The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology

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Bio-active compounds in mango (Mangifera indica

L.) and their roles in human health and plant
defence – a review

H. Rymbai, M. Srivastav, R. R. Sharma, C. R. Patel & A. K. Singh

To cite this article: H. Rymbai, M. Srivastav, R. R. Sharma, C. R. Patel & A. K. Singh (2013) Bio-
active compounds in mango (Mangifera indica L.) and their roles in human health and plant
defence – a review, The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 88:4, 369-379, DOI:
10.1080/14620316.2013.11512978

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14620316.2013.11512978

Published online: 07 Nov 2015.

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 Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology (2013) 88 (4) 369–379

Bio-active compounds in mango (Mangifera indica L.) and their

roles in human health and plant defence – a review

By H. RYMBAI1*, M. SRIVASTAV2, R. R. SHARMA3, C. R. PATEL1 and A. K. SINGH2

1
Department of Fruit Science, ASPEE College of Horticulture and Forestry, Navsari Agricultural
University, Navsari, Gujarat – 396 450, India
2
Division of Fruits and Horticultural Technology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi – 110 012, India
3
Division of Post Harvest Technology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi – 110 012,
India
(e-mail: rymbaihort@gmail.com) (Accepted 5 February 2013)

SUMMARY
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Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the most important tropical fruits in the World. Mango leaves, bark, and fruit
(pulp, peel, and stone) are rich sources of bio-active compounds (BaCs) such as proteins [0.36 – 0.40 g 100 g–1 fresh
weight (FW) of pulp; 1.76 – 2.05% (w/w) of peel; 66.1 g kg–1 of kernel flour; and 3.0% (w/w) of leaves], vitamin A [0.135
– 1.872 mg 100 g–1 FW pulp; 15.27 International Units (IU) in kernels; 1,490 IU in leaves], vitamin C [7.8 – 172.0 mg
100 g–1 FW of pulp; 188 – 349 µg g–1 FW of peel; 0.17 g kg–1 DW of kernel flour; 53 mg 100 g–1 dry matter (DM) in
leaves], carotenoids (0.78 – 29.34 µg g–1 FW of pulp; 493 – 3,945 µg g–1 FW of peel), mangiferin (1,690.4 mg kg–1 DM
in peel; 4.2 mg kg–1 DW of kernel extract), phenolic compounds, dietary fibre (DF), carbohydrates, minerals, and other
anti-oxidants known to have medicinal, nutritional, and industrial benefits. Bio-active compounds exist in functional
foods and can protect us against diseases via several mechanisms. The anti-oxidant properties of several BaCs are
important to protect against diseases related to oxidative stress. Fruit intake provides us with anti-oxidants that may
act in a synergistic way to offer protection. In mango fruit, only the pulp is used, while all other parts are discarded
and cause environmental pollution. The importance of all the different parts of mango fruit and trees should not be
disregarded. With a global increase in health issues there is an increasing demand for natural foods. Hence, there is
need to study all the bio-active constituents in mango to provide greater insights into their medical, nutritional, and
industrial applications, as well as their role(s) in defending of the plant. This review aims to assist in the proper
utilisation of mangoes to improve nutrition and health, as well as to improve our understanding of the defence
mechanisms in plants that depend on these compounds.

G lobally, mango trees occupy an area of 4.37 million

ha and World mango production is 31.25 million
metric tonnes (MMT; NABARD, 2011). Mango is now
The aims of this review was to present an up-to-date
survey of the content and availability of the many
different BaCs in mango, so that researchers and/or
grown commercially in more than 111 countries and health experts may assess the dietary intake of such
India is ranked first among these mango-producing BaCs more accurately, investigate their physiological
countries, both in area (2.29 million ha) and production functions, and determine their relationships with health
(15.18 MMT; NHB, 2011). Among internationally-traded and disease. To assess dietary intake, it is important that
tropical fruit, mango ranks second to pineapple in data on all primary food sources of BaCs are available.
quantity and value (NABARD, 2011). At present, a Furthermore, this information may help to target the
rising global population is facing the dual challenges of consumption of mango as part of a comprehensive
nutritional insecurity and dietary disorders, leading to dietary management strategy for several diseases and
health problems such as obesity, cancer, and disorders, and may further enhance consumer preference
cardiovascular disease (CD; Clugston and Smith, 2002). for mango.
Epidemiological evidence suggests that a diet rich in
fruits and vegetables provides health benefits such as the
prevention of CD and certain types of cancer (Arouma, BIO-ACTIVE COMPOUNDS IN MANGO AND
2003; Miller et al., 2000). Mango is considered to be a rich THEIR ROLES
source of bio-active compounds (BaCs) with potentially Mangoes are consumed as fresh fruit or are processed
beneficial nutritional and health promoting activities. into value-added products such as nectar, puree, squash,
For example, mango contains a complex mixture of anti- or juice. In all these cases, only the pulp is used, while the
oxidants including xanthones and polyphenols which can stones and peel are discarded, which results in a
help protect us from many diseases (Berardini et al., substantial waste of organic material (Loelillet, 1994).
2005a). However, there is scope to exploit all mango-derived
material in order to avoid wastage and to ensure
*Author for correspondence. improved nutritional security and health. There are
 370 Bio-active compounds in mango and their roles

pronounced differences in the concentrations of the concentrations can be inhibited by delaying ripening
different BaCs in pulp, peel, and seed (stone; Masibo and using controlled atmospheric storage treatments (Kim
He, 2008). Therefore, the pulp, peel, and stones of mango et al., 2007). The PP present in mango pulp can have
fruit may also be of interest from an industrial point-of- several roles. Ellagi-tannins (ET) and EA have been
view (Masibo and He, 2009a). shown to inhibit cancer cell proliferation in vitro
(Sreeram et al., 2005). Carotenoids and polyphenols
Bio-active compounds in mango pulp enrich the anti-oxidant property of mango fruit. These
Mango pulp is a valuable dietary source of many BaCs anti-oxidants are important as neutraceuticals,
which also impart the characteristic colour and flavour of preventing the occurrence of several diseases such as
mango fruit (Grundhofer et al., 2001; Haard and Chism, coronary atherosclerosis caused by elevated cholesterol,
1996). Pulp is also the starting material for the beverage lowering the levels of low density lipoprotein-cholesterol
industry, for flavouring ingredients in the dairy industry, (LDL-C), triglycerides, apolipoproteins B and C-III, and
and for baby food formulations (FAO, 2007). The increasing the levels of high density lipoprotein-
contents of BaCs in the pulp vary with cultivar, locality, cholesterol (HDL-C) and apolipoprotein A-I (Castelli,
climate, and the stage of fruit maturity. The various BaCs 1986). It is also known that nutritional anti-oxidants such
present in mango pulp are discussed below. as GA, mangiferin, myricetin, and flavan-3-ols (e.g.,
catechin and epicatechin) can prevent membrane lipid
Polyphenolics (PP): Among the many BaCs present in peroxidation (Kappus, 1985) and thereby protect cells
pulp, polyphenolics (PP) are the most widely-distributed and tissues from several disorders such as Parkinson’s
secondary metabolites and serve as the dominant anti- disease.
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oxidant compounds (Table I). Kim et al. (2007) reported

the presence of several PP in mango pulp, including gallic Ascorbic acid: Mango pulp contains several vitamins
acid (GA; the major polyphenolic) and six hydrolysable (Table II), among which ascorbic acid (AsA) is dominant
tannins (HT) that constituted approx. 98% of the total (Ajila et al., 2007a). AsA levels in mango pulp are 1.5-
PPs. Furthermore, the GA content of mango pulp is one times lower than in the peel, and the quantity of AsA
of the highest among tropical fruits (Gorinstein et al., decreases during fruit maturity and ripening (Masibo
1999). GA acts as a substrate for polyphenol oxidase and He, 2009a). The role of AsA in the overall anti-
(PPO) in the pulp (Prabha and Patwardhan, 1986). oxidant activity (AoA) of fruit is controversial. Some
Although mangiferin is the main polyphenolic authors claim that the contribution of AsA to the overall
compound (PPC) in mango leaves and bark, AoA is ≤ 15% (Gardner et al., 2000) and that the AoA of
isomangiferin and homomangiferin also occur in the fruit may be attributed largely to its PP content (Wang et
pulp (Saleh and El-Ansari, 1975). Other PP reported in al., 1996). In contrast, some investigators claim that AsA
mango pulp include flavonoids, xanthones, phenolic contributes 48% of the overall AoA of mango fruit
acids, and gallo-tannins (GT; Berardini et al., 2005a,b; (Szeto et al., 2007; Poovarodom et al., 2010). AsA is
Schieber et al., 2000), m-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic known to be a potent anti-oxidant that can eliminate
acids, and apigenin (Masibo and He, 2008),
- reactive oxygen species (ROS), maintain the membrane-
hydroxybenzoic acid, m-coumaric acid,
-coumaric acid, bound anti-oxidant, -tocopherol in its reduced state, act
ferulic acid, myricetin, mangiferin, catechins, epicatechin, as a cofactor for the activity of a number of key enzymes
quercetin, ellagic acids (EA), benzoic acid, and by keeping metal ions in their reduced state, act as a
protocatechuic acid (Kim et al., 2007; Jasna et al., 2009; substrate for oxalate and tartrate biosynthesis, and have
Poovarodom et al., 2010). The levels of PP in mango pulp roles in stress resistance and the synthesis of collagen,
are influenced by the stage of fruit development and by hormones, and neurotransmitters (Davey et al., 2000;
post-harvest treatments. Kim et al. (2007) reported that Arrigoni and Tullio, 2002). These effects of AsA lead to a
PP such as GT are the major components in unripe fruit
and seeds. The concentrations of GA and numerous HT,
TABLE II
and their resultant anti-oxidant capacity (AOC), were Nutrient composition of ripe mango pulp
unaffected by hot-water treatment of fruit, but decreased Component Value (100 g–1 FW)
throughout fruit ripening, regardless of treatment or Water (g) 78.90 – 82.80
storage atmosphere. However, the overall decline in PP Protein (g) 0.36 – 0.40
Fat (g) 0.30 – 0.53
Carbohydrate (g) 16.20 – 17.18
TABLE I Fibre (g) 0.85 – 1.06
Polyphenolic compounds in mango pulp and their mass-to-charge ratios Ash (g) 0.34 – 0.52
Compound‡ [m/z (M-H)–] Calcium (mg) 6.10 – 12.80
Phosphorus (mg) 5.50 – 17.90
Quercetin 3-ara-glc 595 Iron (mg) 0.20 – 0.63
Quercetin 3-glc 463 Vitamin A (mg) 0.135 – 1.872
Quercetin 3-gal 463 Thiamin (mg) 0.020 – 0.073
Quercetin 433 Riboflavin (mg) 0.025 – 0.068
Quercetin 3-ara 433 Niacin (mg) 0.025 – 0.707
Quercetin 3-rha 447 Ascorbic Acid (mg) 7.80 – 172.00
Kaempferol-hexose 447 -Tocopherol (mg) 1.12
Kaempferol 3-glc 447 Tryptophan (mg) 3.00 – 6.00
Kaempferol-pentose 417 Lysine (mg) 32.00 – 37.00
Kaempferol-aglycone 285 Methionine (mg) 4.00
Gallotannin 787 Lycopene (mg) 0.35
Data are from Schieber et al. (2000). m/z (M-H)–, mass-to-charge ratio Data from Masibo and He (2008) and Budi et al. (2001).
determined by HPLC-MS. The calorific values of ripe mango pulp ranged from 62.1 – 63.7 kJ kg–1
‡
ara, arabinose; glc, glucose; gal, galactose; rha, rhamnose. dry matter (DM).
 H. RYMBAI, M. SRIVASTAV, R. R. SHARMA, C. R. PATEL and A. K. SINGH 371

lower risk of degenerative diseases such as cancer, heart tri-terpene (FAO, 2007). It is a biologically-active
disease, inflammation, arthritis, immune system decline, compound that has been reported to possess numerous
brain dysfunction, and cataracts (Michels et al., 2000). pharmacological properties, acting as a strong anti-
oxidant, anti-mutagenic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-
Carotenoids: Natural carotenoids are a diverse group of arthritic agent (Moriarity et al., 1998; Nagaraj et al., 2000;
over 600 structurally-related isoprenoids synthesised by Saleem et al., 2004). Lupeol also prevented 7, 12-
plants, fungi, and bacteria (Ben-Amotz and Fishler, dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced strand breaks in
1998). Chena et al. (2004) reported that mango fruit pulp DNA (Nigam et al., 2007), thereby reducing the
contained high concentrations of total carotenoids [0.9 – incidence of tumours, lowering the tumour body burden,
9.2 mg 100 g–1 fresh weight (FW)] and that their and causing a significant delay in the latency period of
composition and quantity depended on cultivar, tumour appearance (Saleem et al., 2004). Lupeol showed
geographical location, and stage of maturity (Pott et al., a similar trend to that of silymarin, a well-known hepato-
2003). Chena et al. (2004) identified a total of 25 protective agent, in protecting the liver from AFB1-
carotenoids in mango pulp, of which all-trans -carotene induced toxicity (Preetha et al., 2006).
was present at the highest concentration (29.34 µg g–1
FW; Table III). Codoy and Rodriguez-Amaya (1989) Bio-active compounds in mango peel
reported that -carotene was the dominant carotenoid in Mango peel is a major by-product of the mango
mango, representing 48 – 84% of total carotenoids. processing industry. Mango peel represents approx. 15 –
Carotenoids are associated with the climacteric increase 20% of the total weight of fresh fruit (Beerh et al., 1976).
in respiration in mango fruit that is initiated by the action It is a good source of several valuable BaCs such as
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of ethylene (Saltveit, 1999). Hence, -carotene is known polyphenols, carotenoids, vitamin, enzymes, and dietary
to predominate over xanthophylls in the later stages of fibre (DF; Ajila et al., 2007a; Berardini et al., 2005b;
ripening of mango fruit (Bhaskarachary et al., 1995), Ashoush and Gadallah, 2011) which, if extracted, can
which becomes apparent as the yellow-to-orange colour provide a source of health-promoting medicines. The
of ripe mango pulp. Green, unripe mango pulp does not AOC of mango peel extract was also higher than that of
contain any trace of carotenoids (Masibo and He, 2009a). mangiferin and quercetin 3-O-glucoside (Berardini et al.,
During ripening, the increase in carotenoids content was 2005a).
accompanied by a decrease in total organic acids content
and increases in sugars and mevalonic acid, the precursor Polyphenolics: The PP content of mango peel was higher
of carotenoids (Modi and Patwa, 1960). than that of the pulp at all stages of fruit development
Mango possesses high vitamin A activity and AOC, (Lakshminarayana et al., 1970). The polyphenolics
which is beneficial for human health (Mercadante et al., content of peel ranged from 55 – 110 mg GA equivalents
1998). Vitamin A is essential for vision and a variety of g–1 peel dry weight (DW) and was higher in ripe peel
metabolic functions. The AoA of carotenoids plays a than in unripe peel (Ajila et al., 2007a). The predominant
vital role against degenerative diseases such as cancer, substrate for PPC in mango peel is EA (Prabha and
CD, cataracts, and muscular diseases, as well as Patwardhan, 1986). Mango peel also contains two major
neurological, inflammatory, and immune disorders polyphenols, mangiferin and quercetin 3-O-galactoside.
(Bendich, 1993). The abundance of 9-cis--carotene and The mangiferin content of peel was 1,690.4 mg kg–1 DM,
a wide variety of carotenoids and their stereo-isomers in which decreased slightly at elevated temperatures, while
mango pulp should shift nutritional and medicinal the concentrations of other xanthone derivatives
attention from the synthetic all-trans -carotene towards increased significantly (Berardini et al., 2005b). These
natural carotenoids as potential candidates for the changes may be attributed to the formation of xanthones
prevention of degenerative diseases (Albanes et al., from benzophenone derivatives in mango peel
1996). (Berardini et al., 2004), which are considered to be the
Mango pulp also contains small amounts of lycopene precursors of xanthone C-glycosides (Larrauri, 1999;
(353 µg 100 g–1 FW; Budi et al., 2001). Lycopene has been Table IV).
reported to exhibit the highest AoA among various plant
carotenoids, followed by -cryptoxanthin, -carotene,
lutein, and zeaxanthin which possess pro-vitamin A TABLE IV
activity (Miller et al., 1996; Erdman et al., 1998). Phenolic compounds in mango peel
Component Concentration (mg kg–1 DM)
Lupeol: Mango pulp also contains lupeol, a pentacyclic Mangiferin 1,690.4
Iso-mangiferin 134.5
Mangiferin gallate 321.9
Iso-mangiferin gallate 82.0
TABLE III Quercetin 3-O-galactoside 651.2
Carotenoid composition of mango pulp Quercetin 3-O-glucoside 557.7
Component Concentration (µg g–1 DM) Quercetin 3-O-xyloside 207.3
Quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside 20.1
All-trans--carotene 29.34 Quercetin 3-O-arabinofuranoside 103.6
cis--Carotene 9.86 Quercetin 3-O-arabinopyranoside 101.5
cis-Violaxanthin 6.40 Kaempferol 3-O-glucoside 36.0
Neochrome 5.03 Rhamnetin 3-O galactoside 94.4
Luteoxanthin 3.60 Quercetin 65.3
cis-Neoxanthin 1.88 Ellagic acid nd
Zeaxanthin 1.16 Total phenolics 4,066.0
9- or 9'-cis-Lutein 0.78
Data are from Berardini et al. (2005b). DM, dry matter of peel (at 90ºC
Data are from Chena et al. (2004). DM, dry matter. for 90 min). nd, not determined. All data are means ± SD (n = 2).
 372 Bio-active compounds in mango and their roles

TABLE V and diabetes (Best, 1991; Bingham et al., 2003). Therefore,

Nutrient composition of unripe and ripe mango peel
mango peel could be added to various food formulations
Component Unripe [% (w/w)] Ripe [% (w/w)] to enhance their functional value.
Protein 1.76 ± 0.50 2.05 ± 0.02
Carbohydrate 26.50 ± 0.50 28.20 ± 0.60
Crude fibre 3.80 ± 0.30 5.80 ± 0.10 Bio-active compounds in mango stone
Moisture 66.0 ± 0.50 72.50 ± 0.50 In general, mango stones are discarded as waste. This
Fat 2.49 ± 0.03 2.22 ± 0.02 is common in all major mango growing countries such as
Ash 1.40 ± 0.20 1.16 ± 0.14
SDF 15.7± 0.30 23.81 ± 0.91 India, which generates approx. 3 MMT year–1 of mango
IDF 28.99 ± 0.51 39.99± 2.90 stones (Narasimha and Azeemoddin, 1989). The mango
TDF 44.70 ± 0.71 63.80 ± 3.80
Vitamin E (µg g–1 DW) 205 ± 43 308 ± 11 stone is made up of a woody outer shell encasing a
Vitamin C (µg g–1 DW) 188 ± 18 349 ± 11 kernel. The kernel represents 45 – 75% of the weight of
Carotenoids (µg g–1 DW) 493 ± 31 3,945 ± 85 the stone and 20 – 60% (w/w) of each mango fruit,
Data are from Ajila et al. (2007b). depending on the variety (Arogba, 1997; Ashoush and
SDF, soluble dietary fibre; IDF, insoluble dietary fibre; TDF, total dietary
fibre. Values are expressed on a dry weight basis. All data are means ±
Gadallah, 2011). Traditionally, the mango kernel (MK)
SD (n = 3). has been used for the production of MK oil and MK
powder; but recently, greater emphasis has been given to
its anti-oxidant and anti-microbial effects, due to its high
Carotenoids and vitamins: Carotenoids and vitamins are PP content (Soong and Barlow, 2004). MK contains
abundant in mango peel, and are usually lipid-soluble higher overall AoA and phenolics contents than the
anti-oxidants (Ajila et al., 2007b). The total carotenoid pulp. The contribution of the MK fraction to the total
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content of ripe mango peel ranged from 3,400 – 3,945 µg AoA and phenolics contents of the stone was > 70%
g–1 DW ripe peel, while it was only 493 – 547 µg g–1 in (Soong and Barlow, 2004). The MK also contains a higher
unripe mango peel. Mango peel also contains vitamin C overall AoA than the fruit of longan, jack fruit, avocado,
(188 – 349 µg g–1 DW) and an appreciable quantity of and tamarind, thus providing a rationale for the
vitamin E (205 – 509 µg g–1 DW; Ajila et al., 2007a). commercial use of MK as an ingredient in functional
Carotenoid and vitamin concentrations were higher in foods.
ripe mango peel than in unripe peel (Table V).
Polyphenolics: Mango stones are rich in PP with potent
Anthocyanins: Anthocyanins are a group of phenolic anti-oxidant activity (values are given in Table VI).
compounds in plants that impart colour to fruit, exhibit Puravankara et al. (2000) reported that GA and EA exist
anti-oxidant properties, and have health benefits. Ripe as GT and ET, respectively, either in a free or bound
mango peel contained higher concentrations of form (Okuda, 1996) in MK. Abdalla et al. (2007) reported
anthocyanins (360 – 565 mg 100 g–1 FW) than unripe peel higher amounts of tannin and vanillin than GA, caffeic
(203 – 326 mg 100 g–1 FW; Ajila et al., 2007a). However, acid, and mangiferin in a MK powder. GA is known to
anti-oxidant extracts of green peel showed higher have anti-inflammatory, anti-mutagenic, anti-cancer, and
inhibition of lipoxygenase (LO) activities than extracts high AoA (Inoue et al., 1995; Kroes et al., 1992), while
from ripe peel (Ajila et al., 2007b). Lipoxygenases are EA is known to exhibit anti-mutagenic, anti-viral, anti-
responsible for many diseases such as asthma, tumour, and anti-oxidant properties (Khanduja et al.,
atherosclerosis, cancer (Mogul and Holman, 2001), and 1999; Wood et al., 1982; Huang et al., 2006). MK powder
tumour angiogenesis (Nie and Honn, 2002). can also be used as a functional food in the food industry
Lipoxygenases consist of a family of non-haem-containing due to its high anti-oxidant potential and associated
dioxygenase enzymes that are widely-distributed in plants stability, even at 160ºC (Soong and Barlow, 2004). The
and animals. In mammalian cells these enzymes have key polyphenols in MK exhibit a broad anti-microbial
roles in the biosynthesis of a variety of bio-regulatory spectrum, but are more active against Gram-positive
compounds such as hydroxy-eicosatetraenoic acid, than Gram-negative bacteria (Kabuki et al., 2000). MK
leukotrienes, lipoxins, and hepoxylines (Lands, 1985). extracts have been reported to be effective in the
Lipoxygenases are therefore potential targets for rational reduction of total bacterial counts in unpasteurised cow
drug design and the discovery of mechanism-based milk by retarding the development of acidity (Abdalla et
inhibitors to treat a variety of disorders and autoimmune al., 2007) and in the complete inhibition of coli-form
diseases. Anti-oxidants interact non-specifically with LO bacterial growth (Kabuki et al., 2000). The anti-microbial
by scavenging radical intermediates and/or by reducing activity of MK extracts was stable under conditions
the active haem-site (Cao et al., 1996).
TABLE VI
Phenolic compounds in mango seed kernel extract
Dietary fibre (DF): Mango peel has also been found to be
Component Concentration (mg 100 g–1 DM)
a source of nutritionally-rich DF having wide
Tannin 20.7
functionality (Table V). The crude fibre content of peel Gallic acid 6.0
(3.8 – 5.8 mg g–1 FW) represents mainly the cellulose Coumarin 12.6
fraction [a major part of the insoluble dietary fibre (IDF); Caffeic acid 7.7
Vanillin 20.2
Ajila et al. (2007a)]. Mango peel also contains high Mangiferin 4.2
quantities of soluble dietary fibre (SDF), IDF, and total Ferulic acid 10.4
dietary fibre (TDF), as indicated in Table V. DF is a Cinamic acid 11.2
Unknown compounds 7.1
functional food component and is known to have
Data are from Abdalla et al. (2007). DM, dry matter.
beneficial effects in reducing the risk of obesity, Mango seed kernel extract contained 112 mg total polyphenols 100 g–1
atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, colorectal cancer, dry seed kernel powder. All data are means ± SD (n = 4).
 H. RYMBAI, M. SRIVASTAV, R. R. SHARMA, C. R. PATEL and A. K. SINGH 373

TABLE VII edible oils including sunflower oil, ghee, and cheese
Nutrient composition of processed mango kernel flour
–1
(Dinesh et al., 2000). Tocopherols, carotenoids, and
Component Concentration (g kg PKF) mineral micronutrients such as Se, Cu and Zn may also be
Moisture 91.0 involved in the anti-oxidant activity of MK (Nunez-Selles
Protein 66.1
Fat 94.0 et al., 2002). Lipids extracted from the kernels of different
Fibre 28.0 mango varieties were found to be free from toxic
Ash 10.8 materials such as hydrocyanic acid (Rashwan, 1990), as
Sucrose 27.5
Starch 500.0 shown by the traditional used of MK flour for making
Carbohydrate 182.6 chapatti in India, roasted and eaten by tribal peoples, and
Ascorbic acid 0.17
processed into an edible flour in Nigeria (Arogba, 1999).
Data are from Arogba (1999). PKF, processed kernel flour. Therefore, Sims et al. (1972) and Gordon and Magos
The calorific value of processed mango kernel flour was 19.6 kJ kg–1
PKF. All data are means ± SD (n = 4). (1983) suggested that MK may be used as a natural food
supplement.

normally used during food processing; for example, Kernel vitamins and minerals: The MK contains several
heating (121ºC, 15 min), freezing (–20ºC, 16 h), and/or vitamins and dietary minerals (Table X). The major
pH treatment (pH 3 – 9; Kabuki et al., 2000). vitamins present in MK are vitamin A, vitamin E,
vitamin K, vitamins B1, B2, B6, B12, and vitamin C; while,
Nutritional compounds: The MK also contains Ca, Mg, K, Na, Fe, Zn, Mn, Se, and Cu are the main
phytosterols such as campesterol, -sitosterol, minerals present (Fowomola, 2010; Ashoush and
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stigmesterol, tocopherols, and several other nutritional Gadallah, 2011). The vitamins found in MKs are
compounds in varying proportions (Arogba, 1999; powerful anti-oxidants that neutralise free-radicals,
Ashoush and Gadallah, 2011; Table VII). which helps to protect against CD, cancers, and other
ailments (Anon, 2012b). Vitamin E from MK can help
Kernel proteins: MK are rich in proteins, essential amino the endocrine system to function more efficiently. It is
acids (EAAS), and non-essential amino acids (NEAAs). also reported that the high mineral content of MK may
Among the EAAS, leucine, lysine, and valine are present prevent anaemia, relieve clogged pores in the skin, and
at the highest concentrations (6.9, 5.8, and 4.3 g 100 g–1 reduce the risk of high blood pressure (Anon, 2012b). In
protein, respectively), with a total of 32.1 g EAAS 100 g–1 fact, MKs were shown to be as effective as the glucose-
protein. Among the NEAAS, glutamic acid was the lowering drug, rosiglitazone, and lipid-lowering drug,
highest (18.2 g 100 g–1 protein), with a total of 52.2 g fenofibrate, in reducing adipose tissue in an animal
NEAAS 100 g–1 protein (Abdalla et al., 2007; Arogba, model (Anon, 2012a).
1999; Table VIII).
Kernel anti-nutrients: Anti-nutrient substances generally
Kernel lipids: MKs are also rich in fats and fatty acids interfere with the absorption of nutrients when
(FAs; Table IX; Anon, 2010). Kernel oil has been reported consumed in excess amounts. Although, MKs contain
to be rich in saturated FAs and mono-unsaturated oleic several anti-nutrients, their levels are low enough not to
acid, as well as sterols such as D-avenasterol, fructosterol, cause any adverse effects (Table XI; Fowomola, 2010).
phytosterols, and squalene. The phospholipids and Moreover, during the processing of MKs by soaking,
phenolic compounds in MK extracts are known to have a boiling, autoclaving, irradiation, and roasting, there is a
synergistic effect in extending the shelf-life of various drastic reduction in these anti-nutritional factors

TABLE VIII
Amino acid composition of dry mango kernels
EAA Concentration (g 100 g–1 protein) NEAA Concentration (g 100 g–1 protein)
Leucine 6.9 ± 0.2 Aspartic acid 6.5 ± 0.4
Isoleucine 4.4 ± 0.2 Glutamic acid 18.2 ± 0.8
Methionine 1.2 ± 0.1 Serine 3.3 ± 0.1
Phenylalanine 3.4 ± 0.1 Proline 3.5 ± 0.2
Lysine 4.3 ± 0.2 Glycine 4.0 ± 0.4
Threonine 3.4 ± 0.2 Alanine 4.2 ± 0.4
Tyrosine 2.7 ± 0.1 Histidine 5.5 ± 0.6
Valine 5.8 ± 0.3 Arginine 7.3 ± 0.8
Total EAAs 32.1 ± 2.2 Total NEAAs 52.2 ± 2.1
Data are from Abdalla et al. (2007). EAAs, essential amino acids; NEAAs, non-essential amino acids. All data are means ± SD (n = 4).

TABLE IX
Lipid composition of dry mango kernels
Lipid Concentration [% (w/w)] Fatty acid Concentration [% (w/w)]
Fully saturated glycerides 14.2 Myristic 0.69
Mono-oleoglycerides 24.2 Palmitic 4.40 – 8.83
Di-oleoglycerides 60.8 Stearic 33.96 – 47.8
Tri-unsaturated glycerides 0.8 Arachidonic 2.70 – 6.74
Oleic 38.20 – 49.78
Linoleic 4.40 – 5.40
Linolenic 0.5
Data are from Anon (2010). Values are expressed on a % (w/w) dry weight basis.
 374 Bio-active compounds in mango and their roles

TABLE X
Vitamin and mineral composition of dry mango seed
Vitamin Concentration (mg 100 g–1 DW) Mineral Concentration (mg 100 g–1 DW)
E 1.30 Na 21.00
K 0.59 K 22.30
B1 0.08 Ca 111.30
B2 0.03 Mg 94.80
B6 0.19 Fe 11.90
B12 0.12 Zn 1.10
C 0.56 Mn 0.04
Data are from Fowomola (2010). DW, dry weight. Dry mango seeds also contained 15.27 IU vitamin A. All the data are means ± SEM (n = 3).

(Agunbiade and Olanlokun, 2006). Therefore, MK populations for the treatment of gastritis and gastric
powder can be consumed safely after processing. ulcers (Robineau et al., 1996).

Bio-active compounds in mango tree bark and leaves

Mango bark and leaves also contain high amounts of MECHANISMS OF MANGO ANTI-OXIDANT
BACs, with strong anti-oxidant potential (Table XII; ACTIVITIES
Table XIII). Mango bark extracts contain a mixture of The BaCs in mango are a natural source of anti-
compounds including polyphenols, triterpenes, oxidants (Nunez-Selles, 2005; Ajila et al., 2007b). The
phytosteroids, FAs, and microelements. Among these, the overall AoA of mango fruit is due to synergism between
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PP fraction represents > 50% of all constituents, and is the various BaCs present, including AsA, -tocopherols,
rich in mangiferin, catechin, and epicatechin (Scartezzini carotenoids, polyphenols, and micro-elements (Olsson et
and Speroni, 2000; Nunez-Selles et al., 2002). Similarly, al., 2004; Masibo and He, 2009a). These BaCs are
the main BaC in mango leaves is mangiferin (Stoilova effective electron donors which reduce Fe3+ or
et al., 2008). The BaCs of mango bark and leaves have ferricyanide complexes to their ferrous form, thereby
pharmacologically-active ingredients and health- indicating their AoA (Chung et al., 2002; Yen and Chen,
promoting effects. This was indicated through their use in 1995). Similarly, phenol moieties (hydroxyl groups) on
traditional medicine over many centuries (Stoilova et al., aromatic rings scavenge free-radicals through their
2008) to treat conditions such as menorrhagia, diarrhoea, hydrogen or electron donating ability, which contributes
syphilis, diabetes, scabies, cutaneous infections, and to the AoA of PP (Shahidi and Wanasundara, 1992; Van
anaemia (Scartezzini and Speroni, 2000), malignant Gadow et al., 1971). Synthetic anti-oxidants such as
tumours (Tamayo et al., 2001), benign prostate butylated hydroxytoluene and butylated hydroxyanisole
hyperplasia, dermatitis, and lupus erythematosus are used in food processing to reduce deterioration,
(Alberto et al., 2007), as well as having analgesic, anti- rancidity, and oxidative discolouration, but are volatile
inflammatory, immuno-modulatory, and anti-HIV (Ichiki and decompose easily at high temperatures (Branien,
et al., 1998; Ojewole, 2005; Guha et al., 1996), spasmolytic 1975). In contrast, the natural anti-oxidants from mango
(Tona et al., 2000), and immuno-stimulatory (Garcia are safe and have potential nutritional and therapeutic
et al., 2003) properties. values. BaCs in mango such as quercetin, the aglycone
‘Vimang’ is an extract of mango bark that contains derivative of mangiferin, and norathyriol have also been
numerous polyphenols with anti-oxidant properties, and shown to modulate the transactivation of isoforms of
improves the lives of people with HIV/AIDS. It is also peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs;
used as an effective complement to anti-retroviral Huang et al., 2006; Wilkinson et al., 2008). PPARs are
treatments (Anon, 2011; Grogg, 2012). The mango tree transcription factors implicated in the control of
was listed for the treatment of various ailments in pathways relevant to many human diseases such as
“TRAMIL”, a research project on medicinal plant dyslipidemia, diabetes, obesity, inflammation,
resources in the Caribbean countries (Robineau et al.,
1996). Immature mango leaves also contain several TABLE XII
Bio-active chemical constituents in mango stem bark extracts
nutrients (Table XIV; Anon, 2010) and have medicinal
Component Component Component
properties. For example, a leaf decoction prevented
bleeding dysentery (Quisumbing, 1978) and an aqueous Polyphenols Polyalcohols Mineral elements
Mangiferin Sorbitol Calcium
leaf extract possessed hypoglycaemic activity (+) Catechin Myo-inositol Potassium
(Aderibigbe et al., 2001). An aqueous decoction from (–) Epicatechin Xylitol Magnesium
Gallic acid, propyl ester Iron
mango flowers has also been used by Caribbean Benzoic acid, propyl ester Terpenoids Selenium
3, 4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid -Elemene Copper
TABLE XI Benzoic Acid Aromandrene Zinc
Anti-nutrient composition of mango seed Gallic Acid -Guaiene Lead
Lignans -Selinene
Component Concentration (mg 100 g–1 DW) Hinesol Phytosterols
Alkaloids 0.01 ± 0.00 Fatty & dicarboxylic acids -Eudesmol -Sitosterol
Tannins 1.03 ± 0.01 Myristic Cyclo-artanols -Campesterol
Phytate 1.44 ± 0.01 Palmitic
Cyanide 0.00 Linoleic Free sugars
Saponin 0.04 ± 0.00 Estearic Glucose
Oxalate 1.49 ± 0.01 Eicosatrienoic Galactose
Succinic Arabinose
Data are from Fowomola (2010). DW, dry weight. Mean trypsin inhibitor Malonic
activity = 18.42 ± 2.54 trypsin inhibitor units mg–1 DW. All data are
means ± SEM (n = 3). Data are from Nunez-Selles et al. (2002) and Masibo and He (2009a,b).
 H. RYMBAI, M. SRIVASTAV, R. R. SHARMA, C. R. PATEL and A. K. SINGH 375

TABLE XIII anti-oxidants, and were active in many biological systems

Anti-oxidant profile of mango stem bark extract‡
(Meckes et al., 2004).
Anti-oxidant test IC50 [% (w/v)]
Coates (2007) found that mango pulp tissue contained
Scavenging of hypochlorous acid 0.04 higher concentrations of anti-fungal compounds (a
Scavenging of hydroxyl radicals 0.01
Chelating effect on iron 0.12 mixture of galloyl tannins with glycosidic linkages) than
Anti-oxidant effect on DNA 0.01 – 0.02 mango peel. He also reported that the anti-fungal
Pro-oxidant effect on DNA None component (resorcinols) of mango sap had a major role
Inhibition of spontaneous lipid peroxidation (LPI) 0.21
LPI catalyzed by iron 0.01 in conferring post-harvest disease resistance to
Microsomal LPI (MLPI) 0.00075 anthracnose and stem-end rot. Coates (2007) quantified
MLPI catalyzed by iron 0.01
Protection of DNA 0.006 and confirmed the constitutive levels of anti-fungal
(attack on sulphur bridges between protein chains) compounds such as 5-n-heptadecenyl resorcinol (C17:1)
Protection to DNA 0.005 and 5-n-pentadecyl resorcinol (C15:0) in mango peel and
(attack on peptide bonds in protein chains)
Inhibition of damage induced by hepatic 110 sap extracts, and showed that their concentrations varied
ischaemia/reperfusion (rats) (mg/kg) among cultivars. Based on the levels of these compounds
Inhibition of damage induced by brain 50 in mango peel, Coates (2007) arranged several mango
ischaemia/reperfusion (Gerbils) (mg/kg)
cultivars in descending order (‘Kensington Pride’ >
Data are from Nunez-Selles et al. (2002). IC50 [% (w/v)], the half-
maximum inhibitory concentration (IC) of a substance. LPI, lipid ‘Keitt’ = ‘Celebration’ > ‘Kent’ = ‘R2E2’ = ‘Nam Doc
peroxidation inhibition; MLPI, microsomal lipid peroxidation inhibition.
‡
Mai’ = ‘Calypso’ = ‘Honey Gold’ = ‘Brooks’). Similarly,
An extract of Mangifera indica L. stem bark (Vimang) was tested for its based on their concentrations in pulp, the order was
in vitro anti-oxidant activity using several common assays.
‘Keitt’ > ‘Kensington Pride’ = ‘R2E2’ > ‘Calypso’ =
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‘Celebration’ > ‘Honey Gold’ > ‘Nam Doc Mai’.

neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer (Berger et al., Furthermore, there was a positive correlation between
2005; Wilkinson et al., 2008; Tyagi, 2011). resistance to the anthracnose pathogen Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides and the concentrations of these
compounds in mango (Coates, 2007).
ROLE OF BIO-ACTIVE COMPOUNDS IN THE Malformation is a serious disease in mango, rendering
SELF-DEFENCE OF MANGO PLANTS mango orchards unproductive, with a considerable
Mango plant synthesise a variety of BaCs as secondary negative impact on the mango industry across the World
metabolites in different tissues (Castillo et al., 2011). Of (Ram, 1991). Singh and Dhillon (1991) detected
these, PP have a wide range of biological functions in the malformin-A-like substances and other compounds
cell due to their free-radical scavenging properties possessing similar activity in malformed mango panicles.
(Aruoma, 1998). PP are toxic to microorganisms, which is They established that the occurrence of malformin-like
attributed to enzyme inhibition, oxidation, and the substances caused an imbalance in the endogenous levels
disruption of membranes by the actions of these of phytohormones in malformed tissues by stimulating the
lipophilic compounds (Castillo et al., 2011). Polyphenols production of ethylene, as well as higher concentrations of
are not directly involved in photosynthesis, respiration, abscisic acid, zeatin, and lower concentrations of indole-3-
solute transport, translocation, protein synthesis, nutrient acetic acid (IAA).Thus, among the approaches adopted to
assimilation, or differentiation, or in metabolic processes control floral malformation, reducing the breakdown of
such as the formation of carbohydrates, proteins, and IAA with polyphenols and o-dihydroxyphenol appeared
lipids (Castillo et al., 2011), which are considered to be better than exogenous applications of auxins to
essential for the physiological function of plants (Castillo supplement the depleted auxins. Hence, Singh and Dhillon
et al., 2011). Polyphenols act as defence agents in plants (1991) recommended the application of catechol and AsA
against various pathogenic microorganisms through the prior to flower bud differentiation to prevent
inhibition of mycelial growth, germination or sporulation malformation. AsA inhibited the activity of malformin, a
of fungal pathogens, and warding-off predator compound responsible for floral malformation.
herbivorous insects and mammals (Haslam, 1996; Catecholase and cresolase oxidase are two widely-
Lounds-Singleton, 2003; Ingebrigtsen, 2010). distributed forms of PPO in the plant kingdom. Sharma et
Polyphenols also maintain cell integrity in plants during al. (2001a, b) reported that the levels of catecholase and
continuous exposure to environmental stresses such as cresolase activity and PP varied between cultivars. They
extreme temperature, UV-radiation, and drought (Lira found that the concentrations of these compounds at the
et al., 2007). Mayer and Harel (1979) and Vaughan and time of panicle initiation had a direct relationship with the
Duke (1984) reported that PPO was responsible for the occurrence of flower malformation. Therefore, PPO,
synthesis and accumulation of PP in plants, which catecholase, or cresolase activity at panicle initiation, or at
provided resistance against diseases. These PP acted as the nursery stage, is a good index to assess the likely
TABLE XIV
Nutrient composition of mango leaves
Component Concentration [% (w/v) DW)] Component Concentration (mg 100 g–1 DW)
Moisture 78.2 Calcium 29
Protein 3.0 Phosphorus 72
Fat 0.4 Iron 6.20
Carbohydrates 16.5 Thiamin 0.04
Fibre 1.6 Riboflavin 0.06
Ash 1.9 Niacin 2.20
Ascorbic Acid 53
Data are from Anon (2010). Mango leaves contained 1,490 IU vitamin A.
 376 Bio-active compounds in mango and their roles

occurrence of malformation (Sharma et al., 2001b; possibly by modulating the ROS used for signalling
Sharma, 2003). (Ben-Amor et al., 1999). Singh et al. (2012) underlined
Flavonoids possess anti-bacterial properties, as shown the significance of the enzymatic ROS scavenging system
by Kanwal et al. (2009) who isolated and evaluated five in the resistance or susceptibility of mango plants to
flavonoids: epicatechin-3-O--glucopyranoside; 5- disease and also indicated that leaf PPO, LOX, and anti-
hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxylphenyl) pyrano [3,2-g] chromene- oxidant enzyme activities can be used as biochemical
4 (8H)-one; 6-(p-hydroxybenzyl) taxifolin-7-O--D- indicators with which to screen mango germplasm
glucoside (tricuspid); quercetin-3-O--glucopyranosyl- against the malformation disorder. They also suggested
(1-2)--glucopyranoside; and (–)-epicatechin [2- (3, 4- that manipulation of the anti-oxidant system in plants
dihydroxyphenyl]-3, 4-dihydro-2H-chromene-3,5,7-triol] through over-expression of the enzymes involved in
from mango leaves. They found that all five flavonoids ROS-scavenging may help to maintain or improve plant
significantly reduced the growth of all four bacterial productivity under stress.
species tested (Lactobacillus sp., Escherichia coli, This review concludes that many parts of mango trees
Azospirillium lipoferum, and Bacillus sp.). However, such as the bark, leaves, fruit pulp, peel, and stone, are
among these five flavonoids, the last listed was the most rich sources of BaCs, including polyphenols,
effective against bacteria. Similarly, Masibo and He carotenoids, AsA, carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and
(2009b) found that mangiferin from mango leaf extracts DF. The levels of these substances varies according to
inhibited the growth of all four pathogenic bacterial mango genotype and growing environment. These
species tested (Salmonella typhimurium, E. coli, substances can have new applications in functional
Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus cereus) and two non- foods, pharmaceuticals, and industrial products. The
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pathogenic bacteria (Streptococcus thermophilus and overall anti-oxidant activity (AoA) of mango fruit
Lactobacillus acidophilus). results from a synergism between the various BaCs and
The BaCs from mango also have important roles in ROS scavenging intermediates. The BaCs in mango
protecting the plant against oxidative stress by activating may be considered a potential source for rational drug
various anti-oxidant enzymes including superoxide design and the discovery of mechanism-based inhibitors
dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase for the treatment of a wide variety of disorders and
(POX; Niranjana et al., 2009). During post-harvest autoimmune diseases. The information provided here
chilling and heating, POX activity increased, which offers a valuable guide for the use and consumption of
degraded any accumulated H2O2 in mango fruit mango products in human and animal diets. It also
(Niranjana et al., 2009). CAT is also involved in the illustrates the protective roles of BaCs and their
removal of excess H2O2 during stress in plants; however, potential use to develop natural defence mechanisms
other peroxidases such as ascorbate peroxidase, have against pests, diseases, and environmental stresses by
been shown to be among the most important anti- accumulating anti-pathogenic and ROS-scavenging
oxidant defence enzymes during low-temperature injury, compounds.

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