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Handouts

Introduction to Mass Communication

MASCOM-1101

Semester I

Department of Mass Communication

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 Department of Mass Communication
G. C. University, Lahore
SEMESTER I

Course Title: Introduction to Mass Communication

Course Code: MASCOM- 1101
Instructor: Ms. Um-e-Amara

Course Contents:

1. What is Communication
2. Significance of Communication
3. Communication:
a) Types of Communication
b) Levels of Communication
c) Factors Influencing Communication
4. Tools of Communication
5. Elements of Communication Process
6. Barriers in communication.
7. Essentials of effective communication

Books Recommended:
th
1. Dominick, J.R. (2006).Dynamics of Mass Communication (8 ed.). New York; McGraw-Hill.
rd
2. Straubhaar, LaRose. (2002). Media Now: Communication Media in the Information Age (3
ed.). USA; Wadsworth.
3. Understanding Mass Communication, Defleur Dennis, Houghton Mufflin Co. Bostan. 2000
4. Introduction to Mass Communication, Edward J. Whetmore, Wadsworth Publishing Co.
California 1995.
5. Journalism for All, Mehdi Hassan and Abdus Salam Khurshid, Aziz Book Depot, Lahore. 6th
ed., 1997.
6. Iblagh Kay Nazriyat, Muqaddara Shamsuddin, M. (Nation Language Authority, Islamabad
1990.
7. Dynamics of Mass Communication Roger Dominic 6th ed, McGraw Hill New York, London
1999.
8. Ta’araf-e-Iblagh-e-Amma, Matin-ur-Rehman Murtaza, Department of
9. Communication, University of Karachi –2000.
10. Introducing Mass Communication Michael W. Gambol, McGraw Hill, 1996.
11. Media of mass communication, John Vivian 5th Ed. Allyn and Bacon, London, 2000.

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Evaluation:
T. Marks: 100
 Semester Work: 40
Marks Break-Up for Semester work:-
Assignment: 20
Mid Term: 20
Note: It will be compulsory for every student to get 50% marks in semester work in order to pass
the semester.
 Final Examination: 60
Note: It will be compulsory for every student to get 50% marks in final examination in order to
pass the semester.

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Department of Mass Communication
SEMESTER I
Course Title: Introduction to Mass Communication
Course Code: MASCOM- 1101
Question No. 1: What is Communication?

COMMUNICATION
The word communication is derived from a Latin word COMMUNIS which means “something
common”. Therefore, when we communicate, we are indeed trying to establish commonness of
thoughts or feelings with other individuals. In other words, communication is a process of sharing
ideas, words and attitudes, with someone. It is a basic human need. As human being we need
somebody to help us, talk to us, and hear us. The basic purpose of communication is to bring
changes in the behavior of the receiver.

There are two elements that are important in any communication process that are speaker (or
source) and listener (or receiver). In the communication process the message moves from the
source to the destination.

Source Message Destination (receiver)

The communication process is complete once the receiver has understood the message of the
sender. Feedback is critical for effective communication between sender and receiver. Therefore,
communication is not a linear process, it is a cyclic process.

DEFINITION
Communication can be defined as the exchange of opinion, ideas, information, facts, feelings,
and values between two or more persons (sender and receiver/s) with the help of some channels
to accomplish the desired purpose.
Vestal (1995) defined communication as “the exchange of meanings between and among
individual through a shared system of symbols (verbal and nonverbal) that have the same
meaning for both the sender and receiver of the message.”
Murphy and Hildebrandt defined communication as “a process of transmitting and receiving
verbal and non-verbal messages that produce a response.”
Joseph A. Devito mentioned that “communication refers to the act by one or more persons of
sending and receiving messages that are distorted by noise, occur within a context, have some
effect, and provide some opportunity for feedback.”
Communication is a cyclic process that involves initiation, transmission, and reception of
information. The reception of information is followed by the feedback, which in turn can repeat
the cycle of communication.
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 Communication is represented by:
10% words—what we say verbally
30% sounds—tone of voice
60% body language—how we say it (nonverbal)

Figure 1.1 Factors that Influence Verbal Communication

Process of Communication
Communication is a cyclic process that starts when the sender feels that there is a need to
communicate with the receiver for a particular reason (purpose).
The sender creates a message either in the written or in verbal or nonverbal form. The message
is dispatched to the receiver with the help of channels of communication. The receiver takes the
delivery of the message and provides feedback to the sender. The sender gets the feedback and
determines whether the receiver has received the same message and meaning that the sender had
intended to communicate with him; if the sender feels that the receiver has not received the same
message and meaning, he/she again initiates the cycle of communication (refer Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 Communication Process

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Department of Mass Communication
SEMESTER I
Course Title: Introduction to Mass Communication
Course Code: MASCOM- 1101
Question No. 2: Significance of Communication

SIGNIFICANCE OF COMMUNICATION
Communication – sending of a message from one person to another, in simplest terms - has been
one of the oldest characteristics of human life. Even when formal languages were not available,
people were able to make each other understand their feelings and gestures to accomplish routine
tasks.

There is no trace available as when the languages came into being, the communication among
people, however, got on faster track than before with the availability of formal languages in the
form of symbols, gestures, body expressions and words. Since those times the communication
has been shaping into different forms and is supposed to be the key element in creation of
different subjects and passing on experiences of one generation onto the next.

Starting from sending and receiving information amongst few individuals to high number of
people, the communication is now well classified into different categories.

The world communication has its origin in the Latin word COMMUNIS which stands for
common or to create commonness with the people around you. This is possible when you share
your feelings and ideas with others.

According to commonly used definition, communication is transfer of message from sender to

receiver through a channel. It is understood that speech or utterances in the form of voice, were
the initial stages of communication which gradually developed into a defined form of language
when all the people of a community got to attach specific meanings to the voices and gestures.

It might have taken centuries to mankind to enter the stage of writing its messages on stones etc.
But once writing was developed as one mean of communication there had been attempts to find
some material to write on, which was more sustainable and easy to take along in travel. Using
bark of certain trees for this purpose, the endeavor led to invention of paper, thus revolutionizing
the early days’ communication.

Writing on paper by hand must have brought joy to people for sending their messages across to
many others, after that, the invention of printing overwhelmed efforts to give new dimensions to
communication. This further led to setting up a whole new printing industry world over followed
by modern means of communication, which will be discussed in detail in this course.

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Why need communication?

Communication is the foundation for sharing information between people to ensure that
everything is understood and can be acted upon. A human being starts communicating as soon as
he starts producing his first noise in the act of drawing his parents’ attention. Every emotion that
we portray on our faces, the movement of our hands, the way we look at someone and our speech
instantly communicates our ideas to others. Communication is highly necessary for our society,
as it is quite hard to imagine a life where there is absolutely no communication, In fact; maybe it
is not even possible to lead a life without communication. So we can surely say it is a most
important aspect of our lives because it is only through exchange of ideas and co-operation that a
society can grow and develop.
During the old ages, the communication was in its initial development stages. There were no
languages, resultantly little communication processes were followed by humans. The swift
development of the human abilities made way for the development of communication and human
society. Humans started using signs and non-verbal communication to communicate with fellow
humans. As humans become more and more organized, different kinds of languages and
communication methods were developed.

In our modern world, the importance of communication has surpassed all previous levels.
Interestingly, the means of communication has outnumbered the means of food production in the
world nowadays. The communicative technologies in the world have been increasing not only in
number, but also in speed, accuracy and clarity.
Let us take a closer look and perform an in-depth analysis of importance of communication in
our society and modern world.

Transferring of ideas and feelings:

To transfer ideas from one person to another, communication plays a vital role. Every human
being has some ideas that are unique to his own mind and he wants to convey those messages or
ideas to others. Until the person doesn’t communicate and share his ideas he cannot let others
know what he is thinking or what he has in his mind.

Interaction with society:

Humans are social animals they need to interact with each other .It is highly important that we
interact with our surroundings and people living in the surroundings. Whenever we talk to
someone, we, knowingly or unknowingly, react to his/her questions, actions or comments.
Healthy communication is essential for a healthy society.

For education:
To educate someone, we need to communicate the ideas, information regarding syllabus or the
study material to the student. If a teacher is communicating well with his students, his students
will be satisfied with him and they will able to grasp more. Inefficient communication can lead
to transfer of ambiguous knowledge.

To entertain world:
Entertainment, today, is mostly based on the channels of mass communication, like films and

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television. Internet is another common platform for entertainment, which again is a mode of
communication. In short, we can easily say that communication and entertainment are entwined
in today’s world.

To Understand the World:

Unless we communicate with the world, we will never understand the way things function and
how things are piled up and related to one another. We need to interact with the environment in
order to understand life. People who do not communicate tend to get isolated, which thereby
leads to many problems.
Survival

The foremost reason to communicate to others for the human beings in particular is their own
survival. There is hardly any sense in believing that a person can all alone live a life by fulfilling
its daily life needs. The fact is that every next moment a person is dependent on others to
survive. Hence it is inevitable for all of us to bank on communication.

Co-operation

There is a very genuine instinct in all the living creatures to cooperate with each other to keep the
cycle of life running. Humans need this more cautiously as to keep their hard felt sense of
superiority.

Relationships

Feeling of keeping a range of relationship from an individual to family and tribe was strong from
early days of human civilization. It would have been extremely difficult to promote a life style
without acknowledging the relationships among people living together for some time.
Communication was essential to identify relations among people to accomplish different tasks.

Persuasion

Communication proved handy in the course of persuasion and influence others to keep the
human civilization grow. The task is done even today, though, with different techniques and in a
rather complex world of communication.

Power

Better communication helped people and tribes to command power over others. This
phenomenon is more evident in the fields of conflict and to bring the enemy down. To muster
support by using better communication skills has always been the hallmark of human
interactivity.

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Social needs

Social needs grow with almost the same pace, human culture and civilization nurture. History
stands as testimony to the fact that the circle of human social needs expands as people try to live
together in more organized manner. Communication is the common most thing which knit
societies to full fill their desire to rise jointly.

Information

In more advance world, as it is today, it is a piece of information – a piece of communication,

which brings relief to human living in a score of ways. Information about roads, condition, may
help you change your traveling plan, for instance. A small bit of information may have a lifelong
impression on your future business.

Decision making

In present day affairs communication goes long way in helping us in decision making. Not an
individual alone, but families and nations, can draw certain conclusions with the help of
available communication on certain matters which is likely to improve the overall living
standards and a more secure life for all of human beings.

There is no doubt that communication plays a vital role in human life and human society. It not
only helps to facilitate the process of sharing information and knowledge with others, but also
helps people to develop relationships with others. Therefore, the importance of communication
cannot be underestimated. Every day, we communicate with a lot of people including our
families, our friends, our colleagues, or even strangers to make our lives better.

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Department of Mass Communication
SEMESTER I
Course Title: Introduction to Mass Communication
Course Code: MASCOM- 1101
Question No. 3:

1. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication may be of different types depending upon the context in which the term
communication is used. The important types of communication are shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3 Types of Communication

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1. Verbal Communication
When the sender conveys information, facts, and opinion either verbally or in writing to the
receiver using different channels of communication, it is known as verbal communication. These
spoken or written verbal symbols are known as language. The sender should select appropriate
words and language to communicate the message to the receiver. Figure 1.4 highlights the
guidelines that should be followed to make the verbal communication effective.

Figure 1.4 Guidelines for Effective Verbal Communication

2. Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication takes place without the use of words. Nonverbal communication
involves the unconscious mind acting out emotions related to the verbal content, the situation,
and the environment. The sender uses the body language, facial expression, hand movements,
eye movements, etc. to convey the feelings, emotions, and other information to the receiver. This
type of the communication can be useful when both the sender and the receiver don’t have an
understanding of a common language. This technique of communication is especially useful
when you are dealing with a client who is deaf and dumb.
Knapp and Hall (2002) provided a list of the ways how nonverbal messages accompany verbal
messages (Figure 1.5).

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 Figure 1.5 Nonverbal Ways to Accompany Verbal Communication (Kappa and Hall, 2002)

The interesting fact about nonverbal communication is that it reflects a more accurate
description of one's true feelings because nonverbal reactions cannot be controlled easily by the
people. Nonverbal communication may include:

 Vocal cues
 Gestures
 Posture
 Physical appearance
 Distance or spatial territory
 Position or posture
 Touch
 Facial expression

3. Meta Communication
Meta communication is an important and useful tool for the effective interpersonal interaction. It
is “communication about communication” so that the deeper “message within a message” can be

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uncovered and understood (Wood, 1999). This type of method is useful among a group of
experts in a particular area.

4. Formal Communication
Formal communication is a type of communication which is used in the context of organization
where a large group of employees work together to accomplish goals of organization. Formal
communications usually take place in the form of written communication, which follows the
lines of authority or scalar chain of command.

5. Informal Communication
Informal communication refers to the gossip or informal talks that take place among the various
groups of people working in an organization that don’t follow organizational line of authority or
hierarchy.

6. Therapeutic Communication
Therapeutic communications is a planned, deliberate, and professional act that uses
communication techniques to achieve a positive relationship and shared understanding of
information for the desired goals. The purpose of therapeutic communication is to explore the
receiver's problems, planning the interventions along with the receiver and implementing these
interventions. During therapeutic communication, the source encourages the receiver to
communicate fear, anxieties, expectations, and self-care deficit needs. The source uses special
techniques while engaging in the therapeutic communication with the receiver, e.g., active
listening, asking open-ended questions, paraphrasing, etc.

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Department of Mass Communication
SEMESTER I
Course Title: Introduction to Mass Communication
Course Code: MASCOM- 1101
Question No. 3:

2. LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION

Levels of communication are determined on the basis of the number of people involved in the
process of communication as well as on the purpose of communication. These levels of
communication are depicted in Figure 1.6.

MACRO GROUP

MASS
COMMUNICATION

Figure 1.6 Levels of Communication

1. Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication refers to communication with the self. It may be silent or verbal
type of communication. Intrapersonal type of communication approximates with the thinking
process, in which the person consciously sends information to himself/herself in order to analyze

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a situation. This communication strategy is particularly useful when someone has to make
important life decisions or is facing a conflicting situation. “Positive self-talk” is a type of
intrapersonal communication that can be used as a tool to improve self-esteem.

2. Interpersonal Communication
It refers to one-to-one interaction between two persons that often occurs face to face. The source
(communicator) and receiver (destination) are known to each other. The purpose of interpersonal
communication is to share information, opinion, ideas, and so on. Interpersonal communication
can be further divided into three types:

Figure 1.7 Types of Interpersonal Communication

2.1. Assertive Communication

It is a type of interpersonal communication that has the following characteristics:

 Confidently expressing what you think, feel, and believe.

 Raising voice for your rights while respecting the rights of others.
 Conveying meaning and expectations without humiliating or degrading others.
 Based upon respect for you and respect for other people's need and rights..

2.2. Nonassertive Communication

Nonassertive communication is characterized as follows:

 Inability to express consistently what you think, feel, and believe.

 Allowing others to violate your rights without challenge.
 Reflecting lack of respect for your own preferences.
 Others can easily disregard your thoughts, feelings, and beliefs.

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 It cannot be considered a good communication strategy for any professional.

2.3. Aggressive Communication

Aggressive communication takes place when someone expresses himself/herself in ways that
intimidate, demean, or degrade another person, pursuing what you want in ways that violate the
rights of another person. It is considered as an unsuitable communication technique for any
professional.

3. Macro Group Communication

It is a large group communication. This is an effective form of communication, mainly because
the feedback is instant in this situation. Speech of a political leader in a big stadium is the best
example of macro group communication. It usually takes place through microphone and the
element of feedback is workable in this type of communication. For example, the receiver
(public) can instantly feedback in the shape of applauding to the politician or by hooting his
speech.

4. Micro Group Communication

This type or level of communication takes place within a small group. The purpose of small-
group communication is to communicate information that is of common interest to group
members or sometimes to know the opinions of group members to arrive at a decision.

5. Mass Communication
Mass Communication is the one in which the message is sent simultaneously to a greater number
of people through a mass medium like radio, TV, newspaper or internet. The receivers of the
Mass Communication are separated, heterogeneous and unknown to each other as well as to the
communicator. The process of feedback in this type of communication is mostly slow and
delayed.

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Department of Mass Communication
SEMESTER I
Course Title: Introduction to Mass Communication
Course Code: MASCOM- 1101
Question No. 3:

3. FACTORS INFLUENCING COMMUNICATION

There are certain factors that influence the process of communication, which are described
briefly here.

1. Attitude
Attitude is referred to the internal predisposition of a person to act in a certain way toward a
situation. The attitude of a person toward the given situation is influenced by the peers, parents,
environment, life experiences, perception, and intellectual processes. A person may have the
attitude of accepting, prejudiced, judgmental, negative, open and close, etc.
A person with negative attitude may respond with “I’m sure it is of no use, it will not work
ultimately.” On the other hand, a person with positive attitude will reply “come on guys, let us
try it, we have nothing to lose.”

2. Sociocultural Background
Various cultures and ethnic groups display different communication patterns. For example,
people of French or Italian heritage often are gregarious and talkative and willing to share
thoughts and feelings. People from Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand or Laos are quiet
and reserved. They appear stoic and reluctant to discuss personal feelings with persons outside
their families.

3. Past Experiences
Previous positive or negative experiences influence one's ability to communicate. For example,
teenagers who have been criticized by parents whenever attempting to express any feelings may
develop a poor self-image and feel that their opinions are not worthwhile. As a result, they may
avoid interacting with others, become indecisive when asked to give an opinion, or agree with
others to avoid what they perceive to be criticism or confrontation (nonassertive).

4. Knowledge of Subject Matter

A person who is well-educated or knowledgeable about certain topics may communicate with
others at a high level of understanding. The receiver who is relatively less knowledgeable of the
topic under discussion may be unable to comprehend the message or consider the sender to be an
expert. As a result of this misperception, the receiver may neglect to ask questions and may not
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receive the correct information. For example, doctors are required to communicate with the
patient in a language that is understandable to the patient (patient's native language). He is also
required not to use jargons while delivering health education or some other useful information to
the patient. The educational status of the patient must be taken into consideration while
communicating with the patient.

5. Ability to Relate with Others

Some people are “natural-born talkers” who claim to have “never met a stranger.” Others may
possess an intuitive trait that enables them to say the right thing at the right time and relate well
to people. “I feel so comfortable talking with her,” “She is so easy to relate to,” and “I could talk
to him for hours” are just a few comments made about people who have the ability to relate well
with others. These persons are considered as good communicators.

6. Interpersonal Perception
Interpersonal perceptions are mental processes by which intellectual, sensory, and emotional data
are re-organized logically and meaningfully, which determine how we perceive others.
Inattentiveness, disinterest, or lack of use of one's senses during communication can result in
distorted perceptions of others. Satir (1995) warns of looking without seeing, listening without
hearing, touching without feeling, moving without awareness, and speaking without meaning.
The following passage reinforces the importance of perceptions: “I know that you believe you
understand what you think I said, but I’m not sure you realize that what you heard is not what I
said.”

7. Environmental Factors
Environmental factors such as time, place, number of people present, and noise level can
influence communication between people in that particular surrounding. Timing is important
during a conversation; a very well-timed response catches the attention of others. The place in
which communication occurs, as well as the number of people present and noise level, has a
definite influence on interactions among people.

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Department of Mass Communication
SEMESTER I
Course Title: Introduction to Mass Communication
Course Code: MASCOM- 1101
Question No. 4:

TOOLS OF COMMUNICATION
The tools of communication that are used in the verbal and non-verbal communication
can be explained in terms of their types are as follow:

1. Verbal Communication: As verbal communication depends on written or spoken

symbols therefore language is used as a tool to transfer meaning.

Language:
Language is the communication of thoughts and emotions by means of a structured system of
symbols. In our language these symbols are known as words. The word innovation, for example,
is just an arbitrary combination of letters that, over time, has come to be accepted as a symbol for
the introduction of some object or process that is new and exciting. Our ability to use these
symbols defines our level of language skill.

Functions of Language:
We use to fulfill three primary functions:
i. To Label
ii. To interact with others
iii. To transmit information

i. Labeling:
Identifying an object, act or person by name so that she, he, or it can be referred to in
communication is known as labeling. Once something is named, it takes on all of the
characteristics and meanings that we associate with its label. For example, your meaning of
the word ‘success’ might include a $120,000-a-year salary and a new Porsche 911, while for
someone else ‘success’ might be defined as having a job outdoors to enjoy the fresh air and
wilderness. The same is true of our respective names. They are badges of our identity and
symbols in their own right. That is one reason why we become easily perturbed if someone
misspells or (worse yet) makes fun of our names.

ii. Interaction:
Interaction focuses on the sharing and communication of ideas and emotions. There are two
different types of interaction:
a. Positive Interaction:

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 Through language we can call out an array of emotional responses in others –
from sympathy and understanding to anger and confusion. For example, if a
friend is in the middle of suggesting an idea for a Saturday retreat, and you
believe that you have a ‘better’ plan of action, you can use language more
effectively by ‘holding your fire’, letting her finish the idea, and beginning
your response in a diplomatic, non-emotional way. For instance, you might
say, “That’s a great idea. Or we could ... (your idea) … Let’s ask others what
they think”. In this way, language can serve as the basis for a positive rather
than a negative interaction.
b. Negative Interaction:
In negative interaction, the communication becomes ineffective due to the
misuse of language which increases the conflict, misunderstanding and leads
to various hurdles in the communication process.

iii. Transmission
Through language, information also can be passed on to other individuals. This function of
language is referred to as transmission. Consider for a moment all of the information that you
send and receive daily, from the first ‘good morning’ that you hear until the last sentence you
read before turning off the light at night. From books, lectures, and electronic billboards to
videodiscs and satellite transmissions, there is no end to the ways through which language can
transmit information.
Researchers have argued that transmission of information is perhaps the most important
function of language in the history of human civilization. For example, language connects the
past, present and future. It also ensures the perpetuation of our culture and traditions. Older
generations die but, through language, they are able to leave behind their ideas,
accomplishments, failures, and plans for the future. Thus, later generations do not have to
repeat the trials and errors of their predecessors but can adapt and constantly improve upon
the successes of the past. Just think how little of you present knowledge comes from your own
experience and how much is based on long-accepted facts. Indeed, language has enabled us to
advance intellectually, psychologically and culturally.

2. Non-verbal Communication: The following tools are used in non-verbal

communication:

a. Sign and Symbol

b. Facial Expressions

c. Eye Behavior

d. Body Movement

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a. Sign and Symbol:
All communication is characterized by the use of symbols. A symbol is an arbitrary
representation of something else. This may be an object, an idea, a place, a person, or a
relationship. Symbols are either verbal or non-verbal. Verbal communication involves
language, while nonverbal communication involves all other symbols. Accordingly, a symbol
can be a word, a movement, a sound, a picture, a logo, a gesture, a mark, or anything else that
represents something other than itself. For example, the shape of a heart is a symbol of love; a
star on the shoulder is a symbol of rank and power; a touch on the arm could be a symbol of
sympathy or love; a large car could be a symbol of wealth, power and status.

Symbols, on the other hand, have no direct connection with that which they represent. They
have been arbitrarily selected. For instance, the word chair has been arbitrarily chosen to
represent the objects on which we sit, and other languages present the same item in different
symbolic ways.

Although the terms symbols and sign are sometimes used interchangeably, they do not
represent the same thing. Signs are consequences or indicators of something specific, which
human being cannot change by their arbitrary actions or labels. For example, a weather vane is
a sign of the direction of the wind; wet streets are a sign that it has rained; smoke is a sign of
fire. However, we argue about it, we cannot make smoke not happen when there is a fire or
make streets not get wet when it rains. There is a direct causal connection between smoke and
fire and between wet streets and rain.

b. Facial Expression:

Perhaps the most obvious vehicle for nonverbal communication is face. It is a constant source
of information to those around us. For example, a neuromuscular therapist uses nonverbal
cues from a client’s face to gauge the existence and subsequent release of ‘trigger points’, or
muscular tissue in which a great deal of tension has built up. Likewise, attorneys specializing
in criminal law pay close attention to the face and eyes of future clients for clues to the latter’s
guilt or innocence.

How Does the Face send Nonverbal cues? :

When something makes you happy or sad or produces any other emotion, your nerves
immediately send a message to the face, which causes the muscles to contract or relax.
The feedback you get from these muscle movements is one of the cues that tells you what
emotional feeling you are having. This process is a form of internal self-feedback in
intrapersonal communication.

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Facial Expressions as we know them:

Think of all the things your face can say about you without your saying a word. Things
such as wrinkles, baldness and coloring comment not only on your age but also on the
kind of life you lead. For example, we suspect that people with dark tans spend a
considerable amount of time outdoors. The length and style of your hair and the amount
of makeup you wear suggest your economic status, interest in fashion and sometimes
even your politics. All of these things, plus the facial expressions that reveal emotion, can
speak for you before you ever open your mouth.

Darwin’s Assumptions:

Charles Darwin first argued that many of our facial expressions evolved from lower
animals, and scientists are still debating this issue. On one side of the debate, some
research has yielded support for Darwin’s theory about universal behaviors. For example,
Paul Ekman and his colleagues have identified seven emotions that can be discerned
universally from facial expressions: happiness, fear, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt,
and surprise. Identification of these emotions was based on a number of studies that
demonstrated the recognition of emotions by adults across a number of cultures.

Alternative Theory:

However, contradictory results have emerged in several cross-cultural studies,

particularly those in which descriptions of situations have been supplied to individuals
who are making judgments. For instance, using photographs that were identical to those
used by Ekman in one of his studies, Niit and Valsiner conducted an experiment with
Estonian and Kirghiz university students in the Soviet Union. Subjects were asked to
describe the emotion that an individual in a photograph was attempting to convey- either
with or without an accompanying description of the situation in which the emotional
expression might occur. Results of their study revealed differences in students’
recognition of the emotions when situational descriptions were not provided. Studies such
as these support an alternative theory of facial expressions and their origins: It is the

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 context on the event that supplies the meanings for facial expressions. Thus, one’s culture
is responsible for the ways in which its members encode and decode facial expressions.

Cultural Influence of Facial Expression:

Although the debate concerning the origin of facial expression continues, some
agreement exists regarding the universal ability of humans to encode and decode
emotions via facial expressions. However, this ‘agreement’ is qualified by the argument
that cultures do differ in their uses of facial expressions and, hence, have a profound
effect on how emotions are encoded and decoded.

It also is important to note that cultural rules and societal pressures often inhibit
spontaneous facial expressions. At early ages children learn which expressions are
acceptable and which are unacceptable by hearing things like, “If you keep frowning,
your face will grow like that” or “A shot is nothing to be afraid of; you’ve got to act like
a big boy now”. We also learn how to adapt our facial expressions to meet the
expectations of others. How many times have you smiled politely when receiving an
unwanted gift, held back tears after a bitter disappointment, or avoided laughing when
watching someone trip over a curb? We all adjust many of our natural facial expressions
to those considered to be more appropriate.

c. Eye Behavior:
For centuries poets and painters have paid tribute to our expressive eyes. Modern day
researchers, too, have been intrigued by the eyes and the many nonverbal messages they
convey. Specifically, research has shown that eye behavior functions to:

1. Provide Information

2. Regulate Interactions

3. Exercise Social Control

4. Express Intimacy

5. Facilitate Goal Achievement

 Provide Information:

Certain eye behavior are associated with definite moods, reactions and attitudes. In
this way they provide us with information about people with whom we interact. For
example, consider the common, negative traits that we associate with ‘small, beady
eyes’. For people who have the misfortune of being born with such eyes, they are
often associated with cheating, lying and general negativity. We also have certain

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beliefs and feelings about eye pupil size. Research indicates that our pupil dilates
(grow larger) when we are presented with a pleasant stimulus (such as a picture of
someone we love) and constrict when we are subjected to a negative stimulus (such as
a grating noise or an unfamiliar touch). Additionally, people with large pupils are
perceived to be happier and attractive, while those with small pupils are perceived to
be angry or unattractive. However, it is important to realize that pupil variations occur
in the context of other facial features. Thus, the child with eyes that have naturally
large pupils and who seems to be innocent and sincere can be ‘caught’ in deception if
we attend to other nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions.

Eye contact is another significant behavior that provides us with information. For
example, public speakers who never look up from their notes while speaking send a
message that they are nervous or highly formal. Speakers who do look at their
audience during a speech are perceived to be more friendly, sincere and relaxed.
Likewise, listeners who do not look at a speaker send a message that they are
distracted, are bored, or have little regard for the speaker. Perhaps this is why teachers
or parents command, “Look at me when I’m talking to you.” While you may not be
angered personally when others avoid eye contact while you are speaking, this eye
behavior on a receiver’s part may indicate a lack of interest in what you are saying.

 Regulate Interactions:

A second function of eye behavior is to serve to regulate interactions. To substantiate

this claim, one need look no further than the public speaking setting. When public
speakers catch the eyes of listeners, they significantly increase the chances of
catching the audience’s attention as well. Effective public speakers use periodic ‘eye
checks’ to ensure that their listeners are still there and being attentive. Moving
towards the audience (away from the lectern) and using more direct eye contact is an
excellent strategy to use if you ever think you are “losing” an audience. In
interpersonal communication, the principle is the same. Eye contact allows you not
only to gain the attention of others, but also to direct the conversational turn-taking
system overall.

 Exercise Social Control:

Although we have pointed out certain commonalities in human eye behavior thus far,
individual differences also exist when we converse with others. Depending on the
speaker, gaze directed at other people can range in duration from 10 percent to more
than 70 percent of the time. Such differences are often associated with social control,
the third function of eye behavior. For example, research has shown that eye behavior
is associated with patterns of dominance and submissiveness. Specifically, dominant

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 and poised communicators tend to look more at others during conversations than do
submissive, uneasy individuals, especially when they assume the speaking role.

 Express Intimacy:

Eye behavior also allows us to express intimacy, or our inner feelings to others,
especially our interpersonal attitudes and the level of intimacy we are experiencing.
Think for a moment about the last time you gazed into the eyes of someone you love.
If he or she responded in kind, you probably felt the ‘connection’ associated with
mutual gaze. If the person diverted his or her gaze to somewhere else in the room or
to the floor, you probably felt that something was amiss. This
communicative/monitoring function of eye behavior allows us not only to collect
information but also to regulate the level of interpersonal intimacy that we are
experiencing. In short, the eyes, indeed, may be viewed as “the window of the soul”.
Through them we can communicate additional - and often more ‘meaningful’-
information not in the verbal exchange.

 Facilitate Goal Achievement:

The fifth function of eye behavior is facilitation of goals. This function is associated
with our use of eye behavior to accomplish some action; for example, our use of gaze
to encourage or discourage behavior on part of others. We are all familiar with the
ability of respected teachers to stop someone from talking with a simple,
straightforward glare. Conversely, we also are able to encourage others when we offer
a warm glance and an encouraging smile.

d. Kinesics and Body Movement

The Human body is so incredibly versatile that it can send thousands of nonverbal
messages. In fact, it is hard to know just how to classify all of these nonverbal
communications. Ray Birdwhistell, a pioneer in the field of nonverbal communication,
coined the word kinesics to describe the study of body movement. Early researchers
categorized body expressions according to the part of the body involved- facial
expression, trunk movements, hand gestures and so forth.

Birdwhistell viewed body expressions as a language that, like French or Russian, could
be studied, learned and understood. Recent specialists such as Paul Ekman and Wallace
Friesen have focused on the general functions of nonverbal communication and have
come up with five classes of specific body expressions: emblems, illustrators, regulators,
affect displays and body manipulators.

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1. Emblems

Emblems are commonly recognized signs that communicate a message that generally is
unrelated to an ongoing conversation. They usually take the form of gestures. For
example, if you and a friend suddenly realized that your animated conversation was
disturbing the person at the next table in the library, you might hold an index finger to
your lips. This indication to talk more quietly serves to reduce the volume of your
conversation without interrupting its flow. We learn such emblems early in life through
imitation and continue to use them throughout our lives.

2. Illustrators

These body expressions illustrate the verbal language they accompany. Illustrators may
accent or add emphasis to a phrase; show the direction of thought; point to an object or
place; depict spatial relationships, rhythms, or bodily actions; or demonstrate shape. You
are using an illustrator when you point to someone across the room while shouting his or
her name, or when you use your hands to estimate the length of the fish that you almost
caught.

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3. Regulators:

Regulators such as gazes, nods and raised eyebrows assist in the exchange of listening
and speaking roles among participants in a communication setting. They provide smooth
transitions in conversations as well as control verbal communication.

4. Affect Displays:

Body changes that convey our internal emotional states are affect displays. These
emotional displays can involve facial expressions, such as angry stares or wide-eyed fear,
or body movements, such as trembling hands or knocking knees. Affect displays are not
always strictly tied to what we are saying at the time. For example, a ticket agent may be
surprised by the deep sadness that lines the face of a man who has just asked for a ticket
for the next plane to Pittsburgh, unaware that the passenger is going home to attend the
funeral of a loved one. Because facial affect displays are easily simulated, they often can
be used in deception. For example, we have all heard the expression, she was ‘smiling on
the outside but crying on the inside.’

5. Body Manipulators:

Body manipulators are movements that were originally associated with body functioning
(such as rubbing the eyes when tired), that have come to be used unconsciously and
independently of bodily needs. For example, twirling your hair during a test, rubbing
your chin while you are thinking, and rocking yourself in the fetal position when you are
upset are examples of body manipulators as we are defining them here.

Types: Other body manipulators involve touching an object or another person. Drawing
“doodles” on a pad with a pencil while you are talking on the phone is an example of an
object-focused body manipulator. Patting someone’s hand while you are communicating
with them is an example of another-focused body manipulator.

All body movements that involve contact with some body part are not necessarily classed
as body manipulators. However, some of these movements may be emblems or
illustrators, depending on their nature and purpose. For instance, placing a forefinger
against your temple may act as an emblem for ‘thought’. Likewise, tapping the top of
your wrist may serve as an illustrator if you are asking someone for the correct time.

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Department of Mass Communication
SEMESTER I
Course Title: Introduction to Mass Communication
Course Code: MASCOM- 1101
Question No. 5:

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS

At general level, communication events involve the following:

1. A source
2. A process of encoding
3. A message
4. A channel
5. A process of decoding
6. A receiver
7. The potential for feedback
8. The chance of noise

Figure 1.8 Elements of the Communication Process.

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 1. Source:

The source initiates the process by having a thought or an idea that he or she wishes to
transmit to some other entity. Source can be an individual or group of people or an inanimate like
computer, radio, music, book, etc. Naturally, sources differ in their communication skills. The
source may or may not have knowledge about the receiver of the message.

2. Encoding:

Message always remains in the mind of the source in the form of an idea, when he gives
physical shape to it by transmitting it into words or pictures then it becomes a message. This
process is called encoding. In other words, the process of giving physical shape to one’s idea
is known as encoding or the speaking mechanism of the source is called encoding. Giving
names to things, ideas and experiences is also an act of encoding.

3. Message:

The message is the actual physical product that the source encodes. In other words, the coded
idea of the sender is called message. When we write, the written script is our message. When a
television network presents a program, the programs are the message. Messages can be
directed at one specific individual or at millions. Messages always transmits from source to
destination. An objective of a message is to make understood the receiver as desired by the
source.

4. Channel:

Channels refer to the ways in which the message travels to the receiver. Channel is a medium
or transmitter which carries the message of the sender to the receiver. In case of Mass
Communication, the channel might be radio, TV, film, internet or newspaper. The sensing
power of an individual is also channel of communication such as taste, smell, hear and see etc.

5. Decoding:

The decoding process is the opposite of the encoding process. It consists of activities that
translate or interprets physical messages into a form that has eventual meaning for a receiver.
As you read these lines, you are decoding a message. If you are playing radio while you are
reading these lines, you are decoding two messages simultaneously- one aural, one visual.

6. Receiver:

The recipient of the message is called the receiver. In other words, the receiver is the target of
the message- its ultimate goal. The receiver can be a single person, a group, an institution, or
even a large, anonymous collection of people. In some situations the source and receiver can

29
be in each other’s immediate presence while in other situations they can be separated by both
space and time.

7. Feedback:

Feedback refers to those responses of the receiver that shape and alter the subsequent
messages of the source. Feedback represents a reversal of the flow of communication. The
original source becomes the receiver; the original receiver becomes the new source. Feedback
is useful to the source because it allows the source to answer the question, “How am I doing?”.
Feedback is important to the receiver because it allows the receiver to attempt to change some
element in the communication process. Feedback can be immediate or delayed. Immediate
feedback occurs when the reactions of the receiver are directly perceived by the source.

There are two different kinds of feedback:

Positive Feedback: In general terms, positive feedback from the receiver usually encourages
the communication behavior in progress. It is also called favorable feedback.

Negative Feedback: Negative feedback usually attempts to change the communication or even
to terminate it. It is also called unfavorable feedback.

8. Noise:

Noise is anything that interferes with the delivery of the message. A little noise might pass
unnoticed, while too much noise might prevent the message from reaching its destination in
the first place.

There are at least three different types of noise: semantic, mechanical and environmental.

i. Semantic Noise:

Semantic noise occurs when different people have different meanings for different words
and phrases. For example, a leading national shoe company premiered this slogan in 1987:
“We’ll only sell you the right shoe”. When Chevrolet introduced its Nova model into
South American it was puzzled by sluggish sales. Someone then pointed out that “no va”
was Spanish for “it doesn’t go”. Semantic noise again.

ii. Mechanical Noise:

Noise can also be mechanical. This type of noise occurs when there is a problem with a
machine that is being used to assist communication. For Instance, a TV set with a broken
focus knob, a pen running out of ink, a static-filled radio, a typewriterwithabrokenspacebar
are all examples of mechanical noise.

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iii. Environmental Noise:

Environmental noise refers to sources of noise that are external to the communication
process but that nonetheless interfere with it. Some environmental noise might be out of
communicator’s control: a noisy restaurant, for example, where the communicator is trying
to hold a conversation.

As noise increases, message fidelity (how closely the message that is sent resembles the
message that is received) goes down. As noise is eliminated, message fidelity goes up.
Clearly, feedback is important in reducing the effects of noise. The greater the potential for
immediate feedback- that is, more interplay between source and receiver- the greater the
chance that noise will be overcome.

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Department of Mass Communication
SEMESTER I
Course Title: Introduction to Mass Communication
Course Code: MASCOM- 1101
Question No. 6:

BARRIERS IN COMMUNICATION
Hurdles of Communication:
Transmitting a message from one person to another is a tough job because there is a possibility
of misunderstanding. There is very little chance that the reader will understand exactly the same
what the writer means.

Reality is too difficult to be described by words. Denial Katz expresses that the real world is
more complex, more colorful, and more multi-dimensional than the pale words or over
simplified signs to convey meaning.

There are two types of hurdles of communication:

1. Physical Hurdles.
2. Psychological Hurdles.

1. Physical Hurdles:
Physical Hurdle is a problem in the way of transmission the message from its source to
destination. You sent a letter to your friend but he did not get it, this is a physical problem;
there is a speech of the president on the PTV but you cannot listen it clearly due to some
problem in the transmission, we could term this as channel noise.
If somebody closes the door with noise during the course of listening to TB it may also be
called a physical hurdle.
When someone speaks slowly and you cannot understand, you are talking to a friend on
telephone and there is a noise of horn which can destroy the meaning of the message. All
these troubles are in other words call channel noise

Sender Receiver
Message in Channel

Noise Noise

Figure 1.9 Communication Process with chance of noise

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 How to overcome channel noise?

The professional communication can overcome channel noise by applying redundancy

techniques, i.e. repetition of the main idea of the message. The purpose of this technique is
to make sure that the part of the message lost during interruption is communicated again.

2. Psychological Hurdles
Psychological hurdles are the kind of hurdles in which the destination receives the message
clearly but reacts to the message. This is a great hurdle in the process of communication.
Following are the various psychological hurdles.

i. Semantic Noise
This kind of hurdle is the result of using very difficult, jaw breaking and tongue twisting
words by the communicator, which are outside the frame of references of audience.

How to overcome Semantic noise?

Semantic noise can be reduced, if the communicator defines such term and adjusts
vocabulary for the interest of the audience.

ii. Field of Experience

Wilbur Schramm, a well-known communications theorist, developed a straightforward
communications model in his book The Process and Effects of Mass Communications

Figure 1.10 Schramm’s Model

In Schramm's model he notes, as did Aristotle, that communication always requires three
elements — the source, the message and the destination. Ideally, the source encodes a

33
message and transmits it to its destination via some channel, where the message is
received and decoded.

However, taking the sociological aspects involved in communication into consideration,

Schramm points out that for understanding to take place between the source and the
destination, they must have something in common.

If the source's and destination's fields of experience overlap, communication can take
place. If there is no overlap, or only a small area in common, communication is difficult
if not impossible.

This psychological hurdle occurs when the field of experience is not common to both i.e.
communicator and receiver, the communication would not take place. For example, if a
scientist wants to communicate the Newton law to the uneducated people, definitely,
there won’t be any communication. But if the same message is delivered to the science
students, the message will be an effective one. Thus field of experience becomes one of
the great hurdles if it is not common to both source and destination.

How to overcome noise created by Field of Experience?

It is difficult for a source to communicate with a "disadvantaged" audience. In some

cases, there is a possibility of only a small overlap in the fields of experience of the
source and the disadvantaged receiver.

This communications challenge can be reduced to a degree by engaging individuals from

the target disadvantaged audience, training them, and in turn allowing them to provide
the important communications linkage.

iii. Cognitive Dissonance

A state of discomfort created by two cognitions (two items of knowledge) that are
psychologically inconsistent is called cognitive dissonance.
Cognitive dissonance is also one of the hurdles in the process of communication. By
cognitive dissonance, we mean that when a communicator wants to deliver a message to
the audience that smoking is injurious to health. The audience does not accept this
proposal, giving arguments that they are smoking since very young age and despite they
are quite healthy. These two items of knowledge will create ‘cognitive dissonance’ as
both the cognitions are inconsistent. Dissonance is generated when one starts doing
anything against his beliefs and attitude. This theory attempts to explain what happens
when people behave in ways that are contrary to their beliefs or attitudes.

How to overcome noise created by Cognitive Dissonance?

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Cognitive dissonance usually creates or produces a psychological tension which can be
reduced by changing one way or both to make the cognition less dissonant.
Dissonance can be reduced in one of three ways:
a) Changing existing beliefs,
b) Adding new beliefs
c) Reducing the importance of the beliefs

iv. Frame of Reference

A frame of reference is a complex set of assumptions and attitudes which we use to filter
perceptions to create meaning. The frame can include beliefs, preferences, values,
culture and other ways in which we bias our understanding and judgment.

By frame of reference, we mean that the communicator looks at a thing with his own
perception and define it in his/her own words. For example, a communicator looks at the
following graph with his own perception, that it is a map, while the different receivers
may conceive it as a flower, disturb line, leaf, etc.

Figure 1.11 Undecided Figure

Every receiver may have his own perception about this but different frame of reference
creates hurdles in the process of communication.

How to overcome noise created by Frame of Reference?

A common persuasion method based on framing is reframing. This effectively says

'look at things a different way'. When filters are challenged and loosened so that
alternatives are considered, giving new ways of looking at things and so creating new
possible meanings. In this way it can act to change beliefs, values and other deep
systems.

35
 Seek to understand people's frames of reference. If you can see these then you may also
see how to change their frame. If you can change their frames, you can change their
world.

v. Poor Understanding

The community or the intended destination poor in understanding becomes a great

obstacle in the way of communication.

How to overcome noise created by Poor Understanding?

It can be reduced by recognizing and anticipating individual differences, asking

clarifying questions and checking for alternative communication strategy.

vi. Expression

Sometimes the expression of the communicator becomes a hurdle in the process of

communication if it is not in accordance with the situation.

How to overcome noise created by Expression?

The source should control the expressions, remain neutral and should focus on the
feelings of the receiver.

vii. Change in custom and tradition

If the communicator wants to talk about some changes in the custom and tradition,
definitely his communication will be a failure. For example:- If a communicator wants
to introduce Buddhism in the Pakistani society, his ideas may not be accepted by
everybody because Pakistan is predominantly a Muslim country.

How to overcome noise created by Social Values?

It requires change at the beliefs level, which is often substantially more difficult but
with the advent of globalization and new media, a cultural shift by reframing existing
narratives can be seen in the world.

36
Department of Mass Communication
SEMESTER I
Course Title: Introduction to Mass Communication
Course Code: MASCOM- 1101
Question No. 7:

ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Effective Communication:
The basic purpose of communication is to bring changes in the behavior of the receiver.
Therefore, effective communication occurs when we communication to have some effects on the
receiver and to bring a change in the cognitive (thinking), effective (feeling) and behavior
(acting) of the receiver.

Aristotle defined the study of rhetoric (communication) as “the search for all the available means
of persuasion”. The basic purpose of communication is to inform, educate and entertain people.

Essentials of Effective Communication:

Communication experts have figured out some techniques for effective communication:

1. Effective Message
The message needs to be designed in such a way that the receiver receives the same what
the sender wants to communicate.
It is only possible when:
i. The message is written in the easiest language.
ii. Sentence of the message is short and simple.
iii. Avoid jaw breaking and tongue twisting words.
iv. The message is designed according to the mental level of targeted receiver or
audiences.
v. Select only the words or signs which are common to the field of experience of
both the communicator and receiver

2. Selection of suitable medium

Medium plays a vital role in making the communication effective.
An effective medium should be:

a. Accessible: Select the medium for which the receivers can have an easy
access.

37
 b. Affordable: They can buy it easily.
c. Understandable: It can communicate in the language of the target destination.

3. Receiver Attention
Communication should be made at such time that it can gain the attention of the receiver.
Example: It would be an effective communication when the intended receiver is
quite relaxed or waiting for such communication.

4. Social Value
The message of the communication will be effective if it is composed according to the
social values of the given society. For example: - If there is an advertisement about the
publicity of vine in a society like Pakistan, people will react to it and thus the
communication would be useless. But if the same communication is designed for the
British society it will then be an effective communication. So, for an effective
communication it is necessary to consider the norms, customs, traditions and religious
philosophy of the society.

5. Communication and Mental Harmony:

The success and failure of the communication greatly depends upon the fact that whether
it has harmony with the mental level of the receiver or not.

For example:

You intend to produce a T.V. program for the children of 8 years on a religious topic. The
format of the program is table discussion. According to my assessment it will be a failure
program and boring for the children because it is difficult for an 8 years child to get
meaning from the discussion.

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