BIO103 Lab

(1 credit hour)
Spring-2021

Dr. Abdul Khaleque

Dept. of Biochemistry & Microbiology
Experiment 1 and 2
 Experiment 1
Handling of a Light Microscope and Visualization of Prepared Slides

• The light microscope is an instrument for visualizing fine

detail of an object.

• To know about microorganisms, the cell should be observed

first and to observe the cell microscope is required.

• With the high power objective lens the shape, color and
arrangement of the cell can be observed.

• Microscopes can be separated into several different classes.

• Light or optical microscope

Figure: A light microscope
• Electrons microscope
 Parts of a light microscope

• Eyepiece: It contains the ocular lens, which provides a magnification

power of 10x to 15x, usually. This is where you look through.

• Nosepiece: It holds the objective lenses and can be rotated easily to

change magnification.

• Objective lenses: Usually, there are three or four objective lenses on

a microscope, consisting of 4x, 10x, 40x and 100x magnification
powers. In order to obtain the total magnification of an image, you
need to multiply the eyepiece lens power by the objective lens power.
So, if you couple a 10x eyepiece lens with a 40x objective lens, the
total magnification is of 10 x 40 = 400 times.

• Stage clips: These hold the slide in place.

• Stage: It is a flat platform that supports the slide being analyzed.

 Parts of a light microscope (cont.)

• Diaphragm: It controls the intensity and size of the cone light

projected on the specimen. As a rule of thumb, the more transparent
the specimen, the less is the light required.

• Light source: It projects light upwards through the diaphragm, slide

and lenses.

• Base: It supports the microscope.

• Arm: It supports the microscope when carried.

• Condenser lens: It helps to focus the light onto the sample analyzed.
They are particularly helpful when coupled with the highest objective
lens.

• Coarse adjustment knob: When the knob is turned, the stage

moves up or down, in order to coarse adjust the focus.

• Fine adjustment knob: The knob is turned to fine adjust the focus.
 Rules for using Microscope
• Always begin focusing with the 4X objective.

• Use immersion oil ONLY with the 100X objective (oil immersion lens). Oil immersion
is essential for viewing individual bacteria.

• Use only a single DROP of oil.

• Remove the slide from the stage when you are done.

• ALWAYS clean immersion oil off the objective when you are done using the
microscope. Use a Kim wipe or lens paper to clean the objective.

• Always place the 4X objective over the stage aperture and ensure that it is as far
above the stage as possible before putting the microscope away.

• If the microscope is dirty or in the wrong place, tell your instructor or the lab
assistant.
 Microscopic observation of stained cell
The purpose of this experiment is to use a compound microscope for the visualization
of cellular morphology from permanent-stained slides of microbes.

• Microbiology is the study of all living organisms that are too small to be visible with
naked eye.

• Normally microorganisms are transparent and have approximately the same

refractive index of the air, so it is difficult to see them. With the high power objective
lens the shape, color and arrangement of the cell can be observed.

• To prevent difficulties staining is important after which the organisms get a different
refractive index which makes a contrast between air and the cells.

• Microorganisms are divided into Bacillus (rod shaped), Coccus (spherical) and
Spirillum (curved) on the basis of shapes.
 Methods and Materials

• Procedure
• Materials
We have already reviewed the instructions for the use

Compound microscope of microscope giving special attention to the use of oil

Slide immersion objective lens. Refer to those instructions for
Cotton viewing the prepared slides.
Ethanol
Observe the shapes and the relative sizes of the cells
under the high power lens and oil immersion objectives.
Refer to the “Notes” section to learn about the
organisms.
 Microscopic observation of Amoeba proteus

• Amoeba proteus

Scientific classification:

Kingdom: Protista

Family: Amoebidae

Genus: Amoeba

Species: Amoeba proteus

Characteristics: Amoeba is unicellular, eukaryotic and Fig: Amoeba proteus

has no cell wall. It reproduces by binary fission and moves
by the help of pseudopodia. Feeding is done by
phagocytosis similar to our phagocytic white blood cells.
 Microscopic observation of Escherichia coli
• Escherichia coli (Gram negative)

Scientific classification:

Kingdom: Eubacteria

Family: Enterobacteriaceae

Genus: Escherichia

Species: E. coli Fig: Escherichia coli

Characteristics: Escherichia coli commonly abbreviated E. coli

is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly
found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms
(endotherms). Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some
serotypes can cause serious food poisoning in humans, and are
occasionally responsible for product recalls due to food
contamination.
Microscopic observation of Aspergillus spp.

• Aspergillus is a fungal genus consisting of a few hundred

mold species found in various climates worldwide.

• Aspergillus spp. are common contaminants of starchy foods

(such as bread and potatoes), and grow in or on many plants
and trees.

• Under light microscope, Aspergillus can be identified by the Mycelium

presence of 'T' or 'L' shaped 'foot cells' in the mycelium
Fig: Aspergillus spp.
that produce a single conidiophore perpendicular to the long
axis of the cell.

• The conidiophore enlarges at its apex to form a round shaped

vesicle. The fertile area of the vesicle gives rise to a layer of
cells called phialides that produce long chains of asexual
spores named conidia or conidiospores.
 Microscopic observation of Blood cells
Blood cell: Neutrophils
• Neutrophils are one of the classes of white blood cells or leukocytes.

• Neutrophils are major cellular component of the innate immune

system. In a healthy human, 40-75% of the total white blood cells
are neutrophils.

• Neutrophils are also called 'polymorphonuclear cells.' The neutrophil

nucleus has a complex, lobulated shape. In a cross-section,
neutrophils may even look like they have more than one nucleus.

• Multi-lobed nucleus (purple stained) and granules in the cytoplasm

(neutral pink stained) are two identifying characteristics of neutrophil
under light microscope.

• They kill invading pathogen by engulfing them in a specialized

process, called ‘Phagocytosis.’ Their granules in the cytoplasm
contain antimicrobial substances, release of those kill pathogens.
 Experiment 2
Benedict's test to Determine the Presence of Reducing Sugars

• Carbohydrates are the body’s most important and readily available source of energy. The
two major forms of carbohydrates are:

Simple sugars (simple carbohydrates), such as fructose, glucose and lactose, found in
nutritious whole fruits.

Starches (complex carbohydrates), found in foods such as starchy vegetables, grains,

rice, breads and cereals

• Carbohydrates are the main fuel source for some cells, especially, those in the brain,
nervous system and red blood cells.

• Muscles also rely on a dependable supply of carbohydrate to fuel intense physical activity.
Yielding on average 4 Kcal/gm, carbohydrates are a readily available fuel for all cells, both
in the form of blood glucose and that stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen.
 Principle
• The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the presence of simple sugars in
various food products.

• Benedict's reagent is used for testing the presence of reducing sugars. This includes
all monosaccharides and certain disaccharides, e.g., mannose, lactose and maltose.

• Sucrose is disaccharide present in sugarcane, however it is not a reducing sugar.

• A reducing agent donates electrons during a redox reaction and is itself oxidized.
The aldehyde functional group is the reducing agent in reducing sugars.

• Reducing sugars have either an aldehyde functional group or have a ketone group
in an open chain form, which can be converted into a carboxylic group.
 Principle (cont.)
• In hot alkaline solutions, reducing sugars reduce the blue Copper (II) ions to brick
red Copper (I) oxide precipitate.

• As the reaction proceeds, the color of the reaction mixture changes progressively
from blue to green, yellow, orange and finally red.

• The coloration developed and the amount of precipitate formed depends upon the
amount of reducing sugars present. Hence, in most conditions, a sufficiently good
estimation of the concentration of glucose and equivalent reducing sugars present in
a sample can be obtained.

• Water plus Benedict's reagent is a negative control for the sugar test. It
demonstrates a negative test result (no sugar present). Carbohydrate sample plus
Benedict's reagent is a positive control for the sugar test.
 Methodology
• Procedure
• Apparatus
• Take 1ml of the apple juice provided in a clean test tube.
Test tubes • Add 2ml of Benedict’s Solution to each test tube.
Water bath • Leave the test tubes in the hot water bath and note your
Spatula observation.

Dropper • A positive test with Benedict's reagent is shown by a color

change from clear blue to a brick-red precipitate.
Hot water bath
• To prepare a negative control, repeat steps 2-3 using distilled
water instead of sample solution (i.e., Apple juice).
• Reagents/Solvents

Benedict’s reagent

Test sample (Apple juice)

Distilled water
Thank you!