Lecture 3 questions Temperature, Salinity, Density and Circulation

(1) These are profiles of mean ocean temperature with depth at various locations in
the ocean which in the following (a, b, c) figures corresponds to high, low and mid
latitudes? Why?

(a) mid latitudes (b) low latitudes (c) high latitudes. Warm surface water at low latitudes
and cold surface water at high latitudes. Mid latitudes have a seasonal thermocline.

The next figure is a succession of temperature profiles in the upper 100 meters of the
ocean at one station in different months of the year (Northern Hemisphere). Label the
profiles with the appropriate month starting January, every other month was sampled.

Given that changes of temperature resulting directly from seasonal variations of incident
radiation can no longer be detected below about 200 m, how would the curve look for the
section between 100 and 200 m?

Solid lines represent seasonal

thermocline growth and
March May July Aug. dashed lines seasonal
thermocline decay. Starting
Sept. in the Spring (March) the
seasonal thermocline starts to
develop and in August it is at
the maximum. Then with
Nov. cooling and increased wind in
the Fall the thermocline
deteriorates.
Between 100-200 m we
Jan.
would see the permanent
thermocline, steep gradient
and about 10-8 degrees C.
(2) What is the principal of constant proportions? Does it apply to all constituents of
seawater? Why/Why not? What is the ratio of potassium concentration to total salinity.
What would potassium conc. be for salinity of 40? of 32? What will the K/Cl ratio be in
these cases?

The major ions (>1mg/kg seawater) at S = 35.000 (from Pilson)

Ion Formula g/Kg mmol/Kg
Sodium Na+ 10.781 468.96
Magnesium Mg2+ 1.284 52.83
Calcium Ca2+ 0.4119 10.28
Potassium K+ 0.399 10.21
Strontium Sr2+ 0.00794 0.0906
Chloride Cl- 19.353 545.88
Sulfate SO42- 2.712 28.23
Bicarbonate HCO3- 0.126 2.06
Bromide Br- 0.067 0.844
Borate H3BO4- 0.0257 0.416
Fluoride F- 0.00130 0.068
Totals 11 35.169 1119.87

The principal of constant proportions states that the ratio of the major conservative ions
in seawater is constant. This applies only to conservative elements, other ions can change
significantly in space and time independent of salinity changes.
K/35.169 = 0.011; for S = 40, K = 40x 0.011 = 0.440 and for S = 32, K = 0.352.
Salinity will increase by extensive evaporation relative to precipitation and sea ice
formation, it will decrease as a result of increased precipitation, river input and ice melt.

(3) When seawater undergoes evaporation: Which is true?

A. The remaining water becomes more saline
B. The proportions of Na and other ions change
C. The proportion of the major ions remain the same
D. The proportion of K to other ions remain constant
E. A and B
F. A and C
G. A, C and D
 River water Seawater
(4) Plot a mixing curve between seawater and
Element (ug/L) (ug/L)
river water using the data above. Plot the
Cl 0 16.6 concentration of Fe, and Mn on this mixing
Mn 120 2 curve. Explain the curves.
Fe 500 3

Cl Fe Mn The mixing point end members are seawater and

13.8 10 20 river water with their respective salinity and Fe
11.1 30 40 and Mn concentrations. From the following
curves we see that Fe is depleted from solution
15 50 60
upon mixing and Mn is added at very low
8.3 100 85
salinities and then behaves conservatively.
2.8 200 110
1.1 300 130
(5) Indicate 2-3 areas in the ocean where you might expect upwelling to occur. How
might this effect he sea surface temperature in these areas.

Upwelling would be expected at divergence zones (Equatorial and high latitude) and
along the coasts at the western boundaries of continents. The sea surface temperature will
be reduced due to mixing with cold sub thermocline waters.

(6) Mediterranean Intermediate Water (MIW) is a water mass, which is situated at mid
depth in the North Atlantic. The temperature of this water mass is about 10º C and the
water masses above and below have temperatures of 2 to 3º C these water masses have
salinities of about 34.9‰. What would you expect the salinity of the MIW water mass to
be (qualitatively) and can you suggest how it is produced?

Salinity of MIW would be higher to maintain the appropriate density.

Incoming surface water from the North Atlantic, which is cool and has normal ocean
salinity, is heated by the intense Mediterranean sun. More importantly the high
evaporation rates of this area (relative to ppt) increases the salinity to more than 36.5‰.
This very dense but warm water sinks to the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea until it
spills over the shallow sill of the Straits of Gibraltar and moves west in the mid depth of
the North Atlantic as an elongated tongue of warm, salty water

(7) Define st. What is the main use of this value?

Could st be used for indication of water column
stability (density stratification)?

A value corresponding to water density at

atmospheric pressure as determined from its in-situ
temperature and salinity (r-1000; units are kg/m3).
It is used to identify water masses (constant sigma
t). It gives only a rough indication of stability, as it
is uncorrected for adiabatic effects and so it gives
spurious information about density (and hence
stability), especially in the deep water. A more
reliable measure of stability will be sq (potential
density; water density at atmospheric pressure as
determined from its potential temperature).
(8) Define potential temperature. Would you expect the potential temperature of seawater
at a depth of 5km to be greater or less than the in situ temperature. Explain.

The difference between in situ and potential temperature can best be seen in the bottom
deep trenches. Which is potential and which is in situ on this graph?

Potential temperature is the temperature of a water parcel that is raised adiabatically

(without heat gain or loss) to the sea surface. The temperature would always cool as the
water is brought up because water decompresses (less molecules per unit volume) and
temperature decreases.

Seawater would be subject to reduced pressure in the adiabatic change from a depth of
5km up to sea level. It would become less compressed so its potential temperature will be
lower than its in-situ temperature. The potential temperature in the figure is uniform with
depth while the in situ temperature slowly increases.

(9) Sketch the boundaries between the 3 water masses below the 10 degrees isotherm.
What are theses water masses?

AAIW

NADW

AABW
(10) Paleo-botanical data suggests that during the Eocene (~40 million years ago)
tropical trees were abundant at everywhere on earth and d18O records in marine
carbonates are –2 permil for rocks all over. What would this imply about the temperature
distribution on Earth? Where would you expect that the deep-water masses formed at
that time? What was the deep oceans temperature relative to the present day?

Temperatures are more evenly distributed. Deep water masses would have most likely
formed in areas of high evaporation thus high salinity in mid latitudes. This is where the
densest water formed thus circulation patterns could have been very different and deep
waters were warmer.

(11) Thick salt deposits found beneath the floor in the Mediterranean Sea have an age of
4.5 million years. They cover an area of 2 x 1011 m2 and have an average thickness of
1000m. They consist of about half CaSO4 (136 g/mol) and half NaCl (48.45 g/mol). By
how much would the deposition of this salt have changes the ocean’s salinity? By how
much would it have changed the Ca (40 g/mol) content?

Ocean salt content now is = 35 g/l

Ocean volume = 1.37 x 1021 liters
Salt content = 1.37 x 1021 liters x 35 g/l = 4.8 x 1022 grams

Mediterranean salt deposits are: 2 x 1015 cm2 x 105 cm x 2.5 g/cm3 = 5 x 1020g
Thus, 1% reduction in salinity.

Ca in the ocean: 1 x 10-2 mol/l x 1.37 x 1021 liters x 40 g/mol = 5.5 x 1020 g Ca
Ca in Mediterranean salts: ½ x 5 x 1020g x 40/136 = 0.74 x 1020 g Ca
Hence 0.74/5.5 x 100 is ~ 13% reduction in Ca content!!!

(12) Climate records contained in Greenland ice reveal that during the last 60,000 years
conditions switched back and forth between millennial duration intervals of intense cold
and moderate cold. Each interval of intense cold was matched by an ice-rafting event in
the northern Atlantic and by a greatly increased influx of dust onto the ice cap as well as
changes in the atmospheric methane concentration. It has been suggested that these large
climate shifts are associated with changes in ocean circulation specifically the shut down
of the “conveyer belt”. Can you think of ways that the conveyer belt would shut down?
Can you think of any evidence that would support this theory?

Reduced surface density due to ice melt and input of fresh water. We could check for
paleo salinity of surface dwelling organisms (d18O, or organisms that live in low salinity
water).