Physics 340 lecture 1 - 10 equations

Lecture 1
−1 −1
Ideal gas law 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇, 𝑅 = 8. 314 𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾
Thermal expansion ∆𝐿 = 𝐿0α∆𝑇 or 𝐿 = 𝐿0(1 + α∆𝑇)
2 2 2
Area expansion 𝐴 = 𝐿 =𝐿0(1 + α∆𝑇) => 𝐴0(1 + 2α∆𝑇) or 𝐴0(1 + γ∆𝑇)
3 3 3
Volume expansion 𝑉 = 𝐿 = 𝐿0(1 + α∆𝑇) => 𝑉0(1 + 3α∆𝑇)
Specific heat 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇 = 𝑛𝑀𝑐∆𝑇

Lecture 2
Latent heat 𝑄 = 𝐿𝑚
𝑑𝑄 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡−𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑
Conduction 𝐻≡𝑄≡ 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑘𝐴 𝑙
𝑄 4
Radiative heat transfer 𝐻≡ 𝑇
= σε𝐴𝑇
4
Intensity of radiation 𝐼 ≡ 𝑃 =σε𝑇

Lecture 3
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐 𝑁 −23 −1
Ideal gas law cont’d 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 = 𝑁𝐴
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑁𝐾𝐵𝑇, 𝐾𝐵 = 1. 38 * 10 𝐽𝐾
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
Constant # moles 𝑇1
= 𝑇2

x-motion of molecules ∆𝑚𝑣𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣𝑥 − (− 𝑣𝑥) = 2𝑚𝑣𝑥

y-motion of molecules ∆𝑚𝑣𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣𝑦 − 𝑚𝑣𝑦 = 0
2 2
Velocity 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < 𝑣 > 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
8𝐾𝐵𝑇
Mean (average) speed 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = π𝑚
2 3𝐾𝐵𝑇
Average speed square <𝑣 > = 𝑚

3𝐾𝐵𝑇 3𝑅𝑇 2
V-rms 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑚
= 𝑀
or <𝑣 >
2𝐾𝐵𝑇
Most probable speed 𝑣𝑚𝑝 = 𝑚
𝑣𝑜𝑙
t-avg between collisions 𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2
4π 2𝑟 𝑁𝑣
𝑣𝑜𝑙
Avg distance travelled between collisions 𝑑 = 𝑟𝑡 => 𝑑 = 𝑣𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2
4π 2𝑟 𝑁
Lecture 4 + 5
3
Ideal monatomic gas 𝐶𝑣 = 2
𝑅
5
Ideal diatomic gas 𝐶𝑣 = 2
𝑅
Molar specific heat (solids) 𝐶𝑣 = 3𝑅
Internal energy 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑄 − 𝑑𝑊
Adiabatic 𝑄 = 0 , 𝑑𝑈 =− 𝑑𝑊
γ−1 γ−1 γ−1
𝑇𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 −> 𝑇𝑖𝑉𝑖 = 𝑇𝑓𝑉𝑓 (ideal gas)
γ−1 γ−1
𝑃𝑖𝑉𝑖 = 𝑃𝑓𝑉𝑓
γ γ−1

( ) ( )( ) ( )
𝑃𝑖
𝑃𝑓
=
𝑉𝑓
𝑉𝑖
,
𝑇𝑓
𝑇𝑖
=
𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑓

Isochoric ∆𝑉 = 0 −> 𝑑𝑊 = 0, 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑄
Isobaric ∆𝑃 = 0 , 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉 −> 𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉
Isothermal ∆𝑈 = 0 −> 𝑄 = 𝑊
𝑉𝑓 𝑃𝑓
𝑄 = 𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛( 𝑉𝑖
) =𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛( 𝑃𝑖
)
● For ideal gases, internal energy U only depends on temperature

Heat capacity case 1

● Small quantity dQ flows into n moles of ideal gas at temp T, held at constant volume
○ 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝑄
Heat capacity case 2
● Small quantity dQ expands gas but pressure remains constant (isobaric)
○ 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑛𝐶𝑝𝑑𝑇
○ 𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑣 + 𝑅, 𝐶𝑣 = (𝑥/2) + 1
𝐶𝑝
Ratio of specific heat γ= 𝐶𝑣

Lecture 6
𝑄
Entropy (thermodynamic view) ∆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑓 − 𝑆𝑖 = 𝑇
T doesn’t change during free expansion so i and f lay on the same

isotherm

ideal gas
∆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑓 − 𝑆𝑖 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑇𝑓
𝑇𝑖
+ 𝑛𝑅𝑙𝑛 ( ) 𝑉𝑓
𝑉𝑖
for any reversible process of an

Reversible process dU Q W ∆𝑆

Physics 340 Lecture 1 - 10 WN2021 MTan

 Isochoric (V=const) 𝑛𝐶𝑣(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖) 𝑛𝐶𝑣(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖) 0
𝑛𝐶𝑣𝑙𝑛( )𝑇𝑓
𝑇𝑖

Isobaric (P=const) 𝑛𝐶𝑣(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖) 𝑛𝐶𝑝(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖) 𝑃(𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖)

𝑛𝐶𝑝𝑙𝑛( )𝑇𝑓
𝑇𝑖

Isothermal (T=const) 0
− 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 ( )𝑉𝑓
𝑉𝑖
𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 ( )𝑉𝑓
𝑉𝑖
𝑛𝑅𝑙𝑛( ) 𝑉𝑓
𝑉𝑖

Adiabatic (Q=const) 𝑛𝐶𝑣(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖) 0 − 𝑛𝐶𝑣(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖) 0

Generalized statement of entropy if a process occurs in a closed system, the entropy of the system increases for
irreversible processes and remains constant for reversible processes. It never
decreases ∆𝑆 ≥ 0 (2nd law of thermodynamics)
|𝑄| |𝑄|
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∆𝑆𝑔𝑎𝑠 + ∆𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 =− 𝑇
+ 𝑇
=0

Entropy (statistical view) fundamental assumption is that all microstates (molecules) are equally probable
𝑆 = 𝐾𝐵𝑙𝑛𝑤
𝑤 = 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔 (# 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒)

Lecture 7
Heat engine schematic

Carnot cycle schematic

𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊 𝑄𝑐
Efficiency (general) η𝑐 = 𝑄𝐻
=1− 𝑄𝐻

Physics 340 Lecture 1 - 10 WN2021 MTan

 (ideal gas) η𝑐 =
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊
=1−
𝑇𝑐
<−> 1 −
𝑇𝐶𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑉𝐶
𝑉𝐷

𝑄𝐻 𝑇𝐻
𝑇𝐻𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑉𝐴
𝑉𝐵

Otto cycle schematic

𝑊 𝑄𝐶+𝑄𝐻 𝑇1−𝑇4+𝑇3−𝑇2
efficiency η = 𝑄𝐻
= 𝑄𝐻
= 𝑇3−𝑇2

1 𝑉1
η =1− γ−1 , 𝑟= 𝑉2
𝑟

Refrigerator schematic

temp unchanging ∆𝑈 = 0 −> 0 =− 𝑄𝐻 + 𝑄𝐶 + 𝑊

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑄𝐶𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑄𝐶
coefficient of performance 𝐾= 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑
= 𝑊
ideal fridge | | | |
|𝑊| = 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐶
|𝑄𝐶| 1 1 𝑇𝐻
𝐾=
| | | | =
𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐶 | 𝑄𝐻 |
| 𝑄 |−1
= | 𝑇𝐻 |
| 𝑇 |−1
= 𝑇𝐻−𝑇𝐶
| 𝐶| | 𝐶|

Lecture 8
λ ω
Wave speed/phase velocity 𝑣= 𝑇
= λ𝑓 = 𝑘
2π
Wave number 𝑘= λ
Transverse wave 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡)
𝑦(0, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠ω𝑡 , 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

Physics 340 Lecture 1 - 10 WN2021 MTan

Transverse wave 𝑣𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴ω𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡)
2 2
𝑎𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) =− 𝐴ω 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡) =− ω 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)

𝐹 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Wave speed on string 𝑣= µ
, µ= 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Lecture 9
2 2 2
Power of mech waves 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 ω 𝐹µ * 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡)
1 2 2
Avg power for mech waves 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2
𝐴 ω 𝐹µ
𝑃
Intensity 𝐼= 2
4π𝑟
2
𝐼1 𝑟2
𝐼2
= 2
𝑟1

1 𝑑𝑦(𝑥,𝑡) 2
KE mech waves 𝑑𝐾 = 2
µ𝑑𝑥( 𝑑𝑡
)
1 𝑑𝑦 2
PE mech waves 𝑑𝑈 = 2
𝑇( 𝑑𝑥
) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐸 1 2 2 2
Energy/unit length (energy density)
𝑑𝑥
= 2
µω 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡)
Superposition 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦1(𝑥, 𝑡) + 𝑦2(𝑥, 𝑡)

Standing waves characterized by nodes (points that don’t move) and antinodes (A
is largest)
𝑦1 (𝐿−>𝑅) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡)
𝑦2 (𝑅−>𝐿) =− 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 + ω𝑡)
𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 2𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛(ω𝑡) , 2𝐴 = 𝐴𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
Locate nodes 𝑠𝑖𝑛α = 0 when α = 0, π, 2π,...
2π λ 3λ
using 𝑘 = λ
, 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥) = 0 when 𝑥 = 0, 2
, λ, 2
,...

Lecture 10
Nodes nodes are half-wavelengths apart so the length of string must fit
an integer number of half-wavelengths
λ 3λ 𝑛λ
𝐿= 2
, λ, 2
,..., 2
therefore, standing waves can only occur when
2𝐿
λ𝑛 = 𝑛

𝑣 1 𝑇
Frequencies allowed with length L 𝑓𝑛 = 2𝐿
𝑛= 2𝐿 µ
𝑛

Physics 340 Lecture 1 - 10 WN2021 MTan

Longitudinal waves 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡)
Pressure fluctuations 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝐵𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡) , 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝐵𝑘
π
displacement and pressure variations are 2
(90*) out of phase
𝐵
Speed of wave in fluid 𝑣= ρ

Lecture 11
Fluids 𝑚𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉 * ρ = 𝐴𝑣𝑡ρ
𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣𝑦 = 𝐴𝑣ρ𝑣𝑦𝑡 linear momentum
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑡 = ∆𝑃 impulse-momentum theorem
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑡 = ∆𝑃𝐴𝑡 impulse delivered to fluid during time t
∆𝑃 𝐵
𝐵= ∆𝑉 ,𝑣 = ρ
Bulk modulus
( 𝑉
)

Power (sound) 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒[𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 * 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎] * 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑡) * 𝑣𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
2 2
= 𝐴 𝐵𝑘ω𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡)
1 2
Intensity (time avg power) 𝐼= 2
𝐴 𝐵𝑘ω
2
1 2 ω
= 2
𝐴𝐵 𝑣
1 2 2
= 2
𝐴 ω 𝐵ρ
1 2 2
= 2
𝐴 ω 𝑣ρ
ω β
Intensity and pressure 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝐵𝑘 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑣
= 𝐴𝐵ω 𝐵
2 2 2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼= = 2𝐵
= 2ρ𝑣
2 𝐵ρ
𝐼 −12 −2
Decibel scale β = (10𝑑𝐵)𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐼0
, 𝐼0 = 10 𝑊𝑚
−2 3.5 𝐼
35𝑑𝐵 −> 𝑊𝑚 35/10... 10 = −12
10

Lecture 12
Displacement node = pressure antinode
Displacement antinode = pressure node

Physics 340 Lecture 1 - 10 WN2021 MTan

 1
Stopped pipe (closed one end) 𝐿= 4
λ 1st harmonic
𝑣
λ = 4𝐿 = 𝑓
𝑣
𝑓1 = 4𝐿
3
𝐿 =4 λ 2nd harmonic
3𝑣
𝑓2 = 4𝐿
(2𝑛−1)𝑣
𝑓𝑛 = 4𝐿
general

1
Open pipe 𝐿= 2
λ 1st harmonic
𝑣
λ = 2𝐿 = 𝑓
𝑣
𝑓1 = 2𝐿
𝐿 =λ 2nd harmonic
𝑣
𝑓2 = 𝐿
𝑛𝑣
𝑓𝑛 = 2𝐿
general

Constructive interference ∆𝑑 = 𝑑2 − 𝑑1
∆𝑑 = 𝑛λ
λ
Destructive interference ∆𝑑 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2
φ ∆𝑑
Phase difference φ 2π
= λ
, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 2π 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
2π𝑛λ
φ= λ
= 2π𝑛 constructive
λ
2π(2𝑛−1)( )
φ= λ
2
= (2𝑛 − 1)π destructive

Beats variation in loudness (pulsation in tone)

𝑇𝑏−𝑇𝑎
𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑇𝑎𝑇𝑏 |
= 𝑓𝑎 − 𝑓𝑏 |
1 1 𝑣(λ2−λ1)
𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑓1 − 𝑓2 = 𝑣( λ − λ2
)= λ1λ2
1

1 𝑘
𝑓𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2π 𝑚

Lecture 13
𝑣 ± 𝑣𝐿
Doppler effect 𝑓𝐿 = λ
𝑓𝑠 , + 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 moving L, stationary S
wave crests separated by λ

Physics 340 Lecture 1 - 10 WN2021 MTan

 𝑣
𝑓𝐿 = 𝑣±𝑣𝑠
𝑓𝑠 , + 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑦 stationary L, moving S

𝑣 𝑣−𝑣𝑠
λ≠ 𝑓𝑠
, λ= 𝑓𝑠

𝑐−𝑣
𝑓𝑅 = 𝑐+𝑣
* 𝑓𝑠 electromagnetic waves
+v source moving away 𝑓𝑅 < 𝑓𝑠
-v source moving towards 𝑓𝑅 > 𝑓𝑠

Shock waves 𝑣𝑠 > 𝑣𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

𝑣𝑡 𝑣 𝑣
𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = 𝑣𝑠𝑡
= 𝑣𝑠
, where 𝑣𝑠
is Mach number

Physics 340 Lecture 1 - 10 WN2021 MTan