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Methods of Evaluating Weld Quality in Modern Production (Part 1)

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Proceedings of 16th International Conference. Mechanika. 2011.

Methods of Evaluating Weld Quality in Modern Production (Part 1)

P. Kah*, J. Martikainen**, P. Layus***

*Lappeenranta University of Technology, PO Box 20, 53851 Lappeenranta, Finland, E-mail: paul.kah@lut.fi
** Lappeenranta University of Technology, PO Box 20, 53851 Lappeenranta, Finland, E-mail: juka.martikainen@lut.fi
*** Lappeenranta University of Technology, PO Box 20, 53851 Lappeenranta, Finland, E-mail:pavel.layus@lut.fi

Abstract

This study looks at major destructive and nondestructive techniques used to evaluate weld quality in modern
welding production. This paper presents a general review and explanation of these methods, and implements a more
intensive research on destructive methods. Some attention has been paid to find future trends in the development of
welding evaluation approaches. This study provides a good foundation for learning and creates awareness among the
metal industries to evaluate their productivity and quality in the field of welding.
KEY WORDS: destructive methods, tensile test, bend test, impact test, nick break test, hardness test, etch test.

1. Introduction

This paper looks at various methods of weld evaluation. There are two main groups of tests that are performed
in industry nowadays: destructive and nondestructive tests. Destructive tests can reveal an overall picture of the weld;
however, specially prepared specimens are required to be broken. Alternatively, non-destructive methods do not affect
the weld, but are often more complicated and less informative. Modern production equally employs both types of weld
evaluation, since each method has its unique advantages, but also certain limitations. This paper, Part 1, will examine
the most common destructive techniques, that is, the tensile test, the bend test, the impact test, the break test, the
hardness test and the etch test. Considering nondestructive tests, there is a much greater variety of tests in the market
and some will be evaluated in Part 2. This study provides a good foundation for future research and creates awareness
among the metal industries to evaluate their productivity and quality in welding.

2. Destructive methods

Destructive tests are applied to samples representative of the welded joint under review, often made especially
for test purposes. In a destructive test, the test piece or specimen is destroyed, in most cases by fracturing. After
destructive testing the specimen remains no longer applicable to further use. The following presents the most frequently
used destructive methods of evaluating welds.

2.1 Tensile test

One of the most common mechanical approaches of evaluating the properties of a weld, the tensile test helps to
reveal some properties in the material, such as yield strength, stress-strain curve, tensile strength, fracture strain and
Young`s modulus [1]. Moreover, the tensile test determines the ductility of a weld by obtaining two measurements of
ductility: the percent elongation and the percent reduction of the area. Figure 1 shows the process of the test and the
resulting chart. The tensile test is performed by fixing one end of the specimen in a vise and applying a smooth,
steadily increasing pull at the opposite end until the specimen breaks. The essential features of a tensile testing
machine are the parts that pull the test specimen and the devices that measure the resistance of the test specimen.
During the test, the tensile load as well as the elongation of the specimen is measured with the load dial of the
machine and extensometer correspondingly [1].

a b
Fig. 1 The process of the tensile test (a) [2] and the resultant chart (b) [1]
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The strain in the test piece is also measured by an extensometer or strain gauge. Moreover, there is a device
that records and plots the stress-strain curve for a permanent record [1]. There are two types of tensile tests, which differ
by the way of obtaining a specimen, and therefore, the tests aim to evaluate different characteristics of the welded
metal. There are transverse and longitudinal tensile tests, the specimens of which are shown in Fig. 2. In the transverse
tensile test, the specimen is a cut, oriented across the weld so that original materials, the weld and heat-affected zones
are included. When testing welded tubes or pipes, the extra weld metal above the weld should be machined off prior to
the testing [2].

a b
Fig. 2 A transverse tensile test specimen (a) [1] and a longitudinal tensile test specimen (b) [3]

Sometimes it is necessary to check only the properties of the welded metal in one part. In this case, along
with the transverse tensile test, a weld metal longitudinal tensile test should be used. This test is aimed to determine
the quality of the deposited metal in the welded joint. Therefore, a specimen for the test is prepared from the weld
metal by machining a groove in a plate of steel and then completely filling it with the weld metal. After that, the
surrounding steel is machined away to leave only a specimen of the weld metal [3]. Finally, after the test has been
completed, the two broken halves of the specimen are placed together to measure the distance between the gauge
marks and the area at the place of fracture. The obtained data lead to the evaluation of the properties of the welded
material. In sum, it is clear that the tensile test is better suited for testing small samples of parts, as it is quite slow
compared to nondestructive techniques. On the other hand, it is still fast in terms of destructive tests. The main
advantages are the relative simplicity of the test and the ability to provide quantitative information on weld quality [4].

2.2 Bend test

The bend test is a modest and inexpensive method that can be used to assess various properties of the weld.
Although it will not show the quantitative values as the tensile test, the bend test will demonstrate both the quality of the
weld and its overall ductility. It also shows the extent of the weld penetration, fusion, crystalline structure of the
fractured surface and strength. The bend test is a simple advance of comparing one welded joint with another of the
same type and revealing irregularities and defects. Usually, bend tests are designed so that the outer surface of the
specimen is stretched to a ductility level that approximates the minimum percent elongation required in a tensile test.
When defects exist in materials strained to these limits, the material tears locally. When tearing exceeds a specific limit,
the specimen fails. It is frequently implemented as a quality control evaluation for butt-welded joints, having the
advantage of simplicity of both specimens and equipment. No costly machinery or equipment are required. It can be
utilized using a tensile testing machine with particular modifications. Test specimens can be easily prepared as well.
Therefore, the bend test can be performed in the field or on the machine shop floor as a fast way to ensure
consistency in the manufacturing process. The process of the bending test is shown in Fig. 3 [5].

a b
Fig. 3 A schematic view of a bend test (a) and an overview procedure of the free-formed bending test (b) [5]

The bend test uses a sample that is bent in three points to a specified angle. The outside of the bend is
extensively plastically deformed so that any defects in the material or embrittlement thereof will be revealed by the
failure of the specimen. Generally, there are two types of bend tests: free-formed and guided. The free-formed bend test
is aimed to measure the ductility of the weld deposit and the heat-affected zone. Moreover, it shows in the percentage of
elongation of the weld metal. To surpass the barrier criteria of the test, minimum elongation should not exceed 15
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percent and there should be no cracks greater that 1.5875 mm on the face of the weld. The guided bend test is
performed by wrapping a sample weld around a specially designed jig with a certain diameter. There are two types of
tests. Face-bend tests are made in the jig with the face of the weld in tension (outside), whereas the root-bend test is
performed with the root of the weld in tension (outside). The specimen is positioned across the die. A hydraulically
operated plunge pushes the specimen into the die. To meet the requirements of the test specifications, the specimen has
to be bent up to 180 degrees with no cracks larger than 3.5 mm on the surface [1, 5].
Bend tests can be furthermore divided into the transverse bend test, root bend test, face bend test,
longitudinal bend test and side bend test. To test the different properties of the weld, bend samples can be orienting
transverse or parallel to the welding direction. A 12 mm thick transverse sample is typically tested with the root or face
of the weld in tension. A material over 12 mm thick is normally tested along the whole thickness of the weld using the
side bend test [5]. When the material thickness is too great to let the complete section to be bent, the sample should be
divided into smaller parts and tested separately. In general, most welding specifications require two roots and two face
bend specimens or four sides bend to be taken from each butt welded test piece [1, 5, 6].
The transverse face bend specimen will reveal any imperfections on the face, such as excessive undercut or
lack of fusion. It is also excellent at uncovering a lack of root fusion or penetration. The transverse side bend test
examines the full weld thickness and is particularly good at revealing a lack of side-wall and root fusion in double-V
butt joints. Longitudinal bend samples are machined to contain the complete weld, the heat-affected zone and side
metals. They may be bent with the face, root or side intension and are used when there is a difference in mechanical
strength between the two parent metals or the parent metal and the weld. The bend test and the ductility test are very
common tests for welded joints, piping products and reinforcing materials [1, 5].

2.3 Impact test

Impact testing is crucial in order to evaluate the behavior of welds under dynamic loading. This test determines
the behavior of welded structures when subjected to high rates of loading. The test compares the toughness of the
welded material with the original one. Toughness is defined as the resistance of a metal to fracture after plastic
deformation has begun. The purpose of impact testing is to determine the amount of impact a specimen will absorb
before fracturing [5]. Even though impact properties are not directly used in fracture mechanics calculations, impact
tests continue to be used as a quality control method to assess notch sensitivity and to compare the relative toughness of
welded parts.
Generally, there are two kinds of impact tests, Charpy and Izod. These are different by used specimens and
methods of fixing the specimens, but both tests are performed by using a pendulum testing machine. During the test
procedure, the specimen is broken by a single hit using a specially designed machine. The impact toughness of a metal
is determined by measuring the energy absorbed in the breaking of the specimen. This is simply obtained by noting the
height at which the pendulum is released and the height to which the pendulum swings after it has struck the specimen.
The height of the pendulum times the weight of the pendulum produces the potential energy. The difference in
potential energy of the pendulum at the start and the end of the test is equal to the absorbed energy [1]. A typical
machine for performing the impact test is shown in Fig. 4. One of the most common impact testing techniques is the
Charpy method, designed to measure impact energy, or the toughness of the metal.

Fig. 4 A typical impact test machine [1]

Charpy tests show whether a metal can be classified as being either brittle or ductile. This is particularly useful for
ferritic steels that show ductile or brittle properties at low temperatures. A brittle metal will absorb a small amount of
energy during the impact test, whereas a tough ductile metal absorbs more energy [1]. Since toughness is greatly
affected by temperature, the Charpy or Izod test is often repeated numerous times with each specimen tested at different
temperature conditions. The standard size of the specimen for the test is 55 mm long, 10 mm square and has a 2 mm
deep notch with a tip radius of 0.25 mm machined on one face, as shown in Fig. 5, b [1]. The Charpy piece is settled
horizontally between two anvils, and the pendulum strikes opposite the notch (Fig. 5, a, view A). The Izod piece is
positioned as a vertical cantilever beam and is struck on the free end projecting over the vise (Fig. 5, a, view B).
 167

a b
Fig. 5 Charpy and Izod testing (a) [7], and the standard size of the specimen (b) [1]

The test is intended to check whether any of the mechanical properties of the base material have been affected
by the welding process. The perfect impact test would show that all the energy of the blow is transmitted to the test
piece. When reporting the results of a Charpy test, the absorbed energy (in J) is always reported, while the percentage
crystallinity and lateral expansion are optional on the test report. It should be emphasized that Charpy tests
are qualitative, the results can only be compared with each other or with a requirement in a specification and
they cannot be used to calculate the fracture toughness of a weld or parent metal [7].

2.4 Nick break test

The nick break test is useful for determining the internal quality of the weld metal. This test reveals various
internal defects, such as slag inclusions, gas pockets, lack of fusion, and oxidized or burned metal. The test specimen is
cut transversely to the welded joint and has the full thickness of the plate at the joint. Slots are sawed at each
edge through the center of the weld of the specimen to be tested. The depth of the cut should be about 6.5 mm [6]. The
specimen is placed upright on two supports, and the force on the weld is applied either by a press or by the sharp blows
of a hammer until a fracture occurs between the two slots. The process is shown below in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6 The nick break test procedure [6]

The weld metal exposed in the break should be completely fused, free from slag inclusions, and contain no gas
pockets greater than 1.5875 mm across their greatest dimension. The fractured specimen cross-section is then visually
examined for imperfections. If any defect exceeds 1.5 mm in size or the number of gas pockets exceeds one per square
cm, the piece has failed the test [6].

2.5. Hardness test

The hardness test measures the resistance to wear of the weld metal. Hardness values can give information
about the metallurgical changes caused by welding. In the case of premium and high carbon steels and cast iron, the
heat-affected zone or weld junction may become hard and brittle because of the formation of martensite. Hardness
values in a welded joint are usually sensitive to such conditions of welding as the process used, heat input, preheat or
underpass temperature, electrode composition and plate thickness. Hardness values indicate whether the correct welding
technique and heat treatments have been performed. The hardness of welds is particularly important if the welds must
be machined. There are two most commonly used hardness test methods: the Brinell Test and the Vickers pyramid. The
welded specimen should be polished and etched to show clearly the weld metal area. Hardness is determined on specific
areas of interest, including the weld central line, face or root regions of the weld deposit, the heat-affected zone and the
base metal [1].

2.5.1 Brinell hardness test

The test comprises forcing a hardened steel ball indentor into the surface of the sample using a standard load as
shown in Fig. 7, a. The diameter/load ratio is selected to provide an impression of an acceptable diameter. The ball may
be 10, 5 or 1 mm in diameter, the load may be 3000, 750 or 30 kgf. The load, P, is related to the diameter, D, by the
relationship P/D 2. The load is applied for a fixed length of time, usually 30 seconds. When the indentor is retracted,
 168

two diameters of the impression d 1 and d 2 are measured using a microscope with a calibrated graticule and then
averaged as shown in Fig. 7, b. [1].

a) Brinell indentation b) measurement of impression diameter

Fig. 7 The Brinell hardness test [5]

The Brinell hardness number is found by dividing the load by the surface area of the impression. The Brinell
test is generally used for bulk metal hardness measurements; the impression is larger than that of the Vickers test, and
this is useful as it averages out any local heterogeneity and is affected less by surface roughness. However, because of
the large ball diameter the test can hardly be used to determine the hardness variations in a welded joint for which the
Vickers test is preferred [1].

2.5.2 Vickers hardness test

The Vickers hardness test operates on similar principles to the Brinell test; however, the major difference is the
use of a square-based pyramidal diamond indentor rather than a hardened steel ball. Also, unlike the Brinell test, the
depth of the impression does not affect the accuracy of the reading. The diamond does not deform at high loads, so the
results on very hard materials are more reliable. The load may range from 1 to 120 kgf and is applied for 10 to 15
seconds. [13]. The basic principles of operation of the Vickers hardness test are illustrated in Figure 8 where it can be
seen that the load is applied to the indentor by a simple weighted lever.

a b

Fig. 8 Schematic principles of operation of Vickers hardness machine (a) and Vickers hardness test (b) [1]

As shown in Fig. 8, b, two diagonals, d1 and d2, are measured and averaged, and the surface area calculated and
then divided into the load applied. As with the Brinell test, the diagonal measurement is converted to a hardness figure
by referring to a set of tables. The Vickers indentation is smaller than the Brinell impression and thus far smaller areas
can be tested, making it possible to carry out a survey across a welded joint, including individual runs and heat-affected
zones. The small impression also means that the surface must be flat and perpendicular to the indentor. To achieve the
required flatness tolerance and surface finish, surface grinding or machining may be necessary. The specimen
dimensions are important: if the test piece is too thin, the hardness of the specimen table will affect the result. As a rule
of thumb, the specimen thickness should be ten times the depth of the impression for the Brinell test and twice that of
the Vickers diagonal [8].

2.6 Etch test

The macro etch test is a test for visual evaluation of the homogeneity and soundness of a weld. It involves
pickling a disc or cross-section in strong acid until deep etching displays the macro structure of the weld [6, 9]. Serious
defects like voids and porosity or cracks may be clearly visible on the polished surface of the weld without any further
treatment. However, to detect any defects, the weld borders are etched with a proper solution. The chemical reagent
attacks the metal so that the specific features stand out [6]. There are two types of etch tests, macro and micro etch
examination.

2.6.1 Macro etch examination

After preparing the specimen by polishing and etching, it is examined either by the naked eye or by low power
magnification of up to X15. A low-power lens or a simple binocular stereoscope should be used with proper lighting.
Macro examination gives a broad picture of the specimen by studying relatively large sectioned areas. Generally,
 169

medium grinding is sufficient to produce a satisfactory surface for examination. Polishing is not necessary, and for most
specimens grinding can be finished with Grade 320 paper. This method of testing typically involves the removal of
small samples of the welded joint. Once polished, a metal-specific etching solution is applied to the area of the weld.
This develops to clearly reveal the local structure of the weld and parent metal. The acid etch provides a clear visual
appearance of the internal structure of the weld right after the etching. At this stage the outline of the weld should be
clearly visible. Particular interest is often shown at the fusion line, this being the transition between the weld and the
base material. The inspector can then check for underlying porosity and inclusions in the parent metal, as well as
identify poor weld penetration through the joint, any insufficient fusion and evidence of cavities and porosity faults in
the weld, all of which might seriously weaken the completed structure if present. This type of inspection is obviously a
snapshot of the overall weld length quality when used for sampling inspection with production welds. This type of
testing is often used extremely successfully to pinpoint welding problems, such as crack initiation, when used for failure
analyses [6, 7].

2.6. 2 Micro etch examination

After preparing the specimen by polishing and etching, it is examined under a microscope at magnifications
from X20 to X2000 [9]. Micro etch examination involves areas much smaller than those considered in macro etch
examination and brings out information that can never be revealed by macro examination. Micro examination discovers
several features in a welded specimen: cracks and inclusions of microscopic size, grain boundaries and solidification
structures of weld metal and the heat-affected zone, distribution of micro constituents in the weld metal and the quality
of heat treatment. Fig. 9 presents an example of a weld tested.

Fig. 9 An example of the etch test [10]

This paper presented the most potential and profitable techniques of evaluating weld. Considering destructive
tests, there are several quite similar methods which are aimed to reveal different types of welding defects. Also, to
perform successful production it is not only important to evaluate welds afterwards, but also to carefully check all the
starting conditions and equipment. Moreover, nowadays some welding evaluation techniques tend to be used as real-
time welding evaluation. It seems that this application will be develop in the near future. All in all, a number of weld
evaluation techniques can be used in evaluating weld quality, all based on physical model analysis.

References

1. Mathers, G. Mechanical testing - Tensile test. – TWI publications Reviews, UK, 2009, p. 69-73.
2. Tensile property testing. – Material Property data, 2000. ASTM D638, p. 1-5.
3. Hobart. All Weld Metal Tests.– Technical information press release, 2010, 1 p.
4. Benatar, A., Grewell, D., Park, J. Plastics and Composites Welding Handbook. – Hanser, 2003, vol.10, 2 p.
5. Fundamentals of Professional Welding. – Published by Sweet Haven Publishing Services based upon a text provided
by the U.S. Navy, 2006, vol. (10-20).
6. DIN EN 895. Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials Transverse tensile test, June 1995, p. 20 - 67.
7. Herter, J. Impact Testing Machine. – Safety of Structures, Chapter 7, February 2011, p. 1-2.
8. BS EN 1043-1:1996. Destructive Tests on Welds in Metallic Materials Hardness testing.– Hardness test on arc
welded joints. – August 2005, 24 p.
9. AWS Committee on Methods of Inspection. –Welding Inspection Handbook.– Woodhead Publishing, edition 2000,
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10. Analysis of a Fractured Crane Frame Weldments. – Metallurgical Technologies Inc., met-tech.com, 2001.

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