the winter snow-
of the authority having jurisdiction. Provisions may require clearing operations
lighting for emergency use only, for properties adjacent to the b) The guideway may be exposed to salt spray from a
guideway structure, or that lighting be eliminated altogether. coastal environment
3.3.4 Drainage—To prevent accumulation of water within c) Adjacent highways are treated with deicing chemicals
the track area, transit structures should be designed so that In structural detailing, reinforcement or noncorrosive
surface runoff is drained to the edge or center of the super- reinforcement placement and methods to prevent deleterious
structure, where the water can be carried longitudinally. conditions from occurring should be considered. Reinforce-
ment should be distributed in the section to control crack
9

distribution and size (ACI SP-66 [ACI Committee 315

2004]). The cover should provide adequate protection to
the reinforcement and follow a nationally recognized code
(ACI 318 or AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
[AASHTO 2012]) or specific project requirements.
Incidental and accidental loadings should be accounted
for and adequate reinforcement provided to intersect poten-
tial cracks. Stray electrical currents, which could precipitate
galvanic corrosion, should be accounted for in electrical
hardware and equipment design and their grounding.
Construction quality control is essential to ensure that
design intent and durability considerations are properly
implemented. Construction inspectors should be qualified,
experienced, and certified as ACI Concrete Special Inspec-
tors. Quality control should follow a pre-established formal
plan with inspections performed as specified in the contract
documents. ACI 311.4R provides guidance for establishing Fig. 3.5.1––Urban impact (courtesy of PCA).
formal plans.
To satisfy a 75-year service life, regular inspection and emergency service access, and the emergency evacuation
maintenance programs should be instituted to ensure the of passengers. Access to the guideway requires stairs, walk-
integrity of structural components. Programs may include ways, and platforms. How they are configured, attached, and
periodic placement of coatings, sealers, or chemical neutral- where they are located will affect the visual reception by the
izers. Adequate lighting may be necessary where natural public.
light may be insufficient, such as inside box girder structures. 3.5.2 Physical appearance—A guideway constructed in
any built-up environment should meet high standards of
3.4—Economic considerations aesthetics for physical appearance. The size and configura-
The economy of a concrete guideway is measured by the tion of guideway elements should ensure compatibility with
annual maintenance cost and capitalized cost for its service its surroundings. Whereas the range of sizes and shapes
life. The design process should include provisions to mini- is unlimited in the selection of guideway components, the
mizing operations and maintenance cost. Consideration, following should be considered:
therefore, should be given to the service life cost of the a) View disruption
guideway structure. The owners should establish guidelines b) Shade and shelter created by the guideway
for a cost analysis. Economy is considered by comparative c) Blockage of pedestrian walkways
studies of reinforced, prestressed, and partially prestressed d) Blockage of streets and the effect on traffic and parking
concrete construction. Trade-offs should be considered for e) Impairment of sight distances for traffic
using higher-grade materials in sensitive areas during the f) Guideway size as it relates to adjacent structures
initial construction, against the impact of system disrup- g) Construction in an urban environment
tion at a later date if the transit system must be upgraded. h) Methods of delivery for prefabricated components and
For example, higher-quality aggregates may be selected cast-in-place construction
for the traction surface where local aggregates have a i) Interaction with roadway and transit vehicles
tendency to polish with continuous wear. The argument in j) Visual continuity
support for higher-grade materials is especially important Figure 3.5.2a shows the location of guideway columns
because guideway traffic cannot be rerouted during service to avoid disruption of pedestrian traffic, vehicular traffic on
disruptions. local streets, and traffic sight distances.
Figure 3.5.2b demonstrates how smooth curves for both
3.5—Urban impact structure and vehicle allow the system to blend into its
3.5.1 General—The guideway affects an urban environ- suburban surroundings.
ment in three general areas: visually, physically, and through Detailing considerations should include:
access of public safety equipment. Figure 3.5.1 shows the a) Surface finish
integration of the guideway within the other transportation b) Color
corridors in the vicinity. c) Joint detailing
Visual impact includes guideway appearance from the d) Provision to alleviate damage from water dripping from
surrounding area and the appearance of the surrounding the structure
area from the guideway. Physical impact includes placement e) Control and dissipation of surface water runoff
of columns and beams and the dissipation of noise, vibra- f) Differences in texture and color between cast-in-place
tion, and electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radia- and precast elements
tion is usually a specific design consideration of the vehicle 3.5.3 Sightlines—In guideway design, the view of the
supplier. Public safety requires provisions for fire, police, surrounding area from the transit system should be consid-
10

Fig. 3.5.2a––Design decisions to fit guideway around existing Fig. 3.5.3––Example of the importance of sightlines (cour-
features (courtesy of Las Vegas Monorail Co.). tesy of Clarian Health).

hardware on the guideway structure should be designed to

meet general or specific noise-suppression criteria. Deter-
mination of these criteria is made on a case-by-case basis,
frequently in conjunction with the vehicle supplier. ASCE
21 provides additional information regarding acceptable
exterior noise levels emanating from the system.
3.5.5 Vibration––Transit vehicles on a guideway generate
vibrations that may be transmitted to adjacent structures. For
most rubber-tired transit systems, this ground-borne vibra-
tion is negligible. In many rail transit systems, especially
those systems with jointed rails, the noise and vibration can
be highly perceptible. In these situations, vibration isolation
of the structure is necessary. ASCE 21 contains additional
information regarding system-induced vibrations.
3.5.6 Emergency services access––A key concern in an
Fig. 3.5.2b––Clean lines and smooth finishes (courtesy of urban area is the accessibility by fire or other emergency
Clarian Health). equipment to buildings adjacent to a guideway. Within the
confined right-of-way (ROW) of an urban street, space limita-
ered. The engineer should recognize that patrons riding on tions make this a particularly sensitive concern. In most cases,
the transit system will have a different view than pedestrians a clearance of approximately 15 ft (5 m) between the face of
at street level; the guideway placement and sightlines should a structure and a guideway provides adequate access. Access
reflect sensitivity to intrusion on private properties and adja- over the top of a guideway may not represent a safe option.
cent buildings. In some cases, the use of noise barriers and
dust screens should be considered. 3.6—Transit operations
Figure 3.5.3 provides an example of clean sightlines as 3.6.1 General—Once a transit system is opened for
the guideway span straddles the projected lines of the water service, the public depends on its availability and reliability.
channel beyond. Shutdowns to permit maintenance, operation, or expan-
Views of the guideway from a higher vantage point are sion of the system can affect the availability and reliability.
important for a positive impression of the transit system on These concerns often lead to long-term economic, opera-
potential patrons. The interior should present a clean, orderly tional, and planning analyses of the transit system design
appearance to transit patrons and adjacent observers. and construction.
3.5.4 Noise suppression—A transit system will add to the In most transit operations, a shutdown period between
ambient background noise. Specifications for new construc- 1:00 and 5:00 a.m. can be tolerated; slightly longer shut-
tion generally require that the wayside noise 50 ft (15 m) downs may be possible in certain locations and on holi-
from the guideway not exceed a range of 65 to 76 dBA. This days. It is during shutdown that routine maintenance work
noise is generated from on-board vehicle equipment, such is performed.
as propulsion and air-conditioning units, and from vehicle/ Many transit systems also perform maintenance during
track interaction, especially when jointed rail is used. normal operating hours. This practice tends to compro-
Normally, it is the vehicle engineer’s responsibility to mise work productivity, guideway access rules, and a safe
control noise emanating from the vehicle. Parapets and other working space. Transit operators should provide the engi-
11

neer with guidelines regarding capital cost objectives and

their operation and maintenance plans.
3.6.2 Special vehicles—Transit systems frequently use
special vehicles for special tasks such as retrieving disabled
vehicles and repairing support or steering surfaces. While the
design may not be predicated on the use of special vehicles,
their frequency of use and their weights and sizes should be
considered in the design of the structure.
3.6.3 System expansion—Expansion of a transit system
can result in substantial disruption and delay to transit opera-
tion while equipment, such as switches, is being installed. In
the initial design and layout of a transit system, consideration
should be given to future expansion possibilities. Provisions Fig. 3.7.2.1––Guideway surfaces (courtesy of Clarian
should be incorporated in the initial design and construc- Health).
tion phases if expansion after construction is contemplated
within the foreseeable future and the probable expansion stricter tolerance requirements should be applied, as deter-
points are known. mined by the owner/engineer, with reference to the FRA,
which provides track tolerances based on track classifica-
3.7—Structure/vehicle interaction tions that are related to permissible speed.
3.7.1 General—Vehicle interaction with the guideway 3.7.2.2.2 Vertical misalignment—Vertical misalign-
can affect its performance on support, steering, power distri- ment most often occurs when adjacent beam ends meet at a
bution, and traction components of the system. It is usually column or other connection.
considered in design through the specification of service- There are two types of vertical misalignment. The first is
ability requirements for the structure. In the final design stage, physical displacement of adjacent surfaces, which occurs
close coordination with the vehicle supplier is imperative. when one beam is installed slightly lower or higher than the
3.7.2 Ride quality adjacent beam. This type of misalignment should be limited
3.7.2.1 General—Ride quality is influenced to a great degree to l/16 in. (1.5 mm) (ACI 117).
by the quality of the guideway surface. System specifications The second type of vertical misalignment occurs when
usually present ride quality criteria as lateral, vertical, and there is angular displacement between beams, which may
longitudinal accelerations and jerk (change in rate of accel- result from excessive deflection, sag, or camber. Excessive
eration), as measured inside the vehicle. These specifications camber or sag creates a discontinuity that imparts a notice-
should be translated into physical dimensions and surface able input to the vehicle suspension system. It is desirable
qualities on the guideway and in the vehicle suspension. to have the girder camber close to zero at the time that the
Two elements that most immediately affect transit vehicle guideway structure is made continuous. The engineer must
performance are the support and steering surfaces. Figure also consider the smooth crossing of expansion joints, and
3.7.2.1 shows guideway surfaces discussed in the following detail accordingly.
sections. In the design and construction of beams, the effects of
3.7.2.2 Support surface—The support surface is the hori- service load deflection, initial camber, and long-time deflec-
zontal surface of the guideway that supports the transit tions should be considered. There is no clear definition on
vehicle against the forces of gravity. It influences the vehicle the amount of angular discontinuity that can be tolerated at
performance by the introduction of random deviations from a beam joint. Designs that tend to minimize angular discon-
a theoretically perfect alignment. These deviations are input tinuity, however, generally provide a superior ride. Contin-
to the vehicle suspension system. Influence of the support uous guideways are particularly beneficial in controlling
surface on the vehicle is a function of the suspension system such misalignment.
type, the support medium (such as steel wheels or rubber 3.7.2.2.3 Camber—Camber or sag in the beam can also
tires), and vehicle speed. affect ride quality. Consistent upward camber in structures
There are three general components of support surfaces to with similar span lengths can create a harmonic vibration in
consider: local roughness, misalignment, and camber. the vehicle, resulting in dynamic amplification, especially in
3.7.2.2.1 Local roughness—Local roughness is the continuous structures. When there is no specific deflection
amount of distortion on the surface from a theoretically true or camber criteria cited for a project, the engineer should
surface. In most transit applications, the criterion of a 1/8 in. account for these dynamic effects by analytical or simula-
(3 mm) maximum deviation from a 10 ft (3 m) straightedge tion techniques. The deflection compatibility requirements
is used (ACI 117). between structural elements and station platform edges
With steel rails, a Federal Railway Administration (FRA) should be checked.
Class 6 (FRA 2004) tolerance is acceptable. FRA provisions 3.7.2.3 Steering surface—The steering surface provides
include requirements for longitudinal and transverse (roll) horizontal input to the vehicle. Steering surfaces may be
tolerances. These tolerances are consistent with operating running rails for a flanged steel-wheel-rail system on concrete
speeds of up to 50 mph (80 km/h). Above these speeds, or steel vertical surfaces integrated with the guideway struc-
12

Table 3.7.2.3––Track construction tolerances*

Variations† Track alignment deviation
Middle ordinate 62 ft (19 m)
Cross level and Total, in. (mm) cord, in. (mm)
Gauge, superelevation, in.
Type and class of track in. (mm) (mm) Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical
Direct fixation and ballasted main line 1/8 (3) 1/8 (3) 1/4 (6) 1/4 (6) 1/8 (3) 1/8 (3)

+1/4, –1/8
Ballasted yard and secondary lines 1/4 (6) 1/2 (12) 1 (24) 1/8 (3) 1/4 (6)
(+6, –3)
*
Tolerances are all positive, unless otherwise indicated.
†
Variations from theoretical gauge, cross level, and superelevation are not to exceed 1/8 in. (3 mm) per 15 ft 6 in. (4.7 m) of track.
Note: The total deviation in distance from the platform should be 0 in. toward the platform and 1/4 in. (6 mm) away from the platform. Total deviation is measured between the
theoretical and the actual alignments at any point along the track.

mechanisms, a couple can be created between the two that

causes a spurious steering input to the vehicle. While there
are no general specifications for this condition, the engineer
should be aware of this condition. If there is a significant
distance between the horizontal and two vertical contact
surfaces, additional tolerance requirements for the finished
surfaces should be imposed. This should reduce the consid-
erable steering input, which can cause oversteering or under-
steering, leading to an accelerated wear of components and
degraded ride comfort.
3.7.3 Traction surfaces—Transit vehicles derive their
traction from the physical contact of the wheels with the
concrete or running rail or through an electromagnetic force.
In systems where traction occurs through physical contact
with the guideway, specific attention should be given to the
traction surface.
In automated transit, the traction between the wheel and
the reaction surface is essential to ensure a consistent accel-
eration, a safe stopping distance between vehicles, and for
automatic control functions. The engineer should determine
Fig. 3.7.2.3—Interaction between support and steering. minimum traction required for specific technology employed.
If the traction surface is concrete, appropriate aggregates
ture for a rubber-tired system. The steering surface condition should be provided in the mixture proportion to maintain
is particularly important because few vehicles have sophis- minimum traction for the structure’s working life. Operation
ticated lateral suspension systems. In most existing guide- in freezing rain or snow may also affect guideway traction.
ways, the tolerance of 1/8 in. (3 mm) deviation from a 10 ft The engineer should determine the degree of traction main-
(3 m) straightedge (ACI 117), corrected for horizontal curva- tenance required under all operating conditions. If full main-
ture, has proven to be adequate for rubber-tired vehicles tenance is required, the engineer should examine methods to
operating at 35 mph (56 km/h) or less. In steel-rail systems, mitigate effects of snow or freezing rain. Mitigating effects
an FRA Class 6 (FRA 2004) rail tolerance has proven to be may include heating or enclosing the guideway, or both.
satisfactory for speeds up to 70 mph (112 km/h). Additional If deicing chemicals are contemplated, proper mate-
tolerance limits are provided in Table 3.7.2.3. rial selection and protection should be considered. Corro-
There is an interaction between the steering surface and sion protection may require consideration of additional
support surface, which is technology-dependent and requires concrete cover, sealants, epoxy-coated reinforcing steel or
specific consideration by the engineer. This interaction other noncorrosive reinforcement alternatives, and special
results from a coupling effect that occurs when a vehicle concrete mixtures.
rolls on the primary suspension system, causing the steering 3.7.4 Electrical power distribution––There are two
mechanism to move up and down (Fig. 3.7.2.3). The degree components to electrical power distribution: the wayside
of this up-and-down movement is dependent on the steering transmission of power to the vehicle and the primary power
mechanism, which is typically an integral part of the vehicle distribution to the guideway. Wayside power distribution
truck (bogie) system, and the stiffness of the primary suspen- to the vehicle is normally achieved through power rails or
sion, which is also within the truck assembly. an overhead catenary. Provisions should be made on the
Depending on the relationship between support and guideway for mounting support equipment for this type of
steering surfaces, and the vehicle’s support and guidance installation.
13

For systems using steel running rails where the running When choices are available, however, the placement of
rail is used for return current, provisions should also be columns to generate straight beams, as opposed to those with
made to control any stray electrical currents that may cause a slight horizontal or vertical curvature, will usually prove to
corrosion in the guideway reinforcement or generate other be more cost effective.
stray currents in adjacent structures or utilities. The primary Standardization and coordination of internal components
power distribution network associated with a guideway may and fixtures of the guideway also tend to reduce overall
require several substations along the transit route. Power cost. These include inserts for power equipment, switches,
should be transmitted to the power rails on the guideway or other support elements. Methods to achieve this are
structure at various intervals. This is usually done through discussed in 3.9.3.
conduits mounted on or embedded in the guideway structure. 3.8.3 Horizontal geometry—The horizontal geometry of
Internal conduits are an acceptable means of transmitting a guideway alignment consists of circular curves connected
power; they may be used to route power from the substa- to tangent elements with spiral transitions. Most types of
tion to the guideway. Access to internal conduits, however, cubic spirals are satisfactory for the transition spiral. The
is difficult to detail and construct. Sufficient space should vehicle manufacturer may provide additional constraints on
be provided within the column-beam connection and within the spiral geometry selection to match the dynamic char-
the beam section for the conduit turns. Space should also be acteristics of the vehicle. The horizontal geometry is often
provided for safe electrical connections. Exterior conduits developed by the engineer in conjunction with constraints
can detract from the guideway appearance and require provided by the vehicle manufacturers.
increased maintenance requirements. 3.8.4 Vertical geometry—Vertical geometry consists of
3.7.5 Special equipment—A guideway normally carries tangent sections connected by parabolic curves. In most
several pieces of special transit equipment, which may cases, the radius of curvature of the parabolic curves is suffi-
consist of switches, signaling, command and control wiring, ciently long so that a transition between the tangent section
or supplemental traction and power devices. The specialized and the parabolic section is not required. Figure 3.8.4 is
transit supplier should provide the engineer with explicit an example of a guideway as well as box girder geometry
specifications of special equipment and their spatial restric- providing gentle, appealing lines.
tions. For example, the placement of signaling cables may The engineer should verify the radius of curvature for the
be restricted within a certain distance of the wayside power parabolic curves providing a vertical acceleration that should
rails or reinforcing steel. be less than the maximum specified by the design criteria for
The transit supplier should also provide the engineer with the given project.
details and performance requirements of special equipment 3.8.5 Superelevation—Superelevation is applied to hori-
satisfying forces and fatigue requirements so that proper zontal curves to partially offset the effect of lateral accel-
connections to the structure can be designed and installed. eration on passengers. To achieve the required superel-
An example of connection requirements would be linear evation, the running surface away from the curve center is
induction motor (LIM) reaction rail attachments. raised increasingly relative to the running surface closer to
When no system supplier has been selected, the engineer the curve center. This results in the outer rail or wheel track
should design for anticipated services and equipment. A being raised while the inner rail or wheel track is kept at the
survey of potential supplier needs for the specific applica- profile elevation. The amount of superelevation is a func-
tion may be required before design. tion of the vehicle speed and the degree of curvature. It is
usually limited to a maximum value of 10 percent. Further
3.8—Geometries information on superelevations can be found at the Trans-
3.8.1 General—Geometric alignment of the transit line portation Research Board’s TCRP Report 57 (Transportation
can have a substantial impact on the system cost. Standard- Research Board 2000).
ization of guideway components can lead to cost savings.
During the planning and design stages of the transit system, 3.9—Construction considerations
the benefits of standardizing the structural elements, in terms 3.9.1 General––Guideway construction in an urban envi-
of ease and time of construction and maintenance, should be ronment has an impact on residents, pedestrians, road traffic,
examined with effective options being implemented. Figure and merchants along the route. Consideration should be
3.8.1 illustrates example sections of bridges carrying transit given to the cost and length of disruption in terms of street
line tracks. closures, traffic detours, and construction details.
3.8.2 Standardization—Straight guideways can be 3.9.2 Street closures and disruptions—The amount of
produced at a lower cost than curved ones. Geometric align- time streets are closed and neighborhoods are disrupted
ments and column locations that yield a large number of should be kept to a minimum. A traffic detour or alternate
straight beams tend to be cost effective. Note that physical route should be provided for public and private use during
constraints at the ground can influence column locations. street closures. Coordination with the public should begin
Figure 3.8.2 shows a straight alignment with repetitive at the planning stage. Figure 3.9.2 illustrates an example of
substructure units and span lengths that result in cost reduc- staged construction.
tions. Note also the limitations on column locations. The selection of precast or cast-in-place concrete compo-
nents and methods of construction depend on the availability
14

Fig 3.8.1—Example sections of bridges carrying transit line tracks.

of construction time and ease of stockpiling equipment and Although cast-in-place construction offers considerable
finished products at the site proximity. Construction systems design and construction flexibility, it also requires a greater
that allow for rapid placement of footings and columns and amount of support equipment on the site. This equipment,
for reopening of the street before the installation of beams especially shoring and falsework, has to remain in place
may have an advantage in the maintenance of local traffic. while the concrete cures.
3.9.3 Guideway beam construction—Guideway beams Precast concrete beam construction offers the potential for
may be cast-in-place or precast. To determine the preferred reduced construction time on site and allows better quality
construction technique, the following items should be control and assurance. Advantages of precast concrete are
considered early in the design process: typical section and best realized when the geometry and the production methods
alignment; span composition (uniform or variable); struc- are standardized if precast concrete segmental equipment
ture types (simple span or continuous, I-girder, box girder or may be needed to transport and lift the segments into place.
spliced girder, constant or variable depth); span-depth ratios;
and major site constraints.
15

Fig. 3.8.4––Horizontal and vertical geometry (courtesy of

PCA).
Fig. 3.8.2––Straight, repetitive geometry (courtesy of PCA).

Two types of guideway beam standardization appear to

offer substantial cost benefits: modular construction and
adjustable form construction.
Modular construction uses a limited number of beam and
column types to make up guideways. Thus, like a model
train set, these beams are interwoven to provide a complete
transit guideway. Final placement of steering surfaces and
other system hardware on the modular elements provides the
precise geometry necessary for transit operation. Modules
may be complete beams; segmental construction also typi-
fies this construction technique.
Adjustable form construction allows the fabrication of
curved beams to precisely match geometric requirements at
the site. For alignments where a substantial amount of varia-
tion in geometry is dictated by the site, this solution provides
Fig. 3.9.2––Staged construction along busy thoroughfare
a high degree of productivity at a reasonable cost.
(courtesy of PCA).
3.9.4 Shipping and delivery—Before completing the final
design, the engineer should be aware of limitations that may
be placed on the delivery of large precast elements. Weight should show all dimensions of the finished structure in suffi-
limitations imposed by local departments of transportation, cient detail to facilitate the preparation of an accurate esti-
as well as dimensional limitations on turnoff radii, width, mate of the quantities of materials and costs and permit the
and length of beam elements, may play an important role full realization of design.
in final guideway design. The deployment of large cranes Contract documents should define test methods, inspec-
and other construction equipment along the site is also a tion methods, and the allowable procedures and tolerances
consideration. to ensure good workmanship, quality control, and applica-
3.9.5 Approval considerations—These recommenda- tion of unit costs when required. The contractor’s responsi-
tions for transit guideways are intended to provide proce- bilities should be clearly defined. Where new or innovative
dures based on the latest developments in serviceability and structures are employed, suggested construction procedures
strength design. Other pertinent regulations issued by state, to clarify the engineer’s intent should also be provided.
federal, and local agencies should be followed. Specific Computer graphics or integrated databases can assist in this
consideration should be given to the following: definition. Where the concrete finish is critical to accep-
a) Alternative designs tance, the contract documents (or special provisions) should
b) Environmental impact statements call for demonstration panels to be prepared for review and
c) Air, noise, and water pollution statutes approval to establish the acceptable finish for the production
d) Historic and park preservation requirements members.
e) Permits
f) Life-safety requirements 3.10—Rails and trackwork
g) Construction safety requirements 3.10.1 General—Guideways for transit systems that use
3.9.6 Engineering documents—The engineering docu- vehicles with steel wheels operating on steel rails require
ments should clearly define the work. Project drawings particular design and construction considerations, including
16

rail string assembly, use of continuous structures, and attach- b) Radial forces resulting from thermal changes in the
ment of the rails to the structure. rails on horizontal or vertical curves
There are two options for assembling rails: they may c) End anchorage forces
be jointed with bolted connections in standard 39 ft (11.9 3.10.3.3 Rail breaks—CWR will occasionally fail in
m) lengths, or welded into continuous strings. Rails tension because of rail wear, low temperature, defects in the
may be fastened directly to the structure or installed on rail, defects in a welded joint, fatigue, or some combination
tie-and-ballast. of these effects. The structure should be designed to accom-
3.10.2 Jointed rail—The traditional method of joining rail modate horizontal thrust associated with the break.
is by bolted connections. Longitudinal rail movement can 3.10.3.4 Rail welding—CWR is accomplished by thermite
develop in these connections, preventing the accumulation welding process or electric flash butt-welding process (AWS
of thermal stresses along the rail length. D15.2). Proper written weld procedures should ensure that:
Space between the rail ends presents a discontinuity to a) Adjacent rail heads are accurately aligned
the vehicle support and steering systems. Vehicle wheels b) Rail joint is clean of debris
hitting this discontinuity causes progressive deterioration of c) The finished weld is free of intrusions
the joints, generates loud noise, reduces ride comfort, and d) The weld is allowed to cool before tightening the
increases dynamic forces on the structure. fasteners
Because of these disadvantages, most modern transit Ultrasonic or X-ray inspection at random locations
systems use continuously welded rail. Jointed rail conditions chosen by the engineer is highly recommended. The agency
will exist in switch areas, maintenance yards, and other loca- performing these inspections should be qualified to ASTM
tions where physical discontinuities are required. Even in E543.
these areas, however, discontinuities can be reduced greatly 3.10.4 Rail installation
by the use of bonded rail joints. 3.10.4.1 General—Rails are attached to either crossties on
3.10.3 Continuously welded rail ballast or directly to the guideway structure. Preference in
3.10.3.1 General—To improve ride quality and decrease recent years has become direct rail fixation as a means of
track maintenance, individual rails are welded into contin- improving ride quality, maintaining rail tolerances, reducing
uous strings. There is no theoretical limit to the length of maintenance costs, and reducing structure size.
continuously welded rail if minimum restraint is provided. 3.10.4.2 Tie and ballast—Tie and ballast construction
Minimum rail restraint consists of preventing horizontal is the conventional method of installing rails at grade and
or vertical buckling of rails and anchorage at the end of a occasionally on elevated structures. Ties are used to align
continuous rail. This prevents excessive rail gaps from and anchor the rails. Ballast provides an intermediate
forming at low temperatures if accidental breaks in the rail cushion between the rails and structure, stabilizes the tracks,
should occur. and prevents transmission of thermal forces from rails to
Continuously welded rail (CWR) has become the transit structure.
industry standard over the past several decades. CWR Ballast substantially increases the structure dead load.
requires particular attention to several design details, which Tie-and-ballast installations make control of rail break gaps
include thermal forces in the rails, rail break gap and forces, difficult because ties are not directly fastened to the primary
welding of CWR, and fastening of CWR to the structure structure. Rail breaks can develop horizontal, vertical, and
(AWS D15.2). The principal variables used in the evalua- angular displacements of the rail relative to the structure.
tion of rail forces are rail size in terms of its cross-sectional 3.10.4.3 Direct fixation—Direct fixation of the rail to the
area, the characteristics of the rail fastener, the stiffness of structure is accomplished by a mechanical rail fastener. Elas-
the structural elements, rail geometry, and operational envi- tomeric pads are incorporated in the fastener to provide the
ronment in terms of temperature range. required vertical and horizontal flexibilities and provisions
In cases where accumulation of thermal effects would for adjustment between adjacent fasteners and the structure.
produce conditions too severe for the structure, slip joints The elastomeric pads also assist in the reduction of noise,
can be used. Slip joints allow limited movement between rail vibration, and impact. Important design and construction
strings. They generally cause additional noise and require considerations for the direct fixation fasteners include:
increased maintenance. Their use, therefore, is not desirable. a) Method of attachment to the structure
Location of rail anchors and rail expansion joints will affect b) Vertical stiffness
the design of the structure. c) Allowance for horizontal and vertical adjustment
3.10.3.2 Thermal forces—Changes in the temperature of d) Ability to restrain the rail against rollover
CWR will cause stresses in the rail and structure. Rails are e) Longitudinal restraint
typically installed at a design, stress-free, ambient temper- Direct fixation fasteners are one of the most important
ature to reduce the risk of rail buckling at high tempera- elements in trackwork design. They are subjected to a high
tures and rail breaks at low temperatures. Depending on number of cyclic loads, and thousands of them are in place.
the method of rail attachment to the structure, the structure Progressive failure does not generally create catastrophic
should be designed for: results, but it leads to a substantial maintenance effort and
a) Horizontal forces resulting from a rail break possible operational disruptions.
17

No industry-wide specifications exist for the definition or Table 4.3.1.2—Minimum dynamic load (impact)
procurement of direct fixation fasteners. A thorough exami- Rubber-tired and
nation of the characteristics and past performance of avail- continuously welded
able fasteners, and the characteristics of the proposed transit Structure types rail Jointed rail
vehicle, should be done before fastener selection for any Simple-span
structures,
specific installation (Transportation Research Board 2000)
VCF IM ≥ 0.10 IM ≥ 0.30
3.10.4.4 Continuous structure—Direct fixation of contin- IM = − 0.1
uous rail to a continuous structure creates a strain discon- f1
tinuity at each structural expansion joint. Fasteners should Continuous-span
be designed to provide adequate slip at these joints while structures,
limiting the rail-gap size in the event of a break. In climates VCF IM ≥ 0.10 IM ≥ 0.30
with extreme ranges in temperature (–40 to +90°F [–40 to IM = − 0.1
2 f1
+30°C]), structural continuity is generally limited to 200
to 300 ft (60 to 90 m) lengths. In more moderate climates,
longer runs of continuous structure may be possible. For 4.2—Sustained loads
more information on rail installation and site-specific neutral 4.2.1 Dead loads (DC + DW)—The following compo-
rail temperature, refer to AREMA (2012). nents of dead load should be considered
a) Weight of factory-manufactured elements
CHAPTER 4—LOADS b) Weight of cast-in-place elements
c) Weight of trackwork and appurtenances including
4.1—General running and power rails, second-pour plinths and fasteners,
The engineer should investigate all special, unusual, and barrier walls, and noise-suppression panels
standard loadings that may occur in the guideway construc- d) Weight of other ancillary components such as walk
tion and operation. Special or unusual loads may include decks, stairways, light standards, and signage
emergency, maintenance, or evacuation equipment or condi- 4.2.2 Other sustained loads—Loads from differential
tions. The following loads commonly occur and should be settlement (SE), earth pressure (EH), effects of prestress
considered when assessing load effects on elevated guideway forces (PS), or external structural restraints (ER) should be
structures (Calgary Transit 2001), with notation following included in the design as they occur. The beneficial effects
AASHTO LRFD abbreviations wherever applicable: of buoyancy (B) may only be included when its existence
4.1.1 Sustained loads is ensured. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
a) Dead load (DC, DW) (AASHTO 2012) may be used as a guide to evaluate the
b) Earth pressure (EH) effects of these sustained loads.
c) External restraint forces (ER)
d) Differential settlement effects (SE) 4.3—Transient loads
e) Prestress forces (PS) 4.3.1 Live load and its derivatives
f) Buoyancy (B) 4.3.1.1 Vertical standard vehicle loads (LL)—The vertical
4.1.2 Transient loads live load should consist of the weight of one or more standard
a) Live load and its derivatives (LL, LS, PL) vehicles positioned to produce a maximum load effect in the
b) Impact factor (IM) element under consideration. The weight and configuration of
c) Wind load and its derivatives (WS, WL) the maintenance vehicle should be considered in the design.
d) Loads due to ice (IC) The weight of passengers should be computed on the basis
e) Loads due to stream current (WA) of 175 lb (780 N) each and should comprise those occupying
4.1.3 Loads due to volumetric changes all seats (seated) and those who are standing (standees) in the
a) Temperature (TU, TG) remaining space (no seats). The number of standees should be
b) Rail-structure interaction (RS) based on one passenger per 1.5 ft2 (0.14 m2).
c) Shrinkage (SH) For torsion-sensitive structures, such as monorails, the
d) Creep (CR) possibility of passengers being crowded on one side of the
4.1.4 Exceptional loads vehicle should be considered in the design.
a) Earthquake (EQ) 4.3.1.2 Impact factor (IM)—The minimum dynamic
b) Derailment/crash (DR) load (Government of Ontario 1983) shown in Table 4.3.1.2
c) Broken rail (BR) should be applied to the vertical vehicle loads unless alterna-
d) Impact loads at street level (ILST) tive values based on tests or dynamic analysis are approved.
4.1.5 Construction loads The vehicle crossing frequency (VCF) is defined as
a) Dead loads (DC, DW, EL)
b) Live loads (LL, LS, PL) vehicle speed, ft/s (m/s)
VCF = (4.3.1.2a)
span length, ft (m)
18

Table 4.3.1.4—Minimum hunting force on Table 4.3.1.5—Longitudinal force applied

guideway as fraction of standard vehicle load Emergency braking LFe = 0.30LL
Bogie type Hunting force Normal braking LFn = 0.15LL
Nonsteerable 0.08LL
Steerable 0.06LL
4.3.1.6 Service walkway load (P)—Live load on service or
Note: Vehicle supplier may have more severe requirements.
emergency walkways should be based on a minimum of 60
lb/ft2 (2.82 kPa) of area. This load should be used together
The first mode flexural (natural) frequency, f1, (Billing 1979) with empty vehicles on the guideway because the walkway
is expressed as load is the result of vehicles being evacuated.
4.3.1.7 Loads on safety railing (LR)—The lateral load
π Ec I g from pedestrian traffic on railings should be a minimum of
f1 = , Hz (4.3.1.2b)
2l 2 M 500 lb/ft (0.73 kN/m) distributed load, or 200 lb (0.89 kN)
concentrated load, which ever produces the greatest effect,
applied at the top rail, at a height between 34 and 38 in.
The dynamic load component should not be applied to
(0.864 and 0.965 m).
footings and piles.
4.3.2 Wind load (WL)
4.3.1.3 Centrifugal force (CE)—The CE, acting radially
4.3.2.1 General—Design wind loads for elevated guide-
through the vehicle’s center of gravity at a curved track, may
ways and special structures are provided in 4.3.2.2. Wind
be computed from
loads based on the reference wind pressure should be treated
as equivalent static loads as defined in 4.3.2.3.
V2
CE = LL , lb (N) (4.3.1.3) Wind forces are applied to the structure and to vehicles in
R×g accordance with load combinations in Chapter 5. The WL
abbreviation is used to designate wind loads applied to a
The centrifugal force CE should be applied simultane- vehicle, while WS indicates wind loads applied to the struc-
ously with other load combinations (refer to Chapter 5) to ture only.
produce the maximum force effect on the structure. The net exposed area is defined as the net area of a body,
4.3.1.4 Hunting force (HF)—The HF is caused by the member, or combination of members as seen in elevation.
lateral interaction of the vehicle and the guideway. It should For a straight superstructure, the exposed frontal area is the
be applied laterally on the guideway at the point of wheel- sum of the areas of all members, including railings and deck
rail contact, as a fraction of the standard vehicle load LL systems, as seen in elevation perpendicular to the assumed
(Table 4.3.1.4). wind direction. For a structure curved in plan, the exposed
When centrifugal and hunting forces act simultaneously, frontal area is taken normal to the beam centerline and
only the larger force needs be considered. computed in a similar manner to straight structures.
For rail and structure design, the hunting force will be The exposed plan area is defined as the net area of an
applied laterally by a steel wheel to the top of the rail at the element as seen in plan from above or below. In the case of
lead axle of a transit train. It does not need to be applied a superstructure, the exposed plan area is the plan area of the
for rubber-tired systems. Typically, linear induction motor deck and that of any laterally protruding railings, members,
(LIM)-propelled vehicles run on steel wheel and rail and or attachments.
require consideration of hunting effects. The gust effect coefficient is defined as the ratio of the peak
4.3.1.5 Longitudinal force (LF)—The LF acts simulta- wind-induced response of a structure, including both static
neously with the vertical standard vehicle live load on all and dynamic actions, to the static wind-induced response.
wheels. It may be applied in either direction: forward in Buildings and other adjacent structures can affect the wind
braking or deceleration or reverse in acceleration. The LF forces. Wind tunnel tests may be considered as a method
should be applied as indicted in Table 4.3.1.5. to improve wind force predictions or to validate design
Continuously welded rail trackwork can distribute longi- coefficients in the alternative design approach provided in
tudinal forces to adjacent components of guideway struc- 4.3.2.3. Wind tunnel testing is well beyond the scope of this
tures. This distribution may be considered in design. The document, though the reader may be referred to “AASHTO
use of slip joints may prevent transfer and distribution of LRFD Bridge Design Specifications” (AASHTO 2012),
longitudinal forces. Section 3.8.3.1.
The specified emergency braking force of LFe = 0.30LL 4.3.2.2 Design for wind—The guideway superstruc-
should be reviewed on a project-specific basis derived from ture must be designed for wind-induced horizontal Fh and
the type of braking system that will be deployed during vertical Fv drag loads acting simultaneously. For a structure
emergency braking. Other factors in the assessment of the that is curved in plan, the wind should be considered to act
magnitude of LFe include rail fastener stiffness, column stiff- in a direction such that the resulting force effects are maxi-
ness, and structure articulation. mized. For a structure that is straight in plan, the wind direc-
tion should be taken perpendicular to the longitudinal axis
of the structure.
19

Table 4.3.2.2—Uniformly distributed load In the application of Fv, as a uniformly distributed load
intensities over the plan area of the structure, the effects of a possible
Wind-induced horizontal drag load Fh eccentricity should be considered. For this purpose, the same
Superstructure Windward load, Leeward load,
total load should be applied as an equivalent vertical line
components lb/ft2 (kPa) lb/ft2 (kPa) load at the windward quarter point of the superstructure
Trusses, columns, and width in conjunction with the horizontal wind loads.
50 (2.4) 25 (1.2) 4.3.2.4 Reference wind pressure—The reference wind
arches
Beams 50 (2.4) NA pressures at a specific site should be based on the hourly
Large flat surfaces 40 (1.9) NA mean wind velocity of a 75-year return period. A 10-year
return period may be used for structures under construction.
The reference wind pressure PD may be derived from the
In the absence of more stringent specifications, the
following expression
uniformly distributed load intensities shown in Table 4.3.2.2
may be used for design.
The total wind loading should not be less than 300 and V2
PD = r , lb/ft2 (MPa) (4.3.2.4a)
150 lb/ft (4.4 and 2.2 kN/m) in the planes of windward and 2g

leeward chords, respectively, on truss and arch components
and not less than 300 lb/ft (4.4 kN/m) on beam or girder spans. For structures not sensitive to wind-induced dynamics,
The vertical drag load Fv should be taken equal to 20 lb/ft2 which include elevated guideways and special structures up
(0.95 kPa) times the width of the deck, including parapets to a span length of 400 ft (122 m), the gust effect coefficient
and sidewalks. This force may be applied only for limit Cg may vary between 1.25 and 1.50. For design purposes,
states that do not involve wind on live load. a factor of 1.33 may be used for Cg. For structures that are
The wind loads Fh and Fv should be applied to the exposed sensitive to wind action, Cg should be determined by an
areas of the structure and vehicle (refer to 5.3 and 5.4). These approved method of dynamic analysis or by model testing
loads and provisions are consistent with recommendations in a wind tunnel. For guideway appurtenances, such as sign-
of the latest edition of “AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design posts, lighting poles, and flexible noise barriers, Cg may be
Specifications” (AASHTO 2012) that are derived from base taken as 1.75.
wind velocities of 100 mph (160 km/h). Wind loads may be The exposure coefficient or height factor Ce may be
reduced or increased by the ratio of the square of the design computed from
wind velocity to the square of the base wind velocity, provided
the maximum probable wind velocity can be ascertained with
Ce = 0.5 5 H ≥ 1.0, for H , in ft
reasonable accuracy or there are permanent features of the
terrain that make such changes safe and viable. (4.3.2.4b)
The substructure should be designed for wind-induced
= 0.625 H ≥ 1.0, for H , in m
5

loads transmitted from the superstructure and wind loads

acting directly on the substructure. Loads for wind direc-
where H should be measured from the foot of cliffs, hills, or
tions both normal to and skewed to the longitudinal center-
escarpments when the structure is located on uneven terrain
line of the superstructure should be included.
or from the low water level when the structure is located
4.3.2.3 Alternative wind load—The alternative wind load
over bodies of water. Where funneling may be caused by the
method may be used in place of 4.3.2.1. Alternative wind
topography at the site, Ce should be increased by 20 percent.
loads are suggested for projects involving unusual height
The drag coefficient or shape factor Cd is a function of
guideways and gust conditions, or guideway structures that
many variables, the most important of which are the skew
are judged by the engineer as more streamlined than highway
angle (horizontal angle of wind) and aspect ratio (ratio of
structures (CSA 2008).
length to width of structure). For box girder or I-girder
The wind load per unit exposed frontal area of the super-
superstructures and solid-shaft piers with wind acting at zero
structure, WS, and of the vehicle, WL, applied horizontally,
skew, Cd may vary between 1.2 and 2.0. A factor of 1.5 for
may be taken as
Cd may be used for design purposes. For unusual exposure
shapes, the drag coefficient Cd should be determined from
Fh = PDCeCgCd (4.3.2.3a)
wind-tunnel tests.
Where wind effects are considered at a skew angle q in
Similarly, the wind load per unit exposed plan deck or
degrees measured from a line perpendicular to the longi-
soffit area applied vertically, upward, or downward, should
tudinal axis of a structure, Cd should be multiplied by
be taken as
0.007q for the longitudinal wind load component and by (1
– 0.00018q2) for the transverse or perpendicular wind load
Fv = PDCeCgCd (4.3.2.3b)
component.
4.3.2.5 Wind load on slender elements and appurte-
where Cd = 1.0 for the wind load applied vertically. The maximum
nances—Slender elements, such as light and sign supports
vertical wind velocity may be limited to 30 mph (50 km/h).
and cable trays, should be designed for horizontal wind
20

loads provided for in 4.3.2.3 and 4.3.2.4, as well as lateral an ongoing basis. Effects due to thermal gradients within the
and crosswind load effects caused by vortex shedding. Both section should also be considered (Priestley 1978).
serviceability and strength considerations should be inves- 4.4.2 Loads due to temperature (TU, TG)
tigated. Details that may cause stress concentrations due to 4.4.2.1 Temperature range—The minimum and maximum
fatigue or resonance should be avoided. mean daily temperatures should be based on local meteo-
The wind drag coefficient Cd for sign and barrier panels rological data for a 75-year return period. The range of
with aspect ratios of up to 1.0, between 1.0 to 10.0, and more effective temperature for computing thermal movements
than 10.0, should be 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3, respectively. of the concrete structure should be the difference between
For light fixtures and sign supports with rounded surfaces, the warmest maximum and the coldest minimum effective
octagonal sections with sharp corners, or rectangular flat temperatures, which may be considered to be 5°F (2.5°C)
surfaces, the values of Cd should be 0.5, 1.2, or 1.4, respec- above the mean daily maximum temperature and below the
tively. A value of 1.2 for Cd should be used for suspended mean daily minimum temperatures, respectively. If local
signal units. temperature data are not available, the structure may be
When ice accumulation is expected on the surface of designed for a minimum temperature rise of 30°F (17°C)
slender components, the total frontal area should include the and a minimum temperature drop of 40°F (23°C) from the
thickness of ice. installation temperature.
The dynamic effects of vortex shedding should be analyzed 4.4.2.2 Effective construction temperature—If the
and the stress limits for a minimum of 2 × 106 cycles of guideway needs to accommodate continuously welded rails,
loading may be applied. an effective construction temperature should be selected.
4.3.3 Loads due to ice pressure (IC)—Floating ice forces This temperature, which should be based on the mean daily
on piers and exposed pier caps should be evaluated according temperature prevalent for the site under consideration and
to the local conditions at the site. Consideration should be time of year, is used to establish the baseline for rail force.
given to the following types of ice action on piers erected in 4.4.2.3 Thermal gradient effects—Curvature caused by
bodies of water: a temperature gradient should be considered in the design
a) Dynamic ice pressure due to ice sheets and ice floes in of the structure. The temperature differential between the
motion caused by stream or current flow and enhanced by top and bottom surfaces varies nonlinearly according to
wind action the depth and exposure of the structural elements and their
b) Static ice pressure caused by thermal action on contin- locality. “AASHTO-LFRD Bridge Design Specifications”
uous stationary ice sheets over large bodies of water (AASHTO 2012) may be used as a guide in this regard.
c) Static pressure resulting from ice jams at a guideway site 4.4.2.4 Coefficient of thermal expansion—In place of a
d) Static uplift or vertical loads due to ice sheets in water more precise value, the coefficient of linear thermal expan-
bodies of fluctuating level sion for normalweight concrete may be taken as 6.5 × 10–6/°F
Ice loads resulting from freezing rain or consolidation of (12 × 10–6/°C).
compact snow on the guideway superstructure and vehicle 4.4.3 Rail-structure interaction (FR, Fr)—Continuously
should be included, as appropriate. welded rail (CWR) directly fastened to the guideway induces
4.3.4 Loads due to stream current (WA) an axial force in the structure through the fastener restraint
4.3.4.1 Longitudinal loads—The load acting on the longi- when the structure expands or contracts due to variations in
tudinal axis of a pier due to flowing water may be computed temperature. CWR should be installed in a zero stress condi-
by the following expression (Buckle and Priestley 1978) tion at an effective installation temperature T0. If the CWR is
installed at a temperature that is different from the effective
WA = 0.5CD AV2g (4.3.4.1) installation temperature, then the rail should be physically
stressed to be compatible with the zero stress condition for
4.3.4.2 Transverse loads—The lateral load on a pier shaft which it is designed at the installation temperature (Grouni
due to stream flow and drift should be resolved from the and Sadler 1986).
main direction of flow. The appropriate component should 4.4.3.1 Thermal rail forces—Axial rail stress frr in CWR
be applied as a uniformly distributed load on the exposed due to a change in the temperature after installation is
area of the pier below the high water level in the direction expressed by
under consideration.
frr = Era(T1 – T0) (4.4.3.1a)
4.4—Loads due to volumetric changes
4.4.1 General—Provisions should be made for all move- If the bridge and the rail increase or decrease in tempera-
ments and forces that can occur in the structure as a result ture by the same amount, then they will both expand or
of shrinkage, creep, and variations in temperature. Load contract together in a relatively stress-free state because the
effects that may be induced by a restraint to these move- coefficient of expansion is almost identical between concrete
ments should be included in the analysis. These restraints and steel. For a temperature decrease, T1 may be taken as the
include those imposed during construction on a temporary minimum effective temperature described in 4.4.2.1. For a
basis and those imposed by the rail-fastener interaction on temperature rise, T1 may be taken as the maximum effective
21

temperature plus 20°F (12°C). The corresponding rail force e) Ambient temperature
Fr is expressed by f) Relative humidity at the time of placing the concrete
For a major transit project, shrinkage and creep behavior
Fr = SArfr = SArEra(T1 – T0) (4.4.3.1b) of the concrete mixture should be tested and validated as
part of the design process. ASTM test procedures exist to
where S implies that the forces in all rails must be summed. test for shrinkage in various aggregate, cement, and admix-
The movement of the structure through the fasteners ture combinations. For precast members, only the portion of
induces either a tensile or compressive axial force on the shrinkage or creep remaining after the element is integrated
rail, depending on whether the temperature rises or drops, into the structure needs to be considered.
respectively, from installation. In the absence of more accurate data or method of anal-
A vertically- or horizontally-curved structure experiences ysis, shrinkage strain t days after casting of normalweight
a radial force resulting from the thermal rail forces. This concrete may be computed by following the methods
radial force per unit length of rail is expressed as described in ACI 209R.
4.4.5 Creep in concrete (CR)—Creep is a function of
Fr relative humidity, volume-to-surface ratio, and time t after
FR = (4.4.3.1c)
R application of load. Creep is also affected by the amount

of reinforcement in the section, the magnitude of sustained
prestress load (PS), the age of the concrete when the force
Note that FR always occurs in combination with Fr.
is applied, and the properties of the concrete mixture. If the
The preceding expressions apply where there is no motion
design is sensitive to volumetric change, then an experi-
of the rail relative to the structure. Where rail motion may
mental validation of creep behavior, based on the ingredients
occur, the relaxation of the rail should be analyzed to deter-
to be used, may be necessary.
mine its effect on the structure. Rail motion may occur when
In the absence of more accurate data and procedure, creep
a) Rail expansion joints are present
at t days after application of load may be found, by following
b) Radial or tangential movements of rail and guideway
the methods described in ACI 209R.
structure at curves occur
c) A rail break takes place
4.5—Exceptional loads
d) Continuous rails cross structural joints
4.5.1 Earthquake effects (EQ)—Structures should be
e) Creep and shrinkage strains in prestressed concrete
designed to resist seismic motions by considering the relation-
elements continue to take place
ship of the site to active fault locations, the seismic response of
4.4.3.2 Broken rail forces—At very low temperatures, the
the soils at the site, and the dynamic response characteristics
probability of a rail break increases. The most likely place
of the total structure in accordance with the latest edition of
for a rail break to take place is at an expansion joint in the
“AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications” (AASHTO
structure. A rail break at this location generally creates the
2012). Certain local jurisdictions may have higher seismic
largest forces in the structure.
zone/risk requirements for analysis and design.
When the rail breaks, it slips through the fasteners on both
4.5.2 Derailment load (DR)—Derailment may occur
sides of the break until the tensile force in the rail (before the
when the vehicle steering mechanism fails to respond on
break) is counteracted by the reversed fastener restraint forces.
curves or when the wheels jump the rails at too large a pull-
The unbalanced force from the broken rail is resisted by both
apart gap, which may be the result of a break in a continuous
the unbroken rails and the guideway support system in propor-
welded rail (CWR) (Calgary Transit 2001). Derailment may
tion to their relative stiffnesses. The probability that more than
also be caused by inter-vehicle collision. For the design of
one rail will break at the same time is small and is generally
the top slab and the barrier wall of the guideway, both the
not considered in the design. Allowances for eccentric loading
vertical and horizontal derailment loads need to be consid-
can be found in the Transportation Research Board TCRP
ered simultaneously.
Report 57 (Transportation Research Board 2000).
The force effects caused by a single derailed standard
4.4.3.3 Rail gap—The relative system stiffness should
vehicle should be considered in the design of the guideway
be proportioned so that the magnitude of the gap between
structure components. These effects, whether local or
broken rail ends is equal to the maximum allowable to
global, should include flexure, shear, torsion, axial tension
prevent vehicle derailment. Typically acceptable rail gaps
or compression, and punching shear through the deck. The
are in the range of 2 in. (50 mm) for a 16 in. (400 mm) diam-
derailed vehicle should be assumed to come to rest as close
eter wheel and up to 4 in. (100 mm) for larger wheels. Rail
to the barrier wall as physically possible to produce the
gap is controlled by the spacing and stiffness of the fasteners.
largest force effect. In the design of the deck slab, a dynamic
4.4.4 Shrinkage in concrete (SH)—Shrinkage is a function
load effect (1.0 × wheel load) should be added to the wheel
of a number of variables, the most significant of which are:
loads. This results in a load of: wheel load + dynamic load =
a) Characteristics of the aggregates
2(wheel load), or dynamic load = 100 percent (wheel load).
b) Water-cementitious material ratio (w/cm) of the mixture
The magnitude and line of action of a horizontal derail-
c) Type and the duration of curing
ment load on a barrier wall is a function of a number of
d) Volume-to-surface ratio of the member
variables. These include the distance of the tracks from the
22

barrier wall, the vehicle weight and speed at derailment, the Either the derailment load or the collision load should be
flexibility of the wall, and the frictional resistance between considered.
the vehicle and the wall. In place of a detailed analysis, 4.5.3 Broken rail forces (BR)—Forces on the guideway
the barrier wall should be designed to resist a lateral force support elements due to a broken rail are discussed in 4.4.3.
equivalent to 50 percent of a standard vehicle weight distrib- 4.5.4 Collision load (CT)—Based on AASHTO LRFD
uted over a length of 15 ft (5 m) along the wall and acting (AASHTO 2012) recommendations, piers or other guideway
at the axle height. Collision forces between vehicles result support elements that are located less than 30 ft (10 m) to the
from the derailment of a vehicle and its subsequent resting edge of an adjacent street or highway, or less than 50 ft (16
position against the guideway sidewall. This eccentric load m) to the centerline of a railway track, should be designed
on the guideway causes torsional effects that should be to withstand a minimum horizontal static force of 400 kips
accounted for in the design. The magnitude and eccentricity (1800 kN) unless protected by a suitable barrier. The force is
of this vertical collision load are functions of the distance of to be applied on the support element, or the protection barrier,
the guideway centerline from the side wall, the axle width, at an angle of 10 degrees from the direction of the road traffic
and the relative position of the centerlines of the vehicle and at a height of 4 ft (1.20 m) above ground level. Suitable
body and the truck after the collision. protection to piers and other support elements are as follows:
Due to collision of a moving train with a stationary train (a) An embankment
on a guideway, one or both trains may be toppled and collide (b) Structurally independent, crashworthy, ground-
with the barrier wall. The minimum height of the barrier mounted, 54 in. (1.3 m) high barrier located within 10 ft (3
should be 28 in. (710 mm) above the top of the rail. The m) of the component being protected
collision loads have a horizontal component (COLFH) and (c) A 42 in. (1.1 m) high barrier located more than 10 ft (3
vertical component (COLFV). Both loads are applied simul- m) from the component being protected
taneously to the guideway structure at the top of the barrier To qualify for these exceptions, such barriers should be
wall. The major assumptions used in calculating the afore- structurally and geometrically capable of surviving the
mentioned forces (defined in the following) are: crash test for Performance Level 5, as specified in AASHTO
a) The moving train is travelling at 11.2 mph (20 km/h) LRFD (AASHTO 2012) Section 13.
when it strikes the stationary train. This velocity is known to The possibility of overheight vehicles colliding with the
be consistent with the two-red system of LRT traffic control guideway beam should be considered for guideways with
used in major cities in North America less than 16.5 ft (5.0 m) clearance over existing roadways.
b) Two-thirds of the kinetic energy is converted into poten-
tial energy of upward tilt 4.6—Construction loads
The most severe effect of any of the following three cases Construction loads should be considered in accordance
may be considered (Calgary Transit 2001). with SEI/ASCE 37.
4.6.1 General—Loads due to construction equipment
Case 1 and materials that may be imposed on the guideway struc-
Case 1 applies to a barrier height of 36 in. (910 mm) or ture should be accounted for during construction. Refer to
more above the top of the rail. Figures 4.6.1a and 4.6.1b for examples of different construc-
Horizontal collision load (COLFH) is 20 percent of the stan- tion loading conditions to be accommodated in design.
dard vehicle weight distributed over a length of 18 ft (6 m). Additionally, transient load effects during construction
Vertical collision load (COLFV) is 8 percent of the stan- due to wind, ice, stream flow, and earthquakes should be
dard vehicle weight distributed over a length of 18 ft (6 m). considered with return periods and probabilities of single
or multiple occurrences commensurate with the expected
Case 2 life of the temporary structure or the duration of a particular
Case 2 applies to a barrier height of 32 in. (810 mm) or construction stage.
less above the top of the rail. 4.6.2 Dead loads (DC + DW)—Dead loads on the structure
COLFH is 25 percent of the standard vehicle weight during construction should include the weight of formwork,
distributed over a length of 18 ft (6 m). falsework, fixed appendages, and stored materials. The dead
COLFV is 20 percent of the standard vehicle weight weight of mobile equipment that may be fixed at a stationary
distributed over a length of 18 ft (6 m). location on the guideway for long durations should also be
considered. Such equipment includes lifting and launching
Case 3 devices.
Case 3 applies to a vehicle resting on the barrier after a 4.6.3 Live loads (L)—Live loads on the structure during
collision. construction should include the weight of workers and all
COLFH is 0. mobile equipment, such as vehicles, hoists, cranes, and
COLFV is the weight of one vehicle distributed over the structural components used during the process of erection.
length of the vehicle. Construction live load limits should be identified on the
A linear interpolation for the loads can be used for a contract documents.
barrier height above the top of the rail between 36 in. (910
mm) (Case 1) and 32 in. (810 mm) (Case 2).
 23

ments for both serviceability and strength design. Service-

ability design criteria are derived by elastic analysis, and
stresses and section resistance are derived from that analysis.
Strength design criteria are also determined by elastic anal-
ysis. Whereas stresses are developed from elastic analysis,
section resistance is determined based on inelastic behavior.
The load and resistance models used in this study were
based on available test data, analytical results, and engi-
neering judgment (Nowak and Grouni 1988; Nowak and
Lind 1979).
Live load is defined by a fully loaded standard vehicle. The
weight of vehicles should include an allowance for poten-
tial weight growth. Resistance models take into account the
degree of quality control during casting. The properties of
Fig. 4.6.1a––Cantilever construction (courtesy of PCA). factory-produced members are therefore considered more
reliable than those of cast-in-place members. ACI 318 speci-
fications are assumed in this document for requirements of
concrete strength control.
Safety is measured in terms of the target reliability index.
A higher target reliability index reflects a lower probability
of failure. A target reliability index of 4.0 is adopted for
strength design. The target reliability index adopted for
serviceability design is 2.5 for cracking and 2.0 for fatigue.
The objective in deriving reliability-based load factors is to
provide a uniform safety level to load-carrying components.
The uncertainties in methods of analysis, material proper-
ties, and dimensional accuracies are taken into account in
the derivation of strength reduction factors. Uncertainties
regarding the magnitude of imposed loads and their mean-
to-nominal ratios are accounted for in the derivation of load
factors. Because of the high number and frequency of train
Fig. 4.6.1b––Span-by-span construction (courtesy of PCA). loads passing or traveling on a guideway structure, environ-
mental and emergency loads are combined with maximum
CHAPTER 5—LOAD COMBINATIONS, LOAD live load. The derivation of load and strength reduction
FACTORS, AND STRENGTH REDUCTION factors is based on this reliability approach.
FACTORS
5.3—Service load combinations
5.1—Scope Four service load combinations—S1, S2, S3, and S4—are
This chapter specifies load factors, strength reduction listed in Table 5.3. When warranted, more load combinations
factors, and load combinations to be used in serviceability may be used on specific projects. Load and strength reduc-
and strength designs. Structural safety is used as the accep- tion factors are not used for serviceability design.
tance criterion. The derivation of load and strength reduc-
tion factors is based on probabilistic methods using available 5.4—Strength load combinations
statistical data and making certain basic assumptions. 5.4.1 General requirements—For strength design, the
Specific projects may use a load modifier for operational factored strength of a member should exceed the total
importance as specified in the “AASHTO LRFD Bridge factored load effect. The factored strength of a member or
Design Specifications” (AASHTO 2012). Such a load modi- cross section is obtained by taking the nominal member
fier, however, may only be applied to the strength load strength, calculated in accordance with Chapter 7, and multi-
combinations presented in 5.4. The owner may declare/clas- plying it by the appropriate strength reduction factor f given
sify the guideway structure or any similar structural compo- in 5.4.3. The total factored load effect should be obtained
nent and connection to be of operational importance. Such from relevant strength combination U incorporating the
declaration/classification should be based on social/survival, appropriate load factors given in Table 5.4.1.
security/defense requirements, or both. Simultaneous occurrence of loads is modeled by using
available data. For the purposes of reliability analysis, loads
5.2—Basic assumptions are divided into categories according to their duration and
The design economic life of a transit guideway is 75 the probability of their joint occurrence as follows:
years. Load and resistance models should be developed a) Permanent loads: dead load, earth pressure, and struc-
accordingly. Guideway structures should meet the require- tural restraint
24

Table 5.3—Service load combinations Table 5.4.1—Design load combinations and load
S1 = DC + DW + LL + IM + PS + LFn + (CE or HF) factors
S2 = S1 + [0.3(WL + WS) or IC or WA] Load component U0 U1 U3 U5 U6
S3 = S2 + TU + TG + SH + CR DC + DW 1.3* 1.3* 1.0 1.3* 1.3*
S4 = PS + DC + DW + WS + TU + TG + SH + CR LL, IM, and either CE
1.7 1.4 1.0 1.4† —
or HF
SH and CR 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 —
b) Gradually varying loads: prestressing effects, creep and
PS 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
shrinkage, differential foundation settlement, and tempera-
WL + WS 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.5 —
ture effects
IC, TU + TG, WA, or
c) Transitory loads: live load (static and dynamic) and EQ
— — 1.0 — —
wind
LFe — — 1.0 — —
d) Exceptional loads: ice flow, flood, foundation load
BR (FR, Fr) — — — — 1.2
associated with flood, vessel collision, earthquake, emer-
CT — — — — 1.3
gency braking, broken rail, derailment, and vehicle collision
DR or CT — — — 1.4 —
Gradually varying loads act simultaneously with perma- *
Use 0.9 when effect is more conservative.
nent loads. The former are taken at their maximum or †
Use the weight of an empty train only.
minimum level—whichever yield the worst-case scenario
for structural performance—for the duration considered.
CHAPTER 6—SERVICEABILITY DESIGN
Transitory and exceptional loads are combined according
to Turkstra’s rule (Turkstra 1970), which stipulates that the
6.1—General
maximum total load occurs when one load component is at
Chapter 6 covers the performance of reinforced concrete
its maximum value simultaneously with the others, taken at
guideways (both prestressed and nonprestressed) under
their average values. All possible combinations are consid-
service loadings. Serviceability requirements to be investi-
ered to determine the combination that maximizes total load
gated include stresses, fatigue, vibration, deformation, and
effect. Load factors corresponding to time-varying load
cracking.
combinations reflect the reduced likelihood of simultaneous
Fatigue is included in serviceability design because high
occurrence of these loads.
cyclic loading influences the permissible design stresses.
5.4.2 Load combinations and load factors—Load combi-
Load combinations for serviceability design are given in 5.3.
nations, together with the corresponding factors for strength
Durability considerations are given in 3.3.6.
design, are listed in Table 5.4.1. Values of load components
are specified in Chapter 4.
6.2—Basic assumptions
5.4.3 Strength reduction factors (Nowak and Grouni
Force effects under service loads should be determined
1983)—The theoretical capacity of a section should be
by a linear elastic analysis. For investigation of stresses at
reduced by a strength reduction factor f, as follows for:
service conditions, the following assumptions are made:
a) Flexure only, or flexure with axial load in prestressed
a) Strains are directly proportional to distance from the
concrete: f = 0.95
neutral axis
b) Flexure only, or flexure with axial load in reinforced
b) At cracked sections, concrete does not resist tension
concrete: f = 0.90
c) Stress is directly proportional to strain
c) Shear and torsion: f = 0.75
d) Axial tension: f = 0.85
6.3—Permissible stresses
e) Compression in members with spiral confinement rein-
6.3.1 Nonprestressed members—Fatigue and cracking are
forcement for the main longitudinal reinforcement: f= 0.75
controlled by limiting the stress levels in the concrete and
f) Compression in other members: f = 0.70
the nonprestressed reinforcement. The stress limitations are
For low values of axial compression, f may be increased
discussed in 6.5 and 6.8.
linearly to 0.90 or 0.95 for reinforced or prestressed concrete,
6.3.2 Prestressed members
respectively, as the axial load decreases from 0.l0fc′Ag to zero.
6.3.2.1 Concrete—Flexural stresses in prestressed
(Refer to ACI 318-11, 9.3.2.2, for additional information).
concrete members should not exceed the following.
The f factors were computed with the assumption that
6.3.2.1.1 At transfer—Stresses before losses due to creep,
precast concrete guideway components with bonded post-
shrinkage, and relaxation, and before redistribution of force
tensioning tendons are used. Nonbonded tendons are less
effect take place, should not exceed:
reliable because of the higher probability of corrosion and
1. Compression
other forms of deterioration, which would result in a larger
a) Pretensioned members: 0.60fci′
coefficient of variation. For this reason, it is suggested to
b) Post-tensioned members: 0.55fci′
reduce the f value by 0.1 for the case of elements with
2. Tension
nonbonded post-tensioning tendons.
a) Tension in members without bonded nonprestressed
reinforcement in the tension zone: 0.40fcri. Tension in
25

members with bonded nonprestressed reinforcement in using classical beam theory and Mohr’s circle. The allowable
the tension zone: 1.0fcri tensile stress limit can be taken as 3.0 fc′ psi ( 0.25 fc′
b) Where the calculated tensile stress is between 0.40fcri MPa) (Florida DOT 2003; Okeil 2006).
and 1.0fcri, reinforcement should be provided to resist 6.3.2.2 Prestressing steel—The stress in prestressing steel
the total tensile force in the concrete computed on the should not exceed the values given in Table 6.3.2.2. Curved
basis of an uncracked section. The stress in the rein- structures are common in guideway structures. Local stresses
forcement should not exceed 0.60fy, or 30 ksi (200 in the web induced by post-tensioning due to the horizontal
MPa), whichever is smaller curvature need to be considered. These stresses need to be
c) Tension at joints in segmental members: combined with the stresses induced by global shear, flexure,
i. Without bonded nonprestressed reinforcement or torsion. In the curved structures with post-tensioning, it is
passing through the joint in the tension zone: 0.0 not unusual that the combined stresses in the web can exceed
ii. With bonded nonprestressed reinforcement passing
the 3.0 fc′ psi ( 0.25 fc′ MPa).
through the joint in the tension zone: 0.40fcri
6.3.3 Partial prestressing—The preceding tensile strength
In the absence of more precise data, fcri may be taken as
limitations for concrete may be waived if calculations, based
7.5 fci′ (psi) (0.62 fci′ [MPa]). on approved or experimentally verified rational procedures,
Where the calculated tensile stress is between zero and demonstrate adequate deflection, cracking, and fatigue
0.40fcri, reinforcement should be provided to resist the total control under specified loading combinations.
tensile force in the concrete computed based on uncracked
section. The stress in the reinforcement should not exceed 6.4—Loss of prestress
0.60fy or 30 ksi (200 MPa), whichever is smaller. In determining the effective prestress, allowance should be
6.3.2.1.2 Service loads—Concrete stresses, after allow- made for of the following prestress loss:
ance for all losses due to creep, shrinkage and relaxation, a) Slip at the anchorage
and redistribution of force effects, should not exceed: b) Friction losses due to intended and unintended (wobble)
a) Compression curvature in the tendons
i. Load combination S1 or S2 c) Elastic shortening of concrete
• Precast members: 0.45fc′ d) Creep of concrete
• Cast-in-place members: 0.40fc′ e) Shrinkage of concrete
ii. Load combination S3 or S4 f) Relaxation of steel
• Precast members: 0.60fc′ The amount of prestress loss due to the aforementioned
• Cast-in-place members: 0.55fc′ depends on a number of factors that include properties of
b) Tension the materials used in the structure, the environment, and the
i. Tension in precompressed tensile zones stress levels at various loading stages. The prestress loss due
• For severe exposure conditions, such as coastal areas, to creep depends on the magnitude of stress on the concrete.
members in axial tension, and load combination S1: 0.0 Due to shrinkage and tendons’ relaxation, the magnitude of
• For moderate exposure conditions or for load combina- stress on the concrete varies with time; thus, creep is depen-
tion S2, S3, or S4: 0.40fr dent on shrinkage and relaxation. The relaxation of a tendon
• Other cases and extreme operating conditions under is measured by a test on the tendon stretched between two
load combinations S3 and S4: 0.80fr fixed points and the relaxation is dependent on the magni-
• For segmental members without bonded prestressed tude of the initially applied tension. Therefore, the higher the
reinforcement passing through the joints: 0.0 initial tension, the higher the relaxation. The relaxation test
• For design against fatigue: 0.0 gives the intrinsic relaxation. In a prestressed member, the
• Tension in other areas should be limited by allowable tendon is stretched between the end anchors and these points
stresses at transfer. move toward each other due to the creep and the shrinkage of
In the absence of more precise data, the cracking stress of concrete. Thus, the relaxation of the tendon in a prestressed
concrete, fr, may be taken as 7.5 fc′ psi (0.62 fc′ MPa). member is smaller than the intrinsic relaxation—the differ-
6.3.2.1.3 Additional considerations—It is recommended ence is dependent on creep and shrinkage. The interdepen-
that the principal tensile stress in webs of post-tensioned dence of the different sources should be taken into account
concrete girders be checked against allowable tensile stress when the deflection is critical (Ghali et al. 2012).
limits that consider the complex state of stress caused by When the deflection is not critical, the prestress losses
shear, flexure, torsional straining actions, or combinations of may be estimated using the methods outlined by ACI 343R,
these. The check is intended to ensure the adequacy of webs ACI 209R, AASHTO (2012), PCI Committee on Prestress
for longitudinal shear under service conditions. Whereas Losses (1975), NCHRP Report 496 (NCHRP 2003); Zia et
several sections should be checked across the height of the al. (1979); and Huang (1982).
cross section, a single check at the neutral axis is recom- For preliminary design of structures using normal-density
mended as a minimum procedure. The principal stress check concrete, the lump sum losses shown in Table 6.4 may be
should only be carried out at sections away from any discon- used. Lump sum losses do not include anchorage and friction
tinuities caused by bearings, diaphragms, saddles, and blisters losses in post-tensioned tendons. The losses due to the higher
26

jacking stresses are higher than those in the “AASHTO LRFD 6.5.2 Concrete—Under service load combination, the
Bridge Design Specifications” (AASHTO 2012). flexural compressive stress in concrete should not exceed
For members constructed and prestressed in multiple 0.45fc′ at sections subject to cyclic loading and no tensile
stages, or for segmental construction, the stress level at the stresses are allowed.
commencement and termination of each stage should be 6.5.3 Nonprestressed reinforcement—Under service load
considered. condition, the stress range in straight and bent flexural rein-
forcing bars—ff and fsr, respectively—in accordance with
6.5—Fatigue AASHTO LRFD (AASHTO 2012), should not exceed
6.5.1 General—A transit guideway may undergo 6 million For straight bars:
or more vehicle passes at various load levels during its life-
time (NCHRP 267 [NCHRP 1982]). This may be equivalent f f ≤ 24 − 0.33 fmin ksi
to 3 to 4 million cycles at maximum live load level. Such
(6.5.3a)
high levels of cyclic loading render guideways prone to
fatigue failure. f f ≤ 166 − 0.33 fmin MPa

Areas of concern are the prestressing steel and the rein-
forcing bars located at cracked sections where a large For bent flexural bars, stirrups and bars containing welds
number of stress cycles may occur. conforming to requirements of AWS D1.4

fsr = 0.5ff ksi (MPa) (6.5.3b)

Table 6.3.2.2—Maximum stress in prestressing
steel Bends and welds in principal reinforcement should not be
Tendon type used in regions of high stress variation.
For shear reinforcement, the change in stress, fsv, may be
Stress-relieved
strand and plain Deformed computed as follows
high-strength Low-relaxation high-
Condition bars strand strength bars ∆Vs
fsv = ksi (MPa) (6.5.3c)
Pretensioning Av jd
Immediate prior

0.70fpu 0.75fpu —
to transfer (fpbt)
At service limit For torsion reinforcement, the change in stress, fst, may
state after all 0.80fpy 0.80fpy 0.80fpy be computed for box sections or sections where a/b < 0.6,
losses (fpe) as follows
Post-tensioning
Prior to ∆Ts
seating—short- fst = (6.5.3d)
0.90fpy 0.90fpy 0.90fpy (1.7 Aoh At )
term fpbt may be
allowed
At anchorages For combined effects of shear and torsion
and couplers
0.70fpu 0.70fpu 0.70fpu
immediately
after anchor set fsv + fst < ff (6.5.3e)
Elsewhere
along length 6.5.4 Prestressed reinforcement—The stress range in
of member prestressing tendons should not exceed
away from a) 18.0 ksi (124.11 MPa) for radii of curvature in excess
0.70fpu 0.74fpu 0.70fpu
anchorages and
of 30.0 ft (9.14 m)
couplers imme-
diately after b) 10.0 ksi (68.95 MPa) for radii of curvature not exceeding
anchor set 12.0 ft (3.66 m)
At service A linear interpolation may be used for radii between 12.0
limit state after 0.80fpy 0.80fpy 0.80fpy and 30.0 ft (3.66 and 9.14 m).
losses (fpe)

Table 6.4—Lump sum losses for preliminary design (CAN/CSA-S6-00)

Pretensioned, psi (MPa) Post-tensioned, psi (MPa)
Stress relieved Low relaxation Stress relieved Low relaxation
At transfer 29,000 (200) 19,000 (130) 4000 (30) 4000 (30)
After transfer 37,000 (255) 22,000 (150) 37,000 (255) 20,000 (135)
Total 66,000 (455) 41,000 (280) 41,000 (280) 24,000 (165)
27

6.6—Vibration and dynamic response Table 6.6.2a—Unacceptable deflections

6.6.1 General—Guideway vibration during passage of Span/deflection
a transit vehicle induces a motion that results in poor ride One or two adjacent Three to five adjacent
quality. Guideways should therefore be designed to provide spans* spans*
an acceptable level of passenger comfort. This entails Spans up Spans Spans up Spans
consideration of the vehicle-guideway interaction. to 82 ft above 98 ft to 82 ft above 98 ft
Speed range (25 m)† (30 m)† (25 m)† (30 m)†
The most significant factor affecting ride quality is the
acceleration level experienced by the passenger. As a result, <75 mph
<350 <350 400 400
(<120.7 km/hr)
comfort criteria are usually expressed in terms of accelera-
75 to 125 mph
tion limits. (120.7 <350 <350 500 600
In the design of guideway structures, appropriate measures to 201.2 km/hr)
should be taken to prevent resonant-type buildup of struc- >125 mph
<350 <350 500 700
tural vibrations caused by the moving train wheel loads. (>201.2 km/hr)
If not handled by proper design, vibrations can endanger *
Simply supported or continuous decks.
safety, reduce the structure’s service life, impose unneces- †
Use linear interpolation for spans between 82 and 98 ft (25 and 30 m).
sary constraints on train operations, and cause discomfort Note: More stringent ratios may be required at the owner’s discretion.
to passengers. Discomfort caused by vertical vibrations is a
function of the vibration frequency, amplitude, and duration. Table 6.6.2b—Reasonable deflections
For a conventional line with slower-moving trains, a Span/deflection
proper design can be attained by stiffening the guideway One or two adjacent Three to five adjacent
structural system sufficiently enough to raise the critical spans* spans*
vehicle speeds at which a quasi-resonant-type structural Spans up Spans Spans up Spans
vibration occurs above the maximum operating speed. to 82 ft above 98 ft to 82 ft above 98 ft
Speed range (25 m)† (30 m)† (25 m)† (30 m)†
A moving vehicle reaches the critical speed when vibrations
<75 mph
induced by a rough track profile are produced with a frequency (120.7 km/h)
350 350 450 800
that matches one of the natural frequencies of the structure. If a 75 to 125 mph
rough track profile can be approximated with a sine wave with (120.7 450 600 700 2000
a wavelength L, the corresponding critical speed Vcr is to 201.2 km/h)
>125 mph
550 700 700 2000
w (>201.2 km/h)
Vcr = n × L (6.6.1) *
Simply supported or continuous decks.
2π †
Use linear interpolation for spans between 82 and 98 ft (25 and 30 m).
Note: More stringent ratios may be required at the owner’s discretion.
For lines with vehicles operating at high speed, this is
not easily accomplished because it is economically unac- Table 6.6.2c—Acceptable deflections
ceptable to have too many critical speeds existing below Span/deflection
the maximum operating speed. So when a quasi-resonance One or two adjacent Three to five adjacent
condition cannot be avoided, dynamic analysis should spans* spans*
be conducted to predict the vibration amplitudes of the Spans up to Spans Spans up to Spans
guideway structure and the vehicle. The results should be 82 ft above 98 ft 82 ft above 98 ft
compared with prescribed levels of performance. Require- Speed range (25 m)† (30 m)† (25 m)† (30 m)†
ments on acceptable levels of performance for structural <75 mph
400 400 500 900
safety are based on structural strength requirements. The (120.7 km/h)
maximum dynamic stresses induced in the structures may 75 to 125 mph
(120.7 500 800 1000 2200
be limited to the values specified in 6.5.3 and 6.5.4, or appli- to 201.2 km/h)
cable codes such as “AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Speci- >125 mph
fications” (AASHTO 2012). 800 1000 1200 2200
(201.2 km/h)
6.6.2 Deflections—Excessive structural deflections can *
Simply supported or continuous decks.
endanger traffic by causing unacceptable changes in track †
Use linear interpolation for spans between 82 and 98 ft (25 and 30 m).
geometry. Excessive vibrations in guideway structures and Note: More stringent ratios may be required at the owner’s discretion.
in vehicles passing over the guideway structure may lead to
passenger discomfort. The International Union of Railways 6.6.3 Natural frequency—The expression for the funda-
UIC Code 776-3 recommends limitations on bridge deflec- mental flexural frequency of a simply supported beam is given
tion to avoid traffic risk and reduce passenger discomfort. in 4.3.1.2. The fundamental frequency of a continuous beam,
Several span/deflection ratios have been tabulated to identify having a series of equal spans, is the same as that of a simply
degree of passenger comfort (UIC 776-3) (refer to Tables supported beam of the same span length. For a continuous
6.6.2a through 6.6.2c). beam where the spans are unequal, a reasonable estimate of
the fundamental frequency may be obtained by assuming the
longest span to be simply supported. A more accurate value
28

Table 6.7.3.2—Suggested multipliers used as guide in estimating long-term cambers and deflections for
typical members (PCI 2004)
Without composite topping With composite topping
At erection
Deflection (downward) component—apply to the elastic deflection due to the member weight at
1.85 1.85
release of prestress
Camber (upward) component—apply to the elastic camber due to prestress at the time of
1.80 1.80
release of prestress
Final
Deflection (downward) component—Apply to the elastic deflection due to the member weight
2.70 2.40
at release of prestress
Camber (upward) component—Apply to the elastic camber due to prestress at the time of
2.45 2.20
release of prestress
Deflection (downward) component—Apply to elastic deflection due to superimposed dead load
3.00 3.00
only
Deflection (downward) component—Apply to elastic deflection caused by the composite
— 2.30
topping

of the fundamental frequency may be obtained using various 6.7.2 Nonprestressed members
approaches (Billing 1979; Csagoly et al. 1972). Effects of 6.7.2.1 Immediate deflection—For simple spans, the effec-
the horizontal curvature can be accounted for as shown in tive moment of inertia, Ie, should be taken as
Campbell (1978).
Frequencies of higher flexural modes for continuous M 
3
 M 
beams are closer to the fundamental frequency than those for I e =  cr  I g + 1 − ( cr )3  I cr ≤ I g (6.7.2.1)
simply supported beams. Therefore, care should be taken to  Ma   Ma 

ensure that one of these higher frequencies for a continuous
beam does not coincide with vehicle frequency. For continuous spans, the effective moment of inertia
Attention should be given to torsional frequencies of the may be taken as the average of the values obtained using
guideway and the vehicle in the guideway where not all the preceding equation for the critical positive and negative
supports can resist torsional effects. Methods for computing moment sections.
torsional frequencies can be found in standard textbooks on 6.7.2.2 Long-term deflection—In place of a detailed
vibrations of structures (Thompson 1972). analysis, the additional long-term deflection resulting from
6.6.4 Modulus of elasticity—The modulus of elas- creep and shrinkage for both normalweight and lightweight
ticity Ec for concrete may be taken as wc 33 fc′ psi
1.5
concrete flexural members may be estimated by multiplying
(wc 0.043 fc′ MPa ) for values of wc between 90 and 160
1.5 the immediate deflection, caused by the sustained load being
lb/ft3 (1500 and 2500 kg/m3). For normalweight concrete, Ec considered, by the factor

may be taken as 57,000 fc′ psi (4730 fc′ MPa). ξ

The modulus of elasticity Es for nonprestressed reinforce- λ= (6.7.2.2)
1 + 50ρ′
ment may be taken as 29,000,000 psi (200,000 MPa). The
modulus of elasticity Es for prestressing tendons may be
taken as 28,500,000 psi (196,550 MPa) unless determined 6.7.3 Prestressed members—The effects induced by
by tests or supplied by the manufacturer. prestress should be included in the computation of deformation.
6.7.3.1 Immediate camber/deflection—The moment of
6.7—Deformations and rotations inertia should be taken as that of the gross concrete section.
6.7.1 General—Deformations and rotations due to external 6.7.3.2 Long-term camber/deflection—In place of a
loading, prestress, and volume changes due to temperature, detailed analysis, long-term camber and deflection, as a func-
creep, and shrinkage should be considered in the design; tion of instantaneous camber and deflection for members
excessive deformations can affect the structure and the ride constructed and prestressed in a single stage, may be esti-
quality. Therefore, the deformation at the angular disconti- mated by multiplying the initial camber or deflection by the
nuity on guideway surfaces (for example, expansion joints at factors shown in Table 4.8.4.1 of the PCI Design Handbook
beam ends) is of particular importance. (PCI 2004).
Deformation in members under sustained loading should These factors apply to simple spans. For continuous spans,
be calculated as the sum of both the immediate and long- in the absence of a detailed analysis, long-term deflections
term deformations. Deflections that occur immediately upon may be estimated by applying two-thirds of the factors given
application of load should be computed as elastic deflections in Table 6.7.3.2.
by the usual methods.
29

6.8—Crack control of ACI 318 and “AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifica-
Cracking should be controlled in nonprestressed reinforced tions” (AASHTO 2012).
members by suitable detailing and sizing of the reinforce- For guideways made continuous by post-tensioning over
ment (ACI SP-66 [ACI Committee 315 2004]). Prestressed two or more spans, the effects of secondary moments due
concrete members should contain nonprestressed reinforce- to the reactions induced by prestressing should be included.
ment in the precompressed tensile zone. Any reasonable assumption may be adopted for computing
Provisions should be made in the design for moment the relative flexural and torsional stiffness of members in a
reversals (due to a variety of factors that may include creep, statically indeterminate system. The moments of inertia
shrinkage, and temperature gradient) that may develop in used to obtain the relative stiffness of the various members
precast, prestressed units erected as simple span and made may be determined from either the uncracked concrete cross
continuous for live loads. The effects of loading in remote section, neglecting the reinforcement, or from the trans-
spans, as well as shrinkage, creep, and elastic shortening of formed cracked section, provided the same method is used
the piers, should also be considered in the design. throughout the analysis. The effect of variable cross sections
6.8.1 Nonprestressed members—To control cracking by should be considered in analysis and design.
distribution of reinforcement, the spacing of reinforcement The span length of members that are not built integrally
closest to a surface in tension should not exceed that given by with their supports should be the clear span plus the depth
of the member. It need not exceed the distance between
 40, 000   40, 000  centers of supports. In analysis of statically indeterminate
s = 15   − 2.5c ≤ 12  in.
 fs 
members, center-to-center distances should be used to deter-
 fs 
mine moments. Moments at faces of supports may be used
(6.8.1) for design of members.
 280   280  The possible instability or overstressing of a slender
s = 380   − 2.5c ≤ 300  mm
 fs 
member during transportation, construction, and in-service
 fs 
conditions should be considered (Mast 1989, 1993).

6.8.2 Prestressed members—The anchorage zone in post- 7.2—Design for flexure and axial loads
tensioned members is typically divided into two zones: 1) the Guideways should be designed to have the required
local zone immediately surrounding the anchorage device; strengths at all sections by the factored loads and forces
2) and the general zone, which includes the local zone. ACI in such combinations as stipulated in Chapter 5. Design
318-11, Chapter 18, and AASHTO (2012), Section 5, contain strength of a member or cross section should be taken as
recommendations for the design of reinforcement to control the nominal strength calculated in accordance with require-
cracking in these areas. The post-tensioning supplier should ments and assumptions of Chapter 7 multiplied by a strength
specify proper anchorage requirements for local zones. reduction factor f as defined in Chapter 5. The strength
design procedures for members subjected to flexure and
CHAPTER 7—STRENGTH DESIGN axial loads should be based on the provisions of AASHTO
LRFD (AASHTO 2012).
7.1—General design and analysis considerations
Recommendations in this chapter are intended for reinforced 7.3—Shear and torsion
concrete guideways, including nonprestressed and prestressed 7.3.1 Introduction—In transit guideways, shear forces
structures proportioned for adequate strength using load combi- are induced by the vertical loads of vehicles and structures.
nations, load factors, and strength reduction factors as specified Torsional moments are imposed by wind load on the vehi-
in Chapter 5. The recommendations are principally based on cles and on the structures, horizontal nosing action of the
ACI 318 and may also be applied to nonprestressed compo- vehicles, vertical loads of vehicles when derailed, curved
nents of a guideway structure where applicable. alignment, and substructure geometry. These shear forces
All members of statically indeterminate structures should and torsional moments should be considered in combination
be designed for the maximum effects of the specified loads with the bending moments in the reinforcement design.
as determined by elastic analysis or any acceptable method Guideway structures are often built in a continuous fashion
that considers the nonlinear behavior of reinforced concrete to better resist torsional effects and allow for more slender
members, nonprestressed or prestressed, when subjected to structures. Continuity in structures, particularly those with
bending moments, approaching the strength of the member. horizontal curvature, can create a shear and torsion condition
Analysis should satisfy the conditions of equilibrium, that is complex (Laskar et al. 2010; Hsu et al. 2010).
compatibility, and stability at all points in the structure and A comprehensive treatment of shear and torsion in rein-
all magnitudes of loading up to ultimate condition. forced concrete structures is provided in ACI 445R and Hsu
Negative moments calculated by elastic analysis at the and Mo (2010).
supports of continuous prestressed and nonprestressed flex- Sections 7.3.2 through 7.3.5 summarize the basic concepts
ural members, for any assumed loading arrangement, may of shear and torsion that are relevant to the design of guideways.
be increased or decreased in accordance with the provisions 7.3.2 Shear strength of reinforced concrete beams—The
first theory for shear developed by Ritter (1899) and Mörsch
30

(1902) was a truss model. These investigators treated a rein- sive and tensile stress-strain curves of concrete. Using this
forced concrete beam as a plane truss where bending was simple shear modulus, the solution algorithm of FA-STM
resisted by the top and bottom chords and shear was resisted became greatly simplified.
by the inclined concrete struts and vertical steel ties in the Using a universal panel tester with a servo-control system
web. These struts and ties were idealized as lines without (Hsu et al. 1995a,b) to perform strain-controlled tests, Zhu
cross-sectional dimensions. et al. (2001) and Zhu and Hsu (2002) quantified the Poisson
In the 1960s, the reinforced concrete members with effect and characterized this property by two Hsu/Zhu
dimensionless linear elements to resist shear were replaced ratios. Considering the Poisson effect, Hsu and Zhu (2002)
by members made up of more realistic two-dimensional developed the softened membrane model (SMM) that can
membrane elements. By treating a membrane element satisfactorily predict the entire monotonic response of the
after cracking as a truss made up of compression concrete reinforced concrete membrane elements, including both the
struts and tensile steel ties, Nielsen (1967) and Lampert ascending and the descending branches, as well as both the
and Thurlimann (1968) derived three equilibrium equations precracking and post-cracking responses.
for a membrane element that satisfied Mohr’s stress circle. To design the steel reinforcement in a shear element,
This advance was followed by the derivation of three strain however, it is possible to use only the three equilibrium
compatibility equations by Baumann (1972) and Collins equations if both the transverse steel and the longitudinal
(1973) that satisfied Mohr’s strain circle. steel are assumed to reach yielding before concrete crushing.
When an reinforced concrete membrane element is The three equations, consequently, can be combined to give
subjected to shear, it creates a two-dimensional problem; the equation
shear stress can be resolved into a principal tensile stress
and a principal compressive stress in the 45-degree direction. Vu At f y Al f y
Robinson and Demorieux (1968, 1972) found the principal = qy = (7.3.2)
dv st sl
compressive stress was reduced or softened by the principal
tensile stress in the perpendicular direction, resulting in a soft-
ened stress-strain curve in concrete compression struts. This 7.3.3 Torsional strength of reinforced concrete beams—
observation explained why all shear theories to this point had According to St. Venant’s circulatory shear flow pattern, the
over-estimated the experimental results because a nonsoft- largest shear stresses occur at the outer periphery of a cross
ened stress-strain curve of concrete was used in the analysis. section, and the most efficient cross section to resist torsion
Using a biaxial test facility called a shear rig, Vecchio and is tube-shaped. In reinforced concrete beams, the best way
Collins (1981) showed that the softening coefficient in the to resist torsion is to provide hoop steel along the outer
stress-strain curve of concrete was a function of the prin- periphery, in addition to longitudinal steel. The amount of
cipal tensile strain rather than the principal tensile stress. hoop steel required in the tube depends on the shear flow
Incorporating equilibrium equations, the compatibility equa- q, which can be determined from Bredt’s (1896) equilib-
tions, and using the softened stress-strain curve of concrete, rium equation of a cross section (qy = Tu/2A0)). Substituting
Collins and Mitchell (1980) developed a compression field Bredt’s equation into Eq. (7.3.2) results in
theory (CFT) that could predict the nonlinear shear behavior
of an element in the post-cracking region up to the peak At f y Al f y
response. Later, Vecchio and Collins (1986) proposed the Tu = 2 A0 (7.3.3a)
modified compression field theory (MCFT) that included st sl

a constitutive relationship for concrete in tension to better
model the post-cracking shear stiffness. Equation (7.3.3a) represents the basis of torsion provi-
In 1995, a rotating-angle softened truss model (RA-STM) sions since the 1995 ACI Code. The lever arm area A0 in
was developed at the University of Houston (UH) (Pang Eq. (7.3.3a) is formed by sweeping the lever arm of the
and Hsu 1995; Belarbi and Hsu 1994, 1995). The RA-STM centerline of shear flow one full circle around the axis of
made two improvements over the CFT: twist. Prior to 1995, the centerline of shear flow was taken by
1. The tensile stress of concrete was taken into account so Rausch (1929) to be the centerline of the hoop steel bar, and
that the deformations could be correctly predicted the corresponding lever arm area is denoted as A0h. This defi-
2. The smeared (or average) stress-strain curve of steel nition of area A0h, however, was found to overestimate the
bars embedded in concrete was derived on the smeared crack torsional strength by up to 30 percent. As a result, empirical
level so that it could be correctly used in the equilibrium equations were derived based on the experimental results of
and compatibility equations that are based on continuous Hsu (1968), and used in the ACI Code from 1971 to 1995.
materials. Equation (7.3.3a) shows two basic characteristics of
In 1996, the UH group reported that the fixed-angle soft- torsion. First, both the hoop steel and the longitudinal steel
ened truss model (FA-STM) (Pang and Hsu 1996; Hsu and are required to resist torsion. This is illustrated by Rausch’s
Zhang 1997) is capable of predicting the concrete contribu- (1929) space truss model, which is made up of both types
tion (Vc) by assuming the cracks to be oriented at the fixed of steel bars. Second, Eq. (7.3.3a) is applicable to hollow
angle, rather than the rotating angle. Zhu et al. (2001) derived sections and beams with solid sections. Tests (Hsu 1968)
a rational shear modulus that is a function of the compres-
31

have shown that the concrete core inside a tube does not simply supported. Its cross section was 4 ft 2 in. (1.28 m) deep
contribute to the ultimate torsional strength of a solid beam. and 12 ft (3.6 m) wide with overhanging flanges.
When a reinforced concrete tube is under torsion, elements In addition to ACI 318, design provisions for combined
isolated from its walls are shown to be subjected to pure shear and torsion are available in other design codes, such
shear. Under such a biaxial stress condition, the compressive as CAN/CSA-S6-00 and Eurocode 2 (CEN 2006). Although
stress-strain curve used in the principal compressive direc- these codes have not been applied to guideways, they could
tion should be multiplied by a softening coefficient. This provide additional guidance. A box section subjected to
softening coefficient is a function of the principal tensile shear and torsion was designed by a method in Collins and
strain and the compressive strength of concrete (Zhang and Mitchell (1991) that was later modified and adopted for use
Hsu 1998) and varies from approximately 0.25 to 0.50. in AASHTO (2012).
Applying this softened stress-strain curve of concrete to 7.3.5 Warping torsion––In the design of beams with closed
the study of a reinforced concrete tube under torsion (Hsu sections, it is safe to neglect warping torsional resistance.
and Mo 1985), the thickness td of the shear flow zone can This is because St. Venant torsional resistances of closed
be determined, and the lever arm area A0 can be calculated sections are large, whereas the warping torsional resistance
from the centerline of the shear flow zone. The thickness td is small in comparison. In the design of beams with open
increases as the ultimate torque Tu increases, and the rela- sections, however, warping torsion resistance needs to be
tionship was derived (Hsu 1990, 1993) to be td = 4Tu/Acpfc′. considered because it could have a magnitude comparable to
The corresponding A0 becomes that of St. Venant torsion resistance. The following example
illustrates a design for warping torsion.
t d pcp 2Tu pcp The 22 mi (35 km) aerial guideways of the Dade County
Ao = Acp − = Acp − (7.3.3b) Rapid Transit System were designed using a standard 80
2 Acp fc′
ft (24.4 m) long, prestressed double-T girder with an open
cross section of 5 ft (1.5 m) deep and 12 ft (3.6 m) wide.
When the lever arm area A0 in Eq. (7.3.3b) is used in The shear and torsion design of this double-T girder was
conjunction with Eq. (7.3.3a), the amount of the hoop steel, reported by Hsu and Hwang (1986). When such an open
At/st, can be accurately determined to resist the ultimate cross section was subjected to torsion, it was resisted
torque Tu. by both the St. Venant torsion and the warping torsion. A
Prior to the use of the softened stress-strain curve in mixed torsion analysis according to Hwang and Hsu (1983)
torsion, the determination of the thickness td was based on the showed that warping torsion resisted approximately half of
nonsoftened stress-strain curve of a standard cylinder—for the applied torsional moment. The total torsional strength of
example, taking the softening coefficient as unity. Because the double-T girder was sufficient to resist the most severe
the softened coefficient varies from approximately 0.25 to case of derailment, and the maximum torsional rotation was
0.5, the thickness td obtained from the nonsoftened stress- well within the desirable limit to ensure rider comfort. The
strain curve is expected to be reduced in the same proportion mixed torsion theory was validated by the test results of two
based on the softened stress-strain curve. The corresponding 3/5-scale models (Russell et al 1986).
A0 will become much too large, and Eq. (7.3.3a) will seri-
ously overestimate the experimental torsional strength. CHAPTER 8—REFERENCES
Equations (7.3.2), (7.3.3a), and (7.3.3b) were incorporated Committee documents are listed first by document number
into the 1995 ACI Code for a more rational design of rein- and year of publication followed by authored documents
forcement to resist torsion. This version of the Code also listed alphabetically.
provides a simpler, but less accurate, formula for calculating
the lever arm area A0 as follows American Concrete Institute
ACI 117-10—Specifications for Tolerances for Concrete
A0 = 0.85A0h (7.3.3c) Construction and Materials and Commentary
ACI 209R-92—Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temper-
Whereas Eq. (7.3.3c) is intended for the torsion design ature Effects in Concrete Structures (Reapproved 2008)
of small beams encountered in buildings, the implicit ACI 311.4R-05—Guide for Concrete Inspection
understanding is that Eq. (7.3.3b) is more suitable for large ACI 318-11—Building Code Requirements for Structural
beams, especially box beams, as in the case of guideways. Concrete and Commentary
The background of the 1995 ACI Code was given by Hsu ACI 343R-95—Analysis and Design of Reinforced
and Zhang (1997). Concrete Bridge Structures (Reapproved 2004)
7.3.4 Design for shear and torsion—Hsu and Zhang (1997) ACI 445R-99—Recent Approaches to Shear Design of
describe a detailed design of a hollow box girder to resist Structural Concrete (Reapproved 2009)
shear and torsion according to the 1995 ACI Code and using ACI 445.1R-12—Report on Torsion in Structural Concrete
the accurate Eq. (7.3.3b) for A0. This prestressed box girder
design was included in the construction bid for building the American Society of Civil Engineers
aerial guideways of the Dade County Rapid Transit System ASCE 21-05—Automated People Mover Standards
in Florida, where the box girder was 80 ft (24 m) long and
32

SEI/ASCE 37-02—Design Loads on Structures During Buckle, I. G., and Priestley, M. J. N., 1978, “Methods
Construction of Analysis for Highway Bridges,” Structures Committee,
Road Research Unit, National Roads Board, 89 pp.
American Welding Society Calgary Transit, 2001, “Calgary Light Rail Transit Design
AWS D1.4:2005—Structural Welding Code—Rein- Guidelines,” Calgary Transit Division Transportation
forcing Steel Department, Jan.
AWS D15.2:2003—Recommended Practice for Welding Campbell, T. I., 1978, “Natural Frequencies of Curved
Beams and Skew Slabs,” Report, OJT & CRP Project 8303,
ASTM International Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada, Mar.
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Performing Nondestructive Testing dian Wind Turbine Codes and Standards,” CSA, Toronto,
ON, Canada, 28 pp.
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Officials, Washington, DC, 1028 pp. “Bridge Vibration Study,” Report No. RR 181, Ministry
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AASHTO, 2011, “AASHTO Guide Specifications for “Eurocode 2 – Design of Concrete Structures,” BSI British
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DC, 286 pp. Regulations 49—Transportation,” Federal Railroad Admin-
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Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, tensioned Bridges,” Florida Department of Transportation,
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American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 219 pp. Structures, Stresses and Deformations: Analysis and Design
AREMA, 2012, Manual for Railway Engineering, Amer- for Serviceability, fourth edition, Spon Press, 637 pp.
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ciation, Lanham, MD. ALRT Elevated Guideway and Special Structures,” Govern-
Baumann, T., 1972, “Zur Frage der Netzbewehrung von ment of Ontario Advanced Light Rail Transit, Sept.
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Belarbi, A., and Hsu, T. T. C., 1994, “Constitutive Laws Guideway,” Proceedings of the International Conference on
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Belarbi, A., and Hsu, T. T. C., 1995, “Constitutive Laws V. 94, No. ST2, Feb., pp. 485-510.
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Billing, J. R., 1979, “Estimation of the Natural Frequen- No. 11, pp. 3205-3225.
cies of Continuous Multi-Span Bridges,” Report No. RR.219, Hsu, T. T. C., 1993, Unified Theory of Reinforced Concrete,
Ministry of Transportation, Downsview, ON, Canada, Jan., CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, FL, 329 pp.
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33

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tion Association, Quincy, MA.
34

Vecchio, F., and Collins, M. P., 1981, “Stress-Strain Char- Zhu, R. H.; Hsu, T. T. C.; and Lee, J. Y., 2001, “Rational
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As ACI begins its second century of advancing concrete knowledge, its original chartered purpose
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 Guide for the Analysis and Design of Reinforced
and Prestressed Concrete Guideway Structures

The AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE

was founded in 1904 as a nonprofit membership organization dedicated to public

service and representing the user interest in the field of concrete. ACI gathers
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The committees, as well as ACI as a whole, operate under a consensus format,

which assures all participants the right to have their views considered. Committee
activities include the development of building codes and specifications; analysis of
research and development results; presentation of construction and repair
techniques; and education.

Individuals interested in the activities of ACI are encouraged to become a member.

There are no educational or employment requirements. ACI’s membership is
composed of engineers, architects, scientists, contractors, educators, and
representatives from a variety of companies and organizations.

Members are encouraged to participate in committee activities that relate to their

specific areas of interest. For more information, contact ACI.

www.concrete.org