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Ion Propulsion
1 Introduction
Electrical propulsion was first explored in 1912 by R.H Godard and Oberth. He elaborated on the
classroom experiment where a high voltage across a needle creating an electric wind, by creating a flow of
electrically charged particles, at low propellant rate yet high exhaust velocity [1]. Though development was
slow during the beginning of the 19th century, the technology was developed into an efficient propulsion device
by the US looking into Gridded electrostatic ion thrusters, and the Soviet Union focused on Hall thrusters. The
first hall thrusters have been used on spacecraft since 1971, however, it was only until the 1990’s that
electrostatic ion thrusters started being used for satellites. [2]
To find the force experience by the spacecraft, the conservation of momentum must be considered, where
the mass and velocity of the spacecraft is equal to that of the mass and velocity of the ejected propellant, [2] it
can be worked from this first principle that [3]:
2 2
2 D D
F= πε 0 V 2acc 2 =6 .18×10−12 V 2acc 2
9 d d
Showing force on the spacecraft is proportional to the ration squared of beam emitter diameter D to
accelerator-electrode grid spacing d, and to the square of the potential difference Vacc.
When plotted effective exhaust velocity against thrust to vehicle weight ratio [fig 1] we see that electrical
propulsion is characterised by its highly efficient, low thrust, around 0.005 to 1N, and high exhaust velocities of
10000 to 60,000ms-1 characteristics, meaning for a significant velocity increase, the engine’s produce a low
trust and acceleration, for a long time [3],This means that the ratio of trust to propellant used is high, so high
specific impulse, about 8 time the specific impulse of chemical engines saving enough mass of propellant to
nearly double the hardware on a communications satellite [4], also making it desirable for deep space missions
where efficacy is more important than time. The engines only work in a vacuum due to the low pressure in the
thruster, in the atmosphere ambient gas would over whelm the propellant, effecting its performance greatly.
The gridded ion thruster works by injecting high energy electrons into the back of the discharge chamber
along with neutral propellant, most commonly xenon, which subsequently impact together, nocking off an
electron to create positively charged ions. After drifting to the negatively charged ion optic, a perforated grid at
the rear of the chamber, the electro static field accelerates ions to a high velocity. To prevent build-up of
negative charge on the craft, the positive ion beam is neutralised by a cathode which ejects electrons. A
magnetic field is also used to keep plasma away from the walls to limit stress on material and increase
efficiency of the engine. [2]
Xenon gas is introduced into back where it is ionized and accelerated by the hall effect. A radial magnetic
field is created by current being passed over the outer and inner magnetic coils. Electrons are generated by the
cathode and are attracted by the anode at the rear of the engine, yet are caused to drift by the radial magnetic
field in the azimuthal direction, spiralling around, thus creating a hall current. The xenon is hit by the energetic
electrons as they drift out, knocking of electrons, creating ions and are accelerated through the potential. Like
the gridded ion thrusters, the ions are neutralised by a cathode after being expelled. [2]
The performance characteristics differ between both thrusters. The grid on the gridded ion thruster limits
the amount of current which the device can take, which means a lower thrust density. Resultantly, to get the
same power a hall thruster can be more compact meaning cheaper transport into orbit. [4] The hall thruster is
preferable in time critical missions as it will be able to get the pay load to the desired place the quickest, like
getting satellites into the correct orbit, yet in situations where propellant and pay load mass are an issue, gridded
ion thrusters are preferable to its higher efficiency, like the capture of asteroids for mining.
The gridded ion engine fails from its grid being eroded over time by collisions from the high energy ions
while the hall thruster fails from erosion of the channels. Research has been into extending the life span of the
engines, as well as liquid droplets [3] or charged colloid, up to 10,000 heavier than the atomic particles. By
using heavier particles there is a greater changing in momentum hence from newton’s 3rd law, greater force. In
terms of the thruster, they also create more desirable characteristics with a high voltage and lower current, so
thinner wiring can be used, without melting.
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Fig 1

2 References
[1] Stuhlinger, E., 1964. Ion propulsion for space flight (p. 204). New York: McGraw-Hill.
[2] Goebel, D.M. and Katz, I., 2008. Fundamentals of electric propulsion: ion and Hall thrusters (Vol. 1). John
Wiley & Sons.
[3] Sutton, G.P. and Biblarz, O., 2010. Rocket propulsion elements. John Wiley & Sons.
[4] Sovey, J.S., Rawlin, V.K. and Patterson, M.J., 2001. Ion propulsion development projects in US: space
electric rocket test I to deep space 1. Journal of Propulsion and Power, 17(3), pp.517-526.