©Ibling

Vectors
1. Concept of a vector. Representation of vectors using directed line segments. Unit vectors;
base vectors i, j, k. Components of a vector. Algebraic and geometric approaches to the
following: the sum and difference of two vectors; the zero vector 0, the vector −v;
multiplication by a scalar, kv; magnitude of a vector, v; position vectors OA = a. AB = b-a.
- Be able to understand what is meant by vector and scalar:

Vector = magnitude with direction, with i, j, k representing direction in plane x, y, z

respectively.

Scalar = magnitude only

𝑥
𝑣 = (𝑦) = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘 in 3D
𝑧
𝑥
𝑣 = (𝑦) = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 in 2D

Be able to calculate sum and difference of vectors:

You subtract numbers in the same plane.

𝑥 𝑎
Consider 𝑣 = (𝑦) and 𝜔 = (𝑏 )
𝑧 𝑐
𝑥+𝑎
𝑣 + 𝜔 = (𝑦 + 𝑏 )
𝑧+𝑐
𝑥−𝑎
𝑣 − 𝜔 = (𝑦 − 𝑏 )
𝑧−𝑐
Be able to calculate a vector using vectors from origin (aka position vectors):

To find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄, just need to draw the
vectors, like in the left. We can see that:
Q
P
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑄

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑄 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃
O
P
 ©Ibling

Be able to find the magnitude:

Magnitude is just Pythagoras theorem!

‖𝑣‖ = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 , and also z if the vector is in 3D plane.

Be able to multiply by a scalar:

Scalar is just a number, constant, or a length.

𝑥 𝑥𝑘
𝑣 × 𝑘 = (𝑦) × 𝑘 = (𝑦𝑘 )
𝑧 𝑧𝑘
Be able to use unit vectors:
𝑣
𝑢̂ =
|𝑣|

We divide the vector by its own length to make it into a “unit”. It is as simple as that! We
usually use unit vectors to check if two vectors are collinear.

If 𝑢̂ = 𝑣̂ × 𝑘, then it means that the vectors have same direction but with different
magnitude, hence they are collinear.

2. The definition of the scalar product of two vectors. Properties of the scalar product. The
angle between two vectors. Perpendicular vectors; parallel vectors.
- Be able to understand dot product:

Dot product = Type of multiplication that gives a scalar value and it is noted with a dot.

It can be expressed in two ways:

𝑣𝑥 𝑢𝑥
𝑣∙𝑢 𝑣 𝑢
⃗ = ( 𝑦 ) ∙ ( 𝑦 ) = 𝑣𝑥 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑣𝑧 𝑢𝑧
𝑣𝑧 𝑢𝑧

⃗ = |𝑣||𝑢|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑣∙𝑢

The second expression implies that if the vectors are perpendicular to each other, they will
𝜋
have a dot product of 0, since 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) = 0.
2

Be able to use important properties of dot product:

1. 𝑣 ∙ 𝑢
⃗ =𝑢
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∙𝑣

2. 𝑘⃗ ∙ (𝑣 + 𝑢
⃗ ) = 𝑘⃗ ∙ 𝑣 + 𝑘⃗ ∙ 𝑢
⃗

3. (𝑘𝑣 ) ∙ 𝑢
⃗ = 𝑘(𝑣 ∙ 𝑢
⃗)
 ©Ibling

They essentially operate like normal algebra.

Be able to find the angle between two vectors:

You only need to rearrange the formula above with cosine to find the angle!

3. Vector equation of a line in two and three dimensions: r = a +λb. Simple applications to
kinematics. The angle between two lines.
- Be able to write equation of a line with vectors:

Consider this arbitrary line. This line is basically a collection of many points, and we need two
things to express all the possible points.

First, we need a vector to get to the line (anywhere on the line) from the origin. Second, we
need a vector with same direction to be able to move along the line (forwards and
backwards).

It is rather intuitive and to put in words:

𝐿: 𝑟 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∙ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

We can express this in various ways and you need to be able to use all of them. These one
are vector forms (the second one is the expanded form):

𝐿: 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟𝑜 + 𝜆𝑑

𝑥 𝑟0𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐿: (𝑦) = (𝑟0𝑦 ) + 𝜆 (𝑑𝑦 )
𝑧 𝑟0𝑧 𝑑𝑧
 ©Ibling

This one is parameter form, which is just expressing x, y, z separately:

𝑥 = 𝑟0𝑥 + 𝜆𝑑𝑥
{ = 𝑟0𝑦 + 𝜆𝑑𝑦
𝑦
𝑧 = 𝑟0𝑧 + 𝜆𝑑𝑧

This one is Cartesian form and it is reached by simply making our scaling factor the subject:
𝑥 − 𝑟0𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑟0𝑦 𝑧 − 𝑟0𝑧
𝜆= = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

Notice that direction vector can be easily identified by just looking at the denominator!

Be able to find equation of a line from two points on the line:

To find the vector that gets us from the origin to the line, you can use either one from the
two provided (since both are on the line). To find the direction vector, you just need to take
the different of the two given vectors (in either direction since you will have a scaling factor
anyways).

Be able to make a vector line into a line in Cartesian diagram in 2D plane:

𝑥
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑑 = (𝑦)

We know that slope is rise over run, so slope can be calculated using the dimension from the
𝑦
vector. 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = .
𝑥

Be able to find the shortest distance between a point and a line:

The best way is to draw the problem.

Point P
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟𝑜 𝑃

d
θ 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟𝑜 + 𝜆𝑑

r0

From the point “P” and the line “r”, we are trying to find the distance “d”. We can use
trigonometry to express the distance.

𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
|𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑜 𝑃|

If we are given the angle, then it is very simple to calculate. But most of the time, we are not.
 ©Ibling

In those cases we use cross product.

𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑟𝑜 𝑃 × 𝑑 = |𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑜 𝑃 ||𝑑 |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟𝑜 𝑃 × 𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
|𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑜 𝑃 ||𝑑 |

And we substitute the 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and rearrange.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟𝑜 𝑃 × 𝑑 𝑑
=
|𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑜 𝑃 ||𝑑 | |𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑜 𝑃|

|𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑜 𝑃 × 𝑑|
𝑑=
|𝑑 |

Be able to find the angle between two lines:

You simply rearrange the dot product. The only vector you use would be of course the
direction vector.

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑1 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
|𝑑1 ||𝑑2 |
 ©Ibling

4. Coincident, parallel, intersecting and skew lines; distinguishing between these cases.
Points of intersection.
- Be able to identify coincident lines:

Coincident = Lines that lie on top of each other.

How do we know?

⃗⃗⃗⃗1 = 𝑘𝑑
Firstly, the direction must be the same (obviously). So 𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 . If a scalar exists such that
the two directions become identical, then both vectors point the same direction. But they
can be parallel and not overlap. So we add a second test.

Secondly, a point in one line can be found by using a certain scaling factor in the other line.
So consider two lines 𝐿1 : 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 and 𝐿2 : 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 + 𝛼𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 . If these two lines and
𝑟2 + 𝛽𝑑
coincidental, then point 𝑟1 can be found using a specific 𝛽 in 𝐿2 . This verifies that they are
both parallel and on top of each other since they contain the same points.

Be able to identify parallel lines:

Parallel = Lines in the same direction.

All that is needed for this is ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 .

𝑑1 = 𝑘𝑑
 ©Ibling

Be able to identify the intersection point of two lines:

Intersection = Two lines overlap at some point.

Just like finding intersection in Cartesian diagram, we use simultaneous equations. A simple
way to set this up is via parametric equation.
𝑥1 = 𝑥2
{𝑦1 = 𝑦2
𝑧1 = 𝑧2

Your objective is to find the either of the scaling factors and eliminate the other. Once you
have found it, substitute it into its original line to get coordinates for one point.

Be able to identify skewed lines:

Skewed = Lines neither intersect nor is parallel.

You just need to verify that there is no intersection point.

 ©Ibling

5. The definition of the vector product of two vectors. Properties of the vector product.
Geometric interpretation of |v × w|.
- Be able to understand cross product:

Cross product = Type of multiplication that gives another vector perpendicular to the plane
of the two vectors.

Algebraically, you use matrix to calculate it or use the formula provided in formula booklet
(which I believe is the simpler way).

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂ 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑧
𝑎 × 𝑏 = [𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 ] = [ ] 𝑖̂ − [ ] 𝑗̂ + [ ̂
𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑧 𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑧 𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑦 ] 𝑘
𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑧

To calculate the area, we take the absolute value of this new vector.

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 = |𝑎 × 𝑏|
1
If it is the area of a triangle, then simply 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = |𝑎 × 𝑏|
2

Be able to use important properties of cross product:

1. 𝑎̂ × 𝑏̂ = −𝑏̂ × 𝑎̂

Be able to find volumes of a shape using vectors:

To find the volume, we need base x height in terms of vectors. Since we know how to
calculate area, we need to do the following:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = |(𝑎 × 𝑏⃗) ∙ 𝑐 |

The cross product is essentially the base and then we take dot product with the remaining
vector to calculate the value of volume. Note that absolute value is just to prevent a negative
value. If you multiply as such |(𝑏⃗ × 𝑎) ∙ 𝑐 |, you will get the opposite sign but same value
 ©Ibling

(remember property of cross product).

An alternative way is like this using the dot product with angle (perhaps more intuitive
because it is literally base x height).

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = |𝑎 × 𝑏⃗||𝑐 |𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Be able to perform triple cross product:

𝑎 × (𝑏⃗ × 𝑐)
= 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜: 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐.

The actual calculation is exactly the same as before.

6. Vector equation of a plane r = a +λb + μc. Use of normal vector to obtain the form r∙n =
a∙n. Cartesian equation of a plane ax + by + cz = d.
- Be able to write equations of a plane with three non-collinear vectors:

The basic idea is the same as in expressing a line with vectors. First you need a vector to get
to the plane. Then you need two vectors this time on the plane (you only needed one in line
equation) to be able to cover all points on that plane.

So we express it like this:

𝜋: ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟0 + 𝛼𝑣 + 𝛽𝑢
⃗

We can see that there are two scaling factors this time.
 ©Ibling

Be able to write equations of a plane with one point on the plane and a normal vector:

A normal vector is any vector perpendicular to the plane.

(x0, y0, z0)

(x, y, z)

We are essentially going to express this plane using dot product of the red and green vector.
Let the normal vector (green) have coordinates (a, b, c). Since normal vector and red vector is
perpendicular, dot product is 0.

𝑟 ∙ 𝑛⃗ = 0

Point “P” can be any point on the plane with coordinates (x, y, z) so the vector “r” can be:

𝑟 = (𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 , 𝑧 − 𝑧0 )

If we multiply the dot product out, we get:

𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑏(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝑐(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 − (𝑎𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑦0 + 𝑐𝑧0 ) = 0

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑦0 + 𝑐𝑧0

If we rewind back, this is just the same as:

𝑟∙𝑛 =𝑎∙𝑛

Note that 𝑎𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑦0 + 𝑐𝑧0 is constant. This form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑 is called the Cartesian
form.
 ©Ibling

Be able to move between vector form, parametric form and Cartesian form:

Vector form:
𝜋: ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟0 + 𝛼𝑣 + 𝛽𝑢
⃗

Parametric form:

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝛼𝑣1 + 𝛽𝑢1
{𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝛼𝑣2 + 𝛽𝑢2
𝑥 = 𝑧0 + 𝛼𝑣3 + 𝛽𝑢3

Cartesian form:

To move from parametric to Cartesian form, you need to solve the parametric form through
simultaneous equation. Remove 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 through elimination. Then we will get the form
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑. Or we could of course find the Cartesian equation if a point and a normal
vector is given.

7. Intersections of: a line with a plane; two planes; three planes. Angle between: a line and
a plane; two planes.
- Be able to find intersections of two lines:

This is already explained above. You will however notice that there are only two variables
(which are the two scaling factors) while you have three equations (one each for x, y, z). You
only need two equations for two variables, but you must use the third equation to verify that
they agree.

𝑣𝑥 + 𝜆𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝜇𝑑𝑥
{𝑣𝑦 + 𝜆𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝜇𝑑𝑦
𝑣𝑧 + 𝜆𝑑𝑧 = 𝑢𝑧 + 𝜇𝑑𝑧

Be able to find intersections of a line and a plane:

This is also just a type of simultaneous equation.

𝑟 = 𝑟0 + 𝜆𝑑
{
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑

The key here is to use parametric equation for the line, and substitute in the plane equation.
Our parametric equation is:

𝑥 = 𝑟0𝑥 + 𝜆𝑑𝑥
{𝑦 = 𝑟0𝑦 + 𝜆𝑑𝑦
𝑧 = 𝑟0𝑧 + 𝜆𝑑𝑧

And if we substitute this into the plane equation we get:

𝑎(𝑟0𝑥 + 𝜆𝑑𝑥 ) + 𝑏(𝑟0𝑦 + 𝜆𝑑𝑦 ) + 𝑐(𝑟0𝑧 + 𝜆𝑑𝑧 ) = 𝑑

 ©Ibling

Find the scaling factor 𝜆, and once you have it, just use that on your line equation to find the
point of intersection.

Be able to find intersections of two planes:

An intersection of two planes gives a line.

𝜋1 : 𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐𝑧1 = 𝑑1

{
𝜋2 : 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑦2 + 𝑐𝑧2 = 𝑑2

Your main objective here is to make this into a Cartesian form of equation. To do so, you
need to solve in respect to one variable (either x, y, z), for instance:
𝑥 − 𝑟0𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑟0𝑦
𝑧= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

Then you assume z is the scaling factor (assumption here doesn’t matter because you will
still get the same line). Thus in the end you will get:
𝑥 − 𝑟0𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑟0𝑦
𝜆= = =𝑧
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

Be able to identify parallel planes:

Parallel means that they have parallel normal vectors so if their cross product equals 0, they
are parallel (because sin0 = 0)

𝑛1 × 𝑛2 = |𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 ||𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 |𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
 ©Ibling

Be able to find intersections of three planes:

This again simultaneous equation in Cartesian form!

When there is a unique solution = It will give a point P(x, y, z).

When there are an infinite number of solutions = The planes are either on top of each other
0
or they form a line. You will reach either 0=0 or 𝑘 = .
0

To see if they are on top of each other, it means that all three planes are identical. Hence:

𝜋1 = 𝑘1 𝜋2 = 𝑘2 𝜋3

To see if they form a line, you test if the normal vector of one plane is 90° to the cross
product of the remaining two planes.

𝑛1 ∙ (𝑛2 × 𝑛3 ) = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

When there is no solution = There will be a contradictive statement when you have solved
for a variable.
 ©Ibling

Be able to find the angle between a line and a plane:

We know that dot product is very helpful when calculating angles. It is the same for the angle
between a line and a plane.
𝜃

As you can see in the picture, calculate the angle between normal vector and the direction
𝜋
vector of the line first. Then, subtract that value from to get the angle between the plane.
2

𝜋 𝑛⃗ ∙ 𝑑
𝜑= − 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
2 |𝑛⃗||𝑑 |

Be able to find the distance between a point and a plane:

Again, we use the dot product and trigonometry. You only need to find out the vector from
bottom of normal to the point and you are then good to go!

𝜃 𝑛⃗
𝑑 𝜃

𝑑
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
|𝑟|

𝑑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃|𝑟|

How do we find 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃? Well, through dot product of 𝑟 and 𝑛⃗!

Be able to find the angle between two planes:

Use dot product between the normal vectors. As simple as that.