Hindawi Publishing Corporation

ISRN Polymer Science

Volume 2013, Article ID 509185, 8 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/509185

Review Article
Geopolymer Binders: A Need for Future Concrete Construction

K. Srinivasan and A. Sivakumar

Structural Engineering Division, VIT University, Vellore 632014, Tamilnadu, India

Correspondence should be addressed to A. Sivakumar; sivakumara@vit.ac.in

Received 30 April 2013; Accepted 6 June 2013

Academic Editors: C. Bernal and G. Gentile

Copyright © 2013 K. Srinivasan and A. Sivakumar. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.

Applications of polymer based binder material can be an ideal choice in civil infrastructural applications since the conventional
cement production is highly energy intensive. Moreover, it also consumes significant amount of natural resources for the large-
scale production in order to meet the global infrastructure developments. On the other hand the usage of cement concrete is on
the increase and necessitates looking for an alternative binder to make concrete. Geopolymer based cementitious binder was one
of the recent research findings in the emerging technologies. The present study is aimed at providing a comprehensive review on
the various production processes involved in the development of a geopolymer binder. More studies in the recent past showed a
major thrust for wider applications of geopolymer binder towards a cost economic construction practice. This also envisages the
reduction of global warming due to carbon dioxide emissions from cement plants.

1. Introduction medium. Palomo et al. [4] produced geopolymers using fly

ash with sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate as well as with
Research studies in the past had shown that fly ash-based potassium hydroxide with potassium silicate combinations.
geopolymer has emerged as a promising new cement alter- The results from the studies exhibited an excellent formation
native in the field of construction materials. The term of geopolymer with rapid setting properties. It can be noted
geopolymer was first coined and invented by Davidovits that the presence of calcium content in fly ash played a
[1] which was obtained from fly ash as a result of geo- significant role in compressive strength development [5]. The
polymerization reaction. This was produced by the chemical presence of calcium ions provides a faster reactivity and thus
reaction of aluminosilicate oxides (Si2 O5 , Al2 O2 ) with alkali yields good hardening of geopolymer in shorter curing time.
polysilicates yielding polymeric Si–O–Al bonds. Hardjito
and Rangan [2] demonstrated in their extensive studies 2. Background of Geopolymerization Process
that geopolymer based concrete showed good mechanical
properties as compared to conventional cement concrete. Polymerization reaction is best observed in the presence of
A comprehensive analysis on the various works done in alkaline medium such as sodium hydroxide, or potassium
geopolymer concrete is listed in Table 1. hydroxide and the addition of silicates can be additional
Geopolymer can be produced with the basic raw materials ionic composition with good bonding effects. The reactants
containing silica and alumina rich mineral composition. in the chain reaction can be accelerated due to higher
Several studies have reported the use of the beneficial uti- molar concentration of alkali ions; however, the increase in
lization of these materials in concrete. Most of the studies the concentration leads to rapid loss in consistency during
investigated the use of alkali activators containing sodium mixing attributed to faster polymer reaction. The inclusion
hydroxide and sodium silicate or a potassium hydroxide and of sodium silicate in sodium hydroxide solution provides
potassium silicate. Cheng and Chiu [3] reported the pro- higher silicate content and due to which the gel formation is
duction of geopolymer concrete using slag and metakaolin likely to provide faster polymerization. A similar reaction is
with potassium hydroxide and sodium silicate as alkaline observed in the case of potassium silicate added to potassium
 Table 1: Summary of various works done on geopolymer concrete. 2
Types of binder and
Sl. no. Authors/ref. Year Test conducted Curing regime Observations
alkali activator used
Class C fly ash and
Hot air oven curing at The response was attributed to material loss by propagation
granulated blast-furnace
(1) Goretta et al. [6] 2004 Compressive strength. 80∘ C to 120∘ C and of both lateral and radial cracks and presence of microcracks
slag,
ambient temperature. and aggregates in the matrix.
sodium silicate.
Class F fly ash. An increase of temperature of heat treatment caused a
Compressive strength. Sodium silicate and Hot air oven at 75∘ C to decrease of Si/Al ratios in aluminosilicate gel, and long
(2) Bakharev [7] 2005
FTIR, XRD, and SEM. sodium hydroxide. 150∘ C. curing at room temperature narrowed the range of
Potassium hydroxide distribution of the Si/Al ratios.
Fly ash activated by sodium silicate, 6 h heat curing is more
Class F fly ash.
Hot air oven curing at beneficial than 24 h heat.
(3) Bakharev [7] 2005 Compressive strength. Sodium silicate and
75∘ C and 95∘ C. Fly ash activated by sodium hydroxide had more stable
sodium hydroxide.
strength properties.
Class F fly ash and The particle size distribution and the mineral composition of
Fernández-Jiménez Hot air oven curing at
(4) 2005 Compressive strength. sodium hydroxide the starting fly ash, the type and concentration of the
et al. [8] 80∘ C.
solution. activator, and so forth.
Metakaolin. This demonstrates that the characteristics of geopolymers can
Sodium silicate and Hot air oven curing at be tailored for applications with requirements for specific
(5) Duxson et al. [9] 2005 Compressive strength.
sodium hydroxide 80∘ C. microstructural, chemical, mechanical, and thermal
solution. properties.
Compressive strength, Fly ash. Geopolymer materials prepared using class F fly ash and
shrinkage Sodium silicate and ∘ sodium and potassium silicate show high shrinkage as well as
(6) Bakharev [10] 2006 Hot air oven at 100 C.
measurements, XRD, sodium hydroxide. large changes in compressive strength with increasing fired
and SEM. Potassium hydroxide temperature in the range 800–1200∘ C.
Fly ash and ground
The hardness of geopolymer is approximately twice higher
blast-furnace granulated Hot air oven curing at
(7) Škvára et al. [11] 2006 Compressive strength. than for OPC that could indicate less deformability and
slag. 100∘ C–120∘ C.
higher brittleness.
Sodium hydroxide.
Lignite fly ash (FA)
The samples with a high strength were obtained using the
Sodium silicate and
Chindaprasirt et al. Hot air oven curing at delay time after molding and before subjecting the sample to
(8) 2007 Compressive strength. sodium hydroxide
[12] 120∘ C. heat of 1 h with heat curing in the oven at 75∘ C of not less
solution as alkali
than two days.
activators.
Metakaolin and
low-calcium fly ash. Fly ash pores contain higher proportion of microspores than
Hot air oven curing at
(9) Kong et al. [13] 2007 Compressive strength. Grade D sodium silicate metakaolin geopolymer. Fly ash-based geopolymer gives
100∘ C.
solution and potassium better strength than metakaolin.
hydroxide.
Addition of the calcium compounds CaO and Ca(OH)2
Fly ash.
improves mechanical properties and cured at ambient
Sodium silicate and Hot air oven curing at
(10) Temuujin et al. [14] 2009 Compressive strength. temperature.
sodium hydroxide 75∘ C and 100∘ C.
ISRN Polymer Science

Calcium compound addition reduces mechanical properties

solution.
cured at elevated temperatures.
 Table 1: Continued.
Types of binder and
Sl. no. Authors/ref. Year Test conducted Curing regime Observations
alkali activator used
The strength declined with inclusion of
Low-calcium (class F) fly
geopolymer/aggregate composites.
Kong and Sanjayan ash. Sodium silicate Hot air oven curing at
(11) 2008 Compressive strength. While aggregates undergo expansion at elevated
[15] solution and potassium 80∘ C.
temperatures, the geopolymer matrix experienced
hydroxide.
ISRN Polymer Science

contraction.
Class F fly ash.
Higher amount of fine particles will result in higher surface
Sodium silicate and Hot air oven curing at
(12) Diaz et al. [16] 2010 Compressive strength. area, higher reactivity resulting in higher compressive
sodium hydroxide 80∘ C.
strength.
solution.
Class F fly ash. The rate of expansion of the aggregate with temperature is an
Kong and Sanjayan Hot air oven curing at
(13) 2010 Compressive strength. Sodium silicate and influential factor in the performance of geopolymer concrete
[17] 100∘ C.
sodium hydroxide. under elevated temperatures.
Combined effect of particle size and change in reactivity due
to mechanical activation altered the geopolymerisation
Compressive strength. Fly Ash. Hot air oven at 100∘ C to reaction.
(14) Kumar et al. [18] 2010
FTIR, XRD, and SEM. Sodium hydroxide. 250∘ C. The improvement in physical properties is related to the
intrinsic structure developed due to enhanced
geopolymerisation.
Fly ash and rice husk
bark ash.
Hot air oven curing at Paste content and the aggregate content P/Aggregate of 0.34
(15) Wongpa et al. [19] 2010 Compressive strength. Sodium silicate and
75∘ C to 125∘ C. and Si/Al of 0.63 showed the highest compressive strength.
sodium hydroxide
solution.
Kaolin (Al2 Si2 O5 (OH)4 ),
fumed silica.
Samples with pore sizes of about 40 nm, exhibited a satisfying
Metakaolin and sodium
Hot air oven curing at initial release of 60–80% of the API content within 10 h and
(16) Jämstorp et al. [20] 2010 Compressive strength. hydroxide (NaOH).
100∘ C to 150∘ C. nearly all within 24 h, as well as fairly high compression
Fentanyl base and
strengths of 50–60 MPa.
Zolpidem tartrate.

Above 700∘ C, there is an increase of setting time.

Setting time, linear Metakaolin, kaolinite, Calcined at 450∘ C and
The compressive strength increases when the calcination
(17) Elimbi et al. [21] 2011 shrinkage, compressive and sodium hydroxide ambient temperature.
temperature of kaolinite clays is between 500 and 700∘ C but
strength, XRD, and SEM. and sodium silicate.
drops above 700∘ C.
Metakaolin, ladle slag, Geopolymer matrix is able to determine a flexural strength
Flexural strength and Calcined at 700∘ C for 5
(18) Natali et al. [22] 2011 and sodium hydroxide increment, ranging from 30% up to 70% depending on the
fracture toughness. hours.
and sodium silicate. fiber type, compared to the unreinforced material.
Seeded fly ash and rice
The highest strength was achieved using a 12 M NaOH
husk bark ash.
(19) Nazari et al. [23] 2011 Compressive strength. Hot air oven at 80∘ C. solution. Oven curing of the specimens at 80∘ C was found to
Sodium silicate and
be the optimum temperature.
3

sodium hydroxide.
 4

Table 1: Continued.
Types of binder and
Sl. no. Authors/ref. Year Test conducted Curing regime Observations
alkali activator used
Comparative study of
There is an estimated 44–64% improvement in greenhouse
OPC and fly ash. Sodium
(20) McLellan et al. [24] 2011 Compressive strength. Hot air oven at 100∘ C. gas emissions over OPC. Emissions from geopolymer
silicate and sodium
concrete can be 97% lower up to 14% higher.
hydroxide solution.
Sodium hydroxide-activated ground fly ash cured at room
Fly ash. Sodium silicate
∘ temperature can be produced with reasonable strength.
(21) Somna et al. [25] 2011 Compressive strength. and sodium hydroxide Hot air oven at 100 C.
Ground fine fly ash can be used as a source material for
solution.
making geopolymer cured at ambient temperature.
ISRN Polymer Science
ISRN Polymer Science 5

KOH, NaOH
(Si2 O5 , Al2 O2 )n + nH2 O n(OH)3 -Si-O-Al(OH)3

KOH, NaOH
n(OH)3 -Si-O-Al-(OH)3 (Na, K) (-Si-O-Al-O)n + 3nH2 O

O O

(Orthosialate) (Na, K)-poly(sialate)

KOH, NaOH
(Si2 O5 , Al2 O2 )n + nSiO2 + nH2 O n(OH)3 -Si-O-Al-O-Si-(OH)3

(OH)2
KOH, NaOH
n(OH)3 -Si-O-Al-O-Si-(OH)3 (Na, K) (-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O-)n + nH2 O

O O O
Oligo(sialate-siloxo) (Na, K)-poly(sialate-siloxo)
Polymerization reactions
O O

Poly(sialate) {Si : Al = 1 (-Si-O-Al-O-)} O-Si-O-Al-O

O O
O O O

Poly(sialate-siloxo) O-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O

{ Si : Al= 2(-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O-)} O O O
O O O O

Poly(sialate-disiloxo) O-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O-Si-O

{Si : Al = 3 (-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O-Si-O)} O O O O
K-oligo(sialate-siloxo)
OH OH OH

OH-Si-O-Al-O-Si-OH

OH OH(−) OH (K+ )

Polycondensation

Si

O O O

O-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O

O O(−) O

Si (K+ ) K-poly(sialate-siloxo)

Figure 1: Polymerization reaction [1].

hydroxide solution. It is known that the conventional organic hydroxide molecules undergo a condensation reaction where
polymerization involves the formation of monomers in a adjacent hydroxyl ions from these near neighbors condense
given solution in which the reaction can be made faster to to form an oxygen bond linking the water molecule, and
polymerize and form a solid polymer. The geopolymerization it is seen that each oxygen bond is formed as a result of a
process involves three separate processes and during initial condensation reaction and thereby bonds the neighboring Si
mixing, the alkaline solution dissolves silicon and aluminium or Al tetrahedra. A clear representation of the chain reaction
ions in the raw material (fly ash, slag, silica fume, bentonite, involved during the polymerization is explained in Figure 1
etc.). It is also understood that the silicon or aluminium with a fundamental understanding from the literature.
6 ISRN Polymer Science

Polymers are sensitive towards heat and can form a powder by mass should be approximately 0.33 to allow the
stronger chain due to polycondensation. It is noted from geopolymeric reactions to occur. Alkaline solutions formed a
the basic chemical reaction when subjected to heat causes thick gel instantaneously upon mixing with the aluminosili-
silicon and aluminium hydroxide molecules to polycondense cate powder. The previous studies also reported that mixtures
or polymerize, to form rigid chains or nets of oxygen bonded with high water content, that is, H2 O/Na2 O = 25, developed
tetrahedra. Also, at higher elevated temperatures it produces very low compressive strengths. Palomo et al. [4] reported
stronger geopolymers. Aluminium ions require a metallic that curing temperature is an important indicator for strength
Na+ ions for charge balance. Davidovits and Davidovics [26] gain in fly ash-based geopolymers and improves the mechani-
reported that geopolymers can harden rapidly at room tem- cal strength. Higher curing temperature and optimum curing
perature and can gain the compressive strength up to 20 MPa time were found to influence the compressive strength gain in
in 1 day. Comrie et al. [27] conducted tests on geopolymer geopolymer concrete. Alkaline liquid that contained soluble
mortars and reported that most of the 28-day strength was silicates was proved to increase the rate of reaction compared
gained during the first 2 days of curing. Geopolymer cement to alkaline solutions that contained only hydroxide.
is found out to be acid resistant, because, unlike the Portland
cement, geopolymer cements do not depend on lime and
are not dissolved by acidic solutions. Most of the studies 3. Long Term Durability Properties of
concluded that the concentration of NaOH solution plays Geopolymer Concrete
the most important role on the strength of the fly ash-
based geopolymers. The addition of calcium oxide along with Durability aspects of geopolymer products have good sus-
sodium hydroxide accelerates the geopolymerisation in fly tainability to weathering effects; however, they are not resis-
ash. Guo et al. [28] conducted experimental studies in class tant towards high temperature beyond 400∘ C. Several exper-
C fly ash-based geopolymers using a mixed alkali activator imental studies showed that geopolymer concrete specimens
of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate solution. It was immersed in sulfuric acid and chloric acid were found
reported that a high compressive strength can be obtained to be resistant to acid attack. While the Portland based
when the molar ratio of silicate to sodium is 1.5, and the cement showed deletrieous reaction and results in surface
mass proportion of Na2 O to class F fly ash was 10%. The deterioration followed by weight loss (Davidovits, 1994).
compressive strength of these samples was around 63 MPa Extensive studies also demonstrated that heat-cured fly ash-
when it was cured at 75∘ C for 8 h followed by curing at 23∘ C based geopolymer concrete has an excellent resistance to
for 28 d. sulfate attack due the formation of stronger polymer chain
Low-calcium fly ash is preferred than high calcium due to polycondensation reaction. The effects of acid attack
(ASTM class C) fly ash for the formation of geopolymers, also cause reduction in compressive strength of heat-cured
since the presence of calcium in high amount may affect the geopolymer concrete; the extent of degradation depends
polymerization process [29]. The suitability of different types on the concentration of the acid solution and the period
of fly ash can be a potential source for studying the type and of exposure. However, the sulfuric acid resistance of heat-
efficiency of geopolymerization reaction. It was also reported cured geopolymer concrete is significantly better than that of
that geopolymerisation reaction can be effective in low- Portland cement concrete as reported in earlier studies.
calcium fly ash depending on if it contains unburnt carbon Several studies have shown that fiber addition is an
less than 5% and 10% CaO content, reactive silica about 40– effective method to improve the mechanical characteristics of
50%, and particles finer than 45 microns [30]. However, it was brittle material such as concrete by providing crack arresting
reported by Van Jaarsveld et al. [5] that fly ash with higher mechanism [36]. Limited studies have been carried out
amount of CaO produced higher compressive strength, due to analyze the effect of fibre reinforcement in geopolymer
to the formation of calcium-aluminate hydrate and other concrete. Future studies are needed to study the effect of steel
calcium compounds, especially in the early ages. The most and glass fibres in geopolymer concrete to be investigated
preferred alkaline solution used in geopolymerisation is a systematically. Also, it is well known that increase in fracture
combination of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium toughness is provided essentially by fiber bridging near the
hydroxide (KOH) and sodium silicate or potassium silicate crack opening prior to crack propagation. The linear elastic
[4, 31–35]. behavior of the matrix could not be affected significantly
Palomo et al. [4] reported that reactions occur at a high for low volumetric fiber fractions. However, postcracking
rate when the alkaline liquid contains soluble silicate, either behavior can be substantially modified, with increases of
sodium or potassium silicate, compared to the use of only strength, toughness, and durability of the material. The future
alkaline hydroxides. Xu and van Deventer [33] confirmed study has to be focussed on the effect of fibre addition on the
that the addition of sodium silicate solution to the sodium postcrack performance of geopolymer concrete.
hydroxide solution as the alkaline liquid enhanced the reac-
tion with fly ash. Furthermore, geopolymerisation with the 4. Summary
NaOH solution resulted in higher dissolution of minerals
than KOH solution. A combination of sodium hydroxide and It is understood from the earlier studies that good scientific
sodium silicate solution, after curing the specimens for 24 information is available on the evaluation of chemical and
hours at 65∘ C, provided higher strength [33]. It was reported physical properties of geopolymer concrete. Also, very few
that the proportion of alkaline solution to aluminosilicate works has been reported on the effect of fibre reinforcement
ISRN Polymer Science 7

in geopolymer concrete. Further studies are needed to inves- [13] D. L. Y. Kong, J. G. Sanjayan, and K. Sagoe-Crentsil, “Compar-
tigate the fracture resistance of this brittle composite. The ative performance of geopolymers made with metakaolin and
addition of glass fibres can exhibit a reasonable improvement fly ash after exposure to elevated temperatures,” Cement and
on the strength properties of geopolymer concrete due to Concrete Research, vol. 37, no. 12, pp. 1583–1589, 2007.
strain hardening properties at failure. The concentration and [14] J. Temuujin, A. van Riessen, and R. Williams, “Influence of
type of alkali need to be investigated extensively to choose calcium compounds on the mechanical properties of fly ash
the combination and dosage of alkali for fly ash. The effect geopolymer pastes,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 167, no.
1–3, pp. 82–88, 2009.
of alkali activators on the rate of hardening of geopolymers
[15] D. L. Y. Kong and J. G. Sanjayan, “Damage behavior of geopoly-
at different curing regimes needs to be well documented.
mer composites exposed to elevated temperatures,” Cement and
Curing regime on the hardening properties of geopolymeric
Concrete Composites, vol. 30, no. 10, pp. 986–991, 2008.
concrete needs special attention to improve the strength
[16] E. I. Diaz, E. N. Allouche, and S. Eklund, “Factors affecting the
properties. The rate of strength gain in different curing suitability of fly ash as source material for geopolymers,” Fuel,
regimes needs to be explored using ultrasonic pulse velocity vol. 89, no. 5, pp. 992–996, 2010.
measurements. The mechanical characteristics of geopolymer [17] D. L. Y. Kong and J. G. Sanjayan, “Effect of elevated tempera-
concrete specimens at elevated temperature (600–800∘ C) tures on geopolymer paste, mortar and concrete,” Cement and
need to be assessed for checking its potential applications as Concrete Research, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 334–339, 2010.
heat resisting construction material. [18] S. Kumar, R. Kumar, and S. P. Mehrotra, “Influence of granu-
lated blast furnace slag on the reaction, structure and properties
References of fly ash based geopolymer,” Journal of Materials Science, vol.
45, no. 3, pp. 607–615, 2010.
[1] J. Davidovits, “Geopolymers and geopolymeric materials,” in [19] J. Wongpa, K. Kiattikomol, C. Jaturapitakkul, and P. Chin-
Journal of Thermal Analysis, vol. 35, pp. 429–441, 1989. daprasirt, “Compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, and
[2] D. Hardjito and B. V. Rangan, “Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer water permeability of inorganic polymer concrete,” Materials
Concrete Develoment and properties of low-calcium fly ash- and Design, vol. 31, no. 10, pp. 4748–4754, 2010.
based geopolymer concret,” Research Report GC 1, 2005. [20] E. Jämstorp, J. Forsgren, S. Bredenberg, H. Engqvist, and
[3] T. W. Cheng and J. P. Chiu, “Fire-resistant geopolymer produce M. Strømme, “Mechanically strong geopolymers offer new
by granulated blast furnace slag,” Minerals Engineering, vol. 16, possibilities in treatment of chronic pain,” Journal of Controlled
no. 3, pp. 205–210, 2003. Release, vol. 146, no. 3, pp. 370–377, 2010.
[21] A. Elimbi, H. K. Tchakoute, and D. Njopwouo, “Effects of
[4] A. Palomo, M. W. Grutzeck, and M. T. Blanco, “Alkali-activated
calcination temperature of kaolinite clays on the properties of
fly ashes: a cement for the future,” Cement and Concrete
Research, vol. 29, no. 8, pp. 1323–1329, 1999. geopolymer cements,” Construction and Building Materials, vol.
25, no. 6, pp. 2805–2812, 2011.
[5] J. G. S. Van Jaarsveld, J. S. J. Van Deventer, and G. C. Lukey,
[22] A. Natali, S. Manzi, and M. C. Bignozzi, “Novel fiber-reinforced
“The characterisation of source materials in fly ash-based
composite materials based on sustainable geopolymer matrix,”
geopolymers,” Materials Letters, vol. 57, no. 7, pp. 1272–1280,
in Proceedings of the International Conference on Green Buildings
2003.
and Sustainable Cities (GBSC ’11), pp. 1124–1131, September 2011.
[6] K. C. Goretta, N. Chen, F. Gutierrez-Mora, J. L. Routbort, G.
[23] A. Nazari, A. Bagheri, and S. Riahi, “Properties of geopolymer
C. Lukey, and J. S. J. van Deventer, “Solid-particle erosion of with seeded fly ash and rice husk bark ash,” Materials Science
a geopolymer containing fly ash and blast-furnace slag,” Wear,
and Engineering A, vol. 528, no. 24, pp. 7395–7401, 2011.
vol. 256, no. 7-8, pp. 714–719, 2004.
[24] B. C. McLellan, R. P. Williams, J. Lay, A. Van Riessen, and G.
[7] T. Bakharev, “Resistance of geopolymer materials to acid attack,” D. Corder, “Costs and carbon emissions for geopolymer pastes
Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 658–670, 2005. in comparison to ordinary portland cement,” Journal of Cleaner
[8] A. Fernández-Jiménez, A. Palomo, and M. Criado, “Microstruc- Production, vol. 19, no. 9-10, pp. 1080–1090, 2011.
ture development of alkali-activated fly ash cement: a descrip- [25] K. Somna, C. Jaturapitakkul, P. Kajitvichyanukul, and P. Chin-
tive model,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 35, no. 6, pp. daprasirt, “NaOH-activated ground fly ash geopolymer cured at
1204–1209, 2005. ambient temperature,” Fuel, vol. 90, no. 6, pp. 2118–2124, 2011.
[9] P. Duxson, J. L. Provis, G. C. Lukey, S. W. Mallicoat, W. [26] J. Davidovits and M. Davidovics, “Geopolymer room tempera-
M. Kriven, and J. S. J. Van Deventer, “Understanding the ture ceramic matrix for composites,” Concrete International, pp.
relationship between geopolymer composition, microstructure 30–40, 1988.
and mechanical properties,” Colloids and Surfaces A, vol. 269, [27] D. C. Comrie, J. H. Paterson, and D. J. Ritchey, “Geopolymer
no. 1–3, pp. 47–58, 2005. technologies in toxic waste management,” in Proceedings of the
[10] T. Bakharev, “Thermal behaviour of geopolymers prepared 1st European Conference on Soft Mineralogy (Geopolymer ’88),
using class F fly ash and elevated temperature curing,” Cement Compiegne, France, 1988.
and Concrete Research, vol. 36, no. 6, pp. 1134–1147, 2006. [28] X. Guo, H. Shi, and W. A. Dick, “Compressive strength and
[11] F. Škvára, l. Kopecký, J. N. Nı̀meèek, and Z. Bittnar, microstructural characteristics of class C fly ash geopolymer,”
“Microstructure of geopolymer Materials based on fly ash,” Cement and Concrete Composites, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 142–147,
Ceramics-Silikáty, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 208–215, 2006. 2010.
[12] P. Chindaprasirt, T. Chareerat, and V. Sirivivatnanon, “Worka- [29] J. T. Gourley, “Geopolymers, opportunities for environmentally
bility and strength of coarse high calcium fly ash geopolymer,” friendly construction material,” in Proceedings of the Interna-
Cement and Concrete Composites, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 224–229, tional Conference and Exhibition on Adaptive Materials for a
2007. Modern Society (Materials ’03), Sydney, Australia, 2003.
8 ISRN Polymer Science

[30] A. Fernández-Jiménez and A. Palomo, “Characterisation of fly

ashes: potential reactivity as alkaline cements,” Fuel, vol. 82, no.
18, pp. 2259–2265, 2003.
[31] J. Davidovits, “Chemistry of Geopolymeric Systems, Termi-
nology,” in Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference,
Géopolymère, pp. 9–39, Saint-Quentin, France, 1999.
[32] V. F. F. Barbosa, K. J. D. MacKenzie, and C. Thaumaturgo,
“Synthesis and characterisation of materials based on inorganic
polymers of alumina and silica: sodium polysialate polymers,”
International Journal of Inorganic Materials, vol. 2, no. 4, pp.
309–317, 2000.
[33] H. Xu and J. S. J. Van Deventer, “The geopolymerisation of
alumino-silicate minerals,” International Journal of Mineral
Processing, vol. 59, no. 3, pp. 247–266, 2000.
[34] J. C. Swanepoel and C. A. Strydom, “Utilisation of fly ash in a
geopolymeric material,” Applied Geochemistry, vol. 17, no. 8, pp.
1143–1148, 2002.
[35] H. Xu and J. S. J. Van Deventer, “Geopolymerisation of multiple
minerals,” Minerals Engineering, vol. 15, no. 12, pp. 1131–1139,
2002.
[36] A. Sivakumar and M. Santhanam, “Evaluation of drying shrink-
age and residual stresses of a high strength concrete using
restrained ring test,” Indian Concrete Journal, vol. 82, no. 6, pp.
49–57, 2008.
Journal of International Journal of International Journal of Smart Materials Journal of
Nanotechnology
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Corrosion
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Polymer Science
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Research
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Composites
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Journal of
Metallurgy

BioMed
Research International
Hindawi Publishing Corporation Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Nanomaterials
Submit your manuscripts at
http://www.hindawi.com

Journal of Journal of
Materials
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Nanoparticles
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Nanomaterials
Journal of

Advances in The Scientific International Journal of

Materials Science and Engineering
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Scientifica
Hindawi Publishing Corporation Hindawi Publishing Corporation
World Journal
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Biomaterials
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Journal of Journal of Journal of Journal of Journal of

Nanoscience
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Coatings
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Crystallography
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Ceramics
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Textiles
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Volume 2014