Applied Materials Today 7 (2017) 120–133

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Materials Today

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apmt

Review article

Fundamentals and applications of 3D printing for novel materials

Jian-Yuan Lee ∗ , Jia An, Chee Kai Chua
Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: 3D printing is emerging as an enabling technology for a wide range of new applications. From fundamen-
Received 20 January 2017 tals point of view, the available materials, fabrication speed, and resolution of 3D printing processes must
Received in revised form 7 February 2017 be considered for each specific application. This review provides a basic understanding of fundamentals
Accepted 9 February 2017
of 3D printing processes and the recent development of novel 3D printing materials such as smart mate-
rials, ceramic materials, electronic materials, biomaterials and composites. It should be noted that the
Keywords:
versatility of 3D printing materials comes from the variety of 3D printing systems, and all the new prin-
3D Printing
ters or processes for novel materials have not gone beyond the seven categories defined in ISO/ASTM
Additive manufacturing
Smart materials
standard. However, 3D printing should never be seen as a standalone process, it is becoming an integral
Biomaterials part of a multi-process system or an integrated process of multiple systems to match the development
Composites of novel materials and new requirements of products.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2. Classification of different additive manufacturing processes based on the ASTM standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3. Fundamentals of seven AM processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.1. Binder jetting (BJ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.2. Direct energy deposition (DED) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.3. Material extrusion (ME) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.4. Material jetting (MJ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.5. Powder bed fusion (PBF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.6. Sheet lamination (SL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.7. Vat photopolymerization (VP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.8. Comparison of AM processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4. 3D printing applications of novel materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.1. Digital and smart materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.1.1. Digital materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.1.2. Smart materials for 4D printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.2. Ceramics materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.3. Electronic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.4. Biomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.5. Composite materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5. Conclusions and prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Lists of symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Conflict of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: leej0127@e.ntu.edu.sg (J.-Y. Lee).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2017.02.004
2352-9407/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 J.-Y. Lee et al. / Applied Materials Today 7 (2017) 120–133 121

1. Introduction energy (W), which results in a single layer with a total power vari-
ation:
Additive manufacturing (AM), commonly known as 3D prin-
ı(mW ) = mıW + Wım.
ting, can be defined as the “process of joining materials to
make parts from 3D model data, usually layer upon layer, The first term represents a 3D printing process in which a con-
as opposed to subtractive manufacturing and formative manu- stant mass is bonded selectively by a variable energy ıW controlled
facturing methodologies” in the International Organization for by the description of a layer. Material extrusion and material jet-
Standardization (ISO)/American Society for Testing and Materials ting can be grouped into this variable energy process. The second
(ASTM) 52900:2015 standard. Based on the standard, AM pro- term represents a process where layer formation controls a variable
cesses can be classified into seven categories: (1) binder jetting; mass ım acted on by a fixed energy W. Powder bed fusion, binder
(2) directed energy deposition; (3) material extrusion; (4) material jetting, sheet lamination and vat photopolymerization can be fur-
jetting; (5) powder bed fusion; (6) sheet lamination; and (7) vat ther classified into this variable mass process. When both terms
photopolymerization as shown in Fig. 1. exist, the process is direct energy deposition, in which both energy
In recent years, due to increasing demand for both product and material mass are variable when fabricating a single layer.
complexity and multi-functionality, many new materials, such as
nanomaterials, functional materials, biomaterials, smart materials 3. Fundamentals of seven AM processes
or even fast drying concrete, have been explored for 3D printability
and the use as feed materials for printing real application parts In a typical AM process, there are a lot of process parameters,
[1–3]. However, there are limited reviews on the recent devel- such as fabrication speed, resolution, quality, cost, build volume,
opment of these novel materials and applications in 3D printing surface finish and part strength. However, among these process
[4–13]. Now is the time to address an important question when parameters, fabrication speed and resolution are the most criti-
integrating novel materials with 3D printing, i.e. is there a suffi- cal fundamental properties of AM process. Therefore, these two
cient match between these novel materials and current 3D printing process parameters are selected to evaluate seven AM processes.
technologies to meet the new requirements of products?
Therefore, the main purpose of this review is to critically analyze 3.1. Binder jetting (BJ)
the fundamental aspects of these AM processes in terms of specific
energy, resolution and fabrication speed as well as the latest devel- Binder jetting is one of the additive manufacturing processes
opment of novel materials in 3D printing and their applications in in which powder particles are joined together by the selectively
different industries. The advantages and disadvantages of these AM depositing a liquid bonding agent and a three-dimensional part is
processes as well as the critical challenges and new opportunities of created by gluing the particles together. The print head is designed
these novel materials will be discussed. For the scope of this review, to drop bonding agent onto the powder and the platform is then
we will focus on five recent developments in 3D printing mate- lower to spread another layer of powder. The advantages of binder
rials: (1) smart materials; (2) ceramics materials; (3) electronics jetting technique include free of support, design freedom, large
materials; (4) biomaterials; and (5) composite materials. build volume, high print speed and relatively low cost.
Selected examples of machines using BJ process include ExOne
production printers (Exerial, S-Max, S-Print, M-Print and M-Flex
2. Classification of different additive manufacturing
machines) and examples of commercial materials are summarized
processes based on the ASTM standards
in Table 2. There are a variety of materials including ceramic, metal,
glass, sand and polymer can be printed using binder jetting tech-
Based on the ASTM Standards, AM processes can be classified
nique. Industry grade materials such as silica sand, stainless steel,
into seven categories and examples of AM processes are listed in
ceramic beads, chromite, zircon, soda lime glass, bonded tungsten,
Table 1. Johnson categorized the AM process based on the method
tungsten carbide and others are commercially available.
of controlling layer fabrication [14]. In this approach, AM can be
In the BJ process, the droplet energy (Wd ) is composed of its sur-
considered as an interaction between the material mass (m) and
face energy and kinetic energy as shown by the following equations
[14]:

Vd v2
Wd = dd2 + .
2
The adhesive binding energy (W*) is the droplet energy per
aggregate volume associated with the droplet.
Vd v2
dd2 +
W∗ = 2
,
Va
where Va is the aggregate volume and can be expressed as

Va = 3
,
6(K dd )
where K is a constant and dd is the diameter of the droplet.
In the process of binder jetting, the volume of minimum resolu-
tion is the combination of the volume of particles and the adhesive
associated with one droplet after bonding to form a somewhat
spherical powder primitive:

Vr = .
6(primitive diameter)3
Fig. 1. Classification of AM processes based on ISO/ASTM 529000:2015.
122 J.-Y. Lee et al. / Applied Materials Today 7 (2017) 120–133

Table 1
Classification of different AM processes based on the ASTM standards.

Binder jetting Direct energy Material extrusion Material jetting Powder bed fusion Sheet lamination Vat
deposition photopolymerization

Voxeljet Laser Engineered Fused Deposition Stratasys’ Polyjet Selective Laser Laminated Object Stereolithography
Net Shaping (LENS) Modeling (FDM) Sintering (SLS) Manufacturing Apparatus (SLA)
(LOM)

ExOne 3D System’s Selective Laser MCor’s A4 Paper Digital Light Processing

Mult-Jet Printing Melting (SLM) Printing (DLP)
(MJM)

Color Jet Printing Solidscape Electron Beam Kira’ Paper

(CJP) Melting (EBM) Lamination
Technology (PLT)

Table 2
Materials that can be used in binder jetting and their application in various industries.

Material Properties Applications/Industries

Stainless steel High tensile strength, heat and corrosion resistant Suitable for parts exposed to highly abrasive environments such as
pump components and parts for down-hole drilling and mining
equipment
Ceramic beads Good thermal expansion and high permeability Ceramic beads are compatible with all binders and are
recommended for casting steel alloys or printing cores subject to
high thermal stress conditions
Inconel alloy Highly dense, good mechanical properties Commonly used for gas turbine blades, seals, pressure vessels in the
aerospace industry as well as steam generators in pressurized
nuclear water reactors
Iron Good mechanical properties and excellent wear Suitable for automotive components, machine tools, tooling,
resistant decorative hardware and iron is most widely used material for
industrial applications

3.2. Direct energy deposition (DED) 3.3. Material extrusion (ME)

Direct energy deposition (DED) is one of the additive manufac- Material extrusion is one of the additive manufacturing pro-
turing processes in which energy is directed into a small region to cesses in which material is pushed out through a nozzle when a
heat a substrate and melt material that is being deposited. Gener- constant pressure is applied. The extruded material will deposit at
ally, a highly powerful laser is used to melt the metal powders and a constant speed and fully solidify on the substrate after it comes
the quantity of metal powder deposited for DED process has a direct out of the nozzle. In addition, the material must bind with previous
influence on the resolution of the printed part. The working princi- material so that a solid part can form and remaining in that struc-
ple of a DED process is different from that of powder bed fusion in ture throughout the process. Selected examples of the machines
one fundamental way: the high power-density laser is focused on a based on ME process are Stratasys’s Fortus Production Series
continuous stream of metal powder that is deposited onto the sub- (380 mc, 450 mc and 900 mc). Thermoplastic materials used in
strate instead of pre-deposited a layer of metal powder. Selected FDM include (1) acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS); (2) acryloni-
examples of DED machines are Optomec’s Laser Engineered Net trile styrene acrylate (ASA); (3) nylon 12; (4) polycarbonate (PC);
Shaping (LENS), InssTek DMT 3D Metal Printers (MX-250, MX-450, (5) polyphenylsulfone (PPSF/PPSU); (6) polyetherimide (PEI or
MX-1000, MPC and MX-Grand) and BeAM machines (Mobile, Magic ULTEM); (7) polylactic acid (PLA); (8) thermoplastic polyurethane
and Modulo), Sciaky’s electron beam AM (EBAM), wire + arc AM (TPU). Material properties such as UV resistance, biocompatibility,
(WAAM). The resolution of DED process depends on its energy translucence, toughness can be offered by these FDM materials as
source (i.e. laser > electron beam > arc due to heat input) while shown in Table 3. These material properties make them perfect for
the fabrication speed of DED process depends on deposition rate harsh environment in automotive, aerospace, medical and other
(e.g. LENS 0.5 kg/hr  EBAM up to 9 kg/hr < WAAM up to 10 kg/hr). industries.
Typical materials are usual industrial metal powders that are eco- In the FDM process, the specific energy equation for incompress-
nomical such as stainless steels, copper, aluminium, titanium, ible melt flows is different from other processes and can be written
nickel, cobalt and tin. as following [16]:
In the DED process, the laser energy absorbed (Wa ) by the mate-  dT 
rial can be simplified by [15]: cp + (v · ∇ )T = −∇ q
 − ( : ∇ v) + ,
dt
Wa = APL ti where  is the density, p is the applied pressure,  is the surface
force, T is the temperature, v is the velocity,  is the change in inter-
where A is the heat absorptivity of laser beam on metal surface, PL nal energy due to heat source, ∇ q  is the change in energy per unit
is the power of the laser beam, ti is the interaction time of the laser time and volume due to heat conduction.
beam on the surface of the work piece. This interaction time can be
expressed by
3.4. Material jetting (MJ)
d
ti = The liquid droplets are deposited on the working platform to
v
partially soften the previous layer of material and solidify as one
where d is the diameter of the laser beam and v is the laser scanning piece during the material jetting process. When all the layers are
speed. deposited as one part, the object is removed from the building
 J.-Y. Lee et al. / Applied Materials Today 7 (2017) 120–133 123

Table 3
Material properties of FDM thermoplastic and their application in various industries.

Material Properties Applications/industries

ABS Tough and strong Automotive, aerospace, medical-device

ASA Mechanical Strength and UV stability Functional prototyping from brackets and electrical housings to
automotive prototypes and practical production parts for outdoor use
under the sun
Nylon 12 Good chemical resistance, high fatigue resistance Ideal material for applications that demand impact-protective
and high impact strength components and high fatigue endurance, including antenna covers,
custom production tooling, friction-fit inserts and snap fits in
automotive and aerospace industries
PC High tensile and flexural strength Functional prototypes, tooling and fixtures, blow-molding master in
automotive and aerospace industries
PPSF/PPSU Excellent chemical and heat resistance and PPSF/PPSU can withstand various sterilization methods including
mechanical strength ethylene oxide, autoclaving, and radiation. Sterilizable medical
devices, automotive prototypes, and tooling for demanding
applications in a variety of industries
PEI or Biocompatible, excellent mechanical, chemical and Due to its high strength-to-weight ratio and existing certification,
ULTEM thermal stability ULTEM is ideal for rapid prototyping and advanced tooling applications
in aerospace, automotive, medical and food-production industries
PLA Good tensile strength and surface quality Ideal for model and prototypes that require aesthetic detail and
environmentally-friendly for both home and office
TPU Excellent tear and wear resistance, high impact Exceptional flexibility (i.e. elongation at break) and corrosion
strength and hardness resistance to many common industrial chemicals and oils. Highly
versatile material with the both rubber and plastics properties for a
variety of industrial application

Table 4
Material properties of Stratasys’ polyjet photopolymers and their applications.

Material Properties Applications/industries

VeroWhitePlus Durable, rigid and high dimensional accuracy Suitable for a range of industries applications such as electronic
housing, medical devices, work piece with complicated features
Digital ABS Higher heat deflection temperature Functional prototypes, injection molds, manufacturing tools,
electronics enclosures, durable presentation models, engine parts and
covers
Fullcure Transparent with a smooth surface finish Color dying, medical applications, visualization of liquid flow, fit
RGD 720 testing of see-through parts such as glass, eye-wear and artistic
modeling
Rigur Bright white, mimics properties of Ideal material for living hinges, packaging, reusable containers and
RGD 450 polypropylene flexible closures in the industries of automotive, consumer goods and
electronics
Rubber-like material Various shore A elastomers Over-molded grips on handles, simulated gaskets, o-rings, keypads
and electronic button covers
High-temperature material Good heat resistance with good stability Ideal material for testing applications such as hot-water flow or
hot-air flow in faucets and pipes
Bio-compatible material Transparent, high dimensional stability, rigid Ideal material for applications requiring short-term (<24 hours) and
long-term (>30 days) skin contact
Dental material Good strength, high accuracy and durability Three types of dental materials (VeroDent, VeroDentPlus and
VeroGlaze) are approved for in-mouth placement, veneer try-ins and
diagnostic wax-ups

platform to remove the support material. Selected examples of Therefore, object fabrication speed for material jetting
machines based on material jetting including Stratasys’s produc-
l1
tion series Polyjet machines (Objet1000 Plus, Connex 3 and J750) v=  .
and 3D System’s Multi Jet Printing machines (Projet 3600 series, A1 l1
+ treset
fVd
Projet 5000 and Project 5500X). The materials for MJ process are
mainly photopolymers such as VisiJet materials from 3D System
and thermoset resins from Stratasys (see Table 4).
3.5. Powder bed fusion (PBF)
In the MJ process, the minimum resolution volume of a material
deposition fabrication process is the volume of one droplet [14].
Powder bed fusion (PBF) is one of the additive manufactur-
This is given as
ing processes in which a thermal source such as laser is used to
 induce partial or full fusion between powder particles followed
Vr = ,
6dd3 by a roller or blade recoater to add and smooth another powder
layer. The binding mechanisms of PBF process are mainly sintering
where dd is the diameter of the droplet.
and melting. The main difference is that sintering is considered as
Image time per layer (timage ) is determined by the droplet vol-
a partial melting process while melting is deemed as a full melt-
ume Vd , the droplet rate f, layer area A1 , and layer thickness l1
ing process [17]. In solid-state sintering, the particles fuse at the
surface only that result in inherent porosity of the part while in
A1 l1 liquid-state melting, all particles fully melt and fuse together that
timage = .
fVd give a fully dense part with almost zero porosity. The fabrication
124 J.-Y. Lee et al. / Applied Materials Today 7 (2017) 120–133

Table 5
Typical SLM metal powders.

Material Properties Applications/industries

Titanium (Ti) Corrosion resistance, biocompatible, low thermal Titanium components can be applied across a broad spectrum of
expansion, high strength and low density applications, such as medical technology, aerospace, automotive,
maritime, jewelry and design
Stainless steel Hardenable, high resistance to wear and tear, Applications for stainless steel components are found in automotive
corrosion resistance, great hardness and high industry, toolmaking, maritime, medical technology, mechanical
ductility engineering
Aluminium (Al) Good alloying properties, good process ability and Aluminium components are optimal for use in areas such as aerospace
electrical conductivity, low material density and engineering, automotive industry, prototype construction, especially
light metal thin-wall components with complex geometries
Cobalt-Chrome Biocompatible, very high hardness, corrosion Cobalt-chrome components can be used in medical and dental
resistance, high strength and high ductility technologies, high-temperature fields such as in jet engines
Nickel based alloys Outstanding weldability, hardenable, corrosion Nickel based components can be used in aerospace engineering,
resistance, excellent mechanical strength high-temperature fields, toolmaking

Table 6
Typical EBM metal powders.

Material Properties Applications/industries

Titanium High strength, low weight, biocompatible, corrosion Direct manufacturing of prototypes for racing and aerospace industry,
resistant marine & chemical industry, and orthopedic implants & prosthesis
Cobalt-chrome High strength, wear resistance, biocompatible, Widely used in the orthopedics, aerospace, power generation and the
temperature capability dental fields

speed and resulting part properties will be largely affected by the between the sheets such as adhesive bonding, thermal bonding,
binding mechanism. PBF process is mainly based on a thermal heat- and clamping. UAM can be considered as a hybrid sheet lamina-
ing process using a highly energized laser/electron beam as the tion process including CNC milling and ultrasonic metal welding
energy source and the selection of an appropriate laser/electron [23]. Other examples of SL machines are MCor’s 3D printers (ARKe
beam system for the target material is the key step. Examples of PBF Full color, Mcor IRIS HD, MCor Matrix 300+) and the materials of SL
processes are selective laser sintering (SLS), selective laser melting process are mainly paper, plastic sheets and metals sheets.
(SLM) [18,19], and electron beam melting (EBM) [20,21]. The typical In the SL process, the specific energy (W*) for forming the con-
materials used in PBF are listed in Tables 5 and 6. tour of each layer is given by [14]
In the PDF process, the specific energy input per volume of each
scan (W) is a function of processing parameters such as laser power W ∗ = cT,
(P), scan speed (v), hatch distance or scan line spacing (h) and Z- where  is the density of paper used, c is the specific heat capacity
increment or layer thickness (t) [22] and T is the temperature of disintegration of sheet lamination.
P Image time per layer (timage ) for the process of sheet lamination,
W= .
v×h×t
On the other hand, the sintering energy per unit area (Ws ) that W ∗ Acl1
timage = .
is required to increase a mass of powder particles above the glass P
transition temperature is expressed as [14] Therefore, object fabrication speed is

Ws = cl1 ıT, l1
v=  .
W ∗ Acl1
where  is the density of powder used, c is the specific heat capac- P
+ treset
ity, l1 is the total thickness of unsintered toner layer and ıT is the
temperature rise from ambient to polymer sintering temperature.
Image time per layer (timage ) for the process of powder bed 3.7. Vat photopolymerization (VP)
fusion,
Vat photopolymerization (VP) is a general term that includes
Ws A1 Aspot s2
timage = . stereolithography and its related process. Stereolithography is
P referred specifically to vat photopolymerization in which photo-
Therefore, object fabrication speed for masked lamp curable resins are exposed to laser and undergo a chemical
reaction to become solid. The chemical reaction is called photo-
l1
v=  . polymerization, which involves many chemical compounds such as
Ws A1 Aspot s2
P
+ treset photo-initiators, additives and reactive monomers/oligomers (see
Fig. 2).
Most photopolymers used in commercial AM systems are cur-
3.6. Sheet lamination (SL) able in the UV range and photo-polymerization is a photo-chemical
process of linking small monomers into chain-like polymers. A cat-
Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) and ultrasonic additive alyst (i.e. photo-initiator) is usually required for the reaction to take
manufacturing (UAM) are the two main categories of the sheet lam- place at a reasonable rate. The polymers must be sufficiently cross-
ination processes in which material sheets are either cut by using linked so that the polymerized molecules do not re-dissolve into
laser or combined by using ultrasound. Each material sheet can be the liquid monomers. It must also possess sufficient strength to
considered as one of the cross-sectional layers of the solid object. remain structurally sound under various forces. Free-radical photo-
LOM can be further classified based on the bonding mechanism polymerization is well-established and yields polymers that are
 J.-Y. Lee et al. / Applied Materials Today 7 (2017) 120–133 125

Fig. 2. Mechanism of free-radical photo-polymerization.

Table 7
Typical materials used on DWS 029X SLA machine.

Material Properties Applications/industries

DC 100 High accuracy and low shrinkage Suitable for direct casting of jewelry models/patterns with smooth
surface and accurate shapes
DC 500 Wax-like and easy burnout Suitable for thin wire patterns of jewelry which are impossible to be
replicated using rubber molding methods
DL 350 Polypropylene-like and high flexibility To produce functional parts for general purpose applications and
industrial design. The models made of DL 350 are strong and flexible
DL 360 Transparent and strong To produce functional parts which need transparent features for
general purpose applications and industrial design
AB 001 ABS-like To produce functional parts that are strong and smooth
GM 08 Rubber-like and transparent, high flexibility To produce functional parts that are strong, flexible, durable and
smooth which is ready for use. No further manual finishing needed
DM 210 Ceramic-like and high surface quality Suitable for both thin and thick rubber master models of jewelry
patterns with liquid silicone and can be removed easily from the
rubber
DM 220 Nano-filled ceramic and smooth surface Suitable for both rubber master models of jewelry patterns
applications with vulcanized rubber and liquid silicone at a higher
temperature

acrylate-based. Some basic materials properties of vat polymer- where d is the diameter of the droplet and l1 is the minimum layer
ization (VP) will be discussed in this section using three examples: thickness.
Stereolithograph apparatus (SLA), Digital light processing (DLP) and Object fabrication speed (v) is expressed as a linear dimension
Continuous liquid interface production (CLIP). VP photopolymers built per unit time as:
mainly consist of monomers/oligomers, photo-initiators, additives
l1
such as stabilizers, flexibilizers, reactive diluents, and solvent. In v= ,
(timage + treset )
Tables 7–9, the materials of three selected printers are listed.
In the VP process, the specific energy (W*) is used to describe the where l1 is the layer thickness, timage is the image time per layer,
photo-sensitivity of photopolymer, which is the amount of radiant treset is the sum of total layer recoating time, compute slicing time
energy exposure to solidify a unit of photopolymer resin [14]: and total support material placement time, divided by the total
  number of layers.
Wc lc
W∗ = exp Image time per layer (timage ) is determined by the resin photo-
lc lp
sensitivity, the illumination power P, the layer area A1 and certain
where Wc is the threshold curing exposure for transition of pho- imaging method parameters Wi .
topolymer resin from liquid to solid phase, lc is the depth of polymer For the masked lamp technology [14],
curing and lp is the depth of penetration. Wi A1
For laser curing process, the minimum resolution volume (Vr ) of timage = .
P
the laser curing and masked lamp process is based on the minimum
feature area and the minimum layer thickness [14] Therefore, object fabrication speed for masked lamp

l1
Vr =
dr 2 l1
,
v =  WA .
i 1
4 P
+ treset
126 J.-Y. Lee et al. / Applied Materials Today 7 (2017) 120–133

Table 8
Typical materials used on ASIGA PICO 2 DLP machine.

Material Properties Applications/industries

PlasTM range High resolution and chemically resistant Suitable for enclosures, jigs and fixtures, mechanical assemblies,
concept models with great durability and surface finish
SuperCAST Direct-cast range of resins Suitable for precision casting such as jewelry casting and dental casting
SuperWAX Wax-like and easy burnout The first 3D printing photopolymer that melts like wax and liquefies at
50 degrees Celsius

Table 9
Typical materials used on Carbon3D’s CLIP machine.

Material Properties Applications/industries

Rigid Polyurethane Tough, abrasion resistant and stiff Excellent mechanical strength, hardness, and toughness and useful for
(RPU) industrial components, automotive consumer electronics, etc.
Flexible Flexible, impact resistant and moderate Good balance between stiffness and flexibility for impact, abrasion and
Polyurethane (FPU) stiffness fatigue resistance and useful for applications that require the
toughness to withstand repetitive stresses
Elastomeric High elastic and resilient Outstanding elastic behavior under stress and useful for applications
Polyurethane (EPU) where wear resistance, impact, and high elasticity are needed
Cyanate Ester (CE) High-temperature resistance, strength and stiff High-performance material with excellent strength, hardness and
thermal stability and useful for applications such as industrial
components and electronics
Prototyping (PR) General purpose Good mechanical properties similar to SLA resins. It prints quickly, has
excellent resolution and performs well enough to withstand moderate
functional testing

Table 10
The figures of merit of AM process in terms of specific energy density, fabrication speed and resolution.

AM processes Example system Specific energy density (J cm−3 ) Fabrication speed (cm h−1 ) Resolution (elements mm−3 )

Binder Jetting CJP 0.026 [24] 1.27–1.9 [24] 1900 [24]

Direct Energy Deposition LENS 50,000 [22] 4.4 [25] 17 [22]
Material Extrusion FDM N.A. 0.05 [26] 46 [26]
Material Jetting Polyjet 0.06 [27] 0.4 [27] 15,200 [27]
Powder Bed Fusion SLS/SLM 300 [28] 2.5 [29] 211 [29]
Sheet Lamination LOM 336 [30] 0.45 [31] 1907 [30]
Vat Photopolymerization DLP/SLA 0.94 [32] 1.5 [33] 3152 [34]

For laser technology that uses raster scan,

Wi AlAspot s2
timage = ,
P
where Aspot is the smallest dot area used by the laser to solidify
the resin and s is the addressability or reciprocal of the distance
between the centre of two adjacent dots. Hence, object fabrication
speed for laser

l1
v=   2
.
W AlA spot s
i
P
+ treset

3.8. Comparison of AM processes

In summary, each of the AM processes has their own advantages

and disadvantages in terms of speed, resolution, and materials. Fig. 3. Classification of AM materials.
The advantages and disadvantages of different methods of AM
adopted during the fabrication process can be compared as shown
in Tables 10 and 11. materials without comprising original material properties. Per-
formance enhancement and new applications are enabled mostly
4. 3D printing applications of novel materials via freeform design and optimization. For example, 3D printing of
smart materials results in 4D printing applications while 3D prin-
In this review, we focus on the latest development of novel ting of biomaterials leads to bioprinting applications, and so on. In
materials and their applications in the field of 3D printing. Herein, this review, five types of advanced materials will be discussed: (1)
novel materials are defined as a group of advanced materials that smart materials; (2) ceramics materials; (3) electronics materials;
can be 3D printed for specific new applications. It is an interdisci- (4) biomaterials; and (5) composite materials as shown in Fig. 3. The
plinary research area between advanced materials and 3D printing. basic requirements of these materials and their critical challenges
The key challenge is to solve the 3D printability of the advanced as well as the new opportunity of 3D printing will be discussed.
 J.-Y. Lee et al. / Applied Materials Today 7 (2017) 120–133 127

Table 11
The advantages and disadvantages of AM process.

Process Advantages Disadvantages

Binder Jetting Large number of potential materials Rough or grainy appearance

Able to create ceramic molds for metal casting Poor strength
Support structures are included automatically in layer Post-processing required to remove moisture or improve
fabrication strength
Low-imaging specific energy
Direct Energy Deposition High material deposition rate and high material Low to medium part complexity
utilization Poor surface finish and resolution
High efficiency for repair and add-on features Poor dimensional accuracy
Mainly metal and suitable for large components Limited materials for production purposes
Deposition of thin layers wear resistant metals on
components
Material Extrusion Low cost of the entry-level machines Low level of precision and long build time
A variety of raw materials are available Unable to build sharp external corners
Versatile and easy to customize Anisotropic nature of a printed part
Material Jetting No waste of model material Post-processing may damage thin and small features
High resolution and accuracy Support materials cannot by recycled thus wasted
Multiple materials and multiple colors
Powder Bed Fusion Support is not required for polymer powder Rough surface finish for polymer
Both polymer and metal powder can be recycled Relatively slow build rate
High part complexity and wide range of materials Small to medium parts only
Good accuracy and resolution for metals Expensive machines
Sheet Lamination High fabrication speed High material waste
No support structures are needed Difficult to remove support trapped in internal cavities
Low warping and internal stress Thermal cutting produces noxious fumes
Multi-materials and multi-colors are possible Possible warpage of lamination as a result of heat of laser
Vat Photopolymerization High-resolution and accuracy, good surface finish Require support
High fabrication speed Require post processing to remove support
Low-imaging specific energy Require post curing for enhanced strength
Wide range of materials

4.1. Digital and smart materials of fabrication of multi-materials objects with microscale accuracy
using spherical voxel [38].
The purpose of prototyping is to test part functionality, verify
a design, and communicate a concept before moving into manu-
facturing when money and time are limited resources. There are a 4.1.2. Smart materials for 4D printing
variety of materials can be used for this purpose, such as metals, Smart materials are defined as those materials have the capa-
photopolymers, thermoplastics [35], and others, but we will only bility to transform their geometry under the influence of external
focus on digital materials and smart materials for 4D printing as stimuli [39–41]. 4D printing is an emerging topic in the field of 3D
shown in Fig. 4 [36,37], in which a 4D printed flower self-opens printing, where the fourth dimension is time and the basic concept
upon heat stimulation. of 4D printing is based on the 3D printing of programmable smart
materials that can gradually change the shape over time under
external stimuli, such as water and heat. [42–44]. Ge et al. applied
4.1.1. Digital materials the concept of 4D printing to the design and fabrication of active
A digital material is an advanced composite material that origami, where a flat sheet with active hinges can fold into a 3D
consists of two or three photopolymers in specific microstructures component [45]. Raviv et al. reported a new design of complex self-
and ratios. It can be used to create a functional prototype with evolving structure that can transform into a pre-determined shape
tunable characteristics, such as superficial hardness, colors and based on the concept 4D printing [46]. Recently, Ge et al. introduced
textures. For example, the latest Stratasys J750 can incorporate a new 4D printing approach that can create multi-material archi-
over 360,000 colors and load up to six materials at once without tectures using shape memory polymer [47]. This approach is based
swapping canisters in a single build process. In addition, digital on the projection micro-stereolithography that belongs to vat
materials can simulate various elastomers, mimic standard plastics, photopolymerization. Recently, Gladman et al. published a paper
produces photorealistic details for different kind of applications, about biomimetic 4D printing as shown in Fig. 5 [48]. Composite
such as functional prototyping, manufacturing tooling, medical hydrogel architectures that are programmed with anisotropic
models and communication models. Hiller et al. studied the design swelling behavior controlled by the alignment of cellulose fibrils
of digital materials for physical 3D voxel printing [38]. The prac- along prescribed four-dimensional pathways are reported in this
tical implication is that digital material provides the possibility paper. It is important to realize that the efficacy of this biomimetic

Fig. 4. 4D printing of smart materials.

Reproduced from Ref. [37].
128 J.-Y. Lee et al. / Applied Materials Today 7 (2017) 120–133

Fig. 5. Biomimetic 4D printing.

Reproduced from Ref. [48].

printing concept can only be realized based on the local con- steps are more suitable to fabricate different kinds of ceram-
trol of the orientation of cellulose fibrils within the hydrogel ics while direct AM processes that involve only single step are
composite. more appropriate to produce ceramics parts in shorter time
[49].
4.2. Ceramics materials Zocca et al. also summarized the issues and opportunities of
additive manufacturing of ceramics materials [50]. Due to the ease
Certain materials, such as ceramics and concrete, are not suit- of parallel processing of multiple parts, manufacturing scalability
able for 3D printing because the individual powder cannot be and low cost of raw material, powder-based technologies is one
fused together by applying heat to their melting point. In con- of the most economical AM methods to produce ceramics parts.
trast, metals and polymers can fuse together by applying heat to However, one of the current limitations in AM of ceramics is the
their glass transition temperature or melting temperature. Com- availability of starting materials for the production of the feedstock.
paring with metals and polymers, the extremely high melting To address the challenges of ceramics in AM process, Eckel et al.
point of ceramics materials is one of the most critical challenges reported a novel way to fabricate a 3D printed ceramics parts using
in the field of additive manufacturing. Deckers et al. reviewed specific pre-ceramics monomers mixing with UV photo-initiator
the methods of additive manufacturing using ceramics materials as shown in Fig. 6 [51]. A few curved, complex, and porous shapes,
[49]. Current AM methods can produce ceramics parts without such as corkscrew, microlattices, and honeycomb structure, can
any cracks or large pores through optimization of the parame- be easily fabricated using stereolithography apparatus (SLA) 3D
ters of AM process and their mechanical properties are similar printer. The 3D printed ceramics parts showed excellent thermal
to those of traditionally fabricated ceramics parts. It is also pos- stability after pyrolysis at one thousand degree Celsius and almost
sible to produce pore-free ceramics parts through incorporating no shrinkage was observed. These ceramics materials are of
colloidal processing techniques in the AM process or perform- interest for thermal protection systems, propulsion components,
ing extra densification steps after the AM process. It is important electronic device packaging, microelectromechanical systems,
to highlight that indirect AM processes that involve multiple porous burners.
 J.-Y. Lee et al. / Applied Materials Today 7 (2017) 120–133 129

Fig. 6. Additive manufacturing of polymer-derived ceramics.

Reproduced from Ref. [51].

4.3. Electronic materials a commercially viable solution for prototyping emitters using
3D printing and hence reducing the overall production cost of
In the past decades, there have been significant advancements antennas. Although current 3D printing technologies can print
in electronics materials in the field of additive manufacturing a variety of materials including polymers, metals and ceramics,
[52,53]. One interesting research question that arises is whether the resulting parts are generally limited to single material and
3D printing of fully functional electronic devices is the best mono-functionality only. Recently, MacDonald and Wicker pub-
approach for fabricating mass-customized electronics [54]. Cur- lished a review about the concept of multi-process 3D printing,
rent AM technologies allow fabrication of functional electronics, also known as hybrid 3D printing, for increasing component func-
such as antenna, capacitors, resistors and inductors, in a single step tionality [60]. By introducing the robotic placement of components
without any post-processing [55]. Aerosol jet printing and inkjet or combining two complementary processes (i.e. additive and
printing are two of the most common technologies use in this field subtractive), multi-process 3D printing enables the integration of
and they can be classified as non-contact printing due to their noz- dissimilar materials and the embedment of active components that
zles will not in direct contact with the 3D printed electronics. Kim imparts multi-functionality [60].
et al. reported the fabrication of thin-film transistors, which are
flexible on plastic substrates using self-synthesized silver ink [52]. 4.4. Biomaterials
Jung et al. demonstrated a method to print resistors on a plas-
tic substrate, which can achieve higher resistance value with high Recent developments in biocompatible materials have enabled
repeatability using conducting polymer [56]. Kong et al. showed 3D bio-printing of functional living tissues, which can be applied to
that five different materials: (1) quantum dot nanoparticles; (2) regenerative medicine to address the need for organs transplanta-
an elastomeric matrix; (3) conducting polymers; (4) metal leads; tion [61–64]. Generally speaking, the materials of 3D bio-printing is
(5) a UV-adhesive transparent substrate layer, can be 3D printed very limited [65], mainly natural polymers and biocompatible syn-
and fully integrated into device components with active properties thetic polymers such as modified diblock copolymers [66], sodium
[54,57]. The 3D printed quantum dot-based light emitting diodes alginate, chitosan and acrylates-based polymers [67–69] but the
(QD-LEDs) and it exhibits pure and tunable color emission prop- material selection is one of the most critical steps in 3D bioprinting
erties. Based on these papers, it is concluded that 3D printing is a [61]. One of the critical challenges for bioprinting is producing 3D
versatile method to fabricate electronic devices and is capable of vascularized cellular constructs with structural integrity. Recently,
integrating many distinct classes of materials [54]. Kang et al. reported an integrated tissue-organ printer (ITOP) sys-
Conventional robots composed of rigid materials and electronic tem that can fabricate human-scale tissue constructs of any shape
components, which required multi-step to fabricate the different with good mechanical stability [70]. As shown in Fig. 8, multi-
components and then assembly them into functional robots. With cartridge module is employed to extrude and pattern multiple
the advent of 3D printing, it is possible to fabricate soft robots, cell-laden composite hydrogels, supporting poly(␧-caprolactone)
which is composed of soft materials and without any electronic (PCL) and a sacrificial Pluronic F-127 hydrogel. It is important to
components using multi-material embedded 3D printing tech- note that the ITOP can generate multi-material freeform shape with
nique (EMB3D). Wehner et al. reported that a robot composed multiple types of cells and biomaterials and the capability of the
of soft materials only, which is controlled by microfluidic logic ITOP was demonstrated by fabricating mandible and calvarial bone,
that autonomously regulates the movement of the robot as shown cartilage and skeletal muscle.
in Fig. 7 [58]. This new 3D printing technique enables the pro- Recently, organs-on-chips, also known as microphysiological
grammable assembly of multiple materials and integrated design systems that reiterate the structure and function of native tissues
of a prefabricated part, which may serve as a guideline for the next in vitro, have emerged as a promising alternative compared to
generation of completely soft robots. conventional animal studies in biomedical research. However,
Goh et al. reported that the fabrication of low-cost emit- current organs-on-chips have relied on multi-step lithographic
ters using silver nanoparticle ink for patch antennas for wireless processes and lack of integrated sensors. To address this critical
communication applications [59]. This original research shows issue, Lind et al. introduced the fabrication of a new class of
130 J.-Y. Lee et al. / Applied Materials Today 7 (2017) 120–133

Fig. 7. Fully soft, autonomous robot assembly.

Reproduced from Ref. [58].

Fig. 8. Integrated tissue–organ printer (ITOP) system.

Reproduced from Ref. [70].

instrumented cardiac microphysiological devices using multi- the formulation of a thermoplastic composite material to print
material 3D bioprinting [71]. Six functional inks were designed electronic sensors that are able to sense mechanical flexing and
based on biocompatible soft materials, high conductance, piezo- capacitance changes as shown in Fig. 8 [75]. Commercially available
resistive that guide the self-assembly of physio-mimetic laminar polycaprolactone (PCL) was chosen as a printable thermoplastic
cardiac tissues. It is interesting to note that these devices are polymer matrix while conductive carbon black (CB) was chosen
printed in a single continuous step and can be applied to study as low-cost filler to formulate the conductive material. The opti-
drug responses over four weeks [71]. mal loading of carbon black was 15 wt% due to a higher loading
of carbon black resulted in a composite material that was unable
4.5. Composite materials to pass through the FDM nozzle. The new composite material
has allowed the additive manufacturing of a range of functional
Composite materials are relatively new but limited examples electronic sensors, such as piezoresistive sensors and capacitance
are available in the field of AM [72–74]. Simon et al. presented sensors, using a low-cost FDM printer without the expensive
 J.-Y. Lee et al. / Applied Materials Today 7 (2017) 120–133 131

Table 12
Summary of the recent developments of novel materials in 3D printing.

Category Specific material Process (ASTM) Application Reference

Digital and smart materials Shape memory polymers Vat Photopolymerization Actuator, sensor, jewelry, gripper [36,47]
Ceramic materials UV curable monomers Vat Photopolymerization Thermal protection [51]
Electronic materials Silver nanoparticle ink Material jetting Thin-film transistor, antenna emitter [52,59]
Conductive polymer Material jetting Resistors [56]
Quantum dot Material jetting Light emitting diodes [57]
Biomaterials Hydrogels Material Extrusion Tissue engineering [70]
Functional inks Material Extrusion Cardiac micro-physiological devices [71]
Composite materials CB/PCL Material extrusion Sensors [75]
VeroWhite Plus & TangoBlack Material Jetting Fracture resistant composites [76]
Plus
Barium titanate Vat Photopolymerization 3D piezoelectric polymers [77]
nanoparticle/polyethylene
glycol diacrylate

sensor production facilities and the need for complex circuit (1) Hybrid AM process (i.e. additive + subtractive technologies)
[75]. such as DMG MORI machine due to the demand for
Leon et al. reported a bioinspired composite material with spe- higher dimensional accuracy and elimination of separate
cific topological arrangements of soft (i.e. TangoBlackPlus) and post-processing. In addition to better surface finish, hybrid
hard (i.e. VeroWhitePlus) materials can enhance the mechanical AM process can also achieve bigger build volume, and multi-
properties of the 3D printed parts [76]. 3D printing was demon- material within the same layer.
strated as a means to create fracture resistant composite that one (2) Significant breakthrough of 3D printing materials and pro-
can use computer models to design composite materials and then cesses with higher dimensional accuracy, smaller scale (e.g.
use 3D printing to fabricate the parts with tailored mechanical nano scale) and faster speed.
performance. Kim et al. demonstrated an efficient piezoelectric (3) Direct Digital Manufacturing (DDM): the use of AM to produce
nanoparticle-polymer composite material that can be printed into parts that will be used as an end-product and to manufacture
3D microstructure using digital projection printing [77]. Barium products in low volumes or unique products using AM.
titanate (BTO) nanoparticles were added into polyethylene glycol
diacrylate to fabricate the piezoelectric polymers and then gen- Lists of symbols
erating customized 3D microstructures by exposing to different
digital optical masks. It is important to note that barium titanate
nanoparticles were chemically modified with acrylate functional A Heat absorptivity of laser beam on metal surface
groups to increase the conversion efficiency of the composite mate- A1 Layer area
rial. For the future direction of composite materials, it can either be Aspot The smallest dot area
mixed matrix materials [78,79] or porous matrix materials [80,81] c Specific heat capacity
for other applications such as water treatment. In summary, the d Diameter of the laser beam
recent development of novel materials is presented in Table 12. d Diameter of the droplet
f Droplet rate
h Hatch distance or scan line spacing
5. Conclusions and prospects l1 Minimum layer thickness
lc The depth of polymer curing
This review article summarizes the fundamental aspects of AM lp The depth of penetration
processes in terms of speed, resolution and specific energy based m Mass
on the ASTM standard. On the other hand, 3D printing is versatile PL Power of laser
in terms of materials and the versatility of 3D printing material p Applied pressure
comes from system variety but for each specific applications such ␳ Density
as bioprinitng, the biocompatible materials are still limited and fur- s The reciprocal of the distance between the centre of two
ther development of novel materials are still required. All the new adjacent dots
printers or processes for novel materials have not gone beyond T Temperature
the seven categories and most still work with a single material ıT The temperature rise from ambient to polymer sintering
with limited industrial applicability. However, there are two main temperature
challenges in developing the next-generation of AM processes: t Z-increment of layer thickness
ti Interaction time of the laser beam on the work piece
(1) Improvement in the speed and resolution of AM processes with timage Image time per layer
lower energy consumption. Va Aggregate volume
(2) Development of new 3D printing materials with tunable Vd Droplet volume
mechanical, chemical, physical properties. Vr Volume of minimum resolution
v Laser scanning speed
v Object fabrication speed
In future, 3D printing should never be seen as a standalone pro- W Energy
cess, it is likely to become an integral part of a multi-process system W* Specific energy
or an integrated process of multiple systems to match the devel- Wa Laser energy absorbed
opment of novel materials and new requirements of products. For Wc The threshold curing exposure for transition of pho-
future directions of AM processes, there are three main directions topolymer resin from liquid to solid phase
that researchers working in AM processes can further develop: Wi Certain imaging method parameters
132 J.-Y. Lee et al. / Applied Materials Today 7 (2017) 120–133

Wd Droplet energy [24] S. Michaels, E.M. Sachs, M.J. Cima, Metal parts generation by three
Ws Sintering energy per unit area dimensional printing, in: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conferences
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 The surface force [26] 3Faktur, FDM: Technology Overview, Available: https://3faktur.com/en/3d-
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