Computer Networks

DATA
The information in raw form is called data. So we can say that the measurement, number,
quantities, characters, or symbols on which operations are performed by a computer and may be
stored on media. Data can also be defined as any fact and figure is called data. Or anything
which we enter to our computer is called data.
Types of data
When we talk about data communication then there are basically two types of data is used.
Below we discuss each type in details.
Analog Data
The data which is represented in a physical way and representing by physical properties
and can be express any value along a continuous scale is called analog data. The analogue clock
is simple example of analog data where change is continues. Sound ways is also example if
analog data.
Digital Data
Discrete and discontinuous representations of information are called digital data. The
most electronic devices such as computers, cameras, mobile phones stored and processed the
data in the form of number called digital data. These numbers are in form of binary number
means that 0 and 1 where 0 represent off and 1 representing on.
Types Of Electronic Communication
Electronic Communication is divided into two types.
Data communication
Tele communication
1) Data communication
The transfer of data between two points is called data communication.
2) Tele communication
When the transmission data can take place at long distance by means of towers,
satellite, or microwaves system is called Tele communication
Data communication and its different types
Data communications means that the transmission of digital data between two or more
computers and a computer network through some medium. The best example of computer
network is the internet. The purpose of communication system is exchange the data between two
or more than two devices.
Characteristics of data communication

The data communication must have major three fundamental characteristics:

1) Delivery
2) Accuracy
3) Time line

1) Delivery:
Delivery means system must delivered data to correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device.
2) Accuracy:
It means that data should not be altered during transmission and data delivered
accurately.
 3) Time line:
It means data should be delivered in time. When data is in the form of video/audio is transfer as
they produced at same time to other location is called real time transition.
Why data communication is important or necessary?
The data communication technologies are as important as the computer technologies that
support each other. Basically it’s very important for proper communication throughout the globe.
To days banking and financial firms and much other organization could not survive without data
communication. The data communication also play very important role in business sector. The
business sector use data communication to communicate with a wide variety of individuals and
other personnel. The education sector also provides distance learning education which fully
required data communication. Communication technology tools like electronic mail and text
messaging systems speed up the sending of information within and outside of the organization.
Different types of data communication.
There are two types of data communication
1) Serial communication
2) Parallel communication
1 Serial communication:
In telecommunication and computer science, serial communication is the process of
sending data one bit at a time, sequentially on a single wire, over a communication channel or
computer bus. Serial communication has become the standard for inter computer
communication. Serial communication is used for all long-haul communication and most
computer networks it’s save the costs of cable. Serial communication is a popular means of
transmitting data between a computer and a peripheral device such as a programmable
instrument or even another computer. It’s also easy to establish and no extra devices are used
because most of computers have one or more serial ports.
2 Parallel communications:
Parallel communication is fast method of communication. In parallel transmission
transmit the data across a parallel wire. These parallel wires are flat constituting multiple, smaller
cables. Each cable can carry a single bit of information. A parallel cable can carry group of data
at the same time. In telecommunication and computer science, parallel communication is
a method of sending several data signals over a communication link at one time.
Examples of serial communication chanel
Rs-232, USB (universal serial bus), Rs-423, Pci express,

Examples of parallel communication

Industry standard architecture (Isa), Parallel ata, Ieee 1284, Conventional pci

Elements of Data Communication

Following are the some elements of data communication:

Model

There are many factors, which influence the communication process, all of which impact
each other in a variety of ways. This model shows how the most important factors function in
what would be a snapshot of a static instance of communication.
Source

The message generated by a device is called source, computer, and telephone. We can
also say that information sent out through the system is called source. The source information
may include numbers, words, photos, other graphics, sounds and video.
Sender

The data transmission device is called sender some time called transmitter, this device
convert the data electromagnetic or electrical signal by modem.
Media

The way through which the message is travel is called medium. It is the physical path
between transmitter & receiver in data transmission system, you can send a letter to your friend
then you are sender and your friend is receiver & the postal service is medium.
Receiver

The computer/ device that receives the data is called receiver. Many devices act like
sender and also receiver.
Destination

The intended device where the data is to be received is called destination.

Define Signals

In data communication signal are used to send the data from one location to another.
Signal is electromagnetic or light ways which carry out the data .one of the most important
example is signal transmission between different locations. The simplest form of signal is a
direct current (dc) that is switched on and off. This is the principle by which the early telegraph
worked. In telephony, a signal is special data that is used to set up or control communication
Types of signal

There are two types of signal

 Analog signal
 Digital signal
Analog signal
In analog signal information is translated into electric pulses of varying amplitude so we
say that these signal in which some feature increases and decreases in the same way as the thing
being transmitted are called analog signal. The ham radio is one of the very simple examples of
analog signal in which strength of the radio wave goes up and down in analogy with the loudness
of the original sound.
Digital signal
In digital signal translation of information is into binary format which is zero or one
where each bit is representative of two distinct amplitudes which show the presence or absence
of current of the current high and low voltages or short pulses at a particular frequency. Digital
signals are non-continuous, they change in individual steps.
Analog data communication
Transfer of data in the form of analog signals or in the form of continuous waves.
 i.e. Telephone
Digital data communication
Transfer of data in the form of one digital signal means in the form of (0&1)
I.e. Data communication b/w two computer

Define the following different component of data communication?

A data communication system consists of different component. These component works

together to transfer the data from one place to anointer place:
Component of data communication
 Central Computer
 Control program
 Terminal
 Modems
 Data communication modes
 Data communication media
 Networking
Central computer
The computer that manages transmission of data between different computers is called
central computer. Large computer such as mainframe, mini/advanced microcomputer are used as
central computer. The central computer controls the work of data communication system. Central
computer is also called server.
Control programs
Control program flow data from one computer to another. These programs include
operating system and other software that support data communication. Control program send and
receive data to different computer
Terminals
Terminal is a basic communication unit. It is used to send and receive the data . It
generally consists of keyboard & monitor. The keyboard is used to input data and monitor work
as output unit. Many terminals are connected with central computer through terminal many
person can work on a single computer on a time.
Modem
Modem is the abbreviation of modulator/ Demodulator. It is a hardware device .by its
computer system use a telephone line or a cable service to send the information to another
computer. Information in the computer system is in digital format.
Information through the telephone line is sending in the form of analog signal. Without modem
we cannot connect to the internet. It is necessary for the both sender and receiver computer.
Modem of the sender computer converts the information into analog from. This process is called
modulation. Analog information travels on telephone lines and reached destination. Its modem
converts the analog information into digital format. This process is called demodulation.

Types of modem

There are many types of modem.

Internal modem
An internal modem or on-board modem is a type of modem which is installed on the slots of
mother board. This modem is an expansion card.
External modem
External modem is an removable device which are used for communication purpose. This type of
modem is externally connected with computer with com port or usb port and has some lights
which indicate the processing status. External modem may dial up modem or broadband
modems.
Fax modem
Fax modem enables a computer to transmit and receive documents on a telephone line normally
called fax. With a fax modem a computer perform like a fax machine.
Dial up modem
Dial up modem transfer the analog signal through ordinary telephone lines. This modem is
usually used to connect to isp using analog signals. Dial up modem may bhe external or internal
modem.
Dsl modem
dsl (digital subscriber line) modem also called broadband modem is used for providing
broadband service to different kind of internet connection. These modem transmit height speed
data. Broadband modems typically have transfer rates from 1.5 — 8 mbps (megabytes per
second), or higher. Dsl modems are suitable for high speed internet and data transfer over
ordinary phone line.
Isdn modems
Isdn stand for integrated services for digital network is a type of communication standards for
simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video data over single wire or optical fiber. It can
operate over a stander telephone, wires or other media. It is completely digital in a nature from
one end of the connection to another.

Different Modes of communication

The way of data sending from one place to other place through communication media is
called data communication modes or data transmission modes. There are four modes or ways of
or transmitting data.
1) Simple 2) duplex 3) asynchronous 4) synchronous

Simplex transmission
A simplex transmission transmits the data in one direction only. This means that you can either
send the data or receive the data. For example telegraphs systems, radio broadcasting, television
broadcasting. Printer communication is also example of simplex transmission. The direction may
be from the processor to an I/O device, or it may be from a terminal to a processor.
Duplex transmission
Duplex transmission allows for two-way broadcasting. Duplex mode is further divided into two
types:
Half duplex transmission
In half duplex transmission we can send or receive the data at a time. For example, a walkie-
talkie is a half-duplex device because only one party can talk at a time.
Full duplex transmission
In full duplex transmission data is transmitted from both end simultaneously means that you can
send and receive the data at same time. For example, a telephone is a full-duplex device because
both parties can talk at once. In this transmission bandwidth is divided in two for each direction
of data transmission if the same transmission medium is used for both directions of transmission.
Data communication media
The path through which data is transfer from one place to another place is called
communication media. We can say that anything which helps sending the information from one
place to another place is called communication media
The following are the two major types of communication media are:
1) Cable communication media or Guided Media
2) Wireless media or Un-Guided Media
Cable communication media/ guided media
Cable is the medium of communication through which information usually moves from one
device to another device within one network or different network. There are several types of
cable, which are commonly used for communication. The type of cable chosen for a network is
depending on your topology, protocol, and size of network.
Cable media consist of:
1) Twisted pair cables.
2) Coaxial cable.
3) Fiber optic cables.
Twisted pair cables

Twisted pair cable consists of two independently insulated wires twisted around one
another. The purpose of two wires twisted together is reducing crosstalk and electromagnetic
induction. Twisted pair cable is used in telephone network and also local aria computer
networking at home and much company. There are two type of twisted pair cable are available:
Shielded pair cable (stp)
Some time twisted pair insolated with a special kind of copper surrounding the wires to protect
the transmission.
Unshielded pair cable (utp)
Unshielded twisted pair cable (utp) consists of a number of twisted pairs with a simple plastic
casing. This cable is commonly use for local area networking due to less expensive.
Characteristics of unshielded pair cable ( utp )
 Unshielded twisted pair (utp) is very less expansive as compared to other transmission
media.
 Utp cable is easy to install.
 Utp may support data rate from 1 to 155 mbps. The most common rate is 10 mbps.
 It is a thin, flexible cable that is easy to string between walls.
 Because utp is small, it does not quickly fill up wiring ducts.
Disadvantages
 It will require direct p2p (peer to peer) connections, e.g. Straight from one computer to
another (mostly via Ethernet or com)
 It will be incompatible if talking to more than 1 computer by going through a switch or
hub.
Coaxial cable

Coaxial cable was invented in 1929 and first used on commercial basics in 1941. Coaxial
cable consists of a center wire surrounded by insulation and then outer channel used as ground.
The shield minimizes electrical and radio frequency interference. Coaxial cable is used by cable
TV companies between the community antenna and user homes and businesses.
Advantages
 Coaxial cable is simple as compare to other cables.
 Band with is up to 56 kbps
 Coaxial cable has a sufficient frequency range to support multiple channels, which allows
for much greater throughput.
 Compared to twisted-pair, coax provides greater bandwidth system wide, and it also
offers greater bandwidth for each channel. Because it has greater bandwidth per channel,
it supports a mixed range of services. Voice, data, and even video and multimedia can
benefit from the enhanced capacity.
 Because the inner conductor is in a faraday shield, noise immunity is improved, and coax
has lower error rates and therefore slightly better performance than twisted-pair.
Disadvantages:
 More expensive than twisted pairs and is not supported for some network standards.
 For very long distance transmissions repeater stations are necessary for amplifying and
retransmitting weakened signals.
Fiber optical cables

Fiber optic cable contains more than one optical glass that carries the signal in shape of
light. Each of the glass are individually coated with plastic layers and contained in a protective
tube suitable for the environment where the cable will be deployed. Optical fiber transmits light
rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it
ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. Fiber optic
cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair.
The optical fiber carries the information with greater speeds.
Advantages of fiber optic
 Work with grater bandwidth and capacity
 The %age of loss of signal is very low.
 No crosstalk
 Reduced size and weight cables
 Safe form radiation and temperature variations.
 This cable is flexible
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of fiber optic systems include problems with the relative newness of
the technology, the relatively expensive cost, and the lack of component and system
standardization. However, these disadvantages are already being eliminated because of increased
use and acceptance of fiber optic technology.
Wireless Medias or unguided media

When it is impossible to install wires and cables or cabling is expensive then you can use
wireless Medias. Wireless media generate higher electromagnetic frequency, such as radio wave,
microwave, & infrared. They transmit signal over a long distance. In wireless transmission,
various types of electromagnetic waves are used to transmit signal.
Wireless media consist of:
 Radio waves transmission
 Micro wave transmission
  Infrared transmission
Band
In telecommunication a band or frequency band is a specific range of frequencies in the
radio frequency (rf) spectrum, which is divided among ranges from very low frequencies (vlf) to
extremely high frequencies (ehf). Each band has a defined upper and lower frequency limit.
Baud
The speed of the data transmission expressed in bit per second (bps) because rate refers to
the oscillation of sound wave on which a single bit of data is carried. Bps/bit per second is the
amount of data transfer in a second.
Computer Network
The connection of two or more than two computers with the help of some medium for
sharing information and data is called computer network.
The two basic types of networks include:
Local area network (lan)
Wide area network (wan)
Local area network
LAN: -
LAN Stands for local area network. LAN is establish with in a building or in a
campus. Its range is maximum one kilometre.
Wide area network
Wide area networks (wans) extent on larger geographic areas. We say collection of more
than one network on relatively large aria is called wide area network. A computer connected to a
wide-area network through public networks, such as the telephone system. They can also be
connected through the satellites. One of the most popular examples of wide area network
is internet.
Advantages of wan (wide area network)
 Two great advantages of wan are allowing secure and fast data transmission between the
different nodes in the network.
 Big organizations and companies, which have several branches all over the world, are the
ones who greatly benefit from wans.
 Most of the time, public telecommunications companies in different countries manage,
control and maintain wans. They also provide wan users with various services such as
leased lines.
 By sitting at one city or country the user can share the resources of the network in other
city or country. For example the user can print the document or send an instant message
by just one click. The users can use online software's for communication and can work at
the same time on the server database.
Metropolitan area network (man)
A network which spared on grater aria from local aria but less form wide aria network. We also
say that the interconnection of networks in a city into a single larger network is called
metropolitan area network.
The man provides different services which are following:
Different terminologies used in computer networks
 Cable
 Workstations/servers
 Interface cards (nics)
  Hubs/switches/etc.
 Network protocols
Cables
Cable is communication media through which information transfer from one network device to
another network device. There are several types of cable, which are commonly used with lans for
example twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber optical cable.
File server
File server is a location in the network which shares the storage of computer files such as
documents, sound files, photographs etc. The data which are store on the file server can be
accessed by the workstations that are attached to the computer network.
Workstation
In the network workstation is an ordinary personal computer running its own disk operating
system its only needed for a single user to connect to the network. Any user who login through
workstation can access the server such that file server. A work station has nic for connection to
the network.
Network interface card
A network interface card some time called nic is also commonly referred to as an Ethernet card
and network adapter is a expansion card that enables a computer to connect to a network such as
a home network or the internet using an Ethernet cable with a rj-45 connector. A computer on
network must have NIC. Network interface card may be installed in pci slot or any other slot or
may be built in computer mother board.
Hubs / switch
A hub is a common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs / switch contain more than
one ports. The all the computer are connected on that port when we send the data to any
computer to other computer then in hub its switch from one port to destination port.
Network protocols

The network protocol or software which defines rules for communication between
different network devices. For example http, tcp/ip, and smtp are some of the software protocol.
Advantages of network
File sharing
One of the most common advantages of network is sharing the information. We can share
the data from one place to another place directly with using any removable storage device such
that USB. We can also share the hardware like printer, DVD etc.
Software cost and management
Networking manages the overall cost of the administration by sharing the software and
hardware.
Security
Specific directories can be password protected to limit access to authorized users. Also,
files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit" so you don’t have to worry
about the illegal copying of programs.
Resource sharing
All computers in the network can share resources such as printers, fax machines,
modems, and scanners.
Flexible access
Networks allow their users to access files from computers throughout the network. This
means that a user can begin work on a project on one computer and finish up on another.
Multiple users can also collaborate on the same project through the network.
Server based network

It is an important concept for networking. Server is a system which shares the resources
on the network for client system. When a client link to server its check the security rule and give
permission to client. Clients request services such as file the server delivers storage and
printing. The organization who want to store the data centrally and then access from different
location use server system.
Advantages of server based networks
Server based network has a great many advantages, including:
 Storage central security
 Central file storage, which allows all users to work from the same set of data and
provides easy backup.
 Ability to share expanses equipment such as laser printers.
 Easy manageability of a large number of users.
 Central organization, which keep data from getting lost among computers.
Disadvantages of server based networks
Server based network does have some disadvantages, including:
 Expensive dedicated hardware.
 Expensive network operating system.
 A dedicated network administrator required.
Peer-to-peer networks

Peer-to-peer network is a network which is established without dedicating server. The

entire computer on the network may be server and may be client some time. The entire computer
works independently and the directory information such that user and password information
separately store on each computer.
Advantages of peer networks
 Peer computers have many advantages especially for small business that cannot afford to
invest expensive server, hardware &. Software.
 Easy setup
 No network administrator required.
 Ability of users to control resources sharing.
Disadvantages of peer-to-peer
 This system is not centralized, making administration difficult
 Lack of security
 No link in the network is reliable
Therefore, peer-to-peer networks are only useful for a small number of computers (generally
about 10), and only suitable for applications that do not require a high level of security (it is not
advisable in a business network containing sensitive data).
Hybrid network

A hybrid network is a network that contains two or more communications standards or

basic physical topologies in a single network structure. For example a network that combines
wired and wireless technologies. One of the most common examples is a home router that
provides several Ethernet ports and also wi-fi capability to provide internet access to mobile
user.
Topology

Network Topology: -
The physical layout or structure or the way in which computers are connected
with each other in a network is called network topology.
The star topology
In this topology each of the devices and computers on a network connect to a central hub
/ switch. A major disadvantage of this type of network topology is that if the central hub fails, all
computers connected to that hub would be disconnected. All information on a star network first
passes through the hub or switch before continuing to its destination. It also acts as a repeater for
the data flow. Mostly we use twisted pair cable to connect all the computer with central device
but we can also use coaxial or fiber optical cable.
Advantages of star topology
 It is easy to modify and can add new computer or remove without disturbing the rest of
the network.
 Single computer backbones do not necessary backbone the whole network.
 Several cable type can be used in same network with a hub
 Easy to install and wire
 Easy tom detect faults and remove parts
Disadvantages of star topology
 Requires more cable length then a linear topology
 If the hub or connector fail, nodes attach are disturb.
 More expensive then linear bus topology because of the cast of the concentration.
Ring topology
In ring topology all the devices or computer are connected to each other in a circular
shape. All the data which will be send move around the ring until it reaches its final destination.
Advantages of ring topology
 As every computer is given is equal access to the token. No one computer can normalize
the network.
 If a terminal becomes effective, it can be by pass without affecting the network.
 If a terminal working as the central computer. Any other node can be made by central
computer and the network keep on the working
Disadvantage of ring topology
 Failure of the one computer of the ring can be effective the whole network.
 It is difficult to trouble shoot a ring network.
 Adding and removing computer disturb the network
Token-ring
In token ring topology all the computer are organized in a ring topology. Data passes
sequentially between nodes on the network until it returns to the source station. To prevent traffic
and collision, a token is used to ensure that only one computer on the line is used at a time. A
token ring lan is physically wired as a star topology but configured as a ring topology.
The bus topology
In this topology all the computer and devices are connected to a single cable. This is
typically use in a small networks and take the advantage of using less cable. Their main
disadvantage is that if any segment of the network fails, all transmissions do as well.
Advantages of bus topology
 The bus is simple, reliable in a very small network, easy to use and east to understand
 The bus requires the last amount of cable to connect the computer together and therefore
less expensive than other cabling arrangement
 It is easy to extend a bus. Cable can be joint into one longer cable allowing more
computers to attach
Disadvantages of bus topology
 Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably.
 It is difficult be easy to troubleshoot a bus. If there is an error in the system it cannot be
easily to detect.
 The entire network shuts down if there is a break with main cable.
Tree topology
In tree topology more than two hubs are connected each other this topology is collection
of linear bus and star topology. The each star network is a local area network with central
computer or server and the entire node direct ally link to this server and the central computers or
server of the star networks are connected to a main cable called the bus.
Advantages of tree topology
 Point to point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of tree topology
 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies
What is hub?

A hub is a common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs contain more than
one ports. The all the computer are connected on that port when we send the data to any
computer to other computer then in hub its switch from one port to destination port.
There are three main types of hub
 Passive hub
 Active hub
 Intelligent hub
Passive hub
A passive hub simply combines the signals of the network segment. It does not provide
any processing or regeneration of signals. When any one sends the data then each computer can
receive the signal to all computers connected to the hub.
Active hub:
Active hub is a central connecting device such as a computer or router that not only
provides connectivity but also regenerates and retransmits the signals sent through it and sends to
proper destination.
Intelligent hub
This hub also work like active hub and also have some extra features as compare to active
hub for example network management, bridging, routing and switching. This intelligent hub
gives the remote monitoring and management through simple network management protocol
(snmp). Which provide?
 Setting alerts on problem conditions such as excessive collisions
 Isolating and disconnecting problem computers
 Providing network statistics to remote management consoles
What are repeaters?

Repeater is a hardware device, which is used to extend lan. When the distance of local
area network is to long then we use a special device repeater which receive analog data and
convert to digital data and the regenerate a new clean analog signal. The repeater connects
directly to the cable. The maximum size of lan is 500 meter so we can increase this size by using
a pair of repeater by connecting each lan segment to make a network, 1500 meter long.
Bridges

The bridge is a hardware that connects a lan to lan that uses the same protocol. The
function of bridges is its filter and reduced the traffic. For example when a message is send from
any computer then its decides whether a message from you to someone else is going to the this
local area network or other local area network.
Router

Routers may be a hardware or software. When we send a message to another

network then router is join point two network. The router is connected to at least two networks
and it decides the way to send information by understanding of the state of the other connected
network. Router is located at any gateway and also some time part of part of a network switch.
Gateway

Gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. When router
routing the information from one network to another network then gateway specify the exits
point and when any information is coming from another network then gateway is entry point. For
example a device which is provide from isp for internet service is a getaway which create exist
and entry point to next network.
Protocols

Protocol is software instruction which is used in network to define a method of

exchanging data over a computer network for example local area network, internet etc. Each
protocol has some rules in which decided that how data is formatted when sent and what to do
with it once receive, how that data is compressed or how to check for errors in data.
Following the some important protocols used in internet environment
1) Tcp/ip
Tcp/ip basically collection of tow protocol transmission control protocol, and
internet protocol. Where tcp is basic protocol of the internet. Transmission control protocol
manages the assembling of a message or file into smaller packets that are we send over the
internet and then again received by a tcp layer that reassembles the packets into the original
message. Where ip internet protocol, handles the address of each packet so that it gets to the right
destination. The gateway on the network checks this address and decided where to forward the
message.
2) Http
It stands for hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol is used on World Wide Web. The
protocols transfer data in the form of plain text, hypertext, audio, and video. Http defines the
rules that how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions web servers and
browsers should take in response to various commands. For example, when you enter a url in
your browser, this actually sends an http command to the web server directing it to fetch and
transmit the requested web page.
3) Ftp
Short for file transfer protocol, ftp protocol are used to transferring data files from one
computer to another over a network. Such that on internet. Ftp works in the same way as http for
transferring web pages from a server to a user's browser used of nd smtp for transferring
electronic mail across the internet in that, like these technologies, ftp uses the internet's tcp/ip
protocols to enable data transfer. Most commonly used example of ftp is downloading of file
from a server using the internet or to upload a file to a server.
Smtp
Short for simple mail transfer protocol. Smtp is used for sending the e-mail messages
between mail client to a mail server. Smtp used with other protocols which are pop3 or imap.
This protocol is used to save messages in a server mailbox and download them periodically from
the server. Generally users use a program that uses smtp for sending e-mail and either pop3 or
imap for receiving e-mail.
Pop
Short for post office protocol this protocol used to retrieve e-mail from a mail server.
Most e-mail applications use the pop protocol or imap internet message access protocol. There
are two versions of pop. The first, called pop2, became a standard in the mid-80 and requires
smtp to send messages. The newer version, pop3, can be used with or without smtp.
Xmtp
Extended mail transfer protocol xmtp is used when any file or document is attached with
e- mail message.
Snmp
Short from simple network management protocol is an internet-standard protocol. Snmp
are used to manage network devices on ip networks for example routers, switches, servers,
workstations, printers, modem racks etc.
Tftp
Short from trivial file transfer protocol is so simple that the packages can fit into the read
only memory of a diskless workstation. It can be used at bootstrap time. Tftp copying a file from
the server site to the client site and also copying a file from the client site to the server site.
Seven-layer of OSI model

The OSI is abbreviation of open system interconnection. The osi model defines how
network protocol works it’s describe complete networking framework to implement protocols in
seven layers. The major purpose of the osi reference model is to guide vendors and developers
who develop digital communication products and software programs. So that they create will
interoperate, and to facilitate clear comparisons among communications tools.
Following are the seven layer of osi module:
 Physical layer
 Data link layer
 Network layer
  Transport layer
 Session layer
 Presentation layer
 Application layer
Physical layer
The very first layer of OSI model is physical layer. In the OSI communications
model physical layer defines all physical and electrical specifications for devices used to
interface to the network, including the shape and layout of pins in connectors, voltages, cable
specifications and broadcast frequencies. The physical layer is usually a combination of software
and hardware programming and may include electromechanical devices. It provides physical
connectivity. Different cables are used at this layer such as Fiber Optic cable, UTP/STP cables,
RJ45 and RJ11 etc. HUB is used at this layer. Data is converted into bits at this layer.

Data link layer

Data link layer works between two hosts which are directly connected. In OSI model data
link layer checks for physical transmission errors and packages bits into frames. The data link
layer also manages physical addressing schemes such as mac addresses for Ethernet networks,
controlling access of any various network devices to the physical medium. Because the data link
layer is the single most complex layer in the OSI model, it is often divided into two parts, the
media access control sub layer and the logical link control sub layer.
Network layer
The third layer is network layer in OSI model which established the logical path between
the sender and receiver. This layer contains hardware devices such as routers, bridges, firewalls
and switches. Data is transferred in the form of packets on these logical network paths in an
ordered format controlled by the network layer.
Transport layer
Transport layer work under the network layer. It divides data into segments. Network layer
set the logical path between sender and receiver and transport layer transparently transfer the
data between end systems. So this layer is end-to-end communication over a network. This layer
is also responsible for the management of error correction, providing quality and reliability to the
end user. TCP and UDP protocols are used at this layer.

Session layer
Session layer is fifth layer in OSI model system which is some time called port layer.
Session layer controls the connections between multiple computers. The session layer tracks the
dialogs between computers, which are also called sessions. This layer is responsible for
establishing controls and ends the sessions between local and remote applications.
Presentation layer
Presentation layer translates data between the application layer and the network format.
In communication data can be communicated in different formats for example, postscript, ascii,
or binary formats and via different sources where the presentation layer is responsible for
integrating all formats into a standard format for efficient and effective communication.
Application layer
This top layer defines the language and syntax that programs use to communicate with
other programs. It provide interface to end user. The application layer is not the application
itself; it is a service layer that provides these services. For example when you are using a web
browser then this is actual application but application layers provide its services to this
application for example http protocol services. Protocol used at this layer are HTTP, DHCP, FTP

VIRUS:

VIRUS stands for Vital Information Resource under Seize. Virus is harmful software which
makes copies of itself. It's design is non-detectable. It may destroy our data or make our data useless.
Virus become active when you open or execute a virus infected file. Examples of viruses are Trojan
Horses, Time Bomb or Logic, RANSOM Ware, SPY Ware and Adware.

History of Virus:

CREEPER virus (For Network) is the first virus by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project
Agency Network) developed in 1970.

ALK CLONER virus (For PC) is the first virus that effect computer system developed by Rich
Skrenta in 1982 and was stored in floppy disk.

In 1983-84 it give a name VIRUS which the abbreviation of Vital Information Resource Under
Seize.

There are three types of virus

1) Malicious Virus

2) Neutral Virus

3) Helpful Virus

Malicious Virus:

1. Malicious virus is the most popular virus.

2. It may destroy or broadcast your private data.
3. It may block your communication channels.
4. It make up system’s processor so busy that it cannot be able to do some work
Neutral Virus:
1. It is not a harmful virus.
2. It only shows or display annoying messages.
3. It cannot destroy your data