The Role of Newspapers in Modern Age

The world today is much smaller than what it originally was, thanks largely due to the
development of communication methods and skills. The history of mankind proves that
every event has its relevance and significance with respect to the time in which it has
occurred. And these communication skills have the unique distinction of contributing so
much to the development of society that no other single sphere of human activity can boast
of the same. Newspapers form the major means of vehicle of these communication systems
which have helped the society change for better, over the years.

The society during the course of its evolution all over the world has involved people in large
numbers irrespective of their proximity to the centre of events. The people at the same time
could actively participate and bring about the changes in society and thereby in their life
styles by responding to the events in proper time. This is largely attributable to the credit of
media especially the newspapers since they are effective, economically viable and readily
available to the large section of people. The mankind has a unique want of responding to
the hardships of their breather, crossing the national, linguistic, ethnic and socio-economic
barriers in times of crises and calamities. The newspapers have always played a significant
role in arousing the awareness amongst the people to such necessities. In a democratic set
up where freedom of speech is a vanguard of parliamentary institutions, the newspapers
have almost single handedly defended the rights of the citizens when the same were
threatened and the events have shown that the newspapers were instrumental in bringing
the downfall of governments who have systematically defied the democratic institutions.
The newspapers act as watch-dog of the government administration and officials ever on
the vigil for malpractices, corruption, lethargy and indolence on the part of the government
services. No other period of human history as the present one has seen the importance of
the role played by newspapers. The unification efforts of some countries, the exposure of
corrupt leaders of some regimes, the downfall of some governments, the sufferings caused
by natural calamities like earthquakes, the pangs of separation caused by terrorist activities
and the horrifying malaise of famine in some other parts of the world are but a few example
of events of every day nature that were instantaneously brought to the millions of
readership all over the world, evoking response, arousing sympathy and paving way for
emotional upheavals. The newspapers thus are the only means of touching the hearts of
mankind which is otherwise miles apart and has no palpable impact on developments
occurring in other parts of the globe. The newspapers bring the world that much closer
wherein one society responds to the needs of another, one country sympathizes with the
requirements of another thereby cultivating and installing a sense of belonging in the
process, quite imperceptibly though.

The newspapers have another unique distinction of having seen the times good, bad and
turbulent, as the history unfolded past them. They have seen countries under slavery, win
freedom, developed in all spheres of society and became powerful developing countries in
the present day society. No other innovative cataloguing of human history can be paralleled
to such a systematic and continuous logging of events. This is how the newspapers act as
conduit for a meaningful continuity of human behavior in all respects from one generation to
another. The present day newspapers educate the readership of developments in a gamut
of field's viz., Science, Engineering. They also act as intermediaries for social activities like
matrimonial, personal advertisements etc., thereby becoming an indispensable part of
human life. The amount of readership in any society is invariably taken as a yardstick to the
awareness of those citizens of the developments taking place around them.

The absence of such an umbilical cord to the society is like producing an ultra modem
limousine without incorporating the brake system. It will affect the human sensitivity to the
sufferings of their fellow humans. The absence of newspapers will be catastrophically to the
survival of fairness in public life and half the society would not know of the developments in
the other's half. It will lead to ignorance of events occurring in one region to the other, the
relevance of all modern developments in Science and Technology would be futile simply
because they cannot reach the large sections of the people effectively. Lastly it amounts to
lack of service on on-line encyclopedia of human history and doing away with a faithful
witness of ail events of human activity.

A life without newspapers is hence a life frightfully unimaginable and incredibly hard in the
sense it takes the life styles of mankind to the pre medieval times, reducing life to a mere
existence.
However, in the new age of electronic media, the newspapers have lost significance to
people interested only in news and sports. Yet for avid readers of newspapers, these are as
important as morning cup of tea or their milk.

Sports journalism
Main article: Sports journalism
Sports journalism covers many aspects of human athletic competition, and is an integral
part of most journalism products, including newspapers, magazines, and radio and
television news broadcasts. While some critics don't consider sports journalism to be true
journalism, the prominence of sports in Western culture has justified the attention of
journalists to not just the competitive events in sports, but also to athletes and the business
of sports.

Sports journalism in the United States has traditionally been written in a looser, more
creative and more opinionated tone than traditional journalistic writing; the emphasis on
accuracy and underlying fairness is still a part of sports journalism. An emphasis on the
accurate description of the statistical performances of athletes is also an important part of
sports journalism.

Science journalism
Main article: Science journalism
Science journalism is a relatively new branch of journalism, in which journalists' reporting
conveys information on science topics to the public. Science journalists must understand
and interpret very detailed, technical and sometimes jargon-laden information and render it
into interesting reports that are comprehensible to consumers of news media.
Scientific journalists also must choose which developments in science merit news coverage,
as well as cover disputes within the scientific community with a balance of fairness to both
sides but also with a devotion to the facts.

Many, but not all, journalists covering science have training in the sciences they cover,
including several medical journalists who cover medicine.

Investigative journalism
Main article: Investigative journalism
Investigative journalism, in which journalists investigate and expose unethical, immoral,
and illegal behavior by individuals, businesses and government agencies, can be
complicated, time-consuming and expensive — requiring teams of journalists, months of
research, interviews (sometimes repeated interviews) with numerous people, long-distance
travel, computers to analyze public-record databases, or use of the company's legal staff to
secure documents under freedom of information laws.

Because of its inherently confrontational nature, this kind of reporting is often the first to
suffer from budget cutbacks or interference from outside the news department.
Investigative reporting done poorly can also expose journalists and media organizations to
negative reaction from the subjects of investigations and the public, and accusations of
gotcha journalism. When conducted correctly it can bring the attention of the public and
government to problems and conditions that the public deem need to be addressed, and can
win awards and recognition to the journalists involved and the media outlet that did the
reporting.

New journalism
Main article: New Journalism
New Journalism was the name given to a style of 1960s and 1970s news writing and
journalism which used literary techniques deemed unconventional at the time. The term was
codified with its current meaning by Tom Wolfe in a 1973 collection of journalism articles.

It is typified by using certain devices of literary fiction, such as conversational speech, first-
person point of view, recording everyday details and telling the story using scenes. Though
it seems undisciplined at first, new journalism maintains elements of reporting including
strict adherence to factual accuracy and the writer being the primary source. To get "inside
the head" of a character, the journalist asks the subject what they were thinking or how
they felt.

Because of its unorthodox style, new journalism is typically employed in feature writing or
book-length reporting projects.

Many new journalists are also writers of fiction and prose. In addition to Wolfe, writers
whose work has fallen under the title "new journalism" include Norman Mailer, Hunter S.
Thompson, Joan Didion, Truman Capote, George Plimpton and Gay Talese.

Gonzo journalism
Main article: Gonzo journalism
Gonzo journalism is a type of journalism popularized by the American writer Hunter S.
Thompson, author of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, Fear and Loathing on the Campaign
Trail '72 and The Kentucky Derby is Decadent and Depraved, among other stories and
books. Gonzo journalism is characterized by its punchy style, rough language, and
ostensible disregard for conventional journalistic writing forms and customs. More
importantly, the traditional objectivity of the journalist is given up through immersion into
the story itself, as in New Journalism, and the reportage is taken from a first-hand,
participatory perspective, sometimes using an author surrogate such as Thompson's Raoul
Duke. Gonzo journalism attempts to present a multi-disciplinary perspective on a particular
story, drawing from popular culture, sports, political, philosophical and literary sources.
Gonzo journalism has been styled eclectic or untraditional. It remains a feature of popular
magazines such as Rolling Stone magazine. It has a good deal in common with new
journalism and on-line journalism (see above).

'Celebrity' or 'people' journalism

Another area of journalism that grew in stature in the 20th Century is 'celebrity' or 'people'
journalism, which focuses on the personal lives of people, primarily celebrities, including
movie and stage actors, musical artists, models and photographers, other notable people in
the entertainment industry, as well as people who seek attention, such as politicians, and
people thrust into the attention of the public, such as people who do something
newsworthy.

Once the province of newspaper gossip columnists and gossip magazines, celebrity
journalism has become the focus of national tabloid newspapers like the National Enquirer,
magazines like People and Us Weekly, syndicated television shows like Entertainment
Tonight, Inside Edition, The Insider, Access Hollywood, and Extra, cable networks like E!,
A&E Network and The Biography Channel, and numerous other television productions and
thousands of websites. Most other news media provide some coverage of celebrities and
people.

Celebrity journalism differs from feature writing in that it focuses on people who are either
already famous or are especially attractive, and in that it often covers celebrities
obsessively, to the point of these journalists behaving unethically in order to provide
coverage. Paparazzi, photographers who would follow celebrities incessantly to obtain
potentially embarrassing photographs, have come to characterize celebrity journalism.

'Convergence journalism'
An emerging form of journalism, which combines different forms of journalism, such as
print, photographic and video, into one piece or group of pieces. Convergence journalism
can be found in the likes of CNN and many other news sites. The Washington Post has a
notable amount of this.

Ambush journalism
Ambush journalism refers to aggressive tactics practiced by journalists to suddenly confront
with questions people who otherwise do not wish to speak to a journalist. The practice has
particularly been applied by television journalists, such as those on the CBS-TV news show
60 Minutes and by Geraldo Rivera and other local television reporters conducting
investigations.

The practice has been sharply criticized by journalists and others as being highly unethical
and sensational, while others defend it as the only way to attempt to provide those subject
to it an opportunity to comment for a report. Ambush journalism has not been ruled illegal
in the United States, although doing it on private property could open a journalist to being
charged with trespassing.

Other
Advocacy journalism 
Citizen journalism 
Community journalism 
Environmental journalism 
Fashion journalism 
Innovation journalism 
Online journalism 
Parachute journalism 
Service journalism 
Video journalism 

Communication theories
Theories of Communication

Chapter 1 focused on the developmental stages of Communication and summed up

Communication as a complex and dynamic process leading to the evolution of meaning.

The study of communication and mass media has led to the formulation of many theories:
structural and functional theories believe that social structures are real and function in ways
that can be observed objectively; cognitive and behavioral theories tend to focus on
psychology of individuals; interactionist theories view social life as a process of interaction;
interpretive theories uncover the ways people actually understand their own experience;
and critical theories are concerned with the conflict of interests in society and the way
communication perpetuates domination of one group over another .
The earliest theories were those propounded by Western theorists Siebert, Paterson and
Schramm in their book Four Theories Of the Press (1956). These were termed "normative
theories" by McQuail in the sense that they "mainly express ideas of how the media ought
to or can be expected to operate under a prevailing set of conditions and values." Each of
the four original or classical theories is based on a particular political theory or economic
scenario.

I) CLASSICAL THEORIES

Authoritarian Theory

According to this theory, mass media, though not under the direct control of the State, had
to follow its bidding. Under an Authoritarian approach in Western Europe, freedom of
thought was jealously guarded by a few people (ruling classes), who were concerned with
the emergence of a new middle class and were worried about the effects of printed matter
on their thought process. Steps were taken to control the freedom of expression. The result
was advocacy of complete dictatorship. The theory promoted zealous obedience to a
hierarchical superior and reliance on threat and punishment to those who did not follow the
censorship rules or did not respect authority. Censorship of the press was justified on the
ground that the State always took precedence over the individual's right to freedom of
expression.

This theory stemmed from the authoritarian philosophy of Plato (407 - 327 B.C), who
thought that the State was safe only in the hands of a few wise men. Thomas Hobbes (1588
- 1679), a British academician, argued that the power to maintain order was sovereign and
individual objections were to be ignored. Engel, a German thinker further reinforced the
theory by stating that freedom came into its supreme right only under Authoritarianism.

The world has been witness to authoritarian means of control over media by both dictatorial
and democratic governments.

Libertarianism or Free Press Theory

This movement is based on the right of an individual, and advocates absence of restraint.
The basis of this theory dates back to 17th century England when the printing press made it
possible to print several copies of a book or pamphlet at cheap rates. The State was thought
of as a major source of interference on the rights of an individual and his property.
Libertarians regarded taxation as institutional theft. Popular will (vox populi) was granted
precedence over the power of State.

Advocates of this theory were Lao Tzu, an early 16th century philosopher, John Locke of
Great Britain in the17th century, John Milton, the epic poet ("Aeropagitica") and John Stuart
Mill, an essayist ("On Liberty"). Milton in Aeropagitica in 1644, referred to a self righting
process if free expression is permitted "let truth and falsehood grapple." In 1789, the
French, in their Declaration Of The Rights Of Man, wrote "Every citizen may speak, write
and publish freely." Out of such doctrines came the idea of a "free marketplace of ideas."
George Orwell defined libertarianism as "allowing people to say things you do not want to
hear". Libertarians argued that the press should be seen as the Fourth Estate reflecting
public opinion.

What the theory offers, in sum, is power without social responsibility.

Social Responsibility Theory

Virulent critics of the Free Press Theory were Wilbur Schramm, Siebert and Theodore
Paterson. In their book Four Theories Of Press, they stated "pure libertarianism is
antiquated, outdated and obsolete." They advocated the need for its replacement by the
Social Responsibility theory. This theory can be said to have been initiated in the United
States by the Commission of The Freedom Of Press, 1949. The commission found that the
free market approach to press freedom had only increased the power of a single class and
has not served the interests of the less well-off classes. The emergence of radio, TV and film
suggested the need for some means of accountability. Thus the theory advocated some
obligation on the part of the media to society. A judicial mix of self regulation and state
regulation and high professional standards were imperative.

Social Responsibility theory thus became the modern variation in which the duty to one"s
conscience was the primary basis of the right of free expression.

Soviet Media/Communist Theory

This theory is derived from the ideologies of Marx and Engel that "the ideas of the ruling
classes are the ruling ideas". It was thought that the entire mass media was saturated with
bourgeois ideology. Lenin thought of private ownership as being incompatible with freedom
of press and that modern technological means of information must be controlled for
enjoying effective freedom of press.

The theory advocated that the sole purpose of mass media was to educate the great masses
of workers and not to give out information. The public was encouraged to give feedback as
it was the only way the media would be able to cater to its interests.

Two more theories were later added as the "four theories of the press" were not fully
applicable to the non-aligned countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, who were
committed to social and economic development on their own terms. The two theories were:

Development Communication Theory

The underlying fact behind the genesis of this theory was that there can be no development
without communication. Under the four classical theories, capitalism was legitimized, but
under the Development communication theory, or Development Support Communication as
it is otherwise called, the media undertook the role of carrying out positive developmental
programmes, accepting restrictions and instructions from the State. The media subordinated
themselves to political, economic, social and cultural needs. Hence the stress on
"development communication" and "development journalism". There was tacit support from
the UNESCO for this theory. The weakness of this theory is that "development" is often
equated with government propaganda.

Democratization/Democratic Participant Media Theory

This theory vehemently opposes the commercialization of modern media and its top-down
non-participant character. The need for access and right to communicate is stressed.
Bureaucratic control of media is decried.

2) MAGIC BULLET/ HYPODERMIC NEEDLE/ STIMULUS RESPONSE THEORY

Before the first World War, there was no separate field of study on Communication, but
knowledge about mass communication was accumulating. An outcome of World War I
propaganda efforts, the Magic Bullet or Hypodermic Needle Theory came into existence. It
propounded the view that the mass media had a powerful influence on the mass audience
and could deliberately alter or control peoples' behaviour.

Klapper (1960) formulated several generalizations on the effects of mass media. His
research findings are as follows: "Mass-media ordinarily does not serve as a necessary and
sufficient cause of audience effect, but rather functions through a nexus of mediating factors
and influences. These mediating factors render mass-communication as a contributory
agent in a process of reinforcing the existing conditions."

The main mediating factors which he considers responsible for the functions and effects of
mass communications are
- selective exposure i.e., people's tendency to expose themselves to those mass
communications which are in agreement with their attitudes and interests; and
- selective perception and retention i.e., people's inclination to organize the meaning of
mass communication messages into accord with their already existing views.

3) TWO STEP FLOW THEORY

In the early 40"s, before the invention of television, Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Goudet
conducted an American survey on mass campaigns. The study revealed that informal social
relationships had played a part in modifying the manner in which individuals selected
content from the media campaign. The study also indicated that ideas often flowed from the
radio and newspapers to opinion leaders and from them to the less active sections of
society. Thus, informal social groups have some degree of influence on people and mould
the way they select media content and act on it.

Figure 2.1

Source: CIA Advertising at www.ciadvertising.org/ortega/Theories.htm (used by permission)

4) ONE STEP FLOW THEORY

This theory simply stated that mass communication media channels communicate directly to
the mass audience without the message being filtered by opinion leaders.

5) MULTI STEP FLOW THEORY

This was based on the idea that there are a number of relays in the communication flow
from a source to a large audience.

6) USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY

This theory propounded by Katz in 1970, is concerned with how people use media for
gratification of their needs. An outcome of Abraham Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs, it
propounds the fact that people choose what they want to see or read and the different
media compete to satisfy each individual"s needs.

In the hierarchy of needs, there are five levels in the form of a pyramid with the basic needs
such as food and clothing at the base and the higher order needs climbing up the pyramid.
The fulfillment of each lower level need leads to the individual looking to satisfy the next
level of need and so on till he reaches the superior-most need of self-actualization.

Figure 2.2

Source :William G Huitt - Valdosta University at chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/ (used by

permission)

The Uses and Gratifications approach reminds us that people use media for many purposes.
As media users become increasingly confronted with choices, this approach should direct
our attention to the audience. Lull's television research found that families used television
for communication facilitation, relationship building, intimacy, and for structuring the day.
In general researchers have found four kinds of gratifications:

1. Information - we want to find out about society and the world- we want to satisfy our
curiosity. This would fit the news and documentaries which both give us a sense that we are
learning about the world.
2. Personal Identity - we may watch the television in order to look for models for our
behaviour. So, for example, we may identify with characters that we see in a soap. The
characters help us to decide what feel about ourselves and if we agree with their actions
and they succeed we feel better about ourselves.
3. Integration and Social Interaction - we use the media in order to find out more about the
circumstances of other people. Watching a show helps us to empathize and sympathize with
the lives of others so that we may even end up thinking of the characters in programme as
friends.
4. Entertainment - sometimes we simply use the media for enjoyment, relaxation or just to
fill time.
Riley and Riley (1951) found that children in peer groups used adventure stories from the
media for group games while individual children used media stories for fantasizing and
daydreaming. The study thus found that different people use the same messages from the
media for different purposes.

Katz replaced the question "what do media do to people?" with the question "what do
people do with the media?" Katz, Gurevitch & Hass found that the media are used by
individuals to meet the following specific needs :

Cognitive needs (acquiring information, knowledge and understanding);

Affective needs (emotional, pleasurable experience);
Personal integrative needs (strengthening self image);
Social integrative needs (strengthening self image);
Tension release needs (escape and diversion)

McQuail, Blumler and Brown suggested the following individual needs categories:

1) Diversion (emotional release)

2) Personal Relationships (substitute of media for companionship).
3) Personal identity or individual psychology (value reinforcement, self understanding.)
4) Surveillance (information that may help an individual accomplish tasks.)

B. Rubin and Bantz (1989) studied the uses and gratifications of "new technology" by
examining VCR use. They found the following motives for VCR use:
1) library storage of movies and shows
2) watching music videos
3) Using exercise tapes
4) renting movies
5) letting children view
6) time-shifting
7) Socializing by viewing with others
8) Critical viewing including TV watching and studying tapes

7) SPIRAL OF SILENCE THEORY

Propounded by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, this theory states that the media publicizes
opinions that are mainstream and people adjust their opinions according to their perceptions
to avoid being isolated. Individuals who perceive their own opinion as being accepted will
express it, whilst those who think themselves as being a minority, suppress their views.
Innovators and change agents are unafraid to voice different opinions, as they do not fear
isolation.

Figure 2.3
Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

8) CONSISTENCY THEORIES (1950s)

Festinger formulated the consistency theories that talked about people"s need for
consistency in their beliefs and judgements. In order to reduce dissonance created by
inconsistencies in belief, judgments and action people expose themselves to information
that is consistent with their ideas and actions, and they shut out other communications.

9) McCOMBS AND SHAW"S AGENDA SETTING THEORY

This theory puts forth the ability of the media to influence the significance of events in the
public's mind. The media set the agenda for the audience's discussion and mentally order
and organize their world. The theory is consistent with a "use and gratification" approach.
McCombs and Shaw assert that the agenda-setting function of the media causes the
correlation between the media and public ordering of priorities. The people most affected by
the media agenda are those who have a high need for orientation

10) Media Dependency Theory

Developed by Ball-Rokeach and DeFluer, the key idea behind this theory is that audiences
depend on media information to meet needs and reach goals, and social institutions and
media systems interact with audiences to create needs, interests, and motives in the
person. The degree of dependence is influenced by the number and centrality of information
functions and social stability. Some questions that this theory raised were :
Do media create needs?
Do people turn to media to achieve gratification and satisfy needs?
Are media needs personal, social, cultural, political, or all of these?
"The media are our friends"??

11) STEPHENSON"S PLAY THEORY

Play is an activity pursued for pleasure. The daily withdrawal of people into the mass media
in their after hours is a matter of subjectivity. The effect of mass communication is not
escapism nor seducing the masses. Rather it is seen as anti-anxiety producing, and are
regarded as communication-pleasure.

12) MODELING BEHAVIOUR THEORY

Behaviors which are modeled from media experiences can become habitual if found useful
and/or if they are reinforced in the environment. This is not about violent or criminal
behavior.

13) STALAGMITE THEORIES

These theories suggest that mediated experiences induce long term effects that are very
difficult to measure. The effects are like stalagmite drippings building up over time. Meaning
Theory and the Cultivation Theory are two of the most significant Stalagmite theories.

MEANING THEORY
Media experiences mould meanings by putting things in a particular framework. Does "NYPD
Blue" depict the real world of New York City police detectives? Questions like this are
coming from a Meaning Theory focus on media.

CULTIVATION THEORY
George Gerbner tried to determine the influence of television on viewers" ideas of the
environment they lived in. He found that dominance of TV created a common view of the
world and that it homogenized different cultures. TV portrayed the society as a bad place to
live in leading to people becoming distrustful of the world. Over time, particular symbols,
images, messages, meanings become dominant and are absorbed as the truth. Cultural
stereotypes, ways of assessing value and hierarchies are established.

Figure 2.4

Source : From the Internet at www.colorado.edu/.../Theory/ cultivation/sld001.htm

14) Diffusion of innovations theory

Pioneered in 1943 by Bryce Ryan and Neil Gross of Iowa State University this theory traces
the process by which a new idea or practice is communicated through certain channels over
time among members of a social system. The model describes the factors that influence
people's thoughts and actions and the process of adopting a new technology or idea.

15) Social learning theory

Formulated by Albert Bandura at Stanford University, this specifies that mass-media

messages give audience members an opportunity to identify with attractive characters that
demonstrate behavior, engage emotions, and allow mental rehearsal and modeling of new
behavior. The behavior of models in the mass media also offers vicarious reinforcement to
motivate audience members' adoption of the behavior.

Baran and Davis (2000) classify mass communication theories into three broad categories:
1. microscopic theories that focus on the everyday life of people who process information -
for example, uses and gratifications, active audience theory, and reception studies;
2. middle range theories that support the limited effects perspective of the media - for
example, information flow theory, diffusion theory, and
3. macroscopic theories that are concerned with media's impact on culture and society - for
example, cultural studies theory.

Theories of mass communication have always focused on the "cause and effects" notion, i.e.
the effects of the media and the process leading to those effects, on the audience's mind.
Harold Lasswell and Berelson have succinctly expressed this idea. Lasswell's essential
question is timeless (1949): "Who says what in what channel to whom with what effects?"
Berelson said: "Some kinds of communication, on some kinds of issues, brought to the
attention of some kinds of people, under some kinds of conditions, have some kinds of
effects." (1949).

Figure 2.5

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

Wilbur Schramm stated: "In fact, it is misleading to think of the communication process as
starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really endless. We are little switchboard
centers handling and rerouting the great endless current of information.... " (Schramm
W.1954) quoted in McQuail & Windahl (1981)

16) The Osgood and Schramm circular model emphasizes the circular nature of
communication.

The participants swap between the roles of source/encoder and receiver/decoder.

Figure 2.6

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

17) Gerbner's General Model

Gerbner's General Model also emphasizes the dynamic nature of human communication.

Figure 2.7

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

18) the Shannon-Weaver Model.

Shannon and Weaver produced a general model of communication known after them as the
Shannon-Weaver Model. It involved breaking down an information system into sub-systems
so as to evaluate the efficiency of various communication channels and codes. They propose
that all communication must include six elements:

Source
Encoder
Channel
Message
Decoder
Receiver

This model is often referred to as an " information model" of communication. A drawback is

that the model looks at communication as a one-way process. That is remedied by the
addition of the feedback loop. Noise indicates those factors that disturb or otherwise
influence messages as they are being transmitted

Figure 2.8

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

19) Berlo's S-M-C-R Model

Berlo"s SMCR (SOURCE, MESSAGE, CHANNEL, and RECEIVER) model focuses on the
individual characteristics of communication and stresses the role of the relationship between
the source and the receiver as an important variable in the communication process. The
more highly developed the communication skills of the source and the receiver, the more
effectively the message will be encoded and decoded.

Berlo's model represents a communication process that occurs as a SOURCE drafts

messages based on one's communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and
cultural system. These MESSAGES are transmitted along CHANNELS, which can include
sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. A RECEIVER interprets messages based on the
individual's communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and cultural system. The
limitations of the model are its lack of feedback

Communication models
The Shannon-Weaver Model:
Claude Shannon was a research scientist at Bell Telephone Company trying to achieve
maximum telephone line capacity with minimum distortion. He had never intended for his
mathematical theory of signal transmission for anything but telephones. But when Warren
Weaver applied Shannon's concept of information loss to interpersonal communication, one
of the most popular models of communication was created. 

According to Shannon and Weaver's model, a message begins at an information source,

which is relayed through a transmitter, and then sent via a signal towards the receiver. But
before it reaches the receiver, the message must go through noise .Finally, the receiver
must convey the message to its destination. The Shannon–Weaver model of communication
has been called the "mother of all models.It embodies the concepts of information source,
message, transmitter, signal, channel, noise, receiver, information destination, probability
of error, coding, decoding, information rate, channel capacity, etc

he Shannon-Weaver Model (1947) proposes that all communication must include six
elements:
1. a source
2. an encoder
3. a message
4. a channel
5. a decoder
6. a receiver
These six elements are shown graphically in the model. As Shannon was researching in the
field of information theory, his model was initially very technology-oriented. The emphasis
here is very much on the transmission and reception of information. 'Information' is
understood rather differently from the way you and I would normally use the term, as well.
This model is often referred to as an 'information model' of communication.

The term Shannon–Weaver model was widely adopted into the social science fields, such as
education, organizational analysis, psychology, etc. In engineering and mathematics fields,
Shannon's theory is used more literally, and referred to by his name alone, as Shannon
theory, or as information theory,since the popularized model of Weaver is not needed to
utilize Shannon's mathematical results

Wilbur Schramm's communication model:

Wilbur Schramm (1907-1987) is sometimes called the "father of communication studies,"
and had a great influence on the development of communication research in the United
States, and the establishing of departments of communication studies in US universities.

Wilbur Schramm (1954) was one of the first to alter the mathematical model of Shannon
and Weaver. He conceived of decoding and encoding as activities maintained simultaneously
by sender and receiver; he also made provisions for a two-way interchange of messages.
Notice also the inclusion of an “interpreter” as an abstract representation of the problem of
meaning

__________________

Lasswell communication model:

The Message
Being concerned with the mass media, Lasswell was particularly concerned with the
messages present in the media. This relates to an area of study known as content research.
Typically, content research is applied to questions of representation.

The Channel
The channel is what carries the message. If someone speaks to you my words are carried
via the channel of air waves, the radio news is carried by both air waves and radio waves. I
could tap out a message on the back of your head in Morse Code, in which case the channel
is touch. In simple terms, messages can be sent in channels corresponding to your five
senses. 

This use of the word 'channel' is similar to the use of the word medium when we talk about
communication. The words are sometimes used interchangeably. However, strictly
speaking, we often use the word medium to refer to a combination of different channels.
Television for example uses both the auditory channel (sound) and visual channel (sight).

The Receiver
Sender, source or transmitter refers to the Communicator. This whole question of audience
is vitally important to successful communication. 

Effects
Lasswell's model also introduces us to the question of media effects. We don't communicate
in a vacuum. We normally communicate because we want to achieve something. 

Feedback
To find out what kind of effect our communication has, use feedback from you to gauge the
effect of my communication. If you give me positive feedback by showing interest, I'll
continue in the same vein; if you give me negative feedback by showing boredom, I'll
change the subject, or change my style, or stop speaking. When broadcasters transmit a
programme, they use the services of BARB to gain feedback in the form of ratings. 

Feedback is not shown specifically in Lasswell's formula, but very many communication
models do show it. A simple one which does so is the Shannon-Weaver Model.

David Berlo's communication Model

The simplest and most influential message-centered model of our time came from David
Berlo.
The idea of “source” was flexible enough to include oral, written, electronic, or any other
kind of “symbolic” generator-of-messages.“Message” was made the central element,
stressing the transmission of ideas. The model recognized that receivers were important to
communication, for they were the targets.the notions of “encoding” and “decoding”
emphasized the problems we all have (psycho-linguistically) in translating our own thoughts
into words or other symbols and in deciphering the words or symbols of others into terms
we ourselves can understand.

Westley and MacLean Communication Model:

Westley and MacLean realized that communication does not begin when one person starts
to talk, but rather when a person responds selectively to his immediate physical
surroundings.

Each interactant responds to his sensory experience, by abstracting out certain objects of
orientation, Some items are selected for further interpretation or coding and then are
transmitted to another person, who may or may not be responding to the same objects of
orientation.

@gulshan

well the above notes are no doubt very helpful..but these are incomplete..and
therefor misguiding...
three basic elements of mass comm are in mentioned above..but actually there are
FIVE elements in Mass Communication.These are:

*Source
*Message
*Medium
*Destination/Reciever
*Feedback

Feedback is one of the most important element of mass comm..as it is a two way
process..and it is not mentioned above..
------------------------------------------------------------

Below are some important notes of mass communication..and it covers the

functions of mass media(as are required in CSS course):
The Role of the Mass Media in Community Development
By: Eyiah, Joe Kingsley, (2004-04-28)
More from this columnist
It is said that big minds discuss issues but small or swallow minds discuss/attack
persons.
The significance of communication for human life cannot be overestimated. This is
true because beyond the physical requirements of food and shelter man needs to
communicate with his/her fellow human beings. This urge for communication is a
primal one and in our contemporary civilization a necessity for survival. That is to
say without communication no society can exist, much less develop and survive.
For the existence as well as the organization of every society communication is a
fundamental and vital process. 

Communication Theories
Defining Communication Theories

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Cognitive Dissonance Theory argues that the experience of dissonance (or incompatible
beliefs and actions) is aversive and people are highly motivated to avoid it. In their efforts
to avoid feelings of dissonance, people will avoid hearing views that oppose their own,
change their beliefs to match their actions, and seek reassurance after making a difficult
decision.

Communication Accommodation Theory

This theoretical perspective examines the underlying motivations and consequences of what
happens when two speakers shift their communication styles. Communication
Accommodation theorists argue that during communication, people will try to accommodate
or adjust their style of speaking to others. This is done in two ways: divergence and
convergence. Groups with strong ethnic or racial pride often use divergence to highlight
group identity. Convergence occurs when there is a strong need for social approval,
frequently from powerless individuals.

Coordinated Management of Meaning

Theorists in Coordinated Management of Meaning believe that in conversation, people co-
create meaning by attaining some coherence and coordination. Coherence occurs when
stories are told, and coordination exists when stories are lived. CMM focuses on the
relationship between an individual and his or her society. Through a hierarchical structure,
individuals come to organize the meaning of literally hundreds of messages received
throughout a day.

Cultivation Analysis
This theory argues that television (and other media) plays an extremely important role in
how people view their world. According to Cultivation Analysis, in modern Culture most
people get much of their information in a mediated fashion rather than through direct
experience. Thus, mediated sources can shape people’s sense of reality. This is especially
the case with regard to violence, according to the theory. Cultivation Analysis posits that
heavy television viewing cultivates a sense of the world that is more violent and scarier than
is actually warranted.

Cultural Approach to Organizations

The Cultural Approach contends that people are like animals who are suspended in webs
that they created. Theorists in this tradition argue that an organization’s culture is
composed of shared symbols, each of which has a unique meaning. Organizational stories,
rituals, and rites of passage are examples of what constitutes the culture of an organization.
Cultural Studies
Theorists in cultural studies maintain that the media represents ideologies of the dominant
class in a society. Because media are controlled by corporations, the information presented
to the public is necessarily influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies
theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influenced and framed with profit in mind.
Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influence and how power
plays a role in the interpretation of culture.

Dramatism
This theoretical position compares life to a drama. As in dramatic action, life requires an
actor, a scene, an act, some means for the action to take place, and a purpose. A rhetorical
critic can understand a speaker’s motives by analyzing these elements. Further, Dramatism
argues that purging guilt is the ultimate motive, and rhetors can be successful when they
provide their audiences with a means for purging their guilt and a sense of identification
with the rhetor.

Expectancy Violations Theory

Expectancy Violation Theory examines how nonverbal messages are structured. The theory
advances that when communicative norms are violated, the violation may be perceived
either favorably or unfavorably, depending on the perception that the receiver has of the
violator. Violating another’s expectations may be a strategy used over that of conforming to
another’s expectations.

Face-Negotiation Theory
Face-Negotiation Theory is concerned with how people in individualistic and collectivistic
cultures negotiate face in conflict situations. The theory is based on face management,
which describes how people from different cultures manage conflict negotiation in order to
maintain face. Self-face and other-face concerns explain the conflict negotiation between
people from various cultures.

Groupthink
The groupthink phenomenon occurs when highly cohesive groups fail to consider
alternatives that may effectively resolve group dilemmas. Groupthink theorists contend that
group members frequently think similarly and are reluctant to share unpopular or dissimilar
ideas with others. When this occurs, groups prematurely make decisions, some of which can
have lasting consequences.

Muted Group Theory

Muted Group Theory maintains that language serves men better than women (and perhaps
European Americans better than African Americans or other groups). This is the case
because the variety of experiences of European American men are named clearly in
language, whereas the experiences of other groups (such as women) are not. Due to this
problem with language, women appear less articulate than men in public settings. As
women have similar experiences, this situation should change.

The Narrative Paradigm

This theory argues that humans are storytelling animals. The Narrative Paradigm proposes a
narrative logic to replace the traditional logic of argument. Narrative logic, or the logic of
good reasons, suggests that people judge the credibility of speakers by whether their stories
hang together clearly (coherence and whether their stories ring true (fidelity). The Narrative
Paradigm allows for a democratic judgment of speakers because no one has to be trained in
oratory and persuasion to make judgments based on coherence and fidelity.

Organizational Information Theory

This Theory argues that the main activity of organizations is the process of making sense of
equivocal information. Organizational members accomplish this sense-making process
through enactment, selection, and retention of information. Organizations are successful to
the extent that they are able to reduce equivocality through these means.

Relational Dialectics Theory

Relational Dialectics suggests that relational life is always in process. People in relationships
continually feel the pull-push of conflicting desires. Basically, people wish to have both
autonomy and connection, openness and protective-ness, and novelty and predictability. As
people communicate in relationships, they attempt to reconcile these conflicting desires, but
they never eliminate their needs for both of the opposing pairs.

The Rhetoric
Rhetorical theory is based on the available means of persuasion. That is, a speaker who is
interested in persuading his or her audience should consider three rhetorical proofs: logical,
emotional, and ethical. Audiences are key to effective persuasion as well. Rhetorical
syllogism, requiring audiences to supply missing pieces of a speech, are also used in
persuasion.

Social Exchange Theory

This theoretical position argues that the major force in interpersonal relationships is the
satisfaction of both people’s self-interest. Theorists in Social Exchange posit that self-
interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships. The
Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchange posit that self-interest is not
necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships. The Social Exchange
approach views interpersonal exchanges as analogous to economic exchanges where people
are satisfied when they receive a fair return on their expenditures.

Social Penetration Theory

This theory maintains that interpersonal relationships evolve in some gradual and
predictable fashion. Penetration theorists believe that self-disclosure is the primary way that
superficial relationships progress to intimate relationships. Although self-disclosure can lead
to more intimate relationships, it can also leave one or more persons vulnerable.

Spiral of Silence Theory

Theorists associated with Spiral of Silence Theory argue that due to their enormous power,
the mass media have a lasting effect on public opinion. The theory maintains that mass
media work simultaneously with Majority public opinion to silence minority beliefs on
cultural issues. A fear of isolation prompts those with minority views to examine the beliefs
of others. Individuals who fear being socially isolated are prone to conform to what they
perceive to be a majority view.

Standpoint Theory
This theory posits that people are situated in specific social standpoints-they occupy
different places in the social hierarchy. Because of this, individuals view the social situation
from particular vantage points. By necessity, each vantage point provides only a partial
understanding of the social whole. Yet, those who occupy the lower rungs of the hierarchy
tend to understand the social whole. Yet, those who occupy the lower rungs of the hierarchy
tend to understand the social situation more fully than those at the top. Sometimes,
Standpoint Theory is referred to as Feminist Standpoint Theory because of its application to
how women’s and men’s standpoint differ.

Structuration Theory
Theorists supporting the structurational perspective argue that groups and organizations
create structures, which can be interpreted as an organization’s rules and resources. These
structures, in turn, create social systems in an organization. Structuration theorists posit
that groups and organizations achieve a life of their own because of the way their members
utilize their structures. Power structures guide the decision making taking place in groups
and organizations.

Symbolic Interaction Theory

This theory suggests that people are motivated to act based on the meanings they assign to
people, things, and events. Further, meaning is created in the language that people use
both with others and in private thought. Language allows people to develop a sense of self
and to interact with others in community.

Uncertainly Reduction Theory

Uncertainty Reduction Theory suggests that when strangers meet, their primary focus is on
reducing their levels of uncertainty in the situation. Their levels of uncertainty are located in
both behavioral and cognitive realms. That is, they may be unsure of how to behave (or
how the other person will behave), and they may also be unsure what they think of the
other and what the other person thinks of them. Further, people’s uncertainty is both
individual level and relational level. People are highly motivated to use communication to
reduce their uncertainty according to this theory.

Uses and Gratifications Theory

Uses and Gratifications theorists explain why people choose and use certain media forms.
The theory emphasizes a limited effect position; that is, the media have a limithe effect on
their audiences because audiences are able to exercise control over their media. Uses and
Gratifications Theory attempts to answer the following: What do people do with the media?

Four Principles of Interpersonal

Communication
Four Principles of Interpersonal Communication

These principles underlie the workings in real life of interpersonal communication. They are
basic to communication. We can't ignore them

Interpersonal communication is inescapable

We can't not communicate. The very attempt not to communicate communicates
something. Through not only words, but through tone of voice and through gesture,
posture, facial expression, etc., we constantly communicate to those around us. Through
these channels, we constantly receive communication from others. Even when you sleep,
you communicate. Remember a basic principle of communication in general: people are not
mind readers. Another way to put this is: people judge you by your behavior, not your
intent.

Interpersonal communication is irreversible

You can't really take back something once it has been said. The effect must inevitably
remain. Despite the instructions from a judge to a jury to "disregard that last statement the
witness made," the lawyer knows that it can't help but make an impression on the jury. A
Russian proverb says, "Once a word goes out of your mouth, you can never swallow it
again."

Interpersonal communication is complicated

No form of communication is simple. Because of the number of variables involved, even
simple requests are extremely complex. Theorists note that whenever we communicate
there are really at least six "people" involved: 
1) who you think you are; 2) who you think the other person is; 30 who you think the other
person thinks you are; 4) who the other person thinks /she is; 5) who the other person
thinks you are; and 6) who the other person thinks you think s/he is.

We don't actually swap ideas, we swap symbols that stand for ideas. This also complicates
communication. Words (symbols) do not have inherent meaning; we simply use them in
certain ways, and no two people use the same word exactly alike.

Osmo Wiio gives us some communication maxims similar to Murphy's law (Osmo Wiio,
Wiio's Laws--and Some Others (Espoo, Finland: Welin-Goos, 1978):

• If communication can fail, it will.

• If a message can be understood in different ways, it will be understood in just that

way which does the most harm.

• There is always somebody who knows better than you what you meant by your
message.

• The more communication there is, the more difficult it is for communication to
succeed.

These tongue-in-cheek maxims are not real principles; they simply humorously remind us of
the difficulty of accurate communication.

Interpersonal communication is contextual

In other words, communication does not happen in isolation. There is:
• Psychological context, which is who you are and what you bring to the interaction.
Your needs, desires, values, personality, etc., all form the psychological context.
("You" here refers to both participants in the interaction.)

• Relational context, which concerns your reactions to the other person--the "mix."

• Situational context deals with the psycho-social "where" you are communicating. An
interaction that takes place in a classroom will be very different from one that takes
place in a bar.

• Environmental context deals with the physical "where" you are communicating.
Furniture, location, noise level, temperature, season, time of day, all are examples of
factors in the environmental context.

• Cultural context includes all the learned behaviors and rules that affect the
interaction. If you come from a culture (foreign or within your own country) where it
is considered rude to make long, direct eye contact, you will out of politeness avoid
eye contact. If the other person comes from a culture where long, direct eye contact
signals trustworthiness, then we have in the cultural context a basis for
misunderstanding.
Kinds of Features
Features writing
Features are not meant to deliver the news firsthand. They do contain
elements of news, but their main function is to humanize, to add colour, to
educate, to entertain, to illuminate. They often recap major news that was
reported in a previous news cycle. Features often: 
Profile people who make the news 
Explain events that move or shape the news 
Analyze what is happening in the world, nation or community 
Teach an audience how to do something 
Suggest better ways to live 
Examine trends 
Entertain.
Hard News and Soft News
A news story can be hard, chronicling as concisely as possible the who, what,
where, when, why and how of an event. Or it can be soft, standing back to
examine the people, places and things that shape the world, nation or
community. Hard news events--such as the death of a famous public figure or
the plans of city council to raise taxes--affect many people, and the primary
job of the media is to report them as they happen. Soft news, such as the
widespread popularity of tattooing among athletes or the resurgence of
interest in perennial gardening, is also reported by the media. Feature stories
are often written on these soft news events. 
There is no firm line between a news story and a feature, particularly in
contemporary media when many news stories are "featurized." For instance,
the results of an Olympic competition may be hard news: "Canadian diver
Anne Montmigny claimed her second medal in synchronized diving today." A
featurized story might begin: "As a girl jumping off a log into the stream
running behind her house, Anne Montmigny never dreamed she would leap
into the spotlight of Olympic diving competition." One approach emphasizes
the facts of the event, while the feature displaces the facts to accommodate the
human interest of the story. Most news broadcasts or publications combine
the two to reach a wider audience. 
Today’s media use many factors to determine what events they will report,
including 
timeliness 
proximity 
consequence 
the perceived interest of the audience 
competition 
editorial goals 
and the influence of advertisers.
All these factors put pressure on the media to give their audiences both news
and features. In a version of featurizing, pressure from advertisers or lobbyists
often result in writing that appears at first blush to be news when it is, in fact,
promotion for a product, idea, or policy. 
When a hard news story breaks--for example, the sinking of a ferry in the
Greek islands--it should be reported with a hard news lead. Soft leads and
stories are more appropriate when a major news event is not being reported
for the first time: a profile of the Canadian couple who had their vacation cut
short when the Greek ferry struck a reef and sunk while the crew was
watching television. Some editors dispute the emphasis on soft writing and
refer to it as jell-o journalism. 
Feature writing can stand alone, or it can be a sidebar to the main story, the
mainbar. A sidebar runs next to the main story or elsewhere in the same
edition, providing an audience with additional information on the same
topic. 

Types of Features
Personality profiles: A personality profile is written to bring an audience
closer to a person in or out of the news. Interviews and observations, as well
as creative writing, are used to paint a vivid picture of the person. The CBC’s
recent profile of Pierre Elliot Trudeau is a classic example of the genre and
makes use of archival film footage, interviews, testimonials, and fair degree of
editorializing by the voice-over commentary. 
Human interest stories: A human interest story is written to show a subject’s
oddity or its practical, emotional, or entertainment value. 
Trend stories: A trend story examines people, things or organizations that are
having an impact on society. Trend stories are popular because people are
excited to read or hear about the latest fads. 
In-depth stories: Through extensive research and interviews, in-depth stories
provide a detailed account well beyond a basic news story or feature. 
Backgrounders: A backgrounder--also called an analysis piec--adds meaning
to current issues in the news by explaining them further. These articles bring
an audience up-to-date, explaining how this country, this organization, this
person happens to be where it is now. 

Writing and Organizing Feature Stories

Feature writers seldom use the inverted-pyramid form. Instead, they may
write a chronology that builds to a climax at the end, a narrative, a first-
person article about one of their own experiences or a combination of these.
Their stories are held together by a thread, and they often end where the lead
started, with a single person or event. Here are the steps typically followed in
organizing a feature story: 
Choose the theme. The theme is similar to the thesis of a scholarly paper and
provides unity and coherence to the piece. It should not be too broad or too
narrow. Several factors come into play when choosing a theme: Has the story
been done before? Is the story of interest to the audience? Does the story have
holding power (emotional appeal)? What makes the story worthy of being
reported? The theme answers the question, "So what?" 
Write a lead that invites an audience into the story. A summary may not be
the best lead for a feature. A lead block of one or two paragraphs often begins
a feature. Rather than put the news elements of the story in the lead, the
feature writer uses the first two or three paragraphs to set a mood, to arouse
readers, to invite them inside. Then the news peg or the significance of the
story is provided in the third or fourth paragraph, the nut graph. Because it
explains the reason the story is being written, the nut graph--also called the
"so what" graph--is a vital paragraph in every feature. The nut graph should
be high in the story. Do not make readers wait until the 10th or 11th
paragraph before telling them what the story is about. 
The body provides vital information while it educates, entertains, and
emotionally ties an audience to the subject. The ending will wrap up the story
and come back to the lead, often with a quotation or a surprising climax.
Important components of the body of a feature story are background
information, the thread of the story, transition, dialogue, and voice. 
Provide vital background information. If appropriate, a paragraph or two of
background should be placed high in the story to bring the audience up to
date. 
Write clear, concise sentences. Sprinkle direct quotations, observations and
additional background throughout the story. Paragraphs can be written
chronologically or in order of importance. 
Use a thread. Connect the beginning, body and conclusion of the story.
Because a feature generally runs longer than a news story, it is effective to
weave a thread throughout the story, which connects the lead to the body and
to the conclusion. This thread can be a single person, an event or a thing, and
it usually highlights the theme. 
Use transition.Connect paragraphs with transitional words, paraphrases, and
direct quotations. Transition is particularly important in a long feature
examining several people or events because it is the tool writers use to move
subtly from one person or topic to the next. Transition keeps readers from
being jarred by the writing. 
Use dialogue when possible. Feature writers, like fiction writers, often use
dialogue to keep a story moving. Of course, feature writers cannot make up
dialogue; they listen for it during the reporting process. Good dialogue is like
good observation in a story; it gives readers strong mental images and keeps
them attached to the writing and to the story’s key players.
Establish a voice. Another key element that holds a feature together is voice,
the "signature" or personal style of each writer. Voice is the personality of the
writer and can be used to inject colour, tone, and subtle emotional
commentary into the story. Voice should be used subtly (unless you’re able to
make a fetish of it like Hunter S. Thompson!). The blatant intrusion of a
distinctive voice into news writing has been called gonzo journalism--an
irresponsible, if entertaining, trend in contemporary writing according to
traditionalists. 
Conclude with a quotation or another part of the thread. A feature can trail off
like a news story or it can be concluded with a climax. Often, a feature ends
where the lead started, with a single person or event. 
[Summarized from Bruce Itule & Douglas Anderson, News Writing and Reporting for Today’s
Media, 3rd. Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.]
column writing
Anybody can be trained to write straight news because it’s very mechanical. Feature
articles, though also somewhat formulaic, are harder because they require good writing. But
column writing is the hardest type of writing of all because it requires good thinking.

To write a good column requires more than just the ability to articulate an opinion. Your
opinions must make sense, provide insight and be convincing. And you must do all this in an
entertaining way. 

It requires you to be almost like a lawyer. Through your arguments, you will need to
convince the jury (your readers) that your client (your viewpoint) is right. Shaping a
powerful argument takes practice and requires both breadth and depth of knowledge as well
as the ability to critically analyze a particular issue. 

So, is there a methodology for training someone to become a “good thinker”? I’m not sure
about that but I’m certain it helps to be well-read, inquisitive and willing to listen to various
viewpoints. If you're someone who likes to write but doesn’t want to do research or think
deeply about an issue, forget about column writing. 

Studying your role models will help you to develop your own voice. Follow the work of
several established columnists and analyze their writings to discover how they project their
arguments and how they make effective use of anecdotes, quotes and statistics. From
there, you can learn the tricks of the trade and eventually develop your own distinctive
voice and style.

Column writing is very different from other forms of writing because unlike straight news
and feature writing, columns have dedicated readerships. A columnist develops a following
because his readers feel they can gain knowledge, insight and entertainment from reading
his writings. It’s a great honor to be given a regular column but remember, to do it well
requires a great amount of dedication to the craft. 

Lastly, a word of advice. Be ready for criticism. If you can dish it out, you’ve got to be able
to take as good as you got. When you take a strong stance on anything, there’s bound to be
someone offended by what you wrote. And they will write to you – often in less than polite
language - to let you know exactly what they think of you and your opinions. It goes with
the territory. 

Now, onto the tips. 

1. Write with conviction: Put forward your opinion as something you truly believe in.
Argue your case with conviction. Come down hard on one side of an issue. Be unequivocal.
Never ever sit on the fence.

2. Maintain your focus: Make your column about one thing and one thing alone. Don’t
muddle the message. Maintain your focus. That’s the only way to make a strong impression
on your readers and to convince them that your point of view is correct.

3. Understand opposing viewpoints: Be mindful of the opposing argument. Anticipate

objections to your point of view and deal with them convincingly with sound reasoning. If
you’re not familiar with the opposing view, you will not be able to argue your points well.

4. Refer to facts: Your arguments, however logical, will not carry much weight unless they
are accompanied by facts that support your position. Don’t overdo this and inundate your
readers with statistics and figures. But do make use of facts from reputable sources.

5. Use analogies: Analogies are useful for illustrating a point, especially when the topic
you are writing about is somewhat complicated or technical. Using a simple analogy from
everyday life makes the issue more understandable and relevant to the reader. 

6. Be critical: People like reading columnists who dare to criticize real life people – not just
nameless concepts and policies. Naming names might create a bit of controversy but as
long as you do not libel anyone and don’t go overboard in your criticism, it works well to
make your column an interesting and exciting read.

7. Do reporting. It’s possible to write columns without doing any reporting but the best
columns typically involve some form of reporting. When you report, you get on the ground
and you gain a better sense of what’s really happening. When you write from an ivory
tower, it shows. 

8. Localize and personalize: Localize your story whenever possible. Also tie it to some
personal experience – yours or that of someone you know. This makes an otherwise
esoteric and distant topic more real, relevant and memorable to the reader.

9. Be passionate: Generally, people don’t like to hear a soft or passive voice when they
read a column. So be aggressive – even arrogant, to an extent. People want to see passion.
They want to feel energized. If the issue doesn’t seem to excite you, the writer, it’s certainly
not going to excite the reader.

10. Provide a solution: Last but not least, don’t just raise an issue. Have the conviction to
suggest a solution. Columns that criticize certain policies but offer no solutions are useless.
People read columns because they want to gain insight and answers. If you don’t provide
those, you’ve failed as a columnist.

 A good editorial...
Q: What is good editorial? Discuss how editorial page is different
from other pages in the newspaper?

The editorial page is the most important page in the newspaper. It reveals the policy of the
newspapers.
According to a defination, “Editorial is that journalistic essay which comments on the news”.
The editorial page express the views of the owners (proprietors), publishers or the editors of
newspapers. Nowadays, editorial page is not (necessarily) written by the editor, but it
consists of the variety of other writings. It includes the following items:

· The editorial notes

· Political, social, economic and religious columns
· personal opinion
· Humorous columns
· Letter to the editors
· Cartoons
· The stanzas of the poets
· Sayings of Jinaah and Iqbal
· Current issues
· Verses from Holy Quran

The columns of the permanent columnists find proper place on the editorial page.

A good editorial:

We know that the editoral is soul and heart of a newspaper. The quality of a newspaper can
be estimated after reading its editorials. A good editorial should possess the following
characteristics:

* It must be written in a narrative and a descriptive style.

* It possesses the logical thoughts.
* Like all other types of mass communication, the main objectives of an editorial is to
inform, influence, entertain and sometimes educate.
* Its content must comprise on the political, social, economic, religious, cultural and
scientific issues.
* The choice of editorials should be sensible, balanced and prolific.
* It must be written in an impressive manner. The use of words and phrases must be
careful.
* It must be reasonable, persuasive and tolerant.
* An editorial should give correct information, statistics and events.
* In an editorial the writer should discuss the problems, not the personalities.
* An editorial must convince the readers, not emotionalise them.
* The problems of religion or other sensitive issues should not be discussed in the
editorials. 
* It must coincide with the policy of the newspaper.
* It should attract the readers.

A continuous good editorial page can increase the circulation of a newspaper. It must
possess the qualities of a good writing.

A good editorial can be written only by a learned person. The editorial writer should keep in
view the desires and wants of the masses. He should have grip in the topic he is discussing.
He, also, must know how his readers live, think and act. In other words, an editorial writer
should know the basic principles of psychology, and an editorial should be a mouthpiece of
sociological, psychological and rational analysis.

The editorial writer should have also extensive knowledge of history, economics, politics,
religion, cultural values and geography. If an editorial is written in colloquial language it
would be read by general public easily. It is also necessary for an editorial writer to be well
conversant with the laws and ethics of journalism.

Editorial page- different from other pages:

The editorial page is entirely different from the other content of the newspaper. In a
newspaper the first and the last page is reserved for news both national and international.
The layout of these pages is well dressed with healines, leads and news stories,
photographs, cartoons and maps etc. The main differences between an editorial page and
other pages of a newspaper are presented following: 

¨ The editorial page provides the views, opinion and the background knowledge on any
social, historical and current issue. While other pages simply and objectively inform the
masses what is happening around them.
¨ The editorial page consisits of the news editorials, policy editorials, social or civic editorials
and special editorials on politics and religion. 
¨ The sources of an editorial are libraries, reference books, maxims and proverbs, facts and
figures, correspondence and cutting clippings.
¨ In a newspaper, there is no advertisement on the editorial page. But other pages bear
advertisements. 
¨ On the editorial page, there are stanzas of the poems, couplets, sayings and verses from
the Holy Quran and Hadith.

To conclude, we can say an editorial page is entirely different from the other pages of a
newspaper.

Role/Aim of Editorial
(The following is written by me..with the help of our teacher's lecture and i didnt copy it
from any book...so maybe im not that much convincing in my writing..but if you ppl still find
any problem in this topic..dont hesitate to ask me)

EDITORIAL:
(You can find good definition of editorial in wikipedia..but im not consulting that here..coz
you can yourself go to that site)

**The basic aim of writing editorial is to interpret the news. Everybody cant interpret the
news stories, so it is left to the organization of that newspaper(n/p) to interpret it for its
readers.

**The other basic purpose of editorial is to guide the masses. It can be in the form of
different policies of the Govt. which they want to impose on its poeple. So the editorial
writer should guide the readers about the pros and cons of that policies. (you can further
explain these points)

**The most important aim of the editorial is to make WORLD OPINION...

World opinion is a journalistic terminology. It means that by reading news stories and
information given in it, poeple can make opinions of their own (remember opinion
leaders??). And everybody cant make their independent opinions and understanding by
merely reading stories in a n/p, so the role of editorial is toInternalize the news (make your
own opinions).

**The other basic character of editorial is: The Editorial Reaction

By editorail reaction we mean that if an editorial is opposing or in favour of certain govt
policy, it means that it is not neutral in its tone (writing), this is called editorial reaction.
AND if any editorial is without the Editorial Reaction, then it may be an essay, an article, a
feature but certainly NOT an editorial.

( I'll post more on this topic..Inshallah..

about the steps in writing editorial and on the topic of EVENTS AND ISSUES...and about
induction and deduction..all of these deal with editorial)

CHARACTERISTICS OF EDITORIAL WRITING

An editorial is an article that presents the newspaper's opinion on an issue. It

reflects the majority vote of the editorial board, the governing body of the
newspaper made up of editors and business managers. It is usually unsigned.
Much in the same manner of a lawyer, editorial writers build on an argument and
try to persuade readers to think the same way they do. Editorials are meant to
influence public opinion, promote critical thinking, and sometimes cause people to
take action on an issue. In essence, an editorial is an opinionated news story. 

Editorials have:

1. Introduction, body and conclusion like other news stories

2. An objective explanation of the issue, especially complex issues
3. A timely news angle
4. Opinions from the opposing viewpoint that refute directly the same issues the
writer addresses
5. The opinions of the writer delivered in a professional manner. Good editorials
engage issues, not personalities and refrain from name-calling or other petty
tactics of persuasion.
6. Alternative solutions to the problem or issue being criticized. Anyone can gripe
about a problem, but a good editorial should take a pro-active approach to making
the situation better by using constructive criticism and giving solutions.
7. A solid and concise conclusion that powerfully summarizes the writer's opinion.
Give it some punch.

Four Types of Editorials Will:

1. Explain or interpret: Editors often use these editorials to explain the way the
newspaper covered a sensitive or controversial subject. School newspapers may
explain new school rules or a particular student-body effort like a food drive.
2. Criticize: These editorials constructively criticize actions, decisions or situations
while providing solutions to the problem identified. Immediate purpose is to get
readers to see the problem, not the solution.
3. Persuade: Editorials of persuasion aim to immediately see the solution, not the
problem. From the first paragraph, readers will be encouraged to take a specific,
positive action. Political endorsements are good examples of editorials of
persuasion.
4. Praise: These editorials commend people and organizations for something done
well. They are not as common as the other three.

Writing an Editorial
1. Pick a significant topic that has a current news angle and would interest
readers.
2. Collect information and facts; include objective reporting; do research
3. State your opinion briefly in the fashion of a thesis statement
4. Explain the issue objectively as a reporter would and tell why this situation is
important
5. Give opposing viewpoint first with its quotations and facts
6. Refute (reject) the other side and develop your case using facts, details,
figures, quotations. Pick apart the other side's logic.
7. Concede a point of the opposition — they must have some good points you can
acknowledge that would make you look rational.
8. Repeat key phrases to reinforce an idea into the reader's minds.
9. Give a realistic solution(s) to the problem that goes beyond common
knowledge. Encourage critical thinking and pro-active reaction.
10. Wrap it up in a concluding punch that restates your opening remark (thesis
statement).
11. Keep it to 500 words; make every work count; never use "I" 

A Sample Structure

I. Lead with an Objective Explanation of the Issue/Controversy.

Include the five W's and the H. (Members of Congress, in effort to reduce the
budget, are looking to cut funding from public television. Hearings were held …)

Pull in facts and quotations from the sources which are relevant. 
Additional research may be necessary. 

II. Present Your Opposition First. 

As the writer you disagree with these viewpoints. Identify the people (specifically
who oppose you. (Republicans feel that these cuts are necessary; other cable
stations can pick them; only the rich watch public television.)

Use facts and quotations to state objectively their opinions. 

Give a strong position of the opposition. You gain nothing in refuting a weak
position. 

III. Directly Refute The Opposition's Beliefs.

You can begin your article with transition. (Republicans believe public televison is
a "sandbox for the rich." However, statistics show most people who watch public
television make less than $40,000 per year.)

Pull in other facts and quotations from people who support your position. 
Concede a valid point of the opposition which will make you appear rational, one
who has considered all the options (fiscal times are tough, and we can cut some of
the funding for the arts; however, …). 

IV. Give Other, Original Reasons/Analogies

In defense of your position, give reasons from strong to strongest order. (Taking
money away from public television is robbing children of their education …)
Use a literary or cultural allusion that lends to your credibility and perceived
intelligence (We should render unto Caesar that which belongs to him …) 

V. Conclude With Some Punch.

Give solutions to the problem or challenge the reader to be informed. (Congress

should look to where real wastes exist — perhaps in defense and entitlements — to
find ways to save money. Digging into public television's pocket hurts us all.)

A quotation can be effective, especially if from a respected source 

A rhetorical question can be an effective concluder as well (If the government
doesn't defend the interests of children, who will?)

Community Journalism
Community journalism is also known as public journalism or civic journalism
Community journalism is a way of doing journalism, of serving the people, of involving the
people in the issues that are important in their community.

1. This is the mere way to inform people about their rights and previligious.
2. This is only way to inform people at the grass root level and help people to be listened at
the government and strategic level.
3. Community journalism is to create the relationships and bonding between the local
people and government through the middleman or journalist.
4. The goal of community journalism and the goal of the journalist in this process, is
consciousness raising. What that means is, to help bring to light information or issues that
may be important to the citizens.
5. To interact with the people of the community and to have the citizens tell the journalist
about the things that are important to them.
6. To have the journalist identify the issues that is important to the community. Community
journalism means getting the public and the media involved in the same community issues.

Community journalism is a process of reporting on the grassroots level between the

government and the community public. Journalist mix himself with public adopt the culture,
give them confidence and approach their voice to newspaper or concerned authorities.
There is a new way of thinking about journalism, a new way for each journalist to do his or
her job. When a journalist goes into the field and begins exploring stories, the focus is to be
less from the mouthpieces of business, industry and government and more in collaboration
with the people. That's easily said but more difficult to do. Another component of this new
way of thinking is in the newsroom--in editorial meetings. As a story lead develops, the
journalist must consider how it impacts the people from all levels of the community.
Civic/community journalism requires a more people-centered approach to developing stories
and to the stories suggested for the media. The goal of civic/community journalism is to
make the media valuable to the people, because journalists are telling and sharing with
them the things that are important to them.

Distinctive characteristic of Community journalism

1. Community journalism is different from other sort of journalism in which the journalist
works as the change agent or middle man between government and community civic.
2. This journalism of cover a particular geographical area such as home, town or any
residential area.
3. Community journalism is more people centered approach 
4. Community journalism is name of covering small scale geographical area like the cluster
of villages, town, settlements or residential area.
5. It is also called as grass root journalism.
6. Community journalism refers to the involvement of three contributory factors. Journalist,
government, and most importantly the community public.
7. Community journalism can be described using a simple three-phase process those three
phases include: consciousness raising, working through the issue with the community, and
then a phase of issue resolution.
8. Community journalism, as defined here, is not interchangeable with the term community
media.
9. Community journalism is a way of doing journalism, of serving the people, of involving
the people in the issues that are important in their community.

How far Public Listening skills are important for community journalism
Public listening skill is the first step for conducting journalist reaseach.journalist need to
know the community think and feel and what is important to them. That's exactly what
public listening is. It is the process of finding out from the community members the issues
that are important to the community.
If the reporter is truly thinking about the community, being a community journalist, the
reporter should ask the community, "what's important to you?" and allow the community to
form the questions that the media can help to answer through their reporting.
The feedback or information that the public provides may include a number of sources.
Feedback represents the ways reporters and the community can connect in this public
conversation or dialog. Public listening is part of a conversation between the media and the
community. Some ways of making this connection include getting involved in the
community; talking to people individually; talking to groups of opinion leaders -- the clergy,
schoolteachers, bankers, chiefs, local citizens --getting a cross-section of opinions. Surveys
could also be used to collect community feedback. For example, newspapers could solicit
public input through mail-in ballots, while broadcast audiences could call a special telephone
number to express their ideas. Other innovative ways to collect information include town
meetings and focus groups. Another important item about public listening is that the media
shouldn't just ask people about what's wrong with their community. The media should also
ask the public what's "right", so that the community can also see that there are good things
going on so the community and can build on what has made their community good to help
solve the problems that they see as making their community less than good.

The media must consider the public, the community, and the agenda? What are their
issues? These issues, in the final analysis, may not be the issues the media think are the
most important.
Column Writing Tips
Many young writers prefer to write columns rather than straight news or features.
Straight news is deemed to be boring – covering press conferences and reporting
who said what. Feature stories involve too much reporting and require discipline
to follow a set structure. Columns, which are essentially opinion pieces, are much
looser – and therefore easier. Or so it seems.

Anybody can be trained to write straight news because it’s very mechanical.
Feature articles, though also somewhat formulaic, are harder because they require
good writing. But column writing is the hardest type of writing of all because it
requires good thinking.

To write a good column requires more than just the ability to articulate an opinion.
Your opinions must make sense, provide insight and be convincing. And you must
do all this in an entertaining way. 

It requires you to be almost like a lawyer. Through your arguments, you will need
to convince the jury (your readers) that your client (your viewpoint) is right.
Shaping a powerful argument takes practice and requires both breadth and depth
of knowledge as well as the ability to critically analyze a particular issue. 

So, is there a methodology for training someone to become a “good thinker”? I’m
not sure about that but I’m certain it helps to be well-read, inquisitive and willing
to listen to various viewpoints. If you're someone who likes to write but doesn’t
want to do research or think deeply about an issue, forget about column writing. 

Studying your role models will help you to develop your own voice. Follow the
work of several established columnists and analyze their writings to discover how
they project their arguments and how they make effective use of anecdotes,
quotes and statistics. From there, you can learn the tricks of the trade and
eventually develop your own distinctive voice and style.

Column writing is very different from other forms of writing because unlike
straight news and feature writing, columns have dedicated readerships. A
columnist develops a following because his readers feel they can gain knowledge,
insight and entertainment from reading his writings. It’s a great honor to be given
a regular column but remember, to do it well requires a great amount of
dedication to the craft. 

Lastly, a word of advice. Be ready for criticism. If you can dish it out, you’ve got to
be able to take as good as you got. When you take a strong stance on anything,
there’s bound to be someone offended by what you wrote. And they will write to
you – often in less than polite language - to let you know exactly what they think
of you and your opinions. It goes with the territory. 
Now, onto the tips. 

1. Write with conviction: Put forward your opinion as something you truly believe
in. Argue your case with conviction. Come down hard on one side of an issue. Be
unequivocal. Never ever sit on the fence.

2. Maintain your focus: Make your column about one thing and one thing alone.
Don’t muddle the message. Maintain your focus. That’s the only way to make a
strong impression on your readers and to convince them that your point of view is
correct.

3. Understand opposing viewpoints: Be mindful of the opposing argument.

Anticipate objections to your point of view and deal with them convincingly with
sound reasoning. If you’re not familiar with the opposing view, you will not be
able to argue your points well.

4. Refer to facts: Your arguments, however logical, will not carry much weight
unless they are accompanied by facts that support your position. Don’t overdo this
and inundate your readers with statistics and figures. But do make use of facts
from reputable sources.

5. Use analogies: Analogies are useful for illustrating a point, especially when the
topic you are writing about is somewhat complicated or technical. Using a simple
analogy from everyday life makes the issue more understandable and relevant to
the reader. 

6. Be critical: People like reading columnists who dare to criticize real life people –
not just nameless concepts and policies. Naming names might create a bit of
controversy but as long as you do not libel anyone and don’t go overboard in your
criticism, it works well to make your column an interesting and exciting read.

7. Do reporting. It’s possible to write columns without doing any reporting but the
best columns typically involve some form of reporting. When you report, you get
on the ground and you gain a better sense of what’s really happening. When you
write from an ivory tower, it shows. 

8. Localize and personalize: Localize your story whenever possible. Also tie it to

some personal experience – yours or that of someone you know. This makes an
otherwise esoteric and distant topic more real, relevant and memorable to the
reader.
9. Be passionate: Generally, people don’t like to hear a soft or passive voice when
they read a column. So be aggressive – even arrogant, to an extent. People want
to see passion. They want to feel energized. If the issue doesn’t seem to excite
you, the writer, it’s certainly not going to excite the reader.

10. Provide a solution: Last but not least, don’t just raise an issue. Have the
conviction to suggest a solution. Columns that criticize certain policies but offer no
solutions are useless. People read columns because they want to gain insight and
answers. If you don’t provide those, you’ve failed as a columnist.

What is Effective communication

“Such a communication in which the communicator is successful to achieve his desired goals
and objectives is called as effective communication.”

So we can say that effective communication is a communication in which the message is

traveled successfully and is received by the receiver. There are many reasons for ineffective
communication. Some of them are as follows

• Noise (both cultural and physical)

Cultural noise includes impropriate language and accent. 
Physical noise includes technical faults. 

• Lack of communication skills.

• Lack of confidence

• Fears and worries

• Lack of knowledge

• Lack of command in a particular field

How to make communication effective

There are various methods to make one’s communication effective. I have thrown light to
some of them.

1-Firm Believe on yourself:

First of all a person should have a firm belief on him/her self that whatever he/she is
communicating is perfect and is going to benefit the receiver. If he will believe in his
abilities his communication will be effective. 
2-Easy understanding 
The communicator should keep in mind that whether the things he is communicating are
easily understood by his receiver. He should keep in mind the level of his receiver.
E.g. a teacher should keep in mind the IQ level and abilities of his students. 

3-Focus
The communicator should have a clear-cut focus in his mind that what he is going to
communicate. What he wants to achieve? If he is aware of all this his communication will be
effective.

4-Eye contact
While communicating Eye contact with your receiver is also of great importance. If a person
is not looking towards the person he is communicating with there will be ineffective
communication. 

5-Command in your respective area

The communicator must have complete command over his respective domain. If a person
lacks know-how in his particular field, than he will not be able t communicate effectively. 

6-Experience and expertise

The communicator if he is communicating at a broader level should have expertness in
delivering his knowledge. 

7-Eliminating technical faults

There should be efforts to eliminate all possible technical errors. It will help in
communicating effectively if there are least technical faults. E.g. strong signals in case if TV
and radio, and proper printing in case of newspapers and books. 

8-Use of proper language

The communicator should use appropriate words during communicating. He should be
aware that what language his receiver could understand and he should deliver accordingly. 

9-Interest of receiver
The communicator should keep in mind the interest of the receiver. If the receiver is not
interested to listen or to view than the communication will be ineffective.

Conclusion
In short it is concluded that communication is very important for an individual to survive in
a society. Without communication he will not be able to convey his ideas and thoughts to
others. And for communication it is also very necessary to be effective so that the
communicator is successful to get his desired outcome.

Cognitive theory of communication

The theory of cognitive dissonance was developed by a social scientist Leon Festinger. The
origin of the theory dates back from late 50s as in 1957, Festinger published his work on
human behaviour and the decision-making process. He presented a theory that was at its
heart quite simple. It began with the idea of cognitions, the bits of knowledge. According to
Festinger, they can pertain to any variety of thought, values, facts or emotions. For
instance, the fact that I like ice cream is cognition. So is the fact that I am a man. People
have countless cognition in their minds.

The theory is regarded as a milestone that changed the way psychologists look at decision-
making process and behaviour of human beings.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Leon Festinger synthesized a set of studies to distill a theory about communication’s social
influences. Cognitive dissonance enjoyed great popularity form the late 1950s through the
mid 1970s. Theoretical problems and conflicting findings lead to temporary replacement by
similar “self” theories in the early 1980ss, but cognitive dissonance regained its place as the
umbrella theory for selective exposure to communication by the late 1980s.

CRUX OF THE THEORY

The basic idea behind cognitive dissonance theory is that people do not like to have
dissonant cognitions. In fact, many people argue that the desire to have consonant
cognitions is as strong as our basic desires for food and shelter. As a result, when someone
does experience two or more dissonant cognitions, they will attempt to do away with the
dissonance.

CORE ASSUMPTION AND STATEMENTS

Originally cognitive dissonance is adopted from social psychology. The title of the theory
gives the concept as cognitive is thinking or the mind and dissonance is inconsistency or
conflict. Cognitive dissonance is the psychological conflict.

The theory suggests:

• Dissonance is psychologically uncomfortable enough to motivate people to achieve
consonance.

• In a state of dissonance, people will avoid information and situations that might
increase the dissonance.

• How dissonance arises is easy to imagine. It may be unavoidable in information rich

society. How people deal with it is more difficult.
SCOPE AND APPLICATION

Dissonance theory applies to all situations involving attitude formation and change. This
theory is able to manipulate people into certain behaviour, by doing so these people will
alter their attitudes themselves. It is especially relevant to decision making and problem
solving.

EXAMPLE
Consider a driver who refuses to use a seat-belt despite knowing that the law requires it,
and it saves lives. Then a news report or a friend’s car incident stunts the scofflaw into
facing reality. Dissonance may be reduced by
• Altering behaviour: Start using a seat belt so the behaviour is consonant with
knowing that doing so is smart.

• Seeking informations that is consonant with the behaviour: Air bags are safer than
seat belts.
If the driver never faces a situation that threatens the decision not to use seat belts, then
no dissonance reduction action is likely because the impetus to reduce dissonance depends
on the magnitude of the dissonance held.

UNRELATED COGNITIONS

Most cognitions have nothing to do with each other. For instance, the two cognitions
mentioned before (that I am a man and that I like ice cream) are unrelated. Some
cognitions, however, are related. For instance, perhaps I have a sweet tooth and I like ice
cream. These cognitions are “consonant”, meaning that they are related and that one follow
from the other. They go together, so to speak.

RELATED COGNITIONS

However, sometimes we have cognitions that are related, but do not follow one another. In
fact, they may be opposite. For instance, perhaps I like ice cream but I am also trying to
avoid it. These two are related but do not follow one another. 

ELIMINATING COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

There are several key ways in which people attempt to overcome, or do away with,
cognitive dissonance. One is by ignoring or eliminating the dissonant cognitions. By
pretending that ice cream is not bad for me, I can have my cake and eat it too, so to speak.
Ignoring the dissonant cognition allows us to do things we might otherwise view as wrong or
inappropriate.

Another way to overcome cognitive dissonance is to alter the importance (or lack thereof) of
certain cognitions. By either deciding that ice cream is extremely good (I cannot do without
it) or that avoiding a disease isn’t that important (I like to take anyway), the problem of
dissonance can be lessened. If one of the dissonant cognitions outweighs the other in
importance and the result means that I can eat my ice cream and not feel bad about it.

CREATING NEW COGNITIONS

Yet another way that people react to cognitive dissonance is by adding or creating new
cognitions. By creating or emphasizing new cognitions, I can overwhelm the fact that I know
ice cream is bad for my health. For instance, I can emphasize new cognitions such as “I
need calcium and dairy products” or “I had a small dinner”, etc. These new cognitions allow
for the lessening of dissonance, as I now have multiple cognitions that say ice cream is
okay, and only one, which says I shouldn’t eat it.

IGNORING THE NEW INFORMATION

Finally perhaps the most important way people deal with cognitive dissonance is to prevent
it in the first place. If someone is presented with information that is dissonant from what
they already know, the easiest way to deal with this new information is to ignore it, refuse
to accept it, or simply avoid that type of information in general. Thus, a new study that says
ice cream is more fattening than originally thought would be easily dealt with by ignoring it.
Simply avoiding that type of information – simply refusing to read studies on ice cream,
health magazines, etc. can prevent further, future problems.

APPLYING COGNITIVE DISSONANCE TO CONFLICT

Cognitive dissonance can play a tremendous role in conflict – both in its perpetuation and in
its elimination. Both large-scale and small-scale conflict can be aggravated and/or lessened
because of cognitive dissonance.

Similar examples can be found on all levels of conflict. Individuals on both sides of the
abortions debate can be unwilling to look at new information about the other side’s stance
in an attempt to avoid cognitive dissonance. This concept helps explain why people are so
opposed to counterarguments, especially when it regards a value or belief that is very
important to them,. Cognitive dissonance is so unpleasant that individuals would often
rather be close-minded than be informed and deal with the repercussions of cognitive
dissonance.

THE ROLE OF COGNITIVE DISSONANCE IN REDUCING CONFLICT

In spite of people's desire to avoid it, the proper use of cognitive dissonance can be a useful
tool in overcoming conflict. Cognitive dissonance is a basic tool for education in general.
Creating dissonance can induce behavior or attitude change. By creating cognitive
dissonance, you force people to react. In other words, a child can be encouraged to learn by
creating dissonance between what they think they know and what they actually do –
drawing attention to the fact that they know stealing is wrong even though they took a
cookie, etc. The same idea can be used in adults. By introducing cognitive dissonance
(pointing out the conflict between what people know and do), we can encourage a change in
thought or action.

Tuning to the conflict in Northern Ireland, by pointing out the contradiction between
religious beliefs and terrorism, people can be forced to rethink their actions. A Protestant or
Catholic terrorist can participate in violent activities because they have dehumanized the
other side in their mind. This eliminates any dissonance between their actions and their
beliefs against murder or violence. By introducing new information – perhaps emphasizing
the humanity of the other side (their families, their lives, letting the two sides meet in a
casual environment, etc.) a new dissonance is created between what they are doing and
what they know to be true. This forces a reaction. The individual must now either change
their actions or read just their thoughts to account for this new information.

Similarly, in the abortion debate, the introduction of new information to both sides can lead
to reconciliation through understanding and changes in both action and thought. Although
individuals may never agree on the politics and policy of abortion, the conflict – particularly
violent conflict – can be reduced and eliminated.

HOW TO PRODUCE COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

Dialogue is one method to produce cognitive dissonance and thus attitude change that has
been used in both these and many other cases. The Public Conversation Project, in
Cambridge, Massachusetts (US) for instance, has been running dialogues between pro-life
and pro-choice abortion activities for many years. While people do not leave these dialogues
having changed sides, they do come out of them with a new respect for people “on the
other side” and an understanding that logical, rational, “good” people can feel the opposite
way they do about this issue. This tends to tone down their approach to advocacy, generally
making it more constructive than it might otherwise have been.

Disarming behaviours are another way to create cognitive dissonance. This is done by
supplying learning what the other side thinks of or expects of you, and then doing
something very different. For example, if you are considered by the other side to be
uncaring and cruel, make a small gesture that demonstrates that you care about the other
side’s feelings or situation. This causes cognitive dissonance. Just doing this once may not
be enough to change anyone's attitudes or behavior, as they are likely to ignore the
dissonant information. If it is done several times, however, or if the behavior is visible
enough that it cannot be ignored, the results are sometimes striking. Two of the best
examples of this process were Egyptian President Anwar Sadat's unexpected trip to Israel in
1977 and Soviet Premier Gorbachev's trip to the United States in 1990. Both of these
leaders had never visited the "enemy" country before, and when they did, they were so
personable that it changed the minds of the Israelis and the Americans about the
"goodness" and intents of "the enemy."

eminent journalists
Mir Shakil-ur-Rahman Editor-in-Chief and Chief Executive of the Jang Group has led the
Group ever since the demise of the Group’s founder. Mir Khalil-ur-Rahman in January 1992.
Mir Shakil-ur-Rahman was born on January 08, 1957. He made his mark at a relatively
young age by assuming major responsibilities including those of printing and editorial, later
on followed by that of general management and operations in various publications of the
group, he has an experience of more that 25 years, which are marked by major initiatives
that have made a lasting impact on the history of Pakistani journalism and newspaper
industry. He started his professional career with the group’s English Eveninger, the Daily
News as its Managing Editor. His first major challenge was the launch of Mag, an English
Weekly from Karachi in 1980. 

After the successful launch of Mag, Mir Shakil-ur-Rahman was assigned the task of
launching Jang’s Lahore edition. This was not only a major challenge, but an equally
tremendous opportunity. Jang Lahore soon became a milestone in the history of Urdu
journalism. Jang had been launched with state-of-the-art technology in pre-production and
printing. It introduced computerized nastaliq photo typesetting. Confronted with formidable
competition and a different kind of readership, Jang Lahore was an instant success. Urdu
journalism in Lahore and else where has never been the same again. Mir Shakil-ur-Rahman
also launched Jang Publishers, which has become one of the Country’s leading book
publishing establishments.

An even more remarkable accomplishment of Mir Shakil-ur-Rahman was the launch of The
News International, an English Daily, which started publishing simultaneously from Karachi,
Lahore & Rawalpindi/Islamabad, in February 1991 and a subsequent edition was launched
from London. Under the leadership and creative foresight of Mir Shakil-ur-Rahman, The
News International, soon revolutionalised the newspaper industry with its state-of-the-art
technology and its new editorial concepts. The face of English journalism has undergone a
radical change since the launch of The News International. It not only became the first
nationality distributed English newspaper but also served as a trendsetter for the industry
as other newspapers soon followed the trends laid down by it, MSR has keenly followed
trends in the international media and has strived to implement them in his group. He also
made his mark in electronic media. 

The internet editions of The News and Jang are also reflective of his interest in this regard.
The Internet editions of the group are among some of the most popular online Newspaper
sites on the World Wide Web. The popularity of The News Website is so wide that Queen
Elizabeth of Britain mentioned it in her official address during her visit to Pakistan in
October 1997. Mir Shakil-ur-Rahman’s another achievement was the launch of an Urdu
eveninger from Karachi, Daily Awam in 1994 which is now the largest circulated eveninger
in Pakistan. 

Urdu newspaper Awaz was launched from Lahore in 1998. His latest initiative the launch of
Urdu Daily Inqilab from Lahore on October 2002. As Editor-in-Chief, Mir Shakil-ur-Rahman
provides editorial leadership to Jang Karachi, Jang Lahore, Jang Rawalpindi, Jang Quetta,
Jang Multan, The News Karachi, The News Lahore, The News Rawalpindi/Islamabad, Mag
Weekly Karachi, Daily News Karachi, and Jang –The News London. He is Chief Executive of
Independent Newspapers Corporation (Pvt.) Ltd. and News Publications (Pvt.) Ltd. 

Mir Shakil-ur-Rahman served as President All Pakistan Newspapers Society (APNS) in 1994-
95 and in 1999-2001, and is former President of Council of Pakistan Newspapers Editors
(CPNE), representative organizations of Publisher & Editors. He is a member of International
Press Institute and also heads the Pakistan Chapter of the Commonwealth Press Union
(CPU).

Mir Shakil-ur-Rahman has been a great supporter of independent media research. Under his
guidance the Jang Group became the first media group in Pakistan to undertake
comprehensive independent research on media habits through some leading research
agencies like Aftab Associates and Gallup Pakistan. He believes in delivering the best value
to advertiser for his ad Rupee. MSR has traveled widely and maintains a number of
International contacts in media.

Mujib-ur-Rahman Shami The Editor-in-Chief Daily Pakistan. He is also Publisher of Weekly

Zindagi and Monthly Qaumi Digest. He started his career with the daily “Hurriat” as a
feature writer in 1966-67. He then joined Jang Group and remained on the editorial board of
weekly “Akhbar Jehan” for about tow years. He assured the responsibility of Editor in-charge
of weekly “Zindagi” at its inception in 1969. He was sentenced to one year rigorous
imprisonment with a fine or Rs. 300,000/- under the Martial Law Regulations in 1972. 

He established his own publishing organization in 1974 and henceforth published various
Urdu weeklies. However he was not able to get his own declaration for a magazine during
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s regime. Besides on different occasions his periodicals had to undergo
pecuniary punishments. He was again arrested in April 1977 on the absurd charge of
stealing a wheel cap and a jack of an official vehicle. He started monthly Qaumi Digest in
1978. The Weekly “Zindagi” was re-launched in 1989 under his management.

He is now the Editor-in-Chief of Daily Pakistan and Chairman and the Chief Executive of the
Zindagi Publications (Pvt.) Ltd. Mujib Shami has been an active member of the All Pakistan
Newspapers Society (APNS) and the Council Pakistan Newspapers Editors (CPNE) and is
being continuously elected as the member of their executive committee for the last several
years. He has also served as the President of CPNE and remained the Secretary General of
this organization for three years. he has also served as the Senior-Vice President of APNS.

An Overview of PEMRA
An Overview

Formative period

Even ordinarily, the formative period in the life of a new organization are testing times.
Systems have to be evolved, tried, refined and firmed up to meet its ends. A pool of
managerial, professional and technical skills has to be raised, groomed and adapted to its
needs and requirements. Financial hiccups have to be overcome and controls put in place to
keep a check on spending and ensure legitimate use of money. 

This period is all the more intricate and difficult when it comes to an organization
established in a field hitherto nationally unexplored. There are no readymade homegrown
models to draw upon. Alien models do not help. Embedded in their own milieus, they reflect
values and demands of their own peoples. Hence, the new organization has to work in a
complete void. Virtually, it has to start from scratch in every manner. 

It was in this predicament that the Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA)
faced up to this formative period in its life. It was for the first time that Pakistan was
launching private enterprise in the field of electronic media. Regulating private ventures in
the domain was thus an entirely new experience. The complexity of the task was further
complicated by the very intrinsic sensitivity of the field, involving delicate issues requiring
careful handling. 

But with the grace of Allah (Subhanhu-wa-Taala), the Authority has successfully overcome
the trials and tribulations of the formative period and is now well poised for a smooth run.
The experiences gained during this time have helped to transform it into a sound and robust
media-friendly and public-oriented organization.

Requisite legal instruments have been framed. Required regulatory regime is in place.
Necessary administrative and professional manpower is in position. Essential systems and
mechanisms are operational. Financial checks and controls have been built. And the
Authority is now fully in business. 

The year 2002-03 was indeed an exciting time for the Authority. A widespread interest was
discernible in the private sector to have a go on the newfound field of enterprise. Of course,
it's unthinkable to think of private venture without profit motive. And profit considerations
should be acceptable unless they threaten to degenerate into rank commercialism. 

Operational strategy 
Notably, the Authority has no overriding preferences in the promotion of electronic media in
the private sector. Its principal impulsion is to stimulate and facilitate in every manner the
spawning and growth of a powerful private electronic media apparatus, which is competitive
both nationally and internationally. Its only preference, if at all it could be so termed, is that
this apparatus should be a potent catalyst for national cohesion, sectarian harmony, societal
moderation, mutual tolerance and the nation's advancement at home and a powerful image-
builder of Pakistan abroad. 

Likewise, the Authority has soft corner for no particular medium to develop. It views the
whole range of electronic media as a field worth private enterprise. And in no manner does
it feel uncomfortable with the popular interest in mega media projects. That in fact holds up
the pleasing prospect of elevating Pakistan to the ranks of global media players. 

But the Authority was enthused to discern a large measure of interest in FM radio
broadcasting. No less gratifying for the Authority was an evident eagerness of some
educational institutions to utilize the field's openness for their academic pursuits. Even in
advanced countries, institutions of higher learning have been employing the electronic
media on a large scale for classroom teaching and diverse other educational purposes. And
in many a developing polity, they have emerged as popular tools for mass literacy drives. 

The interest put on display in the electronic media by a clutch of our universities for
enhancing their academic pursuits has spurred the Authority's confidence that in time the
field will catch as much fancy of the academia as of the entrepreneurial class. And nothing
would please the Authority as much if private players do come forward to launch non-profit,
non-commercial media enterprises to spread literacy in the country where more than half of
our people are illiterate. 

FM Radios 

Sensing a mounting interest in radio broadcasting in the private sector and for educational
channels on the campuses, the Authority decided to open its year's book with licences for
FM radio stations. An operational plan was devised, a clearly-defined criterion for assessing
the suitability of aspirants for licence was put in place, benchmarks for processing the
applications were fixed, and a foolproof, open and transparent bidding procedure was laid
out.

The Authority was heartened by the enthusiastic response that its calls for bids drew. And
by the end of the year, it had handed over as many as 29 licences for FM radio stations.
Quite delightfully, among the licensees were the country's three top ranking universities:
the Punjab University, the Peshawar University and the International Islamic University of
Islamabad. 

More remarkably, the bidders for the stations were by and large serious players. In most
cases, they were worthy parties, all with one merit or the other about them. But when it
comes to competition, it naturally has to be a contest between the fittest of the fit. Pruning
and short-listing of aspirants according to prescribed criteria and benchmarks becomes
inevitable and indispensable.

Though the response to its bid calls for electronic media stations was impressive, the
Authority all through assiduously resisted the temptation of a rash rush. Caution and
gradualism have been its watchwords throughout. Arguably, high leaps often end up in
headlong falls. Modest starts with steady pace culminate in successes, not infrequently
spectacular. 

In keeping with its cautious approach and policy of moving up step-by-step, the Authority
used the first phase of its licensing operation for FM radio stations to cater to the scramble
for licences in metropolises and principal towns. They had the requisite capital, talent and
infrastructure readily available in them. It made for a realistic and pragmatic sense to
exhaust maximally the craze for owning FM stations in big cities so that the entrepreneurial
interest could switch over to smaller cities and towns. The real fun indeed is to let them
have their own FM radio stations. 

Now that the prescribed slots for big urban centres have largely been occupied, smaller
cities and towns are expected to catch the eye of the prospective media investors. And in
the second phase of the Authority's licensing operation for FM radio stations, which has
been launched, they are most likely to attract interested parties for establishing broadcast
stations there.

Satellite TV 

Having said that, one must confess that it is the national Satellite TV stations that hold the
real potential of developing into global players, too, with worldwide reach and audience, to a
nation's great honour and prestige. Motivated serious players are needed to raise viable
media networks of national and provincial import. That clearly involves an intrusive process
of sifting grain from the bran. 

Accordingly, the Authority decided to start with the process to award satellite television
broadcast station licences to Pakistani companies incorporated under the Companies
Ordinance, 1984, and laid out an elaborate procedure of processing and scrutiny of the
applications. 

The 10 aspirants who formally applied for setting up satellite TV stations in response to the
Authority's public notice were subjected to the prescribed criterion and scrutiny. Only seven
could come up to the fixed benchmarks. The Virtual University, Lahore, was the first to get
licence to operate two educational satellite TV channels from Pakistan. The issuance of
licence to the other six applicants was in advanced stage of finalization as the year closed.

Cable TV 

Interestingly, cable TV is the largest and fastest-growing medium among the country's
electronic media. Some 7.28 billion rupees, it is estimated, have already been pumped into
the sector. And the investment is believed to be growing at the phenomenal rate of 132
percent annually. While the sector is employing some 30,000 people, cable TV is estimated
to have already entered some four million homes.

In the days ahead, cable TV's spread is bound to grow still larger along with its
infrastructure, business, workforce and clientele. Almost all the world TV networks have
switched over to decoder, an expensive gadgetry not within the means of the bulk of
people. But with just a paltry sum, they can access them all through the agency of cable TV.
And this is what the people are doing increasingly in Pakistan, as elsewhere in the world. 

The national cable TV sector is indeed set to prosper because of the Authority's two
landmark decisions. One is to allow exceedingly low licence rates, almost 70 percent less
than the normal, for establishing cable TV stations in the rural areas. The country folks who
make up the 70 percent of our people understandably cannot be left out from availing of the
latest media technologies for entertainment, information and education. They must have as
much media access and choices as have their urban cousins. And since the private
enterprise is not sufficiently motivated to set shop in remoter areas, some incentives were
needed to draw it in there. Hence, this decision. 

The other is to bring home the Multi-channel Multi-point Distribution System (MMDS) as
part of the Authority's charter to introduce the latest in media technologies to the country.
For its pluses in bandwidth utilization, data transmission, signals quality and distribution
spectrum, this most advanced system in digital technology is currently making waves the
world over. 

With its capability to distribute 60 digital channels, the MMDS was a natural choice for the
Authority to bring home, to the people's benefit. The process has been set in motion for the
establishment of the MMDS stations by private entrepreneurs in the country. Some 18
companies have successfully bid for setting up 24 stations in different cities. This new
venture is sure to open up yet another avenue to the private cable sector to flourish.

But the CTV sector, sadly, remains problematic. Not infrequently professionalism, ethics and
morality are seen here being beheaded nonchalantly at the chopping block of stark business
interests. The public outcry never subsides over the cable operators' quality of service and
the programme brew they serve to the subscribers. It only rages. 

Of course, it isn't right to put all the dirty eggs in the cable operators' basket. Nor is it fair
to put them in the dock for every act of omission and commission. At least in the choice of
channels for viewing, the subscribers can themselves be more prudent and selective. 

Nevertheless, it is the operators' primary responsibility to give them satisfactory quality

service. Indeed, going by the public complaints that the Authority receives formally and
informally, it's the quality of service that draws them flak even severer than what they get
on the score of pornography and obscenity. So much so, out of the 1004 written complaints
that the Authority received during the year, 640 related to the quality of service as against
263 that related to obscenity. 

The situation on the cable TV's front is disquieting, no doubt. But it isn't irredeemable,
either. In fact, the repair process seems to have already begun. The indications are too
compelling. As for instance, the cable operators issued licences by the Pakistan
Telecommunications Authority, which was handling this job before the PEMRA's advent,
were found evasive in having them renewed. But they have evidently begun shedding off
their initial reluctance and are now increasingly coming forward to get them renewed,
presumably for the advantages that accrue in terms of protections, safeguards and security
from being a PEMRA family's member. Nearly half of them had done it by the year's end.
The rest were expected to follow suit.

The Authority has set up a slew of systems and mechanisms, all having full legal backup, to
put order to the as-yet somewhat chaotic cable TV sector. With the establishment of its fully
functional regional offices, armed with inspection teams, and the Councils of Complaints,
plus its own paraphernalia at the head office, the Authority has acquired a sizeable muscle
to exact compliance from cable operators to its regulatory regime and the code of ethics,
flush out those operating illegally, collect its dues and recover arrears from them.

Nonetheless, the Authority's preferred instrument still remains the language of persuasion
than the stick of law. It is the Authority's firm conviction that persuasion works well to keep
the people on the right track and impel the erring to mend their ways. The stick, at times,
creates problems where none exist, unnecessarily precipitates avoidable tensions and
conflicts, and even throws up undesirable crises. 

The Authority has sought to involve the community intimately, actively and in an organized
manner in its vigilance of the cable TV sector. Worth particular mention is the creation of a
countrywide PEMRA Friends club, composed of public-spirited people, educationists, social
workers, journalists, local opinion leaders, and retired judges and civil and military officers.
They volunteered to get drafted in the campaign in response to the Authority's public call.
Some 102 of them are already in position in various cities. They monitor the cable
operations in their neighbourhoods for quality of service and channels and programmes
being put out and report to the Authority. 

There is nothing unusual about this kind of voluntary system of monitoring. It is in vogue in
many a country, not just in the media field but in diverse other domains. In fact, some
states have found business rivalries and jealousies as a great revealer of the errant, the
deviant and the evader. In our case, the induction of volunteers in the monitoring of cable
TV networks was far more compelling due to their expanse. They spread out all over the
country, a span that understandably is impossible to scan by the Authority all alone. It is
too big for its own enforcement staff to monitor, and will remain so. Rather, this deficiency
is bound to increase in view of the magnitude and speed with which the cable TV is
expanding in the country. And consequently more voluntary inductions for monitoring
activity would be required by the Authority. 

All said and told, the mechanisms and systems instituted by the Authority to keep an eye on
cable operations are demonstrably working and paying off. Yet, it would be unrealistic to
assume there would be ever no errors or erratic behaviours. Speaking realistically, in spite
of all its monitoring and enforcement mechanisms of the Authority, wrongs will be
committed because that is how the human nature works. But what is important is to note
that there is a perceptible turnaround in the situation. And there is a definite positive
change in the cable operator community's own outlook and thinking. And it would not be
wrong to say that in times ahead the abiders will be far more than the offenders.

Human Resource 

For its working, the Authority has consciously adopted the corporate culture. The objective
is to make for effective dispersal of delegation of powers, quicker decisions, hassles-free
procedures, free flow of ideas and encouragement of talent. One hallmark of this prudent,
pragmatic and realistic administration policy is that it abhors profligacy and adores frugality.
The guiding principle of the policy is to create where unavoidably indispensable and recruit
where absolutely essential. 

In line with this policy, it created during the year an enforcement wing, a legal wing, an IT
wing, an engineering wing and a public relations wing as was essential to its functions and
duties. 

And since it is the human resource of an organization that makes the difference, merit and
transparency are the two inviolable principles of its recruitment policy. As they say in the
military parlance, it is not the gun but the man behind the gun who matters, the Authority is
very choosy in the selection for its manpower. 

In the case of direct recruitment, it advertises the posts repeatedly, puts the candidates to
written tests and interviews, and selects the best possible. In once case when the number
of candidates (for the posts of Assistant General Managers and supervisors) was very large,
the Authority hired the services of experienced and respected Institute of Cost Management
and Accounts Pakistan (ICMAP) to conduct the examination and select the best. 

To get the best is always its wish. The same urge informs its requisition of experienced
officers and staff from the government departments. 

More importantly, in no event the Authority wants to accumulate even an ounce of fat. Its
present establishment strength, including regional offices, stands at 101. The Authority
wants to keep the strength taped at that as far as practically possible. 

Finances 

Just as in administration, economy conforms the Authority's financial policy. To spend only
where it is unavoidable and conserve money wherever practically possible are the two pillars
of its financial policy. And it is paying off well. 

The Government had given it only some seed money to set shop. For the rest, it was to fend
for itself. It was to generate its own funds and raise its own revenues for its upkeep. By
following a tight financial policy, the Authority is now not only self-sustaining and self-
sufficient financially but it is also in surplus. 

Just as it had showed a net saving after the first three months of its infancy, so has it at this
year's end. The Authority had budgeted Rs. 99.997 million for the year's expenditure. But
with tight checks and controls, it kept the actual spending contained at Rs. 70.320 million,
thereby netting a net saving of Rs. 29.676 million. 

Similarly, it had fixed the year's revenue targets at Rs. 100 million. But with concerted
efforts for revenue generation and collection of dues and arrears, the Authority earned Rs.
111.540 million, thus exceeding the targets by 11.540 million. 

All told, the Authority's finances are healthy and strong. The Government of Pakistan had
authorised the Authority in its charter to obtain bank loans for its running. But with the
blessings of Allah its financial health has been so buoyant that not even the thought of loan
or subsidy had occurred to it. 

Epilogue 
In the year ending June, 2002, the Authority had prepared a plan of action for liberalizing
the media. A copy of this plan is again included in this report. Out of this, two activities
which required smaller capital were undertaken. One was the Cable TV licensing which was
allowed on continuous basis and the other was the setting up of FM Radio stations in the
country. 

It may be mentioned that the number of radio stations in Pakistan is very small. Full
coverage is not available to the 100% residents. Moreover the burden of coverage was
placed almost entirely on the national broadcasters, namely Radio Pakistan, except for
Karachi, Lahore and Islamabad where one private station each also operates. A house study
was carried out to determine the need of the radio stations in the country including their
viability. A comparison was also made with other countries in the developing world. A copy
of the study is placed in the report. 

For the Authority, the year 2002-03 was decidedly eventful. But it was also a great learning
time for it. Some of its systems and mechanisms practically proved their worth. Some
others were found wanting here and there. Those that worked well would be solidified.
Those that could not perform according to expectations would be suitably amended to make
them efficacious. The weak spots have been identified. Ideas are being explored, debated
and crystallized to remove the lacunas. Possibly, some amendments may have to be
proposed to the PEMRA Ordinance 2002. 

Whatever it takes, the Authority must become an effective institution in every manner. It
deals with a domain that holds a strategic import in the prevalent global conditions. Wars
are now being fought in the minds. And media, the electronic in particular, have become the
weapons of that war. The Authority is determined to give all props to the electronic media in
the private sector to fight for the share of minds successfully, both at the national and
international levels. Only the private enterprise has to show the intent, will and grit to
become that potent weapon. It would not find the Authority wanting on that score in any
event.

Journalism Ethics and Standards

Journalism Ethics and Standards

Journalism ethics and standards include principles of ethics and of good practice to address
the specific challenges faced by professional journalists. Historically and currently these
principles are most widely known to journalists as their professional "code of ethics" or the
"canons of journalism." The basic codes and canons commonly appear in statements drafted
by both professional journalism associations and individual print, broadcast, and online
news organizations.
While various existing codes have some differences, most share common elements including
the principles of truthfulness, accuracy, objectivity, impartiality, fairness and public
accountability, as these apply to the acquisition of newsworthy information and its
subsequent reportage to the public.
Like many broader ethical systems, journalism ethics include the principle of "limitation of
harm." This often involves the withholding of certain details from reports such as the names
of minor children, crime victims' names or information not materially related to particular
news reports release of which might, for example, harm someone's reputation.
Evolution and purpose of codes of journalism

The principles of good journalism are directed toward bringing the highest quality of news
reporting to the public, thus fulfilling the mission of timely distribution of information in
service of the public interest. To a large degree, the codes and canons evolved via
observation of and response to past ethical lapses by journalists and publishers. Today, it is
common for terms of employment to mandate adherence to such codes equally applicable
to both staff and freelance journalists; journalists may face dismissal for ethical failures.
Upholding professional standards also enhances the reputation of and trust in a news
organization, which boosts the size of the audience it serves.
Journalistic codes of ethics are designed as guides through numerous difficulties, such as
conflicts of interest, to assist journalists in dealing with ethical dilemmas. The codes and
canons provide journalists a framework for self-monitoring and self-correction as they
pursue professional assignments.

Common elements

The primary themes common to most codes of journalistic standards and ethics are the
following.

Objectivity

• Unequivocal separation between news and opinion. In-house editorials and opinion (Op-
Ed) pieces are clearly separated from news pieces. News reporters and editorial staff are
distinct. 
• Unequivocal separation between advertisements and news. All advertisements must be
clearly identifiable as such. 
• Reporter must avoid conflicts of interest incentives to report a story with a given slant.
This includes not taking bribes and not reporting on stories that affect the reporter's
personal, economic or political interests. 
• Competing points of view are balanced and fairly characterized. 
• Persons who are the subject of adverse news stories are allowed a reasonable opportunity
to respond to the adverse information before the story is published or broadcast. 
• Interference with reporting by any entity, including censorship, must be disclosed. 

Sources

• Confidentiality of anonymous sources.

• Avoidance of anonymous sources when possible. 
• Accurate attribution of statements made by individuals or other news media. 
• Pictures, sound, and quotations must not be presented in a misleading context (or lack
thereof). Simulations, reenactments, alterations, and artistic imaginings must be clearly
labelled as such, if not avoided entirely. 
• Plagiarism is strongly stigmatized and in many cases illegal.
Accuracy and standards for factual reporting
• Reporters are expected to be as accurate as possible given the time allotted to story
preparation and the space available, and to seek reliable sources. 
• Events with a single eyewitness are reported with attribution. Events with two or more
independent eyewitnesses may be reported as fact. Controversial facts are reported with
attribution. 
• Independent fact-checking by another employee of the publisher is desirable 
• Corrections are published when errors are discovered 
• Defendants at trial are treated only as having "allegedly" committed crimes, until
conviction, when their crimes are generally reported as fact (unless, that is, there is serious
controversy about wrongful conviction). 
• Opinion surveys and statistical information deserve special treatment to communicate in
precise terms any conclusions, to contextualize the results, and to specify accuracy,
including estimated error and methodological criticism or flaws. 

Slander and libel considerations

• Reporting the truth is never libel, which makes accuracy and attribution very important. 
• Private persons have privacy rights that must be balanced against the public interest in
reporting information about them. Public figures have fewer privacy rights. 
• Publishers vigorously defend libel lawsuits filed against their reporters 

Harm limitation principle

During the normal course of an assignment a reporter might go about gathering facts and
details, conducting interviews, doing research, background checks, taking photos, video
taping, recording sound. Should he or she report everything learned? If so, how should this
be done? The principle of limitation of harms means that some weight needs to be given to
the negative consequences of full disclosure, creating a practical and ethical dilemma. The
Society of Professional Journalists' code of ethics offers the following advice, which is
representative of the practical ideals of most professional journalists. Quoting directly:
• Show compassion for those who may be affected adversely by news coverage. Use special
sensitivity when dealing with children and inexperienced sources or subjects. 
• Be sensitive when seeking or using interviews or photographs of those affected by tragedy
or grief. 
• Recognize that gathering and reporting information may cause harm or discomfort. Pursuit
of the news is not a license for arrogance. 
• Recognize that private people have a greater right to control information about
themselves than do public officials and others who seek power, influence or attention. Only
an overriding public need can justify intrusion into anyone's privacy. 
• Show good taste. Avoid pandering to lurid curiosity. 
• Be cautious about identifying juvenile suspects or victims of sex crimes. 
• Be judicious about naming criminal suspects before the formal filing of charges. 
• Balance a criminal suspect's fair trial rights with the public's right to be informed.

Presentation

Ethical standards should not be confused with common standards of quality of presentation,
including:
• Correctly spoken or written language (often in a widely spoken and formal dialect, such as
Standard English) 
• Clarity 
• Brevity (or depth, depending on the niche of the publisher) 

Self-regulation

In addition to codes of ethics, many news organizations maintain an in-house Ombudsman

whose role is, in part, to keep news organizations honest and accountable to the public. The
ombudsman is intended to mediate in conflicts stemming from internal and or external
pressures, and to maintain accountability to the public for news reported. Also, to foster
self-criticism and to encourage adherence to both codified and un-codified ethics and
standards.
An alternative is a news council, an industry-wide self-regulation body, such as the Press
Complaints Commission, set up by UK newspapers and magazines. Such a body is capable
perhaps of applying fairly consistent standards, and of dealing with a higher volume of
complaints, but may not escape criticisms of being toothless.

Ethics and standards in practice

As with other ethical codes, there is perennial concern that the standards of journalism are
being eroded. One of the most controversial issues in modern reporting is media bias,
especially on political issues, but also with regard to cultural and other issues.
Sensationalism is also a common complaint. Minor factual errors are also extremely
common, as almost anyone who is familiar with the subject of a particular report will quickly
realize.
There are also some wider concerns, as the media continue to change, for example that the
brevity of news reports and use of soundbites has reduced fidelity to the truth, and may
contribute to a lack of needed context for public understanding. From outside the
profession, the rise of news management contributes to the real possibility that news media
may be deliberately manipulated. Selective reporting (spiking, double standards) are very
commonly alleged against newspapers, and by their nature are forms of bias not easy to
establish, or guard against.
This section does not address specifics of such matters, but issues of practical compliance,
as well as differences between professional journalists on principles.

Standards and reputation

Among the leading news organizations that voluntarily adopt and attempt to uphold the
common standards of journalism ethics described herein, adherence and general quality
varies considerably. The professionalism, reliability and public accountability of a news
organization are three of its most valuable assets. An organization earns and maintains a
strong reputation, in part, through a consistent implementation of ethical standards, which
influence its position with the public and within the industry.

CRITICISM ON MEDIA
Mass media has been having its influence on societies in a number of ways. Due to its
colossal impact in shaping up the society it at the same time faces severe criticism from all
around. People who resist change in lifestyle and social norms are not seeing the mass
media as doing more service to society as it is proving destructive.

Conceals more than it reveals

The foremost charge on the media, especially the news media, is that it only tells people
half-truth. Better part of a story is falling victim to gate-keepers or those who filter facts
before passing them on to common people. At crisis times like wars or political chaos media
only tells facts which the interest groups want to appear before masses. Media hardly
believe, or make an effort, to tell the whole truth about any matter of general interest.
Leaving people guessing about the untold part of the story is tantamount to serious offense.

Exaggerates
It has become a habit of media to blow up out of proportion some issues of sensitive nature
which creates so much panic among the people (authorities) who than instead finding a
lasting solution of those issues just try to hush up the matters. Government departments
and many other agencies which counter these situations frequently are finding no way out
to stop media from doing so.

Sensationalize
Perhaps the most commonly leveled charge against media is its chronic approach to
sensationalize matters of routine life. In a murder story the media would go to find some
juicy thing out of nothing. A small tip from any person around may make a media person to
build a spicy story, which may attract common people. More than often, the facts on which
media build story prove wrong by later investigations. Film world and leading sports-
persons are always worried, as media would quickly fabricate a story on finding a small bit
of something like shaking hands with certain people by a film star; - think if a top police
officer inviting a noted film personality over a cup of tea – a storm is likely to be made in
the media.

Damages cultural and family traditions

The way certain things appear in the mass media is seen a direct attack on peoples’
lifestyle, belief and normal social life. Bold pictures of women in the name of esthetics, out
of proportion images of sports-persons – again women especially, behaviour of characters in
a radio or TV drama, dances in films and smoking and drinking actions – all have invited
severe disapproval of common people who strongly argue that such an attitude of media is
hurting the cultural norms and the family set up. As a result people
do not allow certain TV channels be tuned, or some magazines to be dropped at their
homes. Certain music is not liked to be played at family gatherings and there is always
uproar when an offensive or bold billboard appears on a busy thoroughfare.

Biasness
Media bias at times is too clear to be ignored. Siding with political parties, or showing
despise to certain government functionaries, at times persons like ministers – is a common
sight. But it works both sides; the government controlled media in all the countries show a
visible tilt towards the government while giving a bashing to the opposition and on the other
hand private sector media – newspapers and TV channels, remain occupies to lash out at
the government actions and allowing the opposition to drag
matters in the public which should have been talked about in the parliament. The media
bias some time is visible on regional, ethnic and linguistic grounds only damaging a society
rather than bringing people closer.

Sold to interest groups

This is generally done covertly. Media is under fire all across the world for selling space to
interest groups-political people in the developing countries and the economic interests in the
advanced countries.

Commercialism-trend is to mislead people

Although it is little modern phenomenon, media is largely considering its commercial
interest more than what common people expect from it on pure professional ground. With
huge money given to media by way of, generally speaking, advertisements are one way of
molding media in the favour of rich. Media can’t openly say against individuals and
corporate sector even if a scam of billions of rupees (and dollars) takes place. Land
grabbers, tax evaders and the ones misappropriating authority can easily gag media with
currency wads.

Pictures of killings – unethical

True it may be but sometime revealing a fact in an ugly manner leaves a bad taste in the
mouth of many. Large part of media blatantly refutes to follow ethics, which may cause
intense pain to common people. At the time of breakfast when you are starting the day, if
you find body of a slain person dipped in a pool of blood is enough to haunt you all day at
your working place. Not only this, some headlines which describe a crime in most horrible
way also leave a mark on your mind which remains occupied by the ugly side of the event
which could have been easily avoided had media followed professional way of putting
forward the matter.

Private life, obscenity

All people, including the ones living in hall-of-fame have a private life. Media for its personal
interest keep peeping into the private life affairs of famous people and report matters to
public, which may ruin life of the stars. Females coming at the top of show biz are the most-
hunted targets. Media does not hesitate in playing up their images which look highly
offensive if put on newspapers or magazines pages, no matter those poses were meant for
a momentary demand for certain actions during a shoot of feature films or even a
commercial camerawork.

Blackmails governments
Media is blamed for blackmailing even strongest of governments. At times autocratic
governments find no way but get blackmailed by popular media. Little wonder if there is a
general perception that media stand for arm-twisting of people who are at the helm of
political or financial authority.

Difference Between Advertising and Publicity!

 There's A Difference Between Advertising and Publicity!

Using Advertising and Publicity are very effective methods to promote and create positive
awareness for you and your business. But... there is a clear difference between Advertising
and Publicity. Advertising is something you get by paying for it. Publicity however, is
something you hope you'll get. Why? Because publicity can be generally gained at no cost to
you. And... it generally has many times the credibility of advertising. Here's what we mean:

There are some experts like Al Reis, author of the superb marketing text, "Positioning: The
Battle For Your Mind," that believe a majority of companies shouldn’t waste their money on
advertising until they have established name recognition and credibility through Public
Relations and publicity. Others will tell you that a combination of both advertising
and PR are required. But one thing's for certain: Every expert agrees, "that you can’t just
put up your web site, open your store, offer your service or manufacture a product and then
not do anything to attract customers!"

So... advertising is content you pay for (radio, tv, newspaper, banner advertising, etc).
Publicity on the other hand, refers to free content about you and your company that
appears in the media. It's what others what others say about you. Publicity can result when
an article you write is published, or when information you give to an editor convinces
him/her to feature a story about you or is based on a publicity release issued by a Public
Relations firm you have retained. Over time, these stories help create a favorable
impression of your product or services.

The average person has no real idea of how the media find their stories, but the prevailing
view seems to be that reporters go out and find all of their news. This is simply not realistic
thinking! There just aren’t enough reporters on the planet to find every bit of news worth
covering. So if you can present your information convincingly, there's a good a chance that
you'll gain the interest of the media.

So how can I get publicity for my company? Well...let's deal with the Internet here. The
Internet or World Wide Web, has its own rules about commercialism, and it usually is
disastrous to those who break them. If your press releases, postings or articles are blatant
self-promotion or a sales pitch instead of truly useful information they will be ignored and
won’t be used. Worse, you risk the negative publicity of being flamed (you and your
company being strongly put down online, or you'll receive quantities of unwanted and
negative e-mail). So... here's a simply philosophy to follow: "Before you put out a public
message, play "who cares?" and ask yourself "why would other people be interested in what
I have to say?" or "how can people benefit from the information I am supplying?" If you
can't come up with solid, positive answers to these questions, then keep working on your
publicity release or article until you do.

Marshall McLuhan's 'Global Village' by Benjamin Symes

In the introduction to McLuhan's Understanding Media he writes: ‘Today, after

more than a century of electric technology, we have extended our central nervous
system in a global embrace, abolishing both space and time as far as our planet is
concerned’ (1964: p.3). Like much of McLuhan's writing this statement is vast and
poetic, with its strength of conviction making it quite persuasive. But if we are to
be believers in this rhetoric we must have an understanding of what he means.  

The underlying concept of McLuhan's view of electr(on)ic technology is that it has

become an extension of our senses, particularly those of sight and sound. The
telephone and the radio become a long distance ear as the television and
computer extend the eye by projecting further than our biological range of vision
and hearing. But in what way does McLuhan suggest how this has happened? 

The basic precepts of his view are that the rapidity of communication through
electric media echoes the speed of the senses. Through media such as the
telephone, television and more recently the personal computer and the 'Internet',
we are increasingly linked together across the globe and this has enabled us to
connect with people at the other side of the world as quickly as it takes us to
contact and converse with those who inhabit the same physical space (i.e the
people that live in the same village). We can now hear and see events that take
place thousands of miles away in a matter of seconds, often quicker than we hear
of events in our own villages or even families, and McLuhan argues that it is the
speed of these electronic media that allow us to act and react to global issues at
the same speed as normal face to face verbal communication. 

The effect of this McLuhan suggests is a new ability to experience almost instantly
the effects of our actions on a global scale, just as we can supposedly do in our
physical situations. Consequently he concludes we are forced to become aware of
responsibilty on a global level rather than concerning ourselves solely with our
own smaller communities. He writes: ‘As electrically contracted, the globe is no
more than a village. Electric speed at bringing all social and political functions
together in a sudden implosion has heightened human awareness of responsibilty
to an intense degree’ (1964: p.5). 

Before I consider whether any justification lies in McLuhan's view I need to

distinguish between two different meanings in the metaphor of the 'village'. In
one sense the village represents simply the notion of a small space in which
people can communicate quickly and know of every event that takes place. As he
writes: ‘“Time” has ceased, 'space' has vanished. We now live in a global village...
a simultaneous happening’ (1967: p.63). McLuhan is suggesting that through our
'extended senses' we experience events, as far away as the other side of the
world, as if we were there in the same physical space. Watching the television
premiere of the Gulf War and seeing the pilot's eye view of missiles reaching their
targets, it would seem that McLuhan is right, but we do not experience the events
around us solely through our ears and eyes. There is a large space between
watching a war on the living room TV and watching a war on the living room floor.
Our biological senses involve us in our situation whereas there is a sense of
detachment in our 'extended senses' echoing the detachment of the afore-
mentioned pilot. Through technology we bring the action closer to us, so the pilot
can get a better shot, but it also enables us to stay at a safe physical distance, so
our plane does not get shot down. Is there not a sense then that we are
communicating through technologies that allow us to remain physically isolated? 

In a broader and more ideal sense the village represents community and the idea
that we can all have a role in shaping our global society. Mcluhan writes: 

We live mythically and integrally... In the electric age ,when our central nervous
system is tecnologically extended to involve in the whole of mankind and to
incorporate the whole of mankind in us, we necessarily participate... in the
consequences of our every action. (1964: p.4) 

The image is of 'one being' connected by an electric nervous system within which
the actions of one part will affect the whole. This idea seems apparent in both the
workings of the global economy and our increasing awareness of the fragile eco-
system. With the moon- landing came the first definate image of the globe and
captured its fertility and beauty against the dark void, suggesting perhaps that the
whole was alive. James Lovelock, the author of Gaia, said that it seemed ‘to
scream the presence of life’ and as television brought us those pictures it
strengthens the idea of communications technology creating this sense of oneness
and potential harmony. As McLuhan writes: 

The aspiration of our time for wholeness, empathy and depth of awareness is a
natural adjunct of electric technology...There is a deep faith to be found in this
attitude-a faith that concerns the ultimate harmony of all being. (1964: p.5) 

It is with this idealistic view that McLuhan has gained prominence again amidst
the emergence of the 'Internet', a medium that seems to promote the idea of an
integrated global community. One of the major claims for the 'Internet' lies in the
belief that it has the potential to break down centralized power, and help form a
community that lives on a more integrated basis, with more shared responsibilty.
This is the sense of McLuhan's 'interdependence', as he writes: ‘Electric
technology... would seem to render individualism obsolete and... corporate
interdependence mandatory’ (1962: p.1). 

Is McLuhan suggesting that this web of communications technology spun itself

catching individualism unawares? Is is not because of our individual differences
that we communicate and look for community? Perhaps it is we as individuals who
are looking for more inclusive ways of communicating and using these
technologies to do so. Bell surely must have had some dream for what he wished
his telephone to be. It seems we are often striving for some feeling of unity. 

Looking back through other cultures and religions there has long been a sense of
all connectedness between people and nature in both a spiritual and material way,
with Buddhists believing in the oneness of everything, and Native Americans
believing that if you take from the earth you must give something back. In this
context the earth seen from space was not a new symbol but more a confirmation
of some feeling that already existed. 

Perhaps, in western civilization, it was the circumnavigation of the world that first
planted the seeds of a global community, for a flat world has margins whereas the
model of a globe suggests that there are no edges and that we are all connected
by its very geometry. There is a sense then that we have always wanted the world
to be a global village and that McLuhan is working within this ideal of community
himself. Mondo 2000 says of McLuhan: ‘Reading McLuhan is like reading
Shakespeare - you keep stumbling on phrases that you thought were cliches, only
this guy made them up’ (1992: p.166). It could be argued that far from making it
up, McLuhan is simply naming an already present concept. By writing about a
global village he is creating a greater awareness of that concept and this in turn
stengthens the ideal in people's minds. It seems that it is the ideal that is the
'message' and McLuhan's statements that are the 'massage'. As he wishes: 'The
electronic age' has sealed 'the entire human family into a single global tribe’
(1962: p.8). 

But if we disentangle ourselves from the way that McLuhan would like to see the
world, it seems likely that the world was circumnavigated with a more imperial
purpose in mind. Technology is still used today to help us understand our
environment and in doing so makes us more able to predict it and control it. Just
as the discoverers of the new world brought back their own accounts, the media
through which we hear of events and the way in which we hear and see them is
mediated by those who run the corporations that pay for these technologies. We
see that which is considered 'important' for us to see, and these decisions are
often far from in our hands. McLuhan writes: ‘Today,electronics and automation
make mandatory that everybody adjust to the vast global environment as if it
were his little home town’ (1968: p.11). But 'little home towns' still have sheriffs
who 'don't want no strangers in town' and there is a sense that the technology
that is used to connect people together is also used to exclude people who are
seen as not being able to give anything to the community or who perhaps do not
share the 'right' values (i.e. those of the greater community). If the 'global village'
is run with a certain set of values then it would not be so much an integrated
community as an assimilated one, and this carries with it a reflection of the 'Big
Brother' society. 

Again the claims of many of those that use the 'Internet' are that as information
becomes freely accessible we break down centralized power and mediation.
However, information is not simply a package to be collected and shown on
screen, for we all interpret the information relative to our individual experience. In
order for communications technology to build an all inclusive global village surely
everyone has to want to live in that village. People will only communicate what
they wish to communicate and governments are hardly likely to do a 'Top Secret
World Wide Web Home Page'. We are only able to access certain sites on the net
which are placed there for us to see and there are only as many sites as there are
people with computers. This leaves much of the developing world outside the
village walls. 

McLuhan seems to assume that the entire population of the globe is plugged in to
communications technology to the same extent. That we can hear of any single
event at any time we choose. Indeed it is increasingly difficult not to hear of world
events, for even if, as individuals we choose not to turn on the television or
answer the phone, we are informed by others who do, but we cannot yet connect
with anyone we wish anywhere in the world. 

Perhaps we are laying the foundations of the global village and eventually
everybody may be connected through an inclusive web, but even if we were all
connected and aware of our interdependence would not mean we could all
instantly get to know each other and solve our problems. We have trouble enough
living together harmoniosly in cities and as humans there is a sense that we can
only know a limited number of people well - in The Human Animal Desmond Morris
suggests the number as around 150 - and so although our personal tribe of friend
may be spread across the globe, how can we possibly feel a strong sense of
community with all the millions of us on this earth? Besides can we have as
intimate a relationship with people through a telephone line? I personally do not
believe we can. 

McLuhan writes: ‘The new electronic interdependence recreates the world in the
image of a global village’ (1962: p.31) His 'image' is a reflection of the way he
interprets the world and wants it to be, and in a 'post-modern' sense, it could be
argued that his view is thus justifiable as we all see the world through our own
eyes based on our own values and beliefs. There is some truth in what he says in
the sense of a greater awareness of global responsibility and his belief in closer
analysis into the effects of these media, but he falls in his sweeping
generalisations about the nature of mankind. Perhaps my essay should be entitled
'Understanding McLuhan: the Generalisations of Man.' 

It is easy to see why McLuhan was popular in the counter culture of the sixties and
is again today amidst the computer revolution, for his ideas encompass a an ideal
that has perhaps always been with us. Is there not a possibility that if we place
too much importance in achieving an idealistic unified global village, we perhaps
risk losing a sense of our physical humanity and our identity and thus forget why
we are communicating at all. I do not believe that we are anywhere near a global
village in the sense of an integrated community and I'm not certain that as
humans we could ever reach it. To achieve it we would have much communicating
to do, and by that time we may had made the first tentative contact with extra-
terrestrial life and so begin the long journey towards a 'universal hamlet'.

The Social Media Revolution: Exploring the Impact on

Journalism and News Media Organizations

Twitter. Facebook. Digg. MySpace. LinkedIn. 

The list of social media tools could probably run on for paragraphs, and today’s technology
changes so rapidly that many industries, including corporations and news media, can barely
keep up. In the traditional world, newspapers, corporations, governments, or other types of
leading organizations simply had to give out information, and people would consume it by
reading or looking at it. But this seemingly tried-and-true method has started to transform.
Simply making information available is not enough for today’s public. Today’s audiences
expect to be able to choose what they read, and most believe they should be able to
contribute content and opinions, too. This shift, sometimes called the social media
revolution, is not the death of journalism as America always knew it; it’s the birth of a
democratic movement that emphasizes some of journalism’s key factors: transparency,
honesty, and giving a voice to the person who doesn’t have one.

Many traditional and non-traditional media outlets report and comment on how the Internet
and social media, especially social networking, have begun to seriously affect news
organizations and how they operate. Although newspapers currently face a crisis on how to
make the news profitable in the digital age, that isn’t this report’s main focus. How papers
will make money has been talked to death. So, instead, this report will focus on how social
media, especially social networking sites like Twitter, has begun to affect the news
organizations and changed — for better or worse — how journalists perform their jobs every
day.

The main purpose of this report is to learn how the social media revolution has changed and
will continue to change journalism and news organizations. To understand social media and
its effects, one must read and analyze information gathered through journal articles,
interviews and observations as this report has done. The report is broken into subtopics: a
summary of the current state of traditional media; definitions and background information
on what social media and social journalism are; social media tools professionals use and
why; current event case studies in which social media played a role in reporting the news;
ethical issues surrounding the social media shift; and how the future of the news media
might look as a result of social media.

The report will respond to one simple, yet rather complex, question: What impact has social
media had on news organizations? A question like this cannot be answered straightforward
but must instead be explored. While the report will focus on what has already occurred, it
will also look to the future and will consider whether public opinions of the mainstream
media have helped spawn and accelerate the birth of the social media revolution. Results
will lead the report to offer three areas within journalism that social media has significantly
touched: the public’s trust of the news media in relation to social media; the relationship
between local news organizations and social media; and how news is and will be covered
using social media tools.

Social Media Literature Review

Media industry publications and critics often mention a media shift from traditional outlets,
like newspapers and magazines, to digital news sources. Going a step beyond simply being
online, media organizations have begun to consider how news organizations use social
media tools to keep their audiences and, most importantly, to keep bringing in funds to
support themselves. Myriad opinions and ideas on the topic exist on social media’s presence
in the journalism world; the volume of information can seem overwhelming. However, this
report will attempt to explain what has occurred and hypothesize on what the future holds
for a world containing independent journalism and social media tools. The research gathered
for this report can be grouped into four categories: the current state of traditional and social
media; popular social media tools and how media use them; ethical issues surrounding
journalists’ use of social media tools; and how a two-way, conversationally driven world will
change journalism.

Understanding where traditional news organizations currently stand requires one to

understand how audiences consume their news and what they think about the news
business as it stands. Surveys by news organizations and foundations offer a way to
understand the public’s thoughts quantitatively. The Pew Research Center for the People
and the Press conducted a survey in which it found, overall, respondents have less
confidence that news organizations strive to report accurate, politically unbiased news than
they had a few decades ago. In fact, the public’s confidence has reached its lowest level in
more than two decades (“Public” 2). Despite this, the Pew survey showed most respondents
still think watchdog journalism is critically important (“Public” 10-11). The poll also
monitored consumers’ most-used news medium, finding audiences tend to obtain national
and international news from TV and the Internet (“Public” 4). However, this and a survey
study conducted by the National News Association (NNA) found the opposite seems to be
true for local newspapers, especially weeklies (“Annual”). The NNA’s survey found the
majority of respondents spend at least 40 minutes a week reading their local newspaper
and often prefer the print over the online edition (“Annual”). A MediaPost article discussed a
survey that found males tend to be more open to new media than females, and, to little
surprise, the 18-to-34-year-old age group has seen the largest decline in traditional media
usage (Loechner 1). This survey also found while most people said newspapers needed to
change to remain relevant, users wouldn’t be willing to pay to read print magazines online
(Loechner 1-2).

Before being able to define the relationship between social media and journalism, it’s vital
to explain journalism’s purpose and troubles within the media industry as a whole. In a
letter in the American Journalism Review, Kevin Klose wrote journalism in its purest form is
about witnessing an event and recording them for others to see and read (Klose 2).
Similarly, in another American Journalism Review article, Pamela J. Podger says journalism
is about listening to those who have something to say (Podger 36). In his blog post titled
“Social Journalism: Past, Present and Future,” Woody Lewis offers similar sentiments
regarding what a “social journalist” is. He explains social media is about listening as well as
interacting with others (Lewis). Another blogger, Vadim Lavrusik, described the change from
one-way communication to a community affair and how the change will assist journalists.
Others, including two authors for the fall 2009 online issue of Nieman Reports, Robert G.
Picard and Richard Gordon, and Chris Martin of Chris Martin Public Relations, also expressed
social media can help journalists do their jobs more effectively. Journalists aren’t the only
ones who benefit from news organizations’ increased presence on social media.

Others have evaluated the news media and determined social media has not only benefited
journalists but has also helped give individuals a way to speak up to the world. In a book
titled “Groundswell: Winning in a World Transformed by Social Technologies,” Charlene Li
and Josh Bernoff argue social media has empowered individuals and has forced the idea of
“news media” to morph whether or not the industry has desired this change (Li 5). In his
book “Twitter Power,” Joel Comm argues a similar case, stating social media allows anyone
to publish ideas at a relatively non-existent price (Comm 1). Despite its positives, some
have found problems with journalists in the social media world. In articles written for the fall
2009 edition of Nieman Reports, Michael Skoler discusses the media’s flawed business
model and how social media could help, while Geneva Overholser argues journalists need to
talk more about social media (Skoler; Overholser). Finally, in his article, “The Continuing
Need for Professional Journalism,” Shel Holtz argues how bloggers’ habit of covering what
interests them rather than hard news that needs to be covered could seriously damage
investigative journalism (Holtz).

Without tools and applications like Twitter, social media simply wouldn’t exist. Many media
professionals have reported on how journalists can use these tools. In an article for Wired
magazine, Steven Levy discusses how user-oriented, real-time Twitter is changing the news
media (Levy). In an article for the American Journalism Review titled “The Twitter
Explosion,” Paul Farhi discusses these aspects, relating them to those in journalism and
media careers (Farhi). Two writers, Courtney Lowery and Leah Betancourt, discuss how to
use (and how not to use) social media tools like Twitter for journalistic purposes (Lowery;
Betancourt). Lowery goes a bit deeper than Betancourt by describing her own newspaper’s
experiences with social media tools in her Nieman Reports article (Lowery). In her article for
the American Journalism Review, Podger explores the importance of social media in
journalism but doesn’t force employees to use the tools. However, a large number of
Americans use them anyway, perhaps even more than e-mail, according to a Mashable blog
entry written by Adam Ostrow (Ostrow). Facebook and Twitter are becoming more
important than ever, and part of the tools’ popularity stems from the ability to easily create
one’s own applications, as Gordon’s class did. The class made a tool called NewsMixer for
Facebook (Gordon). Also, Christine Greenhow and Jeff Reifman conducted a study on
Facebook community involvement by creating and observing different Facebook applications
(Greenhow). Finally, while these tools are popular and important, they aren’t alone. Tools
like Digg.com allow users to “digg” an article or Web site they like and share it with others
(Li 3). Both Li and Skoler suggest Digg.com is so useful because users trust what other
users suggest for reading material as opposed to what members of the mainstream media,
such as editors, might suggest (Li; Skoler).

The third literature topic required a wide use of newspaper articles because it evaluates
coverage of recent international and national events. Four major events show how useful
social media tools, especially Twitter, can be. The most recent event is the Nov. 5, 2009,
shootings in Fort Hood, Texas. This report examines the situation using a weekly news
report from Pew Research Center’s Project for Excellence in Journalism and an article from
the Columbia Journalism Review’s Web site. Both of these articles discuss how social media
tools — especially Twitter — allowed journalists and the public alike to report occurrences
quicker than in the past, although possibly with some errors (“Pew Research”). Megan
Garber’s article at cjr.org titled “Fort Hood: A First Test for Twitter Lists” examines Twitter’s
new list feature and how journalists used it to report on the Fort Hood shootings (Garber).
Difference between Feature and Editorial

Feature 
A feature article or story is an in-depth hard news story. Features follow strict
journalistic guidelines in that they cover all sides of the story and do not express
the reporter's opinion on the subject matter. However, a feature is meant to draw
the reader in and may contain an entertaining or creative spin. Features contain
interviews with multiple subjects in effort to cover all angles and paint a balanced
picture. They are written in easily digestible paragraphs that contain an
introduction, body and conclusion. Feature carries pictures but an editorial does
not. A feature demands a high level of journalistic ethics in addition to research
and reporting. Nawaz, (2010) states that a feature article is supposed to highlight
an interesting aspect of human life. For example, a cancer survivor, someone who
has climbed Mount Everest, etc. In other words it is a story that is meant to attract
a reader’s attention. This type of story is also very factual. There is very little or no
room for editorializing, or trying to persuade the reader to do something (p.61). 
A feature story's intent is to go into detail or interpret news in a fair and unbiased
fashion. A feature may also intend to instruct the reader or entertain the reader.
For example a feature can be written on the Anniversary of Quaid-e-Azam to give
a detailed account of his life. A feature story lacks the hard news values but can
inform the public of a situation or an aspect of life that is not reported in the hard
news stories. Novelty of the ideas is the hallmark of the feature stories. 

Editorial
Editorials are also meant to be creative and entertaining; however, they differ
from features in that they provide a platform for the writer to air his opinion.
Editorials do not contain interviews. They are written in article format, essays or
letters to the editor that contains an introduction, body and conclusion. An
editorial may be one-sided, unbalanced and opinionated. Editorials are found in
newspapers, magazines and the publications of special interest groups. Some
editorials are written to express an opinion on a previously written feature or
news story.
An editorial may also interpret or explain but with the exception that the writer
can support or deny a position and draw conclusions. An editorial can also
criticize, attempt to persuade or commend people laws or organizations.

Difference between Article and Column

Column 
Feature article that appears regularly in a publication, such as a newspaper
Yousaf (2009) stated a column is a chance for the newspapers editors, or paid
columnist to give their outlook on the news. Literally a column means a vertical
arrangement of items printed or written on a page; or one of two or more vertical
sections of a printed page separated by a rule or blank space; a supporting pillar
specially one consisting of a usually round shaft, a capital and a base, something
resembling a column in form position, or function; or a long row as of soilders or
one of the vertical lines of elements of a determinant or matrix or a special
department feature in a newspaper or a periodical.

Article
A piece of writing on a specific topic, by one or more authors, that forms an
independent part of a periodical publication such as a journal or serial, magazine
or newspaper. 

Article vs Column 
An article discusses current or recent news of either general interest (i.e. daily
newspapers) or of a specific topic (i.e. political or trade news magazines, club
newsletters, or technology news websites). A news article can include accounts of
eye witnesses to the happening event. It can contain photographs, accounts,
statistics, graphs, recollections, interviews, polls, debates on the topic, etc.
Headlines can be used to focus the reader’s attention on a particular (or main)
part of the article. The writer can also give facts and detailed information
following answers to general questions like who, what, when, where, why and
how. Quoted references can also be helpful. References to people can also be
made through written accounts of interviews and debates confirming the
factuality of the writer’s information and the reliability of his source. The writer
can use redirection to ensure that the reader keeps reading the article and to draw
her attention to other articles.
While a good conclusion is an important ingredient for newspaper articles, the
immediacy of a deadline environment means that copy editing often takes the
form of deleting everything past an arbitrary point in the story corresponding to
the dictates of available space on a page. Therefore, newspaper reporters are
trained to write in inverted pyramid style, with all the most important information
in the first paragraph or two. If less vital details are pushed towards the end of
the story, the potentially destructive impact of draconian copy editing will be
minimized.
A column is written weekly, monthly or bi-monthly, and must be focused on one
particular topic. You have to be consistent in what you write, maintain the same
tone of voice, and stay focused on the issue at hand. If you’re writing a column for
the writing parent, don’t delve into issues of parenting in general. You’re readers
will probably be parents who write, and they will be more interested in learning
how to find time for their writing, rather than how to take care of their children.
When you decide to write a column, make sure that the topic you choose is of
interest to readers and will keep them coming back for more, week after week. If
your topic is boring or uninteresting, chances are you’ll have no readers, and the
editor will soon wrap up your column with a short goodbye note.

How to Write a Column

Columns are articles or features written for newspapers, magazines, newsletters and other
publications. They may be published regularly or one time. While still considered a form of
journalism, the language in columns is typically less formal and targeted to a specific
audience. Utilize these tips for how to write a column.
1-Identify the purpose of your column. 
• Inform readers. Columns can be written to share information, knowledge and experience.
Examples of informative columns include how-to and advice columns.
• Persuade people. Activists, politicians and officials write columns to support a political
cause, business action, or other activity or organization.
• Entertain your audience. Some columns have no other purpose than to be funny or reflect
on the humorous aspects of life.
2-Establish the general content of your column. 
• Write your column with a base evolving from your personal knowledge, experience or
education.
• Draft columns from observations.
• Use research to create your columns. Utilize other expert opinions.
3-Pick your audience, and speak in its language. 
• Choose an audience based on demographics, such as age, race, socio-economic status or
level of education.
• Select members of a specific industry or profession for your audience. Many columns are
directed to attorneys, doctors, technology experts, writers, sales personnel and others.
• Opt to direct your column to people in a specific geographic region.
4-Determine the structure of your column. 
• Teach your audience to complete projects or tasks in a how-to column. Give detailed
directions to people so they can do or create something.
• Provide insight to a topic or person with columns that provide question-and-answer
interviews.
• Share stories, insights or opinions through a personal column that reads much like an
article or letter.
5-Create a consistent style for your column. 
• Keep a steady tone. Refrain from being funny if your tone is normally serious. Avoid
seriousness if your style is typically humorous or sarcastic.
• Speak to your readers in a consistent manner. Use similar language, phrasing and
vocabulary in each column.
• Write in the same tense each time you write your column. For example, always write in
present tense or first person.
6-Remain focused when writing your column. 
• While your topics may vary, your overall theme should remain the same.
7-Proofread and edit your column. 
• Critique it carefully. Make changes that will enhance it, improve your writing and provide
more clarity for the reader.
8-Meet all deadlines. 
• It is essential to meet deadlines and prepare your columns in time for publication. Your
column will likely be rejected if it is not submitted in a timely fashion.

  Propaganda and seven techniques

Propaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a
community toward some cause or position so as to benefit oneself.
As opposed to impartially providing information, propaganda, in its most basic sense,
presents information primarily to influence an audience. Propaganda is often biased, with
facts selectively presented (thus possibly lying by omission) to encourage a particular
synthesis, or uses loaded messages to produce an emotional rather than rational response
to the information presented. The desired result is a change of the attitude toward the
subject in the target audience to further a political, or other type of agenda. Propaganda
can be used as a form of political warfare.
While the term propaganda has acquired a strongly negative connotation by association with
its most manipulative and jingoistic examples, propaganda in its original sense was neutral,
and could refer to uses that were generally benign or innocuous, such as public health
recommendations, signs encouraging citizens to participate in a census or election, or
messages encouraging persons to report crimes to the police, among others.

A Brief History of Propaganda

Religious propagation

The term 'propaganda' first appeared in 1622 when Pope Gregory XV established the Sacred
Congregation for Propagating the Faith. Propaganda was then as now about convincing large
numbers of people about the veracity of a given set of ideas.
Of course, propaganda is as old as people, politics and religion. People with ideas will always
want to persuade others about them and, if they have the power, they will pull every string
they have to persuade everyone. 

Propaganda and war

Wars have always been a good reason to use propaganda, as governments seek to
persuade populaces of the justness of their cause as well as hide the horrors and failures of
the front line. Misinformation and disinformation are widely used to distract people from the
truth and create new realities.
Entry into the First World War was apparently accompanied with many stories of atrocities
that were false. Things have not changed and more recent wars have also had more than
their fair share of propaganda and false excuses.
Nazi propaganda
In 1933, Hitler realized the potential of propaganda and appointed Joseph Goebbels as
Minister for Propaganda. Goebbels was remarkably effective and much of the propaganda
literature discusses in detail the methods they used.

The Institute for Propaganda Analysis (IPA)

In 1936 Boston merchant Edward Filene helped establish the short-lived Institute for
Propaganda Analysis which sought to educate Americans to recognize propaganda
techniques. Although it did not last long, they did produce a list of seven propaganda
methods that have become something of a standard.
• Bandwagon: Pump up the value of 'joining the party'.
• Card-stacking: Build a highly-biased case for your position.
• Glittering Generalities: Use power words to evoke emotions.
• Name-calling: Denigrating opponents.
• Plain Folks: Making the leader seem ordinary increases trust and credibility.
• Testimonial: The testimony of an independent person is seen as more trustworthy.
• Transfer: Associate the leader with trusted others.

The modern world

Propaganda and manipulation of reality continues to be used in large quantities in the
modern world. Governments continue to tell their constituencies what they think they need
to know. Advertisers use the whole gamut of propagandist techniques. And although some
people can see the reality (and some theorize about improbable conspiracies), most people
are taken in and see nothing of how they are manipulated.

Classification of Propaganda
Propaganda can be classified according to the source and nature of the message.
• White propaganda
• Black propaganda
• Grey propaganda

White propaganda
White propaganda generally comes from an openly identified source, and is characterized by
gentler methods of persuasion, such as standard public relations techniques and one-sided
presentation of an argument. 

Black propaganda
Black propaganda is identified as being from one source, but is in fact from another. This is
most commonly to disguise the true origins of the propaganda, be it from an enemy country
or from an organization with a negative public image. 

Grey propaganda
Grey propaganda is propaganda without any identifiable source or author. A major
application of grey propaganda is making enemies believe falsehoods using straw
arguments: As phase one, to make someone believe "A", one releases as grey propaganda
"B", the opposite of "A". In phase two, "B" is discredited using some straw man. The enemy
will then assume "A" to be true.

The 7 Propaganda Techniques

1-Name-calling

Method
Call them names
Laugh at what targeted others say. Criticize their lack of Values. Denounce their ideals. Turn
around their words and actions, taking them out of context and amplifying them to drown
out any denial (making denial seem like admission of guilt). Use other double-binds such
that whatever they say or do only mires them more deeply.
Find a name that trivializes them and use it at every opportunity, with a smirk on your face
and the laughter of your supporters.

Show up opponents
Make your opponents appear stupid, immoral or otherwise undesirable. Besmirch their
untarnished reputation, holding it down in the mud, rubbing it in with the knowledge that
much of the mud will stick. Be careful about the person retaliating. As necessary, ensure
they are isolated and disempowered first. 

Make an example of someone

Take a random person and denigrate them. Show that you can and will do this any
opponents. 
You can do it to an apparently strong person, to demonstrate that you are not afraid and
will take on and defeat even the powerful. You can do it to a weak person, to show that
nobody is safe from your ire. You can do it to an ordinary, guy-next-door person, to show
that 'people like you' are not safe either.

Example
My opponent is a flip-flop man who cannot make up his mind. He changes mind with the
breeze! How could anyone follow such a weak-willed flip-flopper?

Discussion
Mud sticks, as we all known. Name-calling associates the other person with something that
is despised or is inferior in some way. Now, if anyone associates with that person, the mud
will also stick to them. The more the other person is socially isolated, the more that others
will avoid the person. The results are a spiral of isolation that neutralizes opponents and
sends a chilling warning to those who might follow in that person's path.
Note how, especially in wartime, the other side gets given a whole slew of derogatory
names. In the Second World War, the Germans were called Huns, Krauts, the Boche, etc.
The Japanese were called Nips, Japs, Slant-eyes, and so on.
Name-calling happens also in activism. Calling the police 'pigs', for example, is not just a
derogatory term; it also frames the whole structure of state authority as dirty and
unprincipled, hence making them unworthy and legitimizing attacks on them. 
Note also political elections, and how easily debates can descend into name-calling from
which there is no recovery.

2-Glittering Generalities

Method
Use attractive, but vague words that make speeches and other communications sound
good, but in practice say nothing in particular.
Use linguistic patterns such as alliteration, metaphor and reversals that turn your words into
poetry that flows and rhymes in hypnotic patterns.
Use words that appeal to values, which often themselves are related to triggering of
powerful emotions.
A common element of glittering generalities is intangible nouns that embody ideals, such as
dignity, freedom, fame, integrity, justice, love and respect.

Example
Ladies and Gentlemen, it is with the greatest pleasure that I welcome you to this most
auspicious of occasions. We are gathered here on the brink of a challenge to which we must
all rise in concert, for not to do so would be to accept despair, which I will never do and I
know you will never accept.

Discussion
Generalization is a common process whereby we take one thing and apply it to others.
Glittering generalities use this principle in seeking to evoke emotions without making any
commitments or putting the speaker in a position where they may be challenged or
criticized. If people are taken to a place where they accept vague statements, then
suggestion can be used to replace rational argument and clear evidence.
Hypnotic talk puts people into a light trance, where they become carried away by the
situation and are more suggestible. When accompanied by comfortable surroundings,
darkened rooms and flashing lights, the effect is accentuated further.
Nouns give the sense of substance, but when they are intangible, they lack actual
substance. This allows the speaker to credibly apply then to broad domains.

3-Transfer

Method
Associate with other people or groups that already have high trust and credibility. Show that
you aspire to similar ideals. Become a member of auspicious organizations. Be seen with
trustworthy people. Name-drop and quote them. Show that you have friends in high places.
Show how you are like them.
Also show your differences and how you are unique. How you are perhaps better in some
ways than those high credibility people. How perhaps they are like you more than you are
like them. How you have helped them and how they now admire you. Be careful with this
that, in standing on the other person, you do not push them down too far.

Example
As I was saying to the President, it is so important that we bring our forces together. He
agreed, of course and we will be taking it forward next week.
Ladies and Gentlemen, I'd like to introduce my good friend Brad Pitt. Brad and I go way
back and he's kindly come here today to tell you what I'm really like. 

Discussion
When you show yourself to be like a known and respected person, then you are encouraging
the other person to categorize you in the same way, such that they will then attribute all of
the characteristics of the other person onto you (including trust).
Showing yourself to be better then uses the other person's values and abilities as a base on
which you have built. There are dangers in this, as it may seem that you are criticizing
someone that the other person has idealized.

4-Testimonial

Method
If your words might lack credibility in some way, borrow the credibility of others by getting
the testimony of trusted others.
Use celebrities and public personalities who have well established and trusted public brands.
Use experts, clerics, police, scientists and others whose title is respected, even if the people
themselves are unknown. Use people who are like the people whose support you need. 
Get them to stand up and support your case with vigour. Get them on stage with you. Get
them on TV shows and into political debates. Help with words, if you can (but do not
alienate them by being too pushy).

Example
In my last movie, I saved my family from terrorists and I'm supporting this party because
they will save you from terrorists!
I am a doctor and I say this man would have died had he not got the right medicine in time.
And I ask you, where did that medicine come from?

Discussion
Political parties know that a celebrity testimonial is worth many votes. They also make great
use of testimonials from ordinary people to show that people like your and me. Advertisers,
too, make great use of celebrities and credibly ordinary folks.
Celebrity testimonial works when people associate with the celebrity, connecting identities
together. 
With 'experts', listeners often do not know of their real credentials, yet still accept the
expert's authority. They will seldom question this matter, particularly when the content
distracts them from this questioning. Claims of expertise are thus often used to boost
credibility of statements.
Actors, perhaps unsurprisingly, often do testimonials particularly well. It is hence common
to see actors supporting political parties and others who are using this method.
Testimonials need not be true or honest. You can pay people to say pretty much anything,
and some will be happy to say whatever you like for a suitable sum. Be careful about
paying, even for genuine support, as if it is found out then it will devalue the testimonial
and possibly be seen in a very negative way.

5-Plain Folks

Method
Make the leaders look just like mom'n'pop-style 'plain folks'. Things you can do to achieve
this include:

Dress
Wear ordinary clothes. Especially avoid designer gear. When you must be formal, be plain,
so you clothes do not send 'flashy' messages. When you are seen in 'informal' settings,
wear jeans and other 'relaxed' clothing (but do make sure they are always clean).
When visiting particular groups, you can dress to show you are like them. When 'down on
the farm', wear bibbed denims. When visiting the troops, wear simple fatigues (careful not
to show rank here). 

Speech
Use simple words, simple grammar and short sentences. Pause, as if you have to think hard
about words before speaking.
When talking with a particular group of people, use their language, but with care not to
appear that you are aping them (be careful with local dialects and professional jargon).
Perhaps use just a few of their words, or use parallel words that say 'I may not be you, but
I'm so like you it is the same thing, anyway'.
A subtly is to use minor speech errors and incorrect grammar. If you are a linguist, this can
be painful. But it sends the basic message: 'I'm an ordinary person, jus' like you.' Do this
carefully: you want to appear ordinary, not foolish.

Action
When you are shown doing things, do normal things. Be seen doing chores around the
house. Go out running. Walk the dog. Play with your kids. Appear interested in things and
people. Be surprised. Be normal.
Just as with dress and speech, you can copy body language, sending 'I'm like you' signals.
Like speech errors, you can make simple action mistakes. Drop things. Knock things over.
Slip up a bit. Again, be careful to look ordinary, not a fool.

Example
Visiting a church, the President dresses in a dark suit and blue shirt. He walks slowly and
with hands together in front of him. He talks gravely with people. He sings with joy and
prays with fervour. Later that day, he has changed into denims and fleece top to take the
dog for a walk. Along the way, he meets another dog owner and exchanges cheery
pleasantries.

Discussion
When you dress, speak and act like other people, you say 'I am like you'. When they see
you as like them, they are more likely to like and trust you in return. Once they have
decided that you are trustworthy, they will accept what you say without question.
Appearing ordinary also makes you appear uncomplicated and very unlikely to tell lies. As a
result, people are more likely to trust you further and believe more of what you say.
This is a method that is often used by people aspiring to (and working in) high office. It is
easy for such people to lose track with the ordinary person -- or at least appear to do so.
Using the 'Plain Folks' method helps mitigate this risk.

6-Card-stacking

Method
In 'card-stacking', deliberate action is taken to bias an argument, with opposing evidence
being buried or discredited, whilst the case for one's own position is exaggerated at every
opportunity. Thus the testimonial of supporters is used, but not that of opponents. 
Coincidences and serendipity may be artificially created, making deliberate action seem like
random occurrence. Things 'just seem to happen' whilst you are 'in town'.

Example
A politician just happens to be in town when a new school is opening - so they just drop in,
hi-jacking the press for their own means.
During election periods, political parties will often gag their loose cannons, who might open
their mouths and say the wrong things.
A minister of a new church sect sets up in a poor area, feeds people who will listen, tells
them of how the poor will be saved, and so on.

Discussion
Card-stacking makes significant use of the evidence principle, whereby we find evidence to
be particularly persuasive.
Card stacking, particularly with testimonials, works when we confuse real statistics with
availability, leading us to assume that just because there appears to be overwhelming
support from other people, then this is a representative sample of the whole population. 
Advertising makes great use card-stacking, including repeated adverts that seek to batter
their audiences into submission.
The term 'card-stacking' comes from the world of gambling, where accomplished players will
stack the deck in their favour, even as they are shuffling the card!

7-Bandwagon

Method
Make it appear that many people have joined the cause already, and that they are having
lots of fun or getting significant advantage.
Show that those who join early will get the better prizes, such as positions of authority or
other advantages.
Link it to morality and values, showing that those who join sooner are more moral and
pretty much better people all around.
Make a loud noise. Use bright colours. Play a fanfare. Become impossible to miss. Be in-
your-face until they join up.
Example
A political party holds a rally with much flag-waving and razz-a-ma-tazz.
A new religious group ensures all of its members attend services and become active
participants in recruiting new members.

Discussion
The Bandwagon uses social evidence to legitimize itself and become attractive. It plays
heavily on the need for belonging, making the group a desirable place to be. It may also use
the scarcity principle, showing that it is better to join sooner or later. The term 'bandwagon'
came from the Temperance movement, where an open wagon would literally have a band
on it and drive around town picking up drunks who would symbolically 'get on the wagon' of
alcohol-free (and religious) living.

Barriers to effective communication

No matter how good the communication system in an organisation is, unfortunately barriers
can and do often occur. This may be caused by a number of factors which can usually be
summarised as being due to physical barriers, system design faults or additional barriers.

Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the environment.

Thus, for example, the natural barrier which exists, if staff are located in different buildings
or on different sites.
Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly the failure of management to introduce
new technology, may also cause problems.
Staff shortages are another factor which frequently causes communication difficulties for an
organisation.
Whilst distractions like background noise, poor lighting or an environment which is too hot
or cold can all affect people's morale and concentration, which in turn interfere with
effective communication.

System design faults refer to problems with the structures or systems in place in an

organisation.
Examples might include an organisational structure which is unclear and therefore makes it
confusing to know who to communicate with.
Other examples could be inefficient or inappropriate information systems, a lack of
supervision or training, and a lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities which can lead to
staff being uncertain about what is expected of them.

Attitudinal barriers come about as a result of problems with staff in an organisation.

These may be brought about, for example, by such factors as poor management, lack of
consultation with employees, personality conflicts which can result in people delaying or
refusing to communicate, the personal attitudes of individual employees which may be due
to lack of motivation or dissatisfaction at work, brought about by insufficient training to
enable them to carry out particular tasks, or just resistance to change due to entrenched
attitudes and ideas.
Other Common Barriers To Effective Communication Include:

Psychological factors such as people's state of mind. We all tend to feel happier and more
receptive to information when the sun shines.
Equally, if someone has personal problems like worries about their health or marriage, then
this will probably affect them.

Different languages and cultures represent a national barrier which is particularly

important for organisations involved in overseas business.

Individual linguistic ability is also important. The use of difficult or inappropriate words
in communication can prevent people from understanding the message.

Poorly explained or misunderstood messages can also result in confusion. We can all

think of situations where we have listened to something explained which we just could not
grasp.

Physiological barriers may result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused, for

example, by ill health, poor eye sight or hearing difficulties.

Presentation of information is also important to aid understanding.

Overcoming Communication Barriers

There are a lot of communication barriers faced these days by all. The message intended by
the sender is not understood by the receiver in the same terms and sense and thus
communication breakdown occurs. It is essential to deal and cope up with these
communication barriers so as to ensure smooth and effective communication.

As, in the previous section we have discussed the major barriers of communication. Let’s
talk about how to overcome these barriers of communication.

1- Eliminating differences in perception: The organization should ensure that it is

recruiting right individuals on the job. It’s the responsibility of the interviewer to ensure that
the interviewee has command over the written and spoken language. There should be
proper Induction program so that the policies of the company are clear to all the employees.
There should be proper trainings conducted for required employees (for eg: Voice and
Accent training).

2- Use of Simple Language: Use of simple and clear words should be emphasized. Use of
ambiguous words and jargons should be avoided.
3- Reduction and elimination of noise levels: Noise is the main communication barrier
which must be overcome on priority basis. It is essential to identify the source of noise and
then eliminate that source.

4- Active Listening: Listen attentively and carefully. There is a difference between

“listening” and “hearing”. Active listening means hearing with proper understanding of the
message that is heard. By asking questions the speaker can ensure whether his/her
message is understood or not by the receiver in the same terms as intended by the
speaker.

5- Emotional State: During communication one should make effective use of body

language. He/she should not show their emotions while communication as the receiver
might misinterpret the message being delivered. For example, if the conveyer of the
message is in a bad mood then the receiver might think that the information being delivered
is not good.

6- Simple Organizational Structure: The organizational structure should not be complex.

The number of hierarchical levels should be optimum. There should be a ideal span of
control within the organization. Simpler the organizational structure, more effective will be
the communication.

7- Avoid Information Overload: The managers should know how to prioritize their work.
They should not overload themselves with the work. They should spend quality time with
their subordinates and should listen to their problems and feedbacks actively.

8- Give Constructive Feedback: Avoid giving negative feedback. The contents of the

feedback might be negative, but it should be delivered constructively. Constructive feedback
will lead to effective communication between the superior and subordinate.

9- Proper Media Selection: The managers should properly select the medium of

communication. Simple messages should be conveyed orally, like: face to face interaction or
meetings. Use of written means of communication should be encouraged for delivering
complex messages. For significant messages reminders can be given by using written
means of communication such as : Memos, Notices etc.

10- Flexibility in meeting the targets: For effective communication in an organization

the managers should ensure that the individuals are meeting their targets timely without
skipping the formal channels of communication. There should not be much pressure on
employees to meet their targets.

Mass communication:

Mass communication:
Mass communication refers to the process of transferring or transmitting a message to a
large group of people. Typically, this requires the use of some form of the media, including
newspapers, television, and the Internet. The term mass communication was coined in the
1920s, with the advent of nationwide radio networks, newspapers, and magazines which
were circulated among the masses. The distribution of information to a wide range of people
remains the main function of mass communications.

Development Communication:

This describes an approach to communication which provides communities with information

they can use in bettering their lives, which aims at making public programmes and policies
real, meaningful and sustainable. Such information must be applied in some way as part of
community development but it must also address information needs which communities
themselves identified. The outcome of this approach, in short, is to make a difference in the
quality of life of communities.

• Development communication is the art and science of human 

• communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country 
• and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic state of economic 
• growth that makes possible greater social equality and the larger 
• fulfillment of the human potential.

Development Journalism:

The term “development journalism” is used to refer to two different types of journalism. The
first is a new school of journalism which began to appear in the 1960s. The idea behind this
type of development journalism is similar to investigative reporting, but it focuses on
conditions in developing nations and ways to improve them. The other type of development
journalism involves heavy influence from the government of the nation involved. While this
type of development journalism can be a powerful tool for local education and
empowerment, it can also be a means of suppressing information and restricting journalists.

The first type of development journalism attempts to document the conditions within a
country so that the larger world can understand them. Journalists are encouraged to travel
to remote areas, interact with the citizens of the country, and report back. This type of
development journalism also looks at proposed government projects to improve conditions
in the country, and analyzes whether or not they will be effective. Ultimately, the journalist
may come up with proposed solutions and actions in the piece, suggesting ways in which
they might be implemented. Often, this type of development journalism encourages a
cooperative effort between citizens of the nation and the outside world.

Development Support Communication:

“The art and science of human communication linked to a society's planned transformation
from a state of poverty to one of dynamic socio-economic growth that makes for greater
equity and the larger unfolding of individual potential."

Four step process of Public Relations

• Research
• Action Plan / Objectives / Program Planning
• Communication Tactics / Implementing Plan
• Evaluation

Step 1 Research 

1. Client or organization
2. Problem or potential problem and opportunities to do public relations 
3. Audiences or publics

How – Informal and Formal 

Research Methods

Step 2 Objectives Program Planning

Develop a Strategy that involves

1. Identifying goals and objectives

2. Identifying target audience(s) or public(s)
3. Creating a theme for the program/campaign

Step 3 Develop & Implement Communication Tactics

Develop and implement

1. Tactics for communicating

2. Time line for the program/campaign
3. Budget

Step 4 Evaluations During & After Campaign / Program

• Identify research methods to be used to evaluate the success of the program/campaign

during & after. 

• Determine a way to measure whether the campaign achieved its objectives.

Principles of Advertising
Design is what powers advertising, and it is becoming more and more crucial for a company
to have an effective advertising campaign. The purpose of an ad campaign is to bring in new
clients, buyers, users, and customers. That can be hard, especially today when people are
going to be more careful with what they are buying. That is why it is important for an ad to
be effective. Here are 10 principles of what an effective ad consists of. Keep in mind that
there are many different types of advertisements, and not all of these tips apply to every
ad.

1. Grab People

A good advertisement must grab people almost immediately. It is very important that your
ad can be able to grab someone who glances for just a second. Force people to take a
second glance instead of simply moving on.

This is an excellent ad that will make almost anyone look at it. You’d think having a huge ad
would be an advantage, but some companies don’t use size like this ad does.

2. Be Clever and Creative

I know you probably hear this everywhere, but it is very true. It is very important to be
clever in an ad campaign. It attracts people and represents the brand in a positive way.
Think about it. If you see an extremely smart ad, you probably want to learn more. A clever
ad represents a clever company.

3. Speak Loudly

The louder you talk, the more people hear you, right? Well, the same concept applies to
advertising. You want your ad to say something, and you want it to be heard. A “loud”
advertisement isn’t just a big one, though. It can be achieved in many ways.

It doesn’t get much louder than this, but keep in mind that louder doesn’t mean big.

4. Don’t Make Them Think (Too Much)

One of the common guidelines, especially in web design, is not to make people think. You
need to get the message across in a clever way, but it shouldn’t make people think too
much. A person should know what the ad is saying as soon as they look at it.

Here is an example of a clever ad that doesn’t make you think too much.

5. Colors That Pop But Make Sense

Depending on the ad, you usually want your colors to pop. Color choice is a very important
aspect of advertisements. You also want your colors to work with the feeling of the brand.
Your colors need to work with the environment in which the ad is being placed. Appeal to
the targeted people through color, but don’t make the colors distracting. As for exactly
which colors to use, well that depends on the type of ad. If you are making a an illustration
for a “fun” brand, use a collaboration of bright colors. If the ad is more serious, possibly use
a more simple color scheme. Apart from that, the colors depend entirely on the company
and type of ad.

6. Be Informative

Every advertisement must convey a message. Ads visually represent a message.

This is a great ad which visually represents the fact that FedEx”s trucks are twice the size of
UPS trucks, and therefore carry more packages.

7. Stand Out and Be Memorable

Being unique and memorable are two essential components of a good ad. Your ad should be
unique and completely different than anyone else. Be original.

8. Give Off a Feeling

Every company and brand has it’s own mood or tone. You need to show that in the
advertisement. Someone should be able to tell the company’s tone by looking at an ad.

9. Show Not Tell

A good advertisement is one which shows instead of telling. How can this be done? Try
using a more visual way of representing a concept instead of text.

I really like this ad because it is simple and easy to understand. By visually combining the
elements of building and coffee, they show you that they are building new stores.

10. Use Humor: Use a Metaphor

Humor is a useful technique for attracting people to an ad. Metaphors can be a great way to
add humor. Humor is not always appropriate, and sometimes it just doesn’t work for the
brand or company, but when it does, use it.