HBH 2402-PUBLIC RELATIONS

WK 1.
(a.)Definitions of public relation (3)

 Public relations is the art and social science of analysing trends, predicting
consequences, counselling organization leaders and implementing programmes of
action which will serve both the organization’s and the publics interests.
 Public relation is the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill
and mutual understanding between an organization and its’ public.
 Public relation consists of all forms of planned communication, outwards and
inwards, between an organization and its’ publics for the purpose of achieving
specific objectives concerning mutual understanding
(b.)Public relation and its’ related fields

i. Understanding public relations:

 It is a rewarding and exciting career.
 Effective PR is a valuable key requirement of most companies and organizations.
 This course gives learners the essential skills they will require to develop a career in
PR or to enhance their value in other career areas.

ii. What is public relations?

 Public relations helps an organization and its’ publics adopt mutually to each other.
 “Organization” is denoted in this context, as opposed to the more limiting “company”
to stress public relations’ use by businesses, trade unions, government agencies,
voluntary associations, foundations, hospitals, schools, colleges, religious groups and
other societal institutions.
 “Publics” recognizes the need to understand the attitudes and values of and to
develop effective relationships with many different stakeholders such as employees,
members, customers, local communities, shareholders and other institutions and with
society at large.

iii. Public relations and management: As a management function, PR also

encompasses the following:
 Anticipating, analysing and interpreting public opinion, attitudes and issues that might
impact, for good or ill, the plans and operations of the organization.
 Counselling management at all levels in the organization with regard to policy
decisions, courses of action and communication, taking into account their public
ramifications and the organization’s social or citizenship responsibilities.
 Research, conducting and evaluating on a continuing basis, programs of action and
communication to achieve the informed public understanding necessary to the success
of an organization’s aims. These may include marketing, financial, fundraising,
employee community or government relations and other programmes.
 Planning and implementing the organization’s efforts to influence or change public
policy.
 Setting objectives, planning, budgeting, recruiting and training staff, developing
facilities i.e. managing the resources needed to perform all tasks.

(c.) Public relations’ relationship with other functions.

 PR department builds its’ work flows according to assigned functions, basically the
workflow involves performance of several major functions such as:
(i.) Publications and periodicals
(ii.) Marketing and advertising
(iii.) Media relations
(iv.) Organizing events
(v.) Communication within the company

(d.)Distinctions between PR and other related fields

(i.) PR distinguished from advertising
 Advertising presents the most persuasive possible selling message to the right
prospects of the product service at the lowest possible cost.
 PR is not a form of advertising but a much bigger activity. It relates to all the
communications of the total organization, whereas advertising is mainly limited to the
marketing function.
 Advertising may not be used by an organization but every organization is involved in
public relations.
 PR embraces everyone and everything, whereas advertising is limited to special
selling and buying tasks such as promotion.
(ii.) PR distinguished from marketing
 Marketing is the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and
satisfying customer requirements profitably.
 Marketing calls for imaginative enterprise, but it also needs the responsibility of PR-
mindedness, for goodwill will be squandered if the pursuit of maximum profits is at
the expense of the customers.
 As communicators, marketers and PR practitioners have a lot in common.
(iii.) PR distinguished from sales promotion
 Sales promotion consists of short-term schemes, usually at the point of sale but also in
direct response to marketing, to launch products or to revive or increase sales.
 Sales promotion is often used as an alternative to media advertising.
 PR is sometimes confused with sales promotion. This may be because sales
promotion does bring the producer closer to the customer.
(iv.) PR distinguished from propaganda.
 Propaganda is the means of gaining support for an opinion, creed or belief.
 Propaganda is distinguished by its’ concentrations on matters of the heart and mind.
 For the recipient of propaganda, there is often little tangible gain, perhaps on some
inner satisfaction.
 Propaganda maybe used for good, bad, indifferent causes.
 Propaganda is yet another form of communication which is often quite wrongly
regarded as PR. To be successful PR must be credible, whereas propaganda is liable
to invite suspicion or at least disagreement.
(v.) PR distinguished from publicity
  Publicity results from information being made known.
 This result maybe uncontrollable and it maybe good or bad for the subject concerned.
 Publicity yields an image and subject to adequate information, the image of any
subject can only be what it truly is.
 Publicity and advertising are not the same thing.

(e.) Seven attributes of a good PR practitioner.

1. Ability to get on with all kinds of people
2. Ability to communicate
3. Ability to organize
4. Personal integrity in both professional and private life
5. Imagination/ creative
6. Ability to find out/ ready access to information
7. Ability to research and evaluate the results

WK 2: PUBLIC RELATIONS DEPARTMENTS.

 When a company is engaging in a lot of PR work it may be preferable to handle it
through an internal PR department.
 Internal or in-house departments maybe large or small according to:
(i.) Size of the organization.
(ii.) Company’s need for effective PR.
(iii.) The value placed on PR by management.
(iv.) The special PR requirements of the organization.
 PR department may consist of no more than a PR manager and a secretary, while
others will contain specialists, assistants of press officers, house formal editor, a print
designer, photographer etc.

a. The PR manager
 Titles vary from director of public affairs to communications manager but the
government title is PRO. Some of other titles are: advertising and public relations
officer, public relations manager, public relations director, public relations
practitioner, press officer, public relations consultant etc.
 Responsibilities of the PR manager.
(i.) Set targets or define objectives for PR operations.
(ii.) Estimate the working hours and other resources that need to be costed.
(iii.) Decide priorities that will control the choice of publics, media to reach them,
timing of operations and best use of manpower and other resources.
(iv.) Decide the feasibility of carrying out the declared objectives in the light of
available funds, existing staff and equipment.
 The fourfold specialist task of the PR manager:
(i.) Establish and maintain a correct image of the organization and of its’ policies,
products, services and personnel.
(ii.) Monitor outside opinion and convey this intelligence to management.
(iii.) Advise management on communication problem, solutions and techniques.
 (iv.) Inform publics about policies, activities, products, services and personnel so
that maximum knowledge and understanding is won,

b. How the PR manager and management can cooperate.

Cooperation should be effected on the following lines:
(i.) The PR manager should be a competent professional practitioner so that
he/she is respected by management as an expert in the particular field.
(ii.) The PR manager should set up internal lines communication- know everyone
and be known by everyone and invite confidence of everyone, so that
information can be obtained at all times from all sections of the organization.
(iii.) The PR should create external lines of communication, so that he/she is
regarded as a reliable source of material, outside sources of information may
also be needed, often in order to achieve feedback.
(iv.) The PR manager must keep top management well briefed for interviews,
speeches, public occasions etc.
(v.) Management must be able and willing to communicate. The PR manager may
have to arrange rehearsals before press receptions and TV familiarisation
sessions before TV appearances.
(vi.) Management must keep the PR manager fully informed-preferably in advance
and by direct contact-which means that the PR manager must have access to
management.
(vii.) The PR manager needs to be positioned (located) so that he/she is responsible
to top management and serves all departments of the organization.

c. Some of the PR departments’ activities:

(i.) Writing and distributing news releases, photographs and feature articles to the
press.
(ii.) Organizing press conferences, receptions and facility visits.
(iii.) Maintaining a media information service.
(iv.) Arranging press, radio and television interviews for management.
(v.) Briefing photographers and maintaining a picture library.
(vi.) Editing and producing staff magazines or newspapers.
(vii.) Editing and producing external journals.
(viii.) Writing and producing prints such as educational literature, company histories,
annual reports etc.
(ix.) Commissioning audio-visuals e.g. slide presentations.
(x.) Commissioning and organizing PR exhibitions & displays.
(xi.) Handling PR sponsorships etc.

d. Advantages and disadvantages of a PR manager and department.

 Advantages
(i.) The PR manager is familiar with his or her own organization.
(ii.) The PR manager may also have specialist knowledge or experience of the
trade, industry or subject with which the organization is concerned.
(iii.) The PR manager can easily establish lines of communication inside the
organization and get reliable information quick.
 (iv.) The PR manager is on the spot and can act swiftly, or get quick decisions in an
emergency.
(v.) The PR manager is in a strong position to give management day to day advice.
 Disadvantages
(i.) The PR manager could be so close to the organization or so enthusiastic about
it, as to be biased,
(ii.) If he or she is not properly trained and qualified, the PR manager could be a
liability.
(iii.) The PR manager may lack sufficient executive status to enjoy the respect of
management and of the media.
(iv.) The PR manager may be simply given the title of PRO by management which
sees this as a good way of promoting a senior person “sideways”
(v.) Management may not have agreed a job specification which enables the PR
manager to take on the responsibilities of a PRO.

WK 3. THE PUBLICS OF PR.

(a.)Public or publics
 Publics are those groups of people, internally or externally, with whom an
organization communicates.
 Public relations is a form of communication. It applies to every sort of organization,
commercial or non-commercial, in the public or private sector.
 Public relations activities are not directed at “the general public.” They are aimed at
carefully selected groups of people who are subdivisions of the great general public.
 Much PR activity is aimed at different publics in different ways, not broadcast with
messages aimed at the mass market through the mass media.
 Public relations is more discriminating, less wasteful and more successful for
communicating certain kinds of message.
 Each organization has its’ own publics with whom it has to communicate internally
and externally.

(b.)Ten basic publics

(i.) The community (vi) Investors-the money market
(ii.) Potential employees (vii) Consumers and users
(iii.) Employees. (viii) Opinion leaders
(iv.) Suppliers of services and materials (ix) Trade unions
(v.) Distributors (x) The media

(c.) Analysis of the ten basic publics

(i.) Community-will depend on the type of organization.
(ii.) Potential employees-exist in other organizations, or can be recruited from schools,
colleges, universities etc.
(iii.) Employees-can be of many kinds.
(iv.) Suppliers-two kinds: Services of water, energy, raw materials.
(v.) Financial and professionals-Investors will consist not only of personal buyers of
securities but also of investment analysis and big share buyers.
(vi.) Distributors-those who handle the goods in bulk between producer and consumer
e.g. wholesalers, commission agents, brokers, retailers, credit salesmen, importers,
exporters etc.
(vii.) Consumers and users-trade and industrial buyers.
(viii.) Opinion leaders or farmers-all those people who expressed opinion can harm or
help an organization e.g. parents, politicians, protestors, consumers to presenters
etc.
(ix.) Trade unions exert a powerful influence on commercial, industrial and political
life.
(x.) Media-direct route to the publics, have total control over what your publics see
and hear, always seek a good story relevant to their readers, listeners or viewers.

(d.)Reasons for defining publics

(i.) To identify all groups of people relative to a PR programme.
(ii.) To establish priorities within the scope of the budget and resources.
(iii.) To select media and techniques.
(iv.) To prepare the message in acceptable and effective forms.

(e.) Results of not defining publics.

(i.) Effort and funds will be scattered indiscriminately in the attempt to reach too
many publics
(ii.) The same message would be issued irrespective of its’ suitability for different
groups of people.
(iii.) Work would not be timed to make the most cost-effective use of working hours,
materials and equipment.
(iv.) Objectives-if defined at all-would not be achieved.
(v.) Management or the client would dissatisfied with the lack of results and regard PR
as a waste of money.
(f) Practical examples of publics
 Publics of charity
(i.) Members, donors, voluntary workers, collectors.
(ii.) Beneficiaries and users of the service.
(iii.) Potential supporters and helpers.
(iv.) Suppliers of services and materials.
(v.) Politicians, political parties and groups.
(vi.) Central and local government officials.
(vii.) Medical and health professionals.
(viii.) Other charities.
(ix.) Opponents.
(x.) Opinion leaders.
(xi.) Media.
 Publics of a national tourist board
(i.) Own government officials, MPs.
(ii.) Distributors-Travel agents, package tour operators, convention organizers.
(iii.) Transport operators-rail, sea, air, road.
 (iv.) Banks, credit card and travellers cheque operators.
(v.) Hotel owners, including international hotel groups.
(vi.) Motoring organizations.
(vii.) Visitors-holiday makers, business people, students etc.
(viii.) Opinion leaders-travel writers, politicians, teachers etc.
(ix.) Media.
 Publics of food manufacturers.
(i.) Community in the vicinity of the factory.
(ii.) Potential staff.
(iii.) All grades of management, office, factory, warehouse, transport sales staff etc.
(iv.) Suppliers of local services.
(v.) The stock market.
(vi.) Distributors.
(vii.) Consumers.
(viii.) Ministries and government departments concerned with food prices, health
regulations, dietary matters etc.
(ix.) Trade unions, trade associations.
(x.) Opinion leaders.

WK 4: FOUNDATIONS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS.

(a.)Models of PR (Grunig’s four models of PR)
(1.)Press agentry/publicity model
 One way communication.
 Uses persuasion and manipulation to influence audience to behave as the
organization desires.
(2.)Public information model
 One way communication.
 Uses press releases and other one-way communication techniques to distribute
organizational information. Public relations practitioner is often referred to as the
journalist in residence.
(3.)One way asymmetrical model
 One way communication
 Uses persuasion and manipulation to influence audience to behave as the organization
desires.
 Does not use research to find out how its’ publics feel about the organization.
(4.)Two-way symmetrical model
 Two-way communication
 Uses communication to negotiate with publics, resolve conflict and promote mutual
understanding and respect between the organization and its’ publics.

(b.)Public relations research.

 Modern PRs practice needs to function as a management discipline within an
organization’s total management team.
 PR has evolved from a common technician role focused on producing and distributing
information to a communication manager role focused on building and maintaining
relationships with key stakeholders.
 Over the past decade or two, management has adopted various systems and tools to
monitor and measure processes and results:
(i.) Management by objectives (MBO)
(ii.) Key performance indicators (KPIs)
(iii.) Total Quality Management (TQM)
(iv.) Quality Assurance (QA)
(v.) Quality Accreditation (ISO 9,000)
(vi.) Benchmarking.
(vii.) World’s best practice
(viii.) Customer’s satisfaction ratings.
(ix.) Balanced score card.
 As part of these management strategies, companies, organizations and government
agencies are increasingly using informal and formal research to evaluate key areas of
their operations.
 A review of the use of evaluation and formative research in 1983, Grunig concluded
that a key contributor to the image problem of PRs was the lack of objective, research
methodology for evaluating PR programmes.
 PR people continue not to do evaluation.

(c.) Kinds of research

(i.) Desk research, which is the study of existing statistics and survey reports.
(ii.) Field research, which is conducted by interviewing people “in the field”
(iii.) Ad hoc research, meaning one-off surveys, complete in one project.
(iv.) Continuous research, meaning surveys which are carried out regularly e.g.
monthly, thus recording changes and trends.

(d.)Research techniques
(i.) Opinion, attitude or shift surveys.
 Usually seek ‘yes’, ‘no’ or don’t know answers.
(ii.) Consumer panel- A panel is a recruited group of respondents who serve more or
less permanently to answer questions to test products.
 A panel may meet, or be sent questionnaires known as diaries, or be visited regularly.
 Consumer panel research usually reveals what sort of people buy what sort of goods,
in what quantities, how often and where.
(iii.) Motivation research.
 Motivation research seeks to reveal hidden motives, instead of stated opinions or
preference.
(iv.) Discussion group
 Members of a recruited group spontaneously answer questions set by a leader.
(v.) Telephone questionnaire
 Conducted by pre-arranged telephone interviews.
 Used for quick polls of topics
(vi.) Postal questionnaire
  Questionnaire is posted to respondents and the respondents upon completing send
back the forms.
(vii.) Coupon survey
 Questionnaire published in the press.
(viii.) Pantry check
 Visit by researchers who note the brands found in the household
(ix.) Dustbin check
 Researchers note the brands purchased as disclosed by discarded containers, plastics
etc.
(x.) Dealer, retail or shop audit.
 Stocks and invoices of a recruited panel of dealers are checked at regular intervals.
(xi.) Qualitative research
 Conduct tape-recorded interviews.
(xii.) Image study
 Compare the strengths and weaknesses of aa number of similar companies (sponsor in
one)
 This can reveal areas in which the company is weak and need to make changes.

(e.) PRs process

 PRs is a planned and sustained activity to help an institution create a social climate
favourable for its’ growth.
 PR is based on the fundamental belief that the survival of any enterprise, public or
private depends on the sensitive response to changes in public opinion.
 PR is a two way-process:
(i.) It seeks to interpret an organization to society
(ii.) It keeps the organization informed about the expectation of the society.
 Fundamentally PR is a means by which an organization improves its’ operating
environment.
WK 5: PR AND COMMUNICATION
(a.)Internal communications
What is internal communication?
 Internal communication is a subset of effective business communication, which is
built around this simple foundation: communication is a dialogue, not a monologue, it
is a dual listening process.
 In business context, communication is the dialogic process between employees and
employer, and employees and employees.
 Communication between employees is far more important and powerful than any
communication from employer to employee.
 Whereas the “top-down”, employer driven communication is great for setting a
communication agenda or discussion point, it is the peer-to-peer employee
communications that determine the tone and response back to the employer.
 What activities and tactics are traditionally used for internal communication?
(i) Informal/formal one to one and one to many meetings, where “the boss” would
communicate in a highly one way fashion with employees.
(ii) Employees informally discuss their views and opinions out of the boss’s ear shot.
(iii) Printed materials for formaltop-down message transmission-newsletters, annual
reports, memos etc.
(iv) Introduction of e-mail.
(v) Phone calls/ face book/ what’s up etc.
(vi) Today there are many techniques/ technologies used for communication:
 One on one meetings
 Staff/team meetings
 Emails
 Voice mails
 Video broadcasts
 Intranet
 Audio files
 Staff-to-staff newsletters
 Corporate newsletters
 Annual reports
 Quarterly reports
 Road-shows etc.
 What’s the importance of internal communications?
Why do organizations spend so much time on it?
(i.) Employees will always talk with each other, so it is better to set the agenda and
informal discussion points that have them dictated by uniformed staff.
(ii.) Communicate to anyone who may have any impact on or be impacted by the
organization
(iii.) Communicating with employees’ is a useful and powerful way of engendering
greater-“engagement”-the propensity of the employee to want to come to work and
want to contribute to the success of the company.
(iv.) Communicating with employees & informing them, influence the employees to
enter into some sort of psychological contract with employees/organization
(v.) Unhappy and trapped employees are a potential liability.
 Essential elements of successful internal communication
(i.) Focused on only one specific business issue.
(ii.) Written in a language the receiver is able to comprehend.
(iii.) Has an outcome that is specific and measurable.
(iv.) Is delivered in a timely manner and in a medium that the receiver is willing and
happy to receive it in.

(b.)External communication.
 External communication is the exchange of information and messages between an
organization and other organizations, groups or individuals outside its’ formal
structure.
 The goals of external communication are:
(i.) Facilitate co-operation with groups e.g. suppliers, investors etc.
(ii.) Present a favourable image of the organization and its’ products and services.
 A variety of channels may be used for external communication e.g. face-to-face
meetings, print, broadcast media etc.
 External communication includes the fields of PR, media relations, advertising and
marketing management.
 Objectives of external communication:
(i.) Develop the competencies of the participation by presenting key concepts and
methods for efficient external communication.
(ii.) Present a global approach and a step-by-step methodology designed to foster
communication with clients, investors and other stakeholders.
(iii.) Provide participants with the tools and techniques required to develop
strategies and action plans to manage external communication and promote,
deliver and foster the following.
 Stakeholders and client relations.
 Media relations.
 Event management.
 Crisis management.
 Corporate partnerships and alliances.
 Sponsorships audits and opportunities.
 Brochures.
 Annual reports.
 Exhibition and display material.
 Media training.
 Cross cultural/ International communication.
(i.) Businesses are not only conducted in one culture but it could be between
different cultures.
(ii.) Organization personnel should be trained on how to deal with areas that are
likely to create communication difficulties and conflict across cultures.
(iii.) Businessmen should anticipate areas of commonality.
(iv.) Business is generally enhanced when people from different cultures find new
approaches to old problems creating solutions by combining cultural
perspectives.
 Ethnocentrism.
(i.) Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own cultural group is somehow innately
superior to others.
(ii.) Ethnocentrism is deceptive because members of any culture perceive their
own behaviour as logical, since that behaviour works for them.
(iii.) People tend to accept the values of the culture around them as absolute values.
 Factors affecting cross-cultural business communication:
1. Language
2. Environment and technology.
NB Five major areas of attitudes towards a nation’s physical characteristics and
natural resources are likely to result in cultural environmental presuppositions:
climate, topography, population size, population density and relative availability
of natural resources.
3. Social organization.
4. Contexing and face-saving.
5. Authority conception.
6. Non-verbal behaviour.
 7. Temporal conception/understanding of time
WK 6: PLANNING PUBLIC RELATIONS PROGRAMMES.
(a.)Four reasons for planning PR programmes.
(i.) To set targets for PR operations against which results can be assessed.
(ii.) To estimate the working hours and other costs involved.
(iii.) To select priorities which will control the number and the timing of different
operations in the programme.
(iv.) To decide the feasibility of carrying out the declared objectives according to
the availability of :
 Sufficient staff of the right calibre.
 Physical equipment such as office machines, cameras, vehicles etc.
 An adequate budget.
NB: Without a planned programme, the PR practitioner would have to operate on a day-
to-day basis. The practitioner would always be starting new things and probably never
finishing others. At the end of the year it would be very difficult to show what had been done
and with what effect.
(b.)Six-point PR planning model
(i.) Appreciation of the situation.
 The kingpin of the exercise is understanding the situation i.e. asking: where are
we now? Which are the misunderstandings?
 Transfer negative situation to positive situation e.g.
Hostility- Sympathy Apathy-Interest
Prejudice-Acceptance Ignorance-Knowledge
 Hostility is enmity, very aggressive or unfriendly and ready.
 to fight; strongly rejecting or opposed to; making it difficult for something to happen
or to be achieved. Hostility is an unfriendly or aggressive feeling or behaviour, strong
and angry opposition towards an idea, a plan or a situation.
 Sympathy-the feeling of being sorry for somebody; showing that you understand and
care about somebody’s problem.
 Apathy-the feeling of not being interested in or enthusiastic about anything.
 Interest-an activity or a subject that you enjoy and that you spend your free time doing
or studying.
 Prejudice-an unreasonable dislike of or preference for a person, group, custom etc.
especially based on their race, sex, religion etc.
 Acceptance-the act of agreeing with something and approving of it.
 Ignorance-lack of knowledge or information about something.
 Knowledge-the information, understanding and skills that you gain through education
or experience.
 Methods of appreciating the situation:
 Opinion, attitude or image surveys.
 Press cuttings, monitored broadcasting scripts.
 Sales figure trends and sales report indicators.
 State of competition and effects of imports.
  Share price, if a public company, stock market opinion, dividends and balance sheet.
 Industrial relations situation-strikes and wage settlements.
 State and the effect of the weather.
 Customer complaints, product performance and test reports.
 Discussion with sales forces and distributors.
 Prices and effect of price changes.
 Market forces: economic, social, political.
 Attitudes of opinion leaders.
(ii.) Objectives
 From discussions with leaders of the organization, a list of objectives can be made.
 The list could include:
 To change the image because the company has adopted fresh activities.
 To improve the calibre of job applicants.
 To tell the little known story of the company and gain credit for achievement.
 To make the company known and understood in new export markets.
 To prepare the stock markets for a new share issue or because a new private company
is going public etc.
 Prioritize
(iii.) Publics: Identify and prioritize publics.
(iv.) Media and techniques.
 Different media may be used for advertising and PR campaigns.
 The range of PR media includes: the press, audio-visuals, radio, television,
exhibitions, printed material, sponsored books, direct mail, spoken word, sponsorship,
house journals etc.
(v.) Budget
 PR is labour-intensive and the biggest single cost is usually working hours.
 Other major costs can be printing of house journal and the making of videos.
(vi.) Assessment of results.
 The research techniques used to appreciate the situation can often be repeated to
evaluate the results.
 The methods of evaluating results should be decided at the planning stage. Checks
may be desirable while the performance is being executed.
 Because of the scheme set out objectives, there are declared targets against which
results can be tested even if they are qualitative rather than quantitative.
 Qualitative-connected with how good something is rather than how much of it
there is.
 Quantitative-connected with the amount or number of something rather than
with how good it is.
WK 7: PUBLIC RELATIONS OBJECTIVES.
1. How tangible and intangible PR differ.
 The difference between tangible and intangible PR is whether or not there are
objectives or whether or not public relations results are measurable.
 The number of objectives we can entertain depends on the size and resources of the
PR department, or the PR consultancy fee which represents so much time.
2. Defining objectives.
 Objectives need to be selected purposefully.
 There are two ways of defining objectives:
(i.) Results from research which has identified problems which need PR solution.
(ii.) Results from consultations with department heads to discover their
communication needs.

3. Choosing priorities
 List the priorities.
 The objectives could be either short-term or long-term.
 Move of the short-term can be accommodated.

4.Objectives versus time.

 Clearly there are constraints of time.
 Staff members can usually only do one job at a time or be in one place at a time.
 There is a physical limit on labour hours.
 The only variation to this is that the better trained, qualified or experienced person can
probably work more quickly or more efficiently than his or her inferior.
 The same component apply to the consultant whose fee represents time and expertise.

5. Objectives versus funds.

 A further constraint could be that of money.
 This governs the number of inhouse staff and in quality or the value represented by a
consultant’s fee.
 The question of money does not only apply to labour hours but also to other resources
such as equipment for conducting PR e.g. word processors, personal computers,
cameras etc.

6. Effects of those constraints.

 Limitations of time, money and resources should mean, if a management by
objectives approach is taken seriously that the number and kind of objectives need to
be tailored to the realities of physical feasibility.
 This has to be scrupulously built into any proposed programme when it is presented
to management for approval.
 The budget is pre-set or proposed-if the budget is cut some objectives may be
abandoned, and if management want to take on more objectives, the budget must be
increased.
 Any attempt to try to do more for less will result in a dissipation of effort and
disappointing final results.
 The schedule must be adhered to, and this is a discipline which a professional PR
practitioner must obey and the employer or client must accept.
 There is need to allow some contingency resources to cope with emergencies.
 Changed circumstances should not be allowed to wreck an otherwise planned
procedure.

7. Effectives of achieving objectives.

  When an employer is shown the success of a PR programme, the employer will have
confidence in PR and be willing to continue and even expand use of it.
 PR should be regarded as a necessity and not a luxury.
WK 8: THE NEWS MEDIA.
a) Introduction
1.) The international news media.
 In literate industrial countries the news media-press, radio and TV are the major
vehicles for the widespread distribution of PR information.
2.) Understand the press of each country.
 The press of each country reflects the history, geography, politics, economics,
religions and ethnic groups together with educational standards, the size of the
country and transportation facilities.
3.) Study of media.
 This is a vital part of the PR practitioner’s professional life.
 It has to be a constant and painstaking study because publications change or come and
go.
 Trading nations depend more and more on overseas media for both advertising and
PR purposes.
 International PR has become increasingly important to exporters and a whole new
world of media awaits discovery, exploitation, understanding and servicing.
 News media are not limited to the press-TV, radio etc.
b.) Organization of publishing houses.
1.) Four sides of publishing.
i.) The editorial department.
 The department produces the editorial contentment of the journal and sets in
character.
 Each publication has a special individuality.
 There may be some common qualities, but each paper has a recognisable personality.
ii.) The advertisement department.
 This is a sales department which earns income for the publisher by selling
advertisement space, mainly through advertising agencies, to advertisers.
 The cost of the space depends on the circulation figures (measures of copies sold,
readership figures and the value to advertisers in reaching or penetrating certain
markets.
iii.) Production department.
 This department directs the printing of the journal which contains the editorial and the
advertisements.
 The production department has to forecast sales and produce the required number of
copies, which can vary from issue to issue according to contents, seasons and special
“boom” issues aimed at increasing sales.
iv.) Circulation department.
 Has the responsibility for selling copies, through its circulation representatives to
wholesalers, news agents and for organising distribution by road, rail, seas or air.
2.) Editorial and advertising,
 The PR practitioner deals with the editorial department.
 The PR practitioner should not mix issues.
3.)Advertising features.
 Very often the editorial is not produced by the editorial staff but by journalists or
contributors employed by the advertisement department or a special advertising
features department.
 Some of these features should not be confused with the main editorial content of the
journal.
 Their value must be assessed carefully by advertisers.
 PR opportunities need to be judged with care.
 Advertorials are editorial features which promote products.
c.)How the press works
1.) Editorial.
 How does the editor get materials?
 With every kind of publication there is forward planning.
 The editor follows a pattern and has to plan the supply of materials for days, weeks or
months ahead.
 The number of pages in an issue will be governed by the cost of printing them and the
revenue that may be expected from sales of copies and of advertisement space.
 The practitioner should understand the highly organized nature of the press and the
urgency and the constraints under which editors work.
 The PR story should only be printed in a particular section in spite of the very large
number of pages.
2.) How news is gathered.
i.) Reporters
 Journalists who are directed by the editor to seek information about a given subject
e.g. crime, politics, sports etc.
ii.) Special correspondents.
 These are writers who specialise in subjects such as industry, shipping, education etc.
 These journalists may contribute a regular column or be invited to contribute when
their subject is in the news.
 This may be done weekly or monthly.
iii.) Strangers.
 Newspapers cannot afford to have their own reporters in every town. They have
arrangements with local journalists to cover stories for them.
 These strangers often feed local stories to the national press.
 iv.) Foreign correspondents.
 Large newspapers usually reign foreign correspondents in the principal cities of the
world.
 They may work full-time for the paper or act like strangers.
v.) Feature writers.
 These are journalists who write articles rather than report news-topics politics, art,
fashion etc.
vi.) Contributors
 Outside writers who are commissioned to supply articles, regular features or short
stories. They may also be known as freelance.
Vii.) Wire services.
 A wire service is a central news service which receives edits and transmits news to
news rooms.
viii.) New agencies.
 These are firms which specialise in certain topics and sell news and features to the
media, or which supply local news coverage.
 There are foreign news agencies which gather and distribute news for or about their
countries.
ix.) Picture agencies and picture libraries.
 Major news events are photographed by picture agency photographers who, offering a
rapid service submit pictures to editors who pay reproduction fees if they print them.
 Picture agencies and photographic libraries stock pictures.
 Photo news agencies supply national and regional newspapers with pictures by
computer.
x.) Syndication.
 Publishers syndicate or sell the reproduction rights of materials e.g. articles etc. to
non-competing journals.
 This is an international source of both material and income.
Xi.) PR sources
 Increasingly, editors rely on PR practitioners for news, pictures, interviews etc.
 Journalists will accept invitations to attend press events to obtain news.
 They also contact PR consultants, and PR managers or press officers when they want
information.
d.) Radio.
i.) The audio medium
 Radio has been an important mass medium.
 ii.) How radio works
 News programmes-stations may have their own news rooms and rely on sources
similar to the press.
 Live studios programmes of all kind including interviews.
 Taped programme material.
 Specially produced radio versions of TV programmes, either live or taped.
 Phone-ins where a presenter-the person who leads the programme supports topics and
listeners phones in the questions or comments which are answered by the presenter or
a guest in the studio.
iii.) Special characteristics of radio.
 Radio has the intimacy of the human voice, and the attractiveness of the broadcaster’s
voice is very important. People will listen to a voice they like, although they may
never know what the speaker looks like.
 Programme material can be produces very quickly and inexpensively.
 Radio is cheap and available to millions of people.
 It’s a medium which suffers from the dysfunction that radio listeners may use radio as
a friendly, companionable background noise, music being preferred to the human
voice.
e.) Television.
i.) Television networks in different countries.
 The system varies from country to country.
 Hours of viewing may be different.
 Restricted to some areas of education, commercial etc.
 Some countries don’t allow TV.
ii.) How TV works.
 National news bulletins.
 Current affairs programmes.
 Sports programmes.
 Series on numerous topics both informative and entertaining.
 Drama: films, plays and senials.
 Music.
 Religion.
 Chat shows-presenter interviews personalities.
 Children’s programmes.
 Science programmes.
 Educational programmes.
iii.) Special characteristics of television.
 TV has sound, movement, vision and colour.
 Great mass medium of entertainment.
 Production of TV programming is time consuming and costly.
 The material or personality must be visually interesting and attractive.
  TV coverage requires equipment and technicians.
 TV shooting may also have to take place on its’ own and at a special time.
f.) Distinction between radio and TV (Differences)
 Radio material can be produced more quickly and less expensively than TV material.
 Radio is more immediate, whereas TV programmes of need to be filmed, or video-
taped is advance.
 On radio the voice is important and the speaker is unseen, but on TV the speaker is
visible which may be either a handicap or an advantage.
 TV audiences in industrialized countries can be much larger than radio audiences.
g.) Alternative TV.
i.) New developments in TV.
 A number of extension and changes are occurring which promise to revolutionise
viewing.
 The process began a few years ago giving the viewer the opportunity to be more
selective (channels)
 Greater selectivity has resulted from increased adoption of:
 VCRS-with the 8mm VHS system, viewers can tape programmes and watch them
instead of the ones on the air.
 View data and teletext.
 Cable television.
 Satellite TV.
 Instant world news-American cable news network (CNN).
 Corporate communication-TV networks which bring constant news to company
personnel.
WK 9: PRESS RELATIONS.
(a.)Introduction.
 Press relations is only a part of PR.
 It’s importance and popularity depend on the availability of mass media and on the
state of literacy
 Press relations is more highly developed in industrialised urbanised nations where the
media are abundant.

(b.)Definition of press relations.

 The role of press relations is to achieve maximum publication or broadcasting of PR
information in order to create knowledge and understanding.
 Press relations is not confined to the press but includes all news media-press, radio,
TV etc.
 The object of press relations is to create knowledge and understanding, not to print
what the client or employer want to see in print or to gain favourable mentions,
 Press relations is not as new as is sometimes supposed!-all press material should be of
interest and value.
 (c.) How to achieve good press relations.
i.) Understanding the media.
 In addition to supplying publishable material, it is necessary to understand how
newspapers and magazines are published and how radio and TV programmes are
produced.
 If the PR practitioner fails to find out, he or she will make blunders such as sending a
news release to a publication after it has been printed.
ii.) Essential points to know about the press.
1.) The editorial policy-the journals’ outlook and the kind of material it prints.
2.) Frequency of publication-daily, weekly.
3.) Copy date-what is the test date or time to supply material for next publication.
4.) Printing process.
5.) Circulation area.
6.) Readership profile.
7.) Distribution method.
iii.) Principles of good press relations.
1.) By servicing the media.
2.) By establishing a reputation of reliability.
3.) By supply good copy.
4.) By cooperation in providing material.
5.) By providing verification facilities.
6.) By building personal relationships with the media.
iv.) Conflicting responsibilities and different loyalties.
1.) The PR practitioner.
 First responsibility is to the client or employer.
 The PR practitioner’s job is to carry out the agreed PR programmes.
2.) The journalist.
 First responsibility is to the publisher whose policy he/she must follow as directed by
the editor.
 The need to satisfy the readers, listeners, viewers.
d.) What is news?
i.) News worthiness.
 News worthiness is relative.
ii.) Definition of news.
 News is information which is not already known to recipients.
 News is not necessarily about current events, it can be anything that interests the
reader.
 News does not have to be recent-if it has never been published before it is “news”.
e.) The news release.
i.) The test of a PR story.
 News worthiness means that information promises to be of interest to readers and is
therefore worth publishing and these standards should be applied by the PR
practitioner to test all news releases.
 The PR practitioner must be his or her own judge of news worthiness.
ii.) Bad releases are bad PR.
 A news release creates an image of the organisation in the critical eyes of the editors.
 A good news release should tell the story as the journalist would have written it, given
the same information.
iii.) Good presentation-four things contribute to the happier relationship:
 Releases should be composed in the style used by journalists.
 Releases should be set out in manuscript style, not business letter style, obeying
printing rather than secretariat.
 Releases should be appropriate to the journals to which they are sent.
 Releases should be despatched to carefully selected journals in sufficient time for the
story to be printed.
iv.)How releases should be written.
 The subject is stated in the opening words e.g. “A new route to Japan has been
introduced by British airways”
NOT
“British airways have introduced a new route to Japan”
 The opening paragraph is a summary of the whole story.
v.) The screen-point formula: SOLAAD by FJ.
 Subject-what is the story about?
 Organization-what is the name of the organization?
 Location-where is the organization located?
 Advantages-What is news? What are the benefits?
 Applications-What are the users? Who are the users?
 Details-sizes, colours, prices, performance figures or other details.
 Source-e.g. head office/country etc.
vi.) Value of the seven-point formula.
1.) The formula provides a checklist of data required before writing the release.
2.) It is a plot for the release, indicating the sequence of information.
3.) It provides a checklist to apply after writing the release, so that the writer can see
whether any vital information has been omitted.
4.) The formula proposes an orderly sequence of the information.
5.) The first paragraph should state the subject, name of the organization, location and
highlights of the story.
6.) The final paragraph should state the full name, address and telephone of the
organization.
vii.) Other kinds of news release.
1.) The publishable seven-point formula.
2.) The background information story.
3.) The technical release summary.
4.) A summarising release to accompany a report or a speech.
5.) The extended picture caption.
6.) The brief announcement.
f.) Writing style
i.) News release writing techniques.
1.) Short paragraphs, short sentences and short words are desirable.
2.) The story should be kept to one page if possible.
3.) Superlatives should be avoided: “the world’s biggest”, “the renowned”, “the brand
leader” etc. present factual information only.
4.) Avoid vague generalizations and explain everything e.g. economical, money saving
handy time saving etc.
5.) Do not use cliché’s like unique, exhaustive research facilities etc.
6.) Do not quote remarks from leaders unless they have something original to say.
7.) Do not use an omnibus release for all journals-write different revisions for different
classes of publications.
ii.) Presentation of a news release.
1.) Printed heading paper.
2.) Headings: Heading should state what the story is about.
3.) Subheadings may be introduced in a long technical story.
4.) Indented paragraphs-first paragraph not indented or the succeeding paragraphs
should be indented.
5.) Capital letters-e.g. Cadbury not CADBURY.
6.) Underlining-Do not underline.
7.) Full points or full stops in abbreviations.
8.) Figures: 1-9 in words, to onwards in figures.
9.) Dates e.g. December 23.
10.) Confirmations-“more” or “continued”
11.) Quotation marks-Inverted comma should be confined to reported speech or
actual quotations.
12.) Embargoes-An embargo is a request not to print a story before a stipulated
date and time. An editor is not obligated to obey an embargo.
13.) Authorship-At the end of the release the author should give his/her name and
telephone number.
iii.) Exclusive signed features articles.
1.) It is usually much longer and occupies more space.
2.) It is an exclusive, whereas a release is sent to all who may use it.
3.) It is unlikely to be edited or re-written like a news release.
4.) The author’s name is usually published and it might be an authoritative author.
 5.) The first paragraph should tempt the reader to read on and find out what the article
is about.
6.) An article should be imaginatively written, perhaps laced with anecdotes, jokes,
questions, quotations etc.
7.) It has a permanent life.
iv.) Syndicated articles.
 They appear in more than one journal.
 They should not be distributed like news releases.
g.) Negotiating with editors.
 The negotiation can be by letter or on the telephone.
 A PR article should be published on its’ merits because the editor wants to print it.

h.) Press events

(i.) Three kinds:
1. The press conference-journalists assemble to receive information.
2. The press reception-more of an organised social event with a ban, buffet or lunch
and a programme of talks, demonstrations etc.
3. The facility visit-An individual journalist or a party of journalists is taken on a visit
to a place.
(ii.) Organising press events.
1. Plan the reception well in advance, selecting a date and time.
2. Choose a convenient venue.
3. State the time table on the invitation card.
4. Send out the invitations to named guests in good time, at least 2 weeks.
5. Make sure that the catering is good.
6. Rehearse and time speakers and make sure that everything required is supplied on
time.
7. Provide adequate press information but do not overload guests.
8. Identify guests with name budges.
9. Get on with the business and stick to the timetable.
10. Have enough hosts to talk to the guests.
11. Do not mix journalists with other guests e.g. customers.
WK 10: BUDGETING
(a.)Introduction
(1.)Reasons for budgeting
(i.) To learn what it will cost to carry out a PR programme.
(ii.) To learn what sort of programme can be carried out for a given sum of money.
(iii.) The budget provides a checklist of tasks which have to be performed.
(iv.) The budget sets a discipline for both expenditure and over expenditure.
(v.) Results can be measured against the budget.

(b.)PR department and consultancy budgets

NB: Difference: Consultancies budget must include profit.
 1.) Element of a PR budget.
i.) Labour
ii.) Office overheads e.g. rent, insurance, lighting etc.
iii.) Materials e.g. stationery, postage, print etc.
iv.) Expenses out of pocket expenses e.g. fares, hostel bills etc.
(2.)Computing charges
(3.)Allocations
 These are subsidiary budgets.
(4.)Calculating a PR department budget.
(5.)Use of budgeting by management.
(6.)Budgeting priorities and constraints.
WK 11: PR CRISIS MANAGEMENT:
(A.) PR crisis
 They are mostly inexplicable and because of external factors of reporters, negative
competitive propaganda.
 The way to handle this kind of crisis is to establish direct contact with your
publics and explain the facts.
 Silence or the “no comment” response is in a way confessing of ignorance,
acceptance or guilt.
(B) Some crisis situations:
1.) Wrong public perception.
2.) Product failure.
3.) Cash crunch-A problem of cash flow can affect one’s performance.
4.) Industrial relations: Labour problems, agitations, strikes.
5.) Mergers & Acquisitions e.g. when there is resistance.
6.) Press relations in emergencies/crisis e.g.
(i.) What happened? (iv.) Where did it happen
(ii.)What caused it? (v.) How much damage has occurred?
(iii.) When did it happen? (vi.) Was anybody killed or hurt?
(C.)Managing crisis situations: Three stages:
(i.) Planning-define the problem, its cause, fix objectives etc.
(ii.) Strategy-guidelines to follow.
(iii.)Action
(D.)Crisis PR Communication.
 Crisis is any situation that is threatening or could threaten to harm people or
property, seriously interrupt business, damage reputation or negatively impact
share value.
 Every organization is vulnerable to crisis.
  If you don’t prepare you will take more damage.

 The 10 steps of crisis communication:

1. Identify your crisis communication team.

2. Identify spokespersons.
3. Spokespersons training.
4. Establish notification systems.
5. Identify and know your shareholders-internal and external.
6. Anticipate crisis.
7. Develop holding statements e.g. we have implemented our crisis response
plan, which places the highest priority on health and safety of our guests and
staff.
8. Assess the crisis situation.
9. Identify key messages.
10. Riding out the storm
 Effective management of crisis situations offer tremendous opportunities.
WK 12: EVALUATING PUBLIC RELATION.
A. Evaluating programmes and campaigns.
 The evaluation is an ongoing process particularly in a long-term PR campaign. It is
critical to constantly review all specific elements.
 It should be done in two ways:
(i.) Ongoing.
(ii.) End.

B. Evaluating results.
1. Nature of results.
(i.) Qualitative-measured by experience, self-evident qualities e.g. better
educated, etc.
(ii.) Quantitative-To increase in awareness, reduced number of complaints, larger
number of applications etc.
2. Self-evident results.
 They are to be seen or experienced.
C. Some methods of assessment.
1. Enquiries received.
2. Statistical data on audience number and ratings.
3. Evaluation by source.
4. Opinion poles.
5. Direct statistical feedback.
6. Media feedback.
7. Assessing increased understanding.
8. Desired results.
 A PR programme should be undertaken to do something positive which is capable of
being recognised when it has been achieved.
 Results depend upon objectives.
CAT 1
1) Discuss the activities of a PR department (10mks)
2) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages in having a staff PR (10mks)
CAT 2
1) Giving examples describe the qualities of a PR practitioner (10mks)
2) Analyse the elements of the six-point planning model (10mks)
CAT 3
1) Describe ten steps of crisis communication in public relations (10mks)