Module 1 - DESHI

Module 01: D.C.
Circuits
Module 1
D. C. Circuits
Lecture: 1
1.1 D. C. Circuits Basic Definitions
1.1.1 Motivation
Motivation for the chapter to reader will be learning the DC circuit analysis under steady state
conditions and computing the unknown quantities such as equivalent resistance, voltage, current and
power with the help of techniques used for circuit analysis.
Concept of the chapter will be widely used in to study the subjects like Electrical Network, Electronic
devices and circuit, Analog Integrated circuit etc.
1.1.2 Syllabus
Lecture Content Duration Self-Study
1. Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws and sums 1 Lecture 2 hours
2. Mesh and Nodal analysis 1 Lecture 2 hours
3. Mesh and Nodal analysis 1 Lecture 2 hours
4. Mesh and Nodal analysis – Sums 1 Lecture 2 hours
Superposition Theorem 1 Lecture 2 hours

5.
6. Superposition Theorem and sums 1 Lecture 2 hours
7. Thevenin's Theorem and sums 1 Lecture 2 hours
8. Norton's Theorem and sums 1 Lecture 2 hours
9. Revision and sums 1 Lecture 2 hours
1.1.3 Weightage: 15 to 20 Marks

1.1.4 Learning Objectives: Learner shall be able to
1. State Kirchhoff’s laws.
2. Find the current, voltage and power using Mesh and Nodal Analysis.
3. Find the current, voltage using Superposition theorem.
4. Find the current, voltage using Thevenin’s theorem.
5. Find the current, voltage using Norton’s theorem.
1.1.5. Theoretical Background:

Electricity is the indispensable part of our daily life. Although the exact nature of electricity is
unknown, a great deal is known about what it can do. By mere pressing a switch, buildings
1
Module 01: D.C. Circuits
are lighted, wheels are turned, meals are cooked and countless other tasks are performed.
The study of nature of electricity has been attracting the attention of scientists for hundreds
of years. Several theories about the electricity were developed through experiments and by
observation of its behavior. The only theory that has survived over the years to explain the
nature of electricity is the modern electron theory of matter. The main points of this theory are
given below:
i. Every matter is electrical in nature, i.e. it contains particles of electricity, viz. protons
and electrons.
ii. In normal state, in an atom, the number of electrons is equal to number of protons.
Therefore, an atom is neutral as a whole.
iii. If from a neutral body, some electrons are removed, there exists a deficiency of
electrons in the body. Consequently, the body attains a positive charge.
iv. If a neutral body is supplied with electron, there occurs excess of electron.
Consequently, the body attains a negative charge.
The charge on electron is so small that it is not convenient to select it as the unit of charge. In
practice coulomb is the unit of charge. One coulomb of charge is equal to the charge on 6.26*1018
electrons i.e.
1 coulomb = charge on 6.26*1018 electrons
Thus, when we say that a body has a positive charge of 1 coulomb, it means that it has
deficiency of 6.26*1018 electrons.
1.1.6 Key Definition:

 Electric Current: Flow of free electron is called electric current. A copper strip has a large
number of free electrons. When electric pressure or voltage is applied to it, free electrons being
negatively charged, will start moving towards positive terminal as shown in the figure 1.1.
Fig. 1.1 Flow of electric current

This directed flow of electrons is called electric current. However, prior to the electron theory,
it was assumed that current flowed from positive terminal to the negative terminal of the cell.
This convention is so firmly established that that it is still in use. This assumed current is called
conventional current.
Current I = Q/T
The charge Q is measured in coulomb and time t in sec. Therefore, the unit of electric current
will be coulomb/sec, also known as ampere(A).
2
 Electric Potential: A body is neutral under ordinary conditions. A body can be charged by
removing the electrons from it or by supplying the electrons to it. Work is done in this process
because the electrons have to be removed or supplied against the opposing forces. This work
done is stored in the body inn form of potential energy. The charged body has the capacity to
do work by moving other charges either by attraction or repulsion. This ability of charged body
to do work is called electric potential.
Electric Potential, V = Work done/ Charge = W/Q
The work done is measured in joules and charge is measured in coulomb. Therefore, the unit of
electric potential will be joules/coulomb, also known as volt.
Thus, when we say that a body has an electric potential of 5 volts, it means every coulomb of
charge possess 5 joules of energy.
 Potential Difference: The difference of potential of two charged bodies is called potential
difference.
If two bodies have different electric potentials, a potential difference exists between the bodies.
Consider two bodies A and B having potential of 5 volts and 3 volts respectively as shown in
the figure 1.2.
Fig. 1.2 Potential Difference

Each coulomb on body A has 5 joules of energy and each coulomb on body B has 3 joules of
energy. Clearly body A is at higher potential than body B.
If body A and body B are joined through a conductor, electron will flow from body B to body
A as shown in the figure 1.3.
Fig. 1.3 Flow of electron

When the two bodies attain same potential the flow of current stops. Thus, we can conclude
that current will flow in the circuit if potential difference exists.
A device that maintains potential difference between two points is said to develop
electromotive force (emf). A simple example of that is a cell.
 Resistance: The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric current is called
resistance. Unit of resistance is ohms Ω.
Since current is the flow of free electrons, resistance is the opposition offered by the substance
to the flow of electron. This opposition occurs because atoms and molecules of the substance
obstruct the flow of electron. Certain substances (e.g. metals like silver, copper and aluminum)
offer very little opposition to the flow of electric current are called conductors. On the other
hand, the substance that offer high opposition to the flow of electron are called insulators e.g.
glass, rubber and wood.
 Circuit: A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric current either flows or
is intended to flow.
 Node – A node in an electric circuit is a point where two or more components/branches
connected together. This point is usually marked with dark circle or dot. The circuit in Fig. 1.1
3
has nodes a, b, c, and g. Generally, a point or a node in an circuit specifies certain voltage level
with respect to a reference point are node
 Branch – A branch is a conducting path between two nodes in a circuit containing the electric
elements. These elements could be sources resistance or other elements. Fig.1.4 shows that the
circuit has six branches: three resistive branches (a –c, b-c, and b-g) and three branches
containing voltage and current sources (a-, a-, and c-g).
 Loop- A loop is any closed path in an electric circuit i.e., a closed path or loop in a circuit is a
contiguous sequence of branches which starting and end points for tracing the path are , in
effect the same node and touches no other node more than once. Fig. 1.4 shows three loops or
closed path namely a-b-g-a, b-c-g-b, and a-c-b-a. Further, it may be noted that the outside closed
paths a-c-g-a and a-b-c-g-a are also form two loops.
 Mesh- A mesh is a special case of loop that does not have any other loop within it or in its
interior. Fig. 1.4 indicates that the first three loops (a-b-g-a, b-c-g-b, and a-c-b-a) just identified
are also ‘meshes’ but other two loop (a-c-g-a and a-b-c-g-a) are not.
Fig. 1.4 Simple D.C Network

 Passive Element: The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then either
converts it into heat or stored it in an electric or magnetic field is called passive element.
 Active Element: The elements that supply energy to the circuit is called active element.
 Bilateral Element: Conduction of current in both directions in an element (with same
magnitude is termed as bilateral element. Passive components R, L, C are bilateral elements.
Fig.1.5 Bilateral element

 Unilateral Element: Conduction of current in one direction is termed as unilateral element.
Semiconductor devices like diode, Transistors etc.
Fig.1.6 Unilateral element
 Non-Linear Circuit: A non-linear circuit is that whose parameters change with voltage or
current.
 Series Connection: Two elements are said to be series if they have a node common and no other
element is connected to this node. (Refer Fig 1.7)
4
Fig.1.7 Series connection
 Parallel connection: Two elements are said to be in parallel if they are connected to same pair
of nodes. (Refer Fig 1.8)
Fig.1.8 Parallel connection
 Star connection: If three resistances are connected to look like alphabet Y is called star
connection. (Refer Fig 1.9)
Fig.1.9 Star Delta connection

 Delta connection: When three resistances are connected together to form a closed mesh (look
like∆) is called Delta connection.
1.1.7 Key Relations:

Sr.No Physical quantity Formula
1 Current 𝐼 = 𝑄/𝑇
2 Voltage 𝑉 = 𝑊/𝑄
3 Ohms Law 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
4 Resistance 𝑅 = ρ𝐿/𝐴
5 Charge 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑇
6 Electrical power 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑉 2 /𝑅
7 Electrical energy 𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑉 2 𝑡/𝑅
8 Series Resistance 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
9 Parallel Resistance 1/𝑅𝑇 = 1/𝑅1 + 1/𝑅2
10 Voltage Division Rule 𝑉
𝑉1 = 𝑅
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 1
11 Current Division Rule 𝑅2
𝐼1 = 𝐼
𝑅2 + 𝑅1
5
12 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law ∑ 𝐼𝑅 + ∑ 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 = 0

13 Kirchhoff’s Current Law ∑𝑖 = 0
14 Delta (Δ) to Star (Y) conversion 𝑅12 𝑅31
𝑅1 =
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
15 Star (Y) to Delta (Δ) to conversion 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅12 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 +
𝑅3
1.1.8 Introduction:
A DC (Direct Current) circuit is a combination of two or more electrical components which are
interconnected by conducting paths. The components may be active or inactive or both. In this
case, the circuit voltage sand currents are constant, i.e., independent of time.
1.1.8.1 Ohms Law:

The relationship between voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R) in a DC
circuit was first discovered by German scientist Sir George Simon Ohm.
This relationship is called Ohm’s law and may be stated as under:
The ratio of the potential difference (V) between the ends of a conductor
to the current (I) flowing between them is constant, provided the physical
conditions (e.g. temperature) do not change, i.e.
𝑉 Sir George Simon Ohm
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑅 − − − − − (1.1)
𝐼
Where R is the resistance of the conductor between the two points. For example, if the voltage
between two points A and B is V volts and current
flowing through them is I ampere, then V/I will be constant and equal to R
Fig.1.10 Illustration of Ohm’s law
the resistance between pint A and B. If the voltage is doubled the current will also be doubled
so the ratio of V/I will remains constant. It may be noted that if the voltage is measured in
volt and current in ampere, then resistance will be in ohm. The following points may be noted
about Ohm’s Law:
i. Ohm’s law is true for DC circuits. However, it is not, in general, valid for AC circuit.
ii. Ohm’s law is true for metal conductors at constant temperature. If the temperature changes,
Ohm’s law is not applicable.
iii. There are many conductors (e.g. silicon carbide) to which Ohm’s Law is not applicable even if
the temperature is constant. It is because such material has the property of changing their
resistance as the current through them is changed.
6
iv. Ohm’s law can be expressed in three forms, viz.

I=V/R, V=IR, R=V/I
1.1.8.2 Resistance:
Resistance is the property of a material due to which it opposes the flow of electric current
through it. Unit of resistance is ohms Ω. The resistance of the conductor has the following
characteristics:
i. It is directly proportional to the length of the conductor.

ii. It is inversely proportional to the area of cross section of the conductor.
iii. It depends on the nature of the material of the conductor.
iv. It also depends upon the temperature of the conductor.
Hence, if R is resistance of the conductor of length l and cross-sectional area A, then R α l/A
𝜌𝑙
𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = − − − − − (1.2)
𝐴
Where ρ is a constant known as specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the
conductor.
The specific resistance of a material is defined as the resistance offered by unit length of the
material of unit cross-section.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.1.11Table of resistor symbols and color code for carbon resistance
1.1.8.3 Effect of temperature on temperature co-efficient of resistance

Let a metallic conductor having a resistance of Ro at 0°C be heated of t° C and let its resistance
at this temperature be Rt. Then, considering normal ranges of temperature, it is found that the
increase in ∆𝑅 = 𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0
(i) Directly on its initial resistance
(ii) Directly on the rise in temperature
7
(iii) On the nature of the material of the conductor.

𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0 ∝ 𝑅0𝑡 − − − − − (1.3)
Where α (alpha) is a constant and is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance of the
conductor.
The temperature-coefficient of a material may be defined as the increase in resistance per ohm
original resistance per °C rise in temperature.
From Eq. (3), we find that𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 (1 + α0𝑡 ) − − − − − (1.4)
A positive temperature coefficient (PTC) refers to materials that experience an increase in
electrical resistance when their temperature is raised. Ex: Thermocouple
A negative temperature coefficient (NTC) refers to materials that experience an decrease in
electrical resistance when their temperature is raised. Ex: Thermistor
𝛼0
𝛼𝑡 = − − − − − (1.5)
1 + α0𝑡
Example: 1.1 A coil has a resistance of 18ohm when its mean temperature is 20°C and 20 ohm
when its mean temperature is 50°. Find its mean temperature rise when its resistance is 21
ohm and the surrounding temperature is 15°.
Solution: Let R0 be the resistance of the coil and α0 its temp coeff. At 00 C
18 = 𝑅0 (1 + α0 ∗ 20) --------------------------------- (a)
20 = 𝑅0 (1 + 50α0 ) ----------------------------------- (b)
Dividing with get (a) by (b)
20 (1 + 50α0 ) 1
= ∴ 𝛼0 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℃
18 (1 + α0 ∗ 20) 250
If t is temperature of the coil when resistance is 21 0C
𝑡
21 = 𝑅0 (1 + ) -----------------------------(c)
250
Dividing a and c we get, t=650 C
Temperature rise 65-15 = 500C
1.1.8.4 Electric Power

The rate at which work is done in an electric circuit is called electric power. i.e.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = − − − − − (1.6)
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
When voltage is applied to a circuit, it causes current (i.e. free electrons) to flow through it.
Clearly, work is being done in moving the electron in the circuit. This work done in moving
the electron in unit time is called the electric power. Thus, referring to the figure below
Fig.1.12Power dissipated in resistance

V= Potential difference across AB
I = Current in A
R= resistance of AB in Ω
t= Time in second for which current flows
The total charge that flows in t seconds Q= I*t coulomb but we know that
8
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑉= − − − − − (1.7)
𝑄
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑉𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 (𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡) − − − − − (1.8)
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑉𝐼𝑡 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝑃= = = 𝑉𝐼 𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 − − − − − (1.9)
𝑡 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑆𝑜, 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 (𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅) − − − − − (1.10)
𝑉2 𝑉
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = (𝐼 = ) − − − − − (1.11)
𝑅 𝑅
1.1.8.5 Electric Energy

The total work done in an electric circuit is called electrical energy, i.e.
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 − − − − − (1.12)
𝑉2
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑡 − − − − − (1.13)
𝑅
The formula for electrical energy can be readily delivered by multiplying the electric power
by ‘t’, the time for which current flows. The unit of electrical energy will depend upon the
units of electric power and time as follows:
i. If power is taken in watt and time in second, then the unit of electrical energy will be
watt-sec
ii. If power is expressed in watt and time in hour, then the unit of electrical energy will
be watt-hour
iii. If power is expressed in kilowatt and time in hour, then the unit of electrical energy
will be kilowatt-hour
In practice, electrical energy is measured in kilowatt-hour.
1.1.9 Electrical Connections:

1.1.9.1 Series Circuit:
The circuit in which resistance are connected end to end so that there is only one path for the
current to flow is called a series circuit.
Consider three resistance of R1, R2 and R3 ohm connected in series across a battery of V volts
as shown in the figure 1.13a. Obviously there is only one path for the current I, i.e., current is
same throughout the circuit.
Fig.1.13Series Circuit
By Ohm’s Law,
9
Voltage drop across the resistance R1, V1=IR1

Now for a series circuit, sum of the voltage drop is equal to the applied voltage. So,
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 − − − − − (1.14)
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3
𝑉 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )
𝑉
= 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 − − − − − (1.15)
𝐼
But V/I is the total resistance RT between point A and B (figure 1.13b). RT is called the total
resistance or equivalent resistance of the three resistance
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
Hence, when a number of resistances are connected in series, the total resistance is equal to
the sum of the individual resistance.
The following points may be noted for a series circuit:
i. The current flowing through each resistance is same.
ii. The applied voltage is equal to the sum of different voltage drops.
iii. The total power consumed in the circuit is equal to the sum of the powers
consumed by the individual resistances.
iv. Every resistor of the circuit has its own voltage drop.
1.1.9.2 Voltage Division Rule:

It may be observed that the source voltage in the circuit shown in figure 1.13a divides among
the resistor R1, R2 and R3. The voltage drop across the resistance can be obtained as
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 = 𝑅1 (𝑎𝑠 𝐼 = ) − − − − − (1.16)
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇
𝑉
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 = 𝑅 − − − − − (1.17)
𝑅𝑇 2
𝑉
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3 = 𝑅 − − − − − (1.18)
𝑅𝑇 3
Example:1.2 Four resistance, of ohmic values 5Ω, 10Ω, 15Ω and 20Ω are connected in series
across a 100 V source. How is this voltage divided among the various resistors?
Fig.1.14
Solution:
Using voltage division rule, we have
5
𝑉5Ω = { } 100 = 10𝑉
5 + 10 + 15 + 20
10
10
𝑉10Ω = { } 100 = 20𝑉
5 + 10 + 15 + 20
15
𝑉15Ω ={ } 100 = 30𝑉
5 + 10 + 15 + 20
20
𝑉20Ω ={ } 100 = 40𝑉
5 + 10 + 15 + 20
1.1.9.3 Parallel Circuit:

The circuit in which one end of each resistance is joined to a common point and the other end
of each resistance is joined to another common point, so that there are as many paths of the
current flow as the number of resistances, is called a parallel circuit.
Fig.1.15 Parallel Circuit

Consider three resistance of R1, R2 and R3 ohm connected in parallel across a battery of V volts
as shown in the figure 1.15a. The total current I is divided into three parts: I1 flows through R1,
I2 flows through R2 and I3 flows through R3. Obviously, the voltage across each resistor is the
same and there are as many current paths as the number of resistances.
By Ohm’s Law,
Voltage drop across the resistance R1, I1=V/R1
Now, for parallel circuit, sum of the branch currents is equal to the total current, so
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 − − − − − (1.19)
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= 𝑅1
+ 𝑅2
+ 𝑅 − − − − − (1.20)
3
1 1 1
𝐼 = 𝑉( 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 )
1 2 3
𝐼 1 1 1
𝑉
= 𝑅1
+ 𝑅2
+ 𝑅3
− − − − − (1.21)
But V/I is the total resistance RT of the parallel resistance figure 1.15b so that I/V = 1/RT
1 1 1 1
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = + + − − − − − (1.22)
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
When a number of resistances is connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance is
equal to the sum of reciprocals of the individual resistance.
The following points may be noted about a parallel circuit:
i. The voltage drop across each resistance is same.
ii. The total current equals the sum of the branch currents.
iii. The total power consumed in the circuit is equal the sum of the powers consumed
11
by the individual resistances.

iv. Every resistor has its own current.
1.1.9.4 Current Division Rule:

Consider a parallel circuit of figure 1.16. Two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in parallel
across a battery of V volt. The total current I is divided into two parts: I1 flowing through R1
and I2flowing through R2.
Fig.1.16 Illustration of current division rule
The total resistance or equivalent resistance can be obtained as
𝐼 1 1 𝑅2 + 𝑅1
= + =
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑇 = − − − − − (1.23)
𝑅2 + 𝑅1
Hence, the total value of the two-resistance connected in parallel is equal to the product of the
individual resistance divided by their sum.
R1 R2
V = IR T = I
R2 + R1
Current through R1,
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉 𝐼 1 2
𝑅2 + 𝑅1
𝐼1 = 𝑅1
= 𝑅1
𝑅2
𝐼1 = 𝐼 − − − − − (1.24)
𝑅2 + 𝑅1
Current through R2,
𝑅1
𝐼2 = 𝐼 − − − − − (1.25)
𝑅2 + 𝑅1
1.1.10 Kirchhoff’s Laws:

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff was a German physicist who contributed to the fundamental
understanding of electrical circuits. These laws are more comprehensive than Ohm’s law and
12
are used for solving electrical networks which may not be readily solved
by the latter. Kirchhoff’s laws, two in number, are particularly useful(a) in
determining the equivalent resistance of a complicated network of
conductors and (b) for calculating the currents flowing in the various
conductors.
Sir Gustav Kirchhoff

I. Node:
A node of network is an equipotential surface at which two or more circuit elements are joined.
Thus, in figure 1.17, circuit elements R1 and V1 are joined at A and hence, A is the node.
Similarly, B, C and D are nodes.
Fig.1.17 Illustration of Kirchhoff’s law

II. Junction:
A junction is that point in a network where three or more circuit elements are joined. In figure
1.17, there are only two junction points, viz. B and D. B is a junction is clear from the fact that
three circuit elements R1, R2 and R3are joined at it. Similarly, point D is a junction because it
joins three circuit elements R3, V1 and V2. All the junctions are nodes but all nodes are not
junctions.
III. Branch:
A branch is the point of the part of a network lying between two junction points. Thus, referring
to figure 1.18, there are total three branches, viz. BAD, BCD and BD. The branch BAD consists
of R1 and V1, the branch BCD consists of R2 and V2 and branch BD merely consists of R3.
IV. Loop:
A loop is any closed path of a network. Thus, in figure 1.18 ABDA, BCDB and ABCDA are the
loops.
V. Mesh:
A mesh is the most elementary form of a loop and cannot be further divided into other loops.
In figure 1.17, both the loops ABDA and BCBD are meshes because they cannot be further
divided into other loops. However, the loop ABCDA cannot be called a mesh because it encloses
two loops ABDA and BCDB. All meshes are loops but all loops are not meshing.
1.1.10.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):

It states that “In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point (or junction)
is zero.” Here currents entering (+ve sign) and currents leaving (-ve sign) the node must be
assigned opposite algebraic signs.
Consider the case of a few conductors meeting at a point A as in Figure 1.18
13
Fig.1.18 Five resistors connected at anode

𝐼1 + (−𝐼2 ) + (−𝐼3 ) + (+𝐼4 ) + (−𝐼5 ) = 0
𝐼1 + 𝐼4 − 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 − 𝐼5 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐼1 + 𝐼4 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼5 − − − − − (1.26)
Incoming current =outgoing current
1.1.10.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):
It states that “The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each of the conductors in
any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs. in that path is zero.”
In other words, ∑ 𝐼𝑅 + ∑ 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 = 0 − − − − − (1.27)
While finding out the sum we take sign convention into consideration.
Sign Conventions:
Sign of Battery E.M.F: A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a -ve
sign.
Fig.1.19 Sign of battery EMF

Sign of IR Drop: If we go through a resistor in the same direction as the current, then there is a
fall in potential. Hence, this voltage fall should be taken -ve. However, if we go in a direction
opposite to that of the current, then there is a rise in voltage. Hence, this voltage rise should be
given a positive sign.
Fig.1.20 Sign of IR Drop

Let’s consider following circuit
14
Fig.1.21 Four resistors connected in loop
Using Kirchhoff's voltage law, we get

−𝐼1 𝑅1 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 − 𝐼3 𝑅3 − 𝐼4 𝑅4 − 𝐸2 + 𝐸1 = 0
𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐼3 𝑅3 + 𝐼4 𝑅4 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 − − − − − (1.28)
💡Learning from the lecture: Students should able to solve problems on KCL, KVL and state the
difference between them.
Let’s check the take away from this lecture

1. Kirchhoff’s current law is applicable to only
(a) Closed loops in a network (b) electronic circuits
(c) Junctions in a network (d) electric circuits.
2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law is concerned with
(a) IR drops (b) battery e.m.fs.
(c) Junction voltages (d) both (a) and (b
3. According to KVL, the algebraic sum of all IR drops and e.m.f.s in any closed loop of a
network is always
(a) zero (b) positive
(c) negative (d) determined by battery e.m.fs.
4. The algebraic sign of an IR drop is primarily dependent upon the
(a) amount of current flowing through it (b) value of R
(c) direction of current flow (d) battery connection.
Answers: 1. C, 2. D, 3. A, 4. C
Self Practice Exercise: Unsolved Examples
Q1.Determine the current supplied by the battery in the circuit shown below.
15
Fig.1.22
[0.3A]
Q2.For the network shown below determine (i) I1, I2 and I3 (ii) Resistance R (iii) Value of Emf E.
Fig.1.23
[I1=0.3A , I2= 1.5A, I3=-0.7A, R=71.3Ω,E=174V]
Q3.Determine the current through 20Ω resistor in the circuit shown below
Fig.1.24
[I20Ω=2.554A]
Q4. Find (i) Ix if Iy = 2A and Iz = 0A
(ii) Iy if Ix = 2A and Iz = 2IyA
(iii) Iz if Ix = Iy = Iz
Fig.1.25
16
[(i) Ix =4A, (ii) Iy =0A, (iii) Iz =-2A]

Q.5 Find the potential at point e with respect to c (Vce)in the network shown below
Fig.1.26
[Vce = 7 V ]
Q.6 Find equivalent resistance between A and B.
(Jan. 2001)
Fig.1.27
[25.5 Ω]
17
Lecture 2
1.1.11 Star-Delta Transformation (Y-Δ):
We know that by series/parallel circuit rules we can reduce or simplify the circuit but there are
some networks in which the resistances are neither in series nor in parallel and are connected
in Y or Δ connection. In such a situation, it is not possible to simplify the network by
series/parallel circuit rules. However, converting Δ connection into equivalent Y connection
and vice versa, a network can be simplified and application of series/parallel circuit rules is
possible. Figure 1.28(a) shows three resistance R12, R23 and R31 connected in delta, figure 1.28(b)
shows three resistance R1, R2 and R3 connected in star.
Fig.1.28 Star and Delta Network
1.1.11.1 Delta (Δ) to Star (Y) conversion:

Referring to delta network in figure 1.28(a),
𝑅12 (𝑅23 +𝑅31 )
Resistance between terminals 1 and 2 = 𝑅12 ||(𝑅23 + 𝑅31 ) = 𝑅12 +𝑅23 +𝑅31
− − − − − (1.29)
Referring to star network in figure 1.28(b)
Resistance between terminals 1 and 2 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 − − − − − (1.30)
Since two networks are electrically equivalent,
𝑅12 (𝑅23 + 𝑅31 )
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = − − − − − (1.31)
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
Similarly, between 2 and 3 as well as 3 and 1
𝑅23 (𝑅31 + 𝑅12 )
𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = − − − − − (1.32)
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
𝑅31 (𝑅12 + 𝑅23 )
𝑅3 + 𝑅1 = − − − − − (1.33)
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
Subtracting (1.32) from (1.31)
𝑅12 𝑅31 − 𝑅23 𝑅31
𝑅1 − 𝑅3 = − − − − − (1.34)
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
18
Adding equation (1.34) and (1.33)

𝑅12 𝑅31
𝑅1 = − − − − − (1.35)
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
𝑅23 𝑅12
𝑅2 = − − − − − (1.36)
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
𝑅31 𝑅23
𝑅3 = − − − − − (1.37)
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
Thus, star resistance connected to the terminal is equal to the product of the two-delta resistance
connected to same terminal divided by the sum of the delta resistance.
1.1.11.2 Star (Y)to Delta (Δ) to conversion:

Multiplying the equations (1.35) and (1.36)
𝑅12 2 𝑅23 𝑅31
𝑅1 𝑅2 = − − − − − (1.38)
(𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31 )2
𝑅12 𝑅23 2 𝑅31
𝑅2 𝑅3 = − − − − − (1.39)
(𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31 )2
𝑅12 𝑅23 𝑅31 2
𝑅3 𝑅1 = − − − − − (1.40)
(𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31 )2
Adding equations (1.38), (1.39) and (1.40)
𝑅12 𝑅23 𝑅31 (𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31 )
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1 =
(𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31 )2
𝑅12 𝑅23 𝑅31
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1 =
(𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31 )
𝑅31 𝑅23
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1 = 𝑅12 𝑅3 {𝑎𝑠 𝑅3 = }
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑅12 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + − − − − − (1.41)
𝑅3
𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝑅23 = 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + − − − − − (1.42)
𝑅1
𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝑅31 = 𝑅3 + 𝑅1 + − − − − − (1.43)
𝑅2
Thus, the delta resistance between the two terminals is the sum of the two-star resistances connected to
the same terminals plus the product of the two resistances divided by the remaining third star resistance.
Example: 1.4 Determine the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B of network
shown in fig. 1.29.
19
Fig. 1.29
Solution: A ‘Δ’ is substituted for the ‘Y’ between point’s c, d, and e as shown in the above
fig.1.30 then unknown resistances value for Y to Δ transformation are computed below.
𝑅𝐶𝐵 = 2 + 4 + 2 ∗ 4/3 = 8.66 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑅𝐸𝐵 = 3 + 4 + 4 ∗ 3/2 = 13 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑅𝐶𝐸 = 2 + 3 + 2 ∗ 3/4 = 6.5 𝑜ℎ𝑚
Fig.1.30
Next we transform ‘Δ’ connected 3-terminal resistor to an equivalent ‘Y ’ connected network

between points ‘A’, ‘c’ and ‘e’ as seen in the fig.1.31.and the corresponding Y connected
resistances value are obtained using the following expression. Simplified circuit after
conversion is shown in fig.1.31
Fig.1.31
4∗2
𝑅𝐴𝑜 = = 0.64 𝑜ℎ𝑚
4 + 2 + 6.5
4 ∗ 6.5
𝑅𝐶𝑜 = = 2.08 𝑜ℎ𝑚
4 + 2 + 6.5
6.5 ∗ 2
𝑅𝐵𝑜 = = 1.04 𝑜ℎ𝑚
4 + 2 + 6.5
20
The circuit shown in fig.1.31 can further be reduced by considering two pairs of parallel
branches 3 ║ 8.66 and 13 ║ 1 and the corresponding simplified circuit is shown in fig.1.32
.
Fig.1.32
Now one can find the equivalent resistance between the terminal’s ‘A’ and ‘B’ as
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = (2.23 + 2.08)||(1.04 + 0.93) + 0.64 = 2.21 𝑜ℎ𝑚 .
1.1.12 Ideal and practical voltage and current source, Source transformation
1.1.12.1 Sources: -
There are two type of sources: (i) Ideal Voltage Source and (ii) Ideal Current Source
1.1.12.2 Ideal Voltage Source:

It is a voltage source whose output always remains constant whatever the change in load
current. It has zero internal resistance. In practice, ideal voltage source is not available, and
every voltage source has some internal resistance. Smaller the resistance of a voltage source,
more it will approach to the ideal voltage source. The ideal voltage source can be represented
by either of the symbols as shown in figure 1.33.
Fig.1.33 Voltage Source symbol

1.1.12.3 Ideal Current Sources:
It is that current source whose output current always remains constant whatever the change
in load resistance. Its internal resistance is infinity. At any load resistance, it supplies the
constant current. In practice, ideal current source has very high resistance. Higher the value
of current source, more it will approach to the ideal source. The ideal current source may be
represented by the symbol as shown in figure 1.34.
21
Fig.1.34 Current Source symbol

1.1.12.4 Source Transformation:
The following points may be noted about source transformation.
Case (i):
A voltage source with a series resistance can be converted into an equivalent current source
with parallel resistance (figure 1.35)
Fig.1.35 Source Transformation (voltage source to current source)
Example: 1.5 It may be noted that if the polarity of voltage source changes, accordingly the direction
of the equivalent current source also changes (figure 1.36).
Fig.1.36 Direction of equivalent current source

Case (ii):
A current source with parallel resistance can be converted into an equivalent voltage source
with series resistance as shown below (figure 1.37)
Fig.1.37 Source Transformation (current source to voltage source)
Example: 1.6 It may be noted that if the direction of current source changes, accordingly the direction
of polarity equivalent voltage source also changes (figure 1.38).
22
Fig.1.38 Polarity of equivalent voltage source
Case (iii):
Series voltage can be added.
Example: 1.7 In figure 1.39, voltage sources are connected in series with additive polarity. Resultant
voltage source can be calculated directly adding them and polarity of the resulted voltage source will
be same as the given voltage sources.
Fig.1.39 Series voltage sources (additive)
Example: 1.8 In figure 1.40, voltage sources are connected with subtractive polarity. Resultant voltage
source can be calculated directly subtracting them and polarity of the resulted voltage source will be
same as large voltage source.
Fig.1.40 Series voltage sources (subtractive)
Case (iv):
Parallel current sources can be added.
Example: 1.9 In figure 1.41, Current sources connected in parallel can be added together. While
adding the current sources, note their direction.
Fig.1.41 Parallel current sources
23
1.1.13 Mesh Analysis:

Learning Objective: In this lecture Learner will able to understand the concept of Mesh analysis.
1.1.13.1 Mesh:
In this method, KVL is applied to each mesh in terms of mesh current instead of branch
currents. Each mesh is assigned a separate mesh current. This mesh current is assumed to flow
in clockwise direction around the perimeter of the mesh without splitting at a junction into
branch currents. KVL is applied to write equations in terms of unknown mesh currents. Once
the mesh currents are known, the branch currents can be easily determined.
Maxwell’s mesh current method consists of the following steps:
i. Each mesh is assigned a separate mesh current. For convenience, all mesh currents are
assumed to flow in clockwise direction. For example, in figure 1.42, meshes ABDA and
BCDB have been assigned mesh currents I1 and I2 respectively.
ii. If two mesh currents are flowing through a circuit element, the actual current in the circuit
element is the algebraic sum of two. Thus, in figure 1.42, there are two mesh currents I1
and I2 flowing through R2. If we go through B to D current is I1-I2 and if we go in other
direction (from D to B) current is I2-I1.
iii. KVL is applied to write equation for each mesh in terms of unknown mesh currents.
iv. If the value of any mesh current comes out to be negative in the solution, it means that
true direction of that mesh current is anticlockwise i.e., opposite to the assumed clockwise
direction.
Fig.1.42 Mesh current method

Applying KVL to mesh ABDA,
−𝐼1 𝑅1 − (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 )𝑅2 + 𝐸1 = 0
𝑜𝑟 𝐼1 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) − 𝐼2 𝑅2 = 𝐸1 − − − − − (1.44)
Applying KVL to mesh BCDB,
−𝐼2 𝑅3 − 𝐸2 − (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )𝑅2 = 0
𝑜𝑟 − 𝐼1 𝑅2 + 𝐼2 (𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) = −𝐸2 − − − − − (1.45)
Since there are two equations and two unknowns we can solve by substitution or by matrix
methods. To solve by matrix methods, we rewrite the equations
𝐼1 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) − 𝐼2 𝑅2 = 𝐸1 − − − − − (1.44)
𝐼1 𝑅2 − 𝐼2 (𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) = 𝐸2 − − − − − (1.46)
Or
𝑅 + 𝑅2 −𝑅2 𝐼1 𝐸1
[ 1 ] [ ] = [ ] − − − − − (1.47)
𝑅2 )
−(𝑅2 + 𝑅3 𝐼2 𝐸2
24
Example 1: Find Ia and Ib in figure shown

Solution: Steps to be followed:
The Loop/Mesh-Current Method:
1. Define a loop current around each loop in clockwise direction (although it could be arbitrary).
Assume there are n independent loops in the circuit, then we have n loop currents as the
unknown variables.
2. Apply KVL around each of the loops in the same clockwise direction to obtain n equations.
While calculating the voltage drop across each resistor shared by two loops, both loop currents
(in opposite positions) should be considered.
3. Solve the equation system with n equations for the n unknown loop currents.
Fig.1.43
For the first circuit, we apply KVL to the two loops to get
0 = −32 + 2𝐼𝑎 + 8(𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼𝑏 )----- (a)
0 = 8(𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼𝑏 ) + 4𝐼𝑏 + 20 ----- (b)
10𝐼𝑎 − 8𝐼𝑏 = 32
−8𝐼𝑎 + 12𝐼𝑏 = −20
Solving we get Ia = 4A, Ib =1A
Example 2: Solve the following circuit.

𝑅1 = 3 𝛺; 𝑅2 = 8 𝛺; 𝑅3 = 6 𝛺; 𝐼 = 0.5 𝐴; 𝑉 = 6𝑉
Fig.1.44
Solution:
Loop current method:
Assume three loop currents I1, I2 and I3
𝐼1 = 0.5 𝐴
𝑅2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) + 𝑅3 (𝐼2 − 𝐼3 ) − 𝑉 = 0
𝑅1 (𝐼3 − 𝐼1 ) + 𝑅4 𝐼3 + 𝑅3 (𝐼3 − 𝐼2 ) = 0
14𝐼2 − 6𝐼3 = 10
−6𝐼2 + 13𝐼3 = 1.5
Solving to z get I2 = 0.9520A; I3 = 0.555A
25
Example 3: Find the value of current supplied by the battery.
Solution:
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
4 – 3𝐼1 – 1(𝐼1 – 𝐼2) – 4(𝐼1 – 𝐼3) = 0
8𝐼1 – 𝐼2 – 4𝐼3 = 4 (1)
– 2𝐼2 – 5(𝐼2 – 𝐼3) – 1(𝐼2 – 𝐼1) = 0
– 𝐼1 + 8𝐼2 – 5𝐼3 = 0 (2)
– 6𝐼3 – 4(𝐼3 – 𝐼1) – 5(𝐼3 – 𝐼2) = 0
– 4𝐼1 – 5𝐼2 + 15𝐼3 = 0 (3)
Solving Eqs (1), (2) and (3),
𝐼1 = 0.66 𝐴
𝐼2 = 0.24 𝐴
𝐼3 = 0.26 𝐴
Current supplied by the battery = I1 = 0.66 A.
Example 4: Find the value of current supplied by the battery.
Solution:
Writing current equations for Meshes 1, 2 and 4,
I1 = 4 (1)
I2 = 3 (2)
I4 = -3 (3)
−5(𝐼3 − 𝐼1) − 2(𝐼3 − 𝐼2 ) − 2(𝐼3 − 𝐼4 ) − 2 = 0 (4)
26
Substituting Eqs (1), (2) and (3) in Eq. (4),

−5(𝐼3 − 𝐼4) − 2(𝐼3 − 3) − 2(𝐼3 + 3) − 2 = 0
𝐼3 = 2𝐴
𝐼5𝛺 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼3 = 4 − 2 = 2𝐴
1.1.14 Supermesh Analysis:

Learning Objective: In this lecture Learner will able to understand the concept of Super Mesh
analysis
1.1.14.1 Super Mesh:
When a current source is common to two meshes, we use the concept of super mesh. A Super
Mesh is created from two meshes that have a current source in common.
Example: 5 Solve the following circuit using Super Mesh.
Fig.1.50
Solution:
At node A current i1 is entering, i2 and 1.5 Amp are leaving.
So, by applying KCL at node A
𝑖1 − 𝑖2 = 1.5
𝑖2 = 𝑖2 + 1.5 ………….. (1)
In order to write the second mesh equation, we must decide what to do about current source
voltage.
Applying KVL to the super mesh corresponding to the current source. Shown below in blue,
this super mesh is the perimeter of the two meshes that can contain the current source.
Fig.1.51
12 − 9𝑖1 − 3𝑖2 − 6𝑖2 = 0
9𝑖1 + 9𝑖2 = 12--- (2)
Solving equations 1 & 2 we get
𝑖1 = 17/2
𝑖2 = −1/12
27
Example: 6 Determine the current in the 5 Ω resistor shown in the figure below
Fig.1.52
Solution:
Step (1): Here the current source exists between mesh (2) and mesh (3). Hence, super mesh is the combination
of mesh (2) and mesh (3). Applying KVL to the super mesh (combination of mesh 2 and mesh 3 after removing
the branch with the current source of 2 A and resistance of 3 Ω) we get:
10 (𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) + 2𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + 5 (𝑖3 − 𝑖1 ) = 0
−15𝑖1 + 12𝑖2 + 6𝑖3 = 0 … … … … … … … … . (1)
Step (2): Applying KVL first to the normal mesh 1 we get:
10 (𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) + 5 (𝑖1 − 𝑖3 ) = 50
15𝑖1 + 10𝑖2 − 5𝑖3 = 50 … … … … … … … … . (2)
Step (3): We can get the third equation from the relation between the current source of 2 A, and currents 𝑖2 &
𝑖3 as:
𝑖2 − 𝑖3 = 2 𝐴 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
Step (4): Solving the above three equations for 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 and 𝑖3 we get
𝑖1 = 19.99 𝐴 , 𝑖2 = 17.33 𝐴, 𝑖3 = 15.33 𝐴
The current in the 5 Ω resistance = 𝑖1 − 𝑖3 = 19.99 − 15.33 = 4.66 𝐴

Q1. The loop which does not contain any other inner loop is known as _____________
a) A node
b) A mesh
c) A branch
d) A super mesh
28
Q2. Maxwell’s loop current method of solving electrical networks

(a) uses branch currents (b) utilizes Kirchhoff’s voltage law
(c) is confined to single-loop circuits (d) is a network reduction method.
Q3. Consider the circuit shown below. The number mesh equations that can be formed
are
Fig.1.45
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
Q4. In figure 1.45, the current through loop 1 be I1 and through the loop 2 be I2, then the
current flowing through the resistor R3 will be
(a) I1 (b) I2 (c) I1-I2 (d) I1+I2
Answers: 1. B, 2. B, 3. B, 4. C
Q.5 With the help of Maxwell's loop-current method, find the magnitude and direction of the
current flowing through 1 resistor.
Fig.1.46
[2.43 A]
Q.6 Find voltage V.
2
Fig.1.47
[10.72 V]
Q7. Determine current in 5 Ω resistor.
Fig.1.48
[3.38 A]
Q.8 Find mesh
currents
Fig.1.49
[3.75 A, 0, 1.25 A]
Q.9 Find the current through the 4 Ω resistor in the network
[1.34A]
3
Lecture 3
1.1.15 Nodal Analysis:
Learning Objective: In this lecture Learner will able to understand the concept of Nodal
analysis.
1.1.15.1 Nodal Analysis:
This method is based on KCL. Normally, this analysis is carried out to determine
voltages of different nodes with respect to reference node. However, determination of
node voltage, currents in all branches can be determined. This method is useful where
number of loops is large and hence, mesh analysis becomes lengthy. Nodal analysis also
has advantages that a minimum number of equations need to written to determine the
unknown quantities.
Following steps are to be taken while solving a problem by nodal analysis. Consider the
circuit in figure 1.53.
Step1: Mark all nodes. Every branches of the network where three or more branches
meet is regarded as a node. In figure 1.53, there are four nodes (marked by bold points).
But lower nodes are same, and by joining them, we get only three nodes as shown in the
figure 1.54.
Fig.1.53Identification of nodes
Fig.1.54 Assigning the branch currents and unknown node voltages
Step2: Select one of the nodes as reference node. Normally, for convenience, choose that
node as reference where maximum elements are connected or maximum branches are
meeting. Obviously, node C is selected as reference node. Reference node is also called
zero potential node or ground node.
4
Step3: Assign the unknown potentials of all nodes with respect to reference node. For
example, at node A and B, let the potentials are VA and VB with respect to reference
node.
Step4: At each node (excluding reference node), assume the unknown currents and
mark their directions (choose the current direction arbitrarily).
Step5: Apply KCL at each node and write the equations in terms of node voltages. By
solving the equations, determine the node voltages. From node voltage, current in any
branch can be determined.
Example 1: by node voltage method, find the current through 15 Ω resistor
Fig.1.55
Solution:
Marking the different nodes and assigning the unknown currents, we obtain the
following circuit:
Fig.1.56
Applying KCL at node 1,
𝐼1 = −𝐼2 + 𝐼3
100 − 𝑉1 𝑉1 − 0 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑜𝑟 = +
20 20 15
𝑜𝑟 13𝑉1 − 4𝑉2 = 300 − − − − − (𝑎)
Applying KCL at node 2,
𝐼3 = 𝐼4 + 𝐼5
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑉2 − 0 𝑉2 − (−80)
𝑜𝑟 = +
15 10 10
𝑜𝑟 𝑉1 − 4𝑉2 = 120 − − − − − (𝑏)
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑎)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑏), 𝑉1 = 15𝑉, 𝑉2 = −26.25𝑉
𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐼15Ω = 𝐼3 = = 2.75𝐴(→)
15
Example 2: Find the voltage at nodes 1 and 2.
5
Solution:
Assume that the currents are moving away from the nodes.
Applying KCL at Node 1,
𝑉1 − 0 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
1= +
2 2
𝑉1 − 0.5𝑉2 = 1 − − − − − (𝑎)
𝑉2 − 0 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
2= +
2 2
𝑉1 − 0.5𝑉2 = 1 − − − − − (𝑎)
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑎)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑏), 𝑉1 = 2𝑉, 𝑉2 = 2𝑉
1.1.16 Supernode Analysis:

Learning Objective: In this lecture Learner will able to understand the concept of
Super Node analysis
1.1.16.1 Super Node:

When a voltage source comes in between two nodes then these two nodes and the
voltage source form a super node and we take this super node as a single node and
apply KCL and KVL.
Rules for solving super node:
1. Mark a reference node such that a super node can’t be formed. Try to avoid a super
node at first hand. If it’s not possible then at least make a voltage source referenced.
2. Mark other non-referenced nodes as you do in normal nodal analysis.
3. Mark the super node with a dotted circle to remind you that it’s a super node.
4. Now apply KCL at the super node.
5. Apply KVL at the super node loop to find the node voltage in super node.
Example 4:
Solve the following circuit using Super node.
6
Fig.1.57
Solution:
First mark a reference node v0. Then mark all other nodes.
Fig.1.58
Now we have marked a dotted circle to
denote a super node along with V1 and V2.
Fig.1.59
Remember that a 10 ohm resistor connected across the super node does not have any
significance in the calculations as it is connected across the super node.
Now apply KCL in the circuit:
(𝑉1 − 0)/2+= (𝑉2 − 0)/4 + 7 = 2
2𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 28 = 8
2𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = −20--- (1)
Now apply KVL to the super node loop:
Fig.1.60
−𝑉1 − 2 + 𝑉2 = 0………………………..(1)
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 + 2………………………..(2)
7
From equation (1) and (2)

2𝑉1 + (𝑉1 + 2) = −20
3𝑉1 = −22
22
𝑉1 = − = −7.33 𝑉
3
22 16
Now from equation (2) we get 𝑉2 = − ( 3 ) + 2 = − 3 = −5.33 𝑉
𝑉1 = −7.33𝑉
𝑉2 = −5.33𝑉
Example 5: Find the power delivered by the 5 A current source in the network
Solution Assume that the currents are moving away from the nodes. Nodes 1 and 2
will form a supernode.
Writing voltage equation for the supernode,
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 10 (1)
Applying KCL at the supernode,
𝑉1 − 𝑉3 𝑉2 𝑉2 − 𝑉3
2+ + + =5
3 5 1
0.33𝑉1 − 1.2𝑉2 − 1.33𝑉3 = 3 − − − − − (2)
𝑉3 − 𝑉1 𝑉3 𝑉3 − 𝑉2
+ + =0
3 2 1
−0.33𝑉1 − 𝑉2 + 1.83𝑉3 = 0 − − − − − (2)
Power delivered by the 5 A source = 5 V2 = 5 × 3.72 = 18.6 W
V1=13.72V, V2=3.72V, V3=4.51V
💡Learning from the lecture: Students should able to apply KCL and solve the problems
on node and supernode analysis.
Q1. Nodal analysis is mainly based on __________

a) KCL b) KVL
c) Wheatstone bridge principle d) Faraday’s electric laws
8
Q2. If there are n nodes, then how many node-voltage equations are required?
a) n b) n+1 c) n-1 d) 1
Q3. How many nodes are taken as reference nodes in nodal analysis?
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4
Q4. Nodal analysis is generally used to determine_______

a) Voltage b) Current c) Resistance d) Power
Q5. A supernode is between _____________

a) Essential node and reference node b) Two reference nodes
c) Two essential nodes d) Essential node and neutral path
Q6. The reference node is also known as __________

a) Essential node b) Principle node
c) Datum node d) Neutral node
Answers: 1. A, 2. C, 3. A, 4. A 5. C, 6. C
Q.7. Find the voltage across the 100 W resistor.
[13.68V]
Q.8. Find the current through the 6Ω resistor.
9
[2.04A]
Q.9. Find the value of current flowing through the 4Ω resistor.
[1.34A]
Q.10. Find the value of current flowing through the 4Ω resistor.
[1 A]
10
Lecture 4
1.1.17 Superposition Theorem
Introduction: Alternative method for any linear network, to determine the effect of
each independent source (whether voltage or current) to the value of variable (voltage
across the resistance or current through a resistance) and then the total effects simple
added. This approach is known as the superposition.
Statement: It states that “In a linear network containing more than one source, the
current which flows at any point is the sum of all the currents which would flow at
that point if each source were considered separately and all the other generators
replaced for time being by resistances equal to their internal resistances.”
Procedure for using the superposition theorem
Step-1: Select any one source.
Step-2: Replace all the other sources by their internal resistances.

The internal resistance for voltage source is 0 Ω i.e. short circuit
The internal resistance for current source is ∞ Ω i.e. open circuit
Step-3: With only one source operational, calculate the required current.
Step-4: Repeat steps 1, 2 and 3 for each source individually.
Step-5: Add algebraically the currents obtained due to the individual sources to obtain
the combined effect of all sources.
Limitations of Superposition Theorem:
Superposition theorem doesn’t work for power calculation. Because power
calculations involve either the product of voltage and current, the square of current or
the square of the voltage, they are not linear operations.
Example 1:
Q. Find the voltage across 4kΩ.
Fig.1.61
Solution:
Step 1: When 10 mA sources is acting alone
11
Fig.1.62
3kΩ is in parallel with a short circuit. Therefore, it gets shorted.
Fig.1.63
By current division rule,
1𝐾
I’ = 10𝑚𝐴 × 1𝐾+4𝐾 = 2𝑚𝐴(↓)
Step 2: When 25 V source is acting alone
Fig.1.64
As 3kΩ is in parallel with 25 V voltage source, it becomes redundant.
25
I’’ = = 5𝑚𝐴(↓)
1𝐾+4𝐾
Fig.1.65
12
Since series combination of 4kΩ and 1kΩ is connected across a short circuit, it gets
shorted.
I’’’ = 0
Step 4: By superposition theorem,
𝐼 = I’ + I’’ + I’’’
= 2𝑚𝐴 + 5𝑚𝐴 + 0
= 7𝑚𝐴 (↓)
Example 2:
Q. Find the voltage 𝑉𝐴𝐵 using superposition theorem.
Fig.1.66
Solution:
Step 1: When 6 V acting alone
Fig.1.67
𝑉𝐴𝐵 ′ = 6𝑉
Step 2: When 10 V acting alone
Fig.1.68
𝑉𝐴𝐵 ′′ = 10𝑉
13
Step 3: When 5 A acting alone
Fig.1.69
𝑉𝐴𝐵 ′′′ = 0𝑉

′
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐴𝐵 ′′ + 𝑉𝐴𝐵 ′′′
= 6 + 10 + 0
= 16 𝑉
Example 3: Find the value of current flowing through 3Ω resistor.
Fig.1.70
Solution:
Fig.1.71
Applying KVL to mesh 1
−9 𝐼1 − 5(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) − 7(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) = 0
21𝐼1 − 12𝐼2 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … (1)
14
−7(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) − 5(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) − 3𝐼2 + 4 − 2𝐼2 = 0
−12𝐼1 + 17𝐼2 = 4 … … … … … . . (2)
Solving equations 1 and 2, we get
I’ = 𝐼2 = 0.39 𝐴 (↓)
Step 2: When 15 A source is acting alone
Fig.1.72
Supermesh equation
𝐼2 − 𝐼1 = 15 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
Writing KVL equation for the outer loop of supermesh
−9𝐼1 − 5(𝐼2 − 𝐼3 ) − 7(𝐼1 − 𝐼3 ) = 0
−16𝐼1 − 5𝐼2 + 12𝐼3 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … . (2)
−2𝐼3 − 7(𝐼3 − 𝐼1 ) − 5(𝐼3 − 𝐼2 ) − 3𝐼3 = 0
−7𝐼1 − 5𝐼2 + 17𝐼3 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … . (3)
Solving equations (1), (2) and (3),
I’’ = 𝐼3 = 3.17 𝐴 (↓)
Step 3: When 5 A source is acting alone
15
Fig.1.73
−9𝐼1 − 5(𝐼1 − 𝐼3 ) − 7(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) = 0
21𝐼1 − 7𝐼2 − 5𝐼3 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
Supermesh equation
𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 5 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
Writing KVL equation for the outer loop of supermesh
−2𝐼2 − 7(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) − 5(𝐼3 − 𝐼1 ) − 3𝐼3 = 0
12𝐼1 − 9𝐼2 − 8𝐼3 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … . (3)
Solving equations (1), (2) and (3),
I’’’ = 𝐼3 = −2.46 𝐴 (↓)
I = I’ + I’’ + I’’’ = 0.39 + 3.17 – 2.46 = 1.1 A
Example 4: Find the value of current flowing through the 5 Ω resistance using
superposition theorem. (Dec 2014 – 7 marks)
Solution:
Step 1: When 5A source is acting alone
Now, 6Ω, 3Ω and 4Ω are connected in series
16
6 + 3 + 4 = 13, 13𝐼𝐼10 = 5.6Ω
And 5.6Ω, 2Ω and 6Ω are connected in series, so
Req = 6+2+5.6 = 13.6Ω
Applying current division rule,
5∗13.6
Current flowing through 13.6Ω=
(5+13.6)
𝐼′ = 3.66𝐴(↓)
Step 2: when 10V source is acting alone
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = (5 + 6 + 2 + 5.6) = 18.6Ω
𝐼′′ = 10/18.6 = 0.54𝐴(↑)
Step 3: When 2A source is acting alone
I3
I1 I2
𝐼3 = −2𝐴
Applying KVL to mesh 1,
-5𝐼1 − 6𝐼1 − 10(𝐼1 − 𝐼2) − 2𝐼1 = 0
−5𝐼1 − 6𝐼1 − 10𝐼1 + 10𝐼2 − 2𝐼1 = 0
−23𝐼1 + 10𝐼2 = 0
17
Applying KVL to mesh 2,
−4𝐼2 − 10(𝐼2 − 𝐼1) − 6(𝐼2 − 𝐼3) − 3𝐼2 = 0
10𝐼1 − 23𝐼2 = −12
We get, 𝐼1 = −0.28𝐴, 𝐼2 = −0.643𝐴, 𝐼’’’ = 0.28𝐴(↓)
Current through 5Ω= 𝐼’ + 𝐼’’ + 𝐼’’’
= 3.66𝐴 − 0.54𝐴 + 0.28𝐴
= 𝟑. 𝟒𝑨
💡Learning from the lecture: Students should be able to solve the problems on
superposition theorem.

Q 1. If all the elements in a particular network are linear, then the superposition theorem
would hold, when the excitation is
a) DC only b) AC only
c) Either AC or DC d) An Impulse
Q 2. Super position theorem is not applicable for

a) current calculations b) power calculations
c) voltage calculations d) None of the above
Q 3. The superposition theorem requires as many circuits to be solved as there are

a) sources, nodes and meshes b) sources and nodes
c) sources d) nodes
Answers: 1. c, 2. b, 3. C
Q 4. Determine current through 𝑅𝐿 = 2 Ω in the circuit shown below using superposition

theorem.
18
[-0.49A]
Q 5. Find the value of current flowing through the 5 Ω resistance using superposition theorem
(May 2015 – 7 marks)
[0.5A]
Q 6. Find the current through the 6Ω resistor using superposition theorem. (May 2014 – 7
marks)
[2.04A]
Q 7. Determine current in the 1Ω resistor using the superposition theorem. (Dec 2013 – 7
marks)
19
[-1.965A]
Q 8. Find current through 8 Ω resistor using Superposition theorem
[16.2A]
Q. 9 Find current in 2 Ω resistor using Superposition theorem.
[-0.93A]
20
Lecture 5
18. Thevenin’s Theorem
Learning objective: Student shall be able to state Thevenin’s Theorem
1.1.18.1Thevenin’s Theorem
It describes the concept of equivalent circuit and explains that it is always possible to
view even a very complicated circuit in terms of much simpler equivalent source and
load circuits.
Such tedious computation can be avoided provided the fixed part of such networks
could be converted into a very simple equivalent circuit that represents either in the
form of practical voltage source known as Thevenin’s voltage source (𝑉𝑇ℎ = magnitude
of voltage source, 𝑅𝑇ℎ = Internal resistance of the source) or in the form of practical
current source known as Norton’s current source (𝐼𝑆𝐶 ⁄𝐼𝑁 =magnitude of current source,
𝑅𝑁 = Internal resistance of the source).
Statement: It states that “Any two terminals of a network can be replaced by an

equivalent voltage source and an equivalent series resistance.”
The voltage source is the voltage across the two terminals with load, if any removed.
The series resistance is the resistance of the network measured between two terminals
with load removed and constant voltage being replaced by tis internal resistance (or if
it is not given with zero resistance, i.e. short circuit) and constant current source replaced
by infinite resistance, i.e. open circuit.
Procedure for using the Thevenin’s Theorem:

Step-1: Disconnect the load resistance (𝑅𝐿 ) from the circuit.
Step-2: Calculate the open-circuit voltage 𝑉𝑇ℎ at the load terminals (A&B) after
disconnecting the load resistance (𝑅𝐿 ) .One can apply any of the techniques (mesh-
current, node-voltage and superposition method) learnt in previous lessons to
compute𝑉𝑇ℎ .
Step-3: Redraw the circuit with each practical source replaced by its internal resistance.
(Note, voltage sources should be short-circuited (just remove them and replace with
plain wire) and current sources should be open-circuited (just removed)).
Fig. 1.74 DC circuit between A and B
Step-4: Calculate the resistance 𝑅𝑇ℎ that would exist between the load terminals.
21
Step-5: Place 𝑅𝑇ℎ in series with 𝑉𝑇ℎ to form the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit (replacing
the imaginary fencing portion or fixed part of the circuit with an equivalent practical
voltage source) as shown below in figure 2.2.
Fig.1.75Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit
Step-6: Reconnect the original load to the Thevenin voltage circuit, the load’s voltage,
current and power may be calculated by a simple arithmetic operation only.
Fig.1.76Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit with load connected
𝑉𝑇ℎ
Load Current 𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝐿 = × 𝑅𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿 × 𝑅𝐿
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑃𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿 2 × 𝑅𝐿
𝑶𝑹
𝑉𝑇ℎ 2
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝐿 =
4 𝑅𝑇ℎ
Example 1. Find the value of current flowing through the 2 Ω resistor.
Fig.1.77
Solution:
Step 1, 2: Removing 𝑅𝐿 and calculation of 𝑉𝑇ℎ
22
Fig.1.78
Applying KVL to mesh,

40 − 5𝐼 − 10𝐼 = 0
15 𝐼 = 20
𝐼 = 1.33 𝐴
Writing 𝑉𝑡ℎ equation,
10𝐼 − 𝑉𝑡ℎ + 10 = 0
𝑉𝑡ℎ = 23.33 𝑉
Step 3,4: Calculating 𝑅𝑇ℎ
Replacing all the sources by its internal resistances we get,
Fig.1.79
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 5 || 10 = 3.33 Ω
Step 5: Drawing Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and calculating 𝐼𝐿
Fig.1.80
𝑉𝑇ℎ
23
23.33
𝐼𝐿 =
3.33 + 2
𝐼𝐿 = 4.38 A
Example 2: For the circuit shown in fig. find the current IL through 6 Ω resistor using
Thevenin’s theorem.
Fig.1.81
Solution:
Fig.1.82
KVL is applied around the closed path ‘gcag’ to compute Thevenin’s voltage.
42 − 8𝐼 − 4𝐼 − 30 = 0
𝐼 =1𝐴
Now, 𝑉𝑎𝑔 = 30 + 4 = 34 𝑉
𝑉𝑏𝑔 = 2 × 3 = 6 𝑉
𝑉𝑇ℎ = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑔 − 𝑉𝑏𝑔 = 34 − 6 = 28 𝑉 (𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 ′𝑎′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑏)
Step 3,4: Calculating 𝑅𝑇ℎ
Replacing all the sources by its internal resistances we get,
Fig.1.83
𝑅𝑇ℎ = (8 ǁ 4) + 2 = 4.666Ω
Step 5: Drawing Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and calculating 𝐼𝐿

24
Fig.1.84
𝑉𝑇ℎ
28
𝐼𝐿 =
4.66 + 6
𝐼𝐿 = 2.62 A
Example 3: Find the value of current flowing through the 10 Ω resistor
Solution
Step I: Calculation of VTH

Removing the 10 Ω resistor from the network,
For Mesh 1,
I1 = 10
100 – 30I2 – 20I3 = 0
I2 = 2 A
Writing VTH equation,
5I1 – VTH – 20 I2 = 0
VTH = 5 I1 – 20 I2
= 5(10) – 20(2)
25
= 10 V
Step II: Calculation of RTH

Replacing the current source by an open circuit and the voltage source by a short circuit,
RTH = 5 + (20 | | 30) = 17 Ω
Step III: Calculation of IL
20
IL =5+1.67=0.37 A
Example 4: Find the current through the 60 Ω resistance by using Thevenin’s theorem.
Solution
26
Writing KVL equation in matrix form,
60 0 I1 80
[ ] [ ] =[ ]
0 120 I2 0
I1 = 2.67 A
I2 = 1.33 A

80 – 10 (I1 – I2) – VTH – 10I2 = 0
VTH = 80 – 10(I1–I2) – 10I2
= 80 – 10(2.67 – 1.33) – 10 (1.33)
= 53.3 V
Step II Calculation of RTH
Replacing voltage source by short circuit,
RTH = 16.66 Ω
Step III Calculation of IL
53.3
IL =16.66+60=0.7 A
Example 5: Find current through10 Ω resistor using Thevenin’s theorem.
27
Solution

10 – 6 I1 – 1(I1–I2) = 0
7 I1 – I2 = 10 ………….(1)
– 1(I2 – I1) – 2 I2 – 3 I2 = 0
I1 – 6 I2 = 0 ………….(2)
Solving Eqs (1) and (2),
I2 = 0.24 A
3 I2 – VTH – 20 = 0
VTH = 3 I2 – 20
= 3 (0.24) – 20
= – 19.28 V
= 19.28 V (terminal B is positive w.r.t A)
Replacing voltage sources by short circuits,
RTH = [(6|| 1) + 2] || 3 = 1.47 Ω

10
IL =60x =1.68 A
10+2
Example 7: Find current through 20Ω resistor using Thevenin’s theorem.
28
Solution
From Fig.
VTH = 100 V
Replacing the voltage source by a short circuit and the current source by an open
circuit,
RTH = 0
100
IL = 20 = 5A
Example 7: Find the value of current flowing through the 3Ω resistor.
29
Solution
By source transformation,
Applying KVL to the mesh,

10 – 2I – 2I – 20 = 0
4I = –10
I = –2.5 A
10 – 2I – VTH = 0
VTH = 10 – 2I
= 10 – 2(–2.5)
= 15 V
Replacing voltage source by a short circuit and current source by an open circuit,
RTH = (2 || 2) + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 Ω
30
15
IL =2+3= 3A 1.1
💡Learning from the lecture: Students should be able to apply mesh, nodal and solve
thevenin’s theorem.

1. Which is the correct sequential order of steps to be undertaken while applying
Thevenin's theorem?
A) Calculation of Thevenin's equivalent voltage
B) Removal of branch impedance through which required current is to be estimated
C) Estimation of equivalent impedance between two terminals of the branch
D) Estimation of branch current by schematic representation of Thevenin's equivalent
circuit
a) A, C, B, D b) B, A, C, D
c) D, A, C, B d) B, C, D, A
2. The two basic components of a Thevenin equivalent ac circuit are

a) the equivalent voltage source and the equivalent series resistance
b) the equivalent current source and the equivalent parallel resistance
c) the equivalent current source and the equivalent series resistance
d) the equivalent voltage source and the equivalent parallel resistance
3. Thevenin resistance 𝑅𝑡ℎ is found

a) by removing voltage sources along with their internal resistances
b) by short-circuiting the given two terminals
c) between any two 'open' terminals
d) between same open terminals as for 𝑉𝑡ℎ
Answers: 4. b, 5. a, 6. D
31
1. Find the value of current flowing through the 2 Ω resistor
ANS: IL=4.38
2. Find the value of current flowing through the 40 Ω resistor.
ANS: IL=0.09A
3. Determine the value of current flowing through the 24 Ω resistor.
ANS: IL=2A
32
ANS: IL=2.55A
33
Lecture 6
1.1.19 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Learning objective: Student shall be able to state Maximum power transfer theorem
and derive the condition for maximum power transfer.
1.1.19.1 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

In an electric circuit, the load receives electric energy via the supply sources and
converts that energy into a useful form. The maximum allowable power receives by the
load is always limited either by the heating effect (in case of resistive load) or by the
other power conversion taking place in the load.
Statement: It states that “The maximum power is delivered from a source to a load when
the load resistance is equal to the source resistance”
Fig.1.85 D.C circuit connected between A and B with variable load

resistance
Derivation:
Fig.1.86 Equivalent circuit for maximum power transfer theorem
In figure 2.5, a variable load resistance 𝑅𝐿 is connected to an equivalent Thevenin circuit

of original circuit. The current for any value of load resistance is
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝐼𝐿 =
Then, the power delivered to the load is
2
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑃𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿 2 × 𝑅𝐿 = [ ] × 𝑅𝐿
To find the value of 𝑅𝐿 that absorbs a maximum power from the Thevenin circuit, we
differentiate 𝑃𝐿 with respect to 𝑅𝐿 .
𝑑𝑃
i.e.𝑑𝑅 = 0
𝐿
34
𝑑𝑃(𝑅𝐿 ) (𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )2 − 2𝑅𝐿 × (𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )

= 𝑉𝑇ℎ 2 [ ] = 0 => (𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 ) − 2𝑅𝐿 = 0 =
𝑑𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )4
> 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ
For maximum power dissipation in the load, the condition given below must be satisfied
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ
Hence maximum power will be transferred to the load when load resistance is equal to
source resistance.
Procedure to be followed in Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
Step-1: Remove the variable load resistor 𝑅𝐿 .
Step-2: Find the open circuit voltage 𝑉𝑇ℎ across points A and B.
Step-3: Find the resistance as seen from points A and B with voltage source and current
source being replaced with internal resistances.
Step-4: Find the resistance𝑅𝐿 for maximum power transfer

Step-5: Find the Maximum power

𝑉𝑇ℎ 𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝐼𝐿 = =
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 2 × 𝑅𝑇ℎ
𝑉𝑇ℎ 2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝐿 2 × 𝑅𝐿 = × 𝑅𝑇ℎ
4 𝑅𝑇ℎ 2
𝑉𝑇ℎ 2
=
4 𝑅𝑇ℎ
Example 1.21:
Q. Find the value of 𝑅𝐿 for the given network below so that the power is maximum. And
also find the maximum power through load-resistance 𝑅𝐿 by using maximum power
transfer theorem.
Fig.1.87
Solution:
Step 1,2: Removing 𝑅𝐿 and calculation of 𝑉𝑇ℎ
35
Fig.1.88
Using Mesh-analysis, we get,
Applying KVL in1stloop
6 − 6𝐼1 − 8𝐼1 + 8 𝐼2 = 0
−14𝐼1 + 8 𝐼2 = −6 … … … … … … . . (1)
Applying KVL in2ndloop

−8𝐼2 − 5𝐼2 − 12𝐼2 + 8 𝐼1 = 0
8𝐼1 − 25 𝐼2 = 0 … … … … … … . . (2)
Solving Equations (1) and (2),

𝐼1 = 0.524 𝐴
𝐼2 = 0.167 𝐴
Now, from the circuit 𝑉𝑇ℎ is

𝑉𝐴 − 5𝐼2 − 𝑉𝐵 = 0
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝑇ℎ = 5𝐼2 = 5 × 0.167 = 0.835 𝑉
Step 3: Calculating 𝑅𝑇ℎ
Fig.1.89
Fig.1.90
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 3.77 Ω

36
The value of 𝑅𝐿 for maximum power transfer will be 𝑅𝑇ℎ

∴ 𝑅𝐿 = 3.77 Ω

So, the maximum power through 𝑅𝐿 is given by
𝑉𝑇ℎ 2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 0.046 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
4 𝑅𝑇ℎ
Example 1.22:
Q. For the circuit shown, find the value of RL that absorbs maximum power from the
circuit and the corresponding power under this condition.
Fig.1.91
Solution:
Fig.1.92
Now applying ‘Super position theorem’, or any method like (node or mesh analysis)
one can find 𝑉𝑇ℎ (voltage across the ‘a’ and ‘b’ terminals), refer fig.
Considering only 20v source only
37
Fig.1.93
20
From the above circuit the current through ‘b-c’ branch is = 1𝐴 (from ‘b’ to ‘a’)
20
whereas the voltage across the ‘b-a’ branch 𝑉𝑏𝑎 = 1 × 10 = 10 𝑉 (’b’ is higher potential
than ‘a’).
∴ 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = −10 𝑉
Considering only 10v source only
Fig.1.94
Note: No current is flowing through ‘c-b’ branch.
∴ 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 5 𝑉 (‘a’ is higher potential than ‘b’)
Consider only 2 A current source only
Fig.1.95
Note that the current flowing the ‘c-a’ branch is zero
∴ 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 10 𝑉 (‘a’ is higher potential than ‘b’ point).
The voltage across the ‘a’ and ‘b’ terminals due to the all sources = 𝑉𝑇ℎ = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 (due to 20v)
+ 𝑉𝑎𝑏 (due to 10v) + 𝑉𝑎𝑏 (due to 2A source) = - 10 + 5 + 10 = 5 V (a is higher potential
than the point b).
Step 3: Calculating 𝑅𝑇ℎ
Replace all voltage and current sources by their internal resistance of the circuit as
shown below:
Fig.1.96
38
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑅𝑎𝑏 = ((5 + 5) ǁ 10) + (10 ǁ 10) = 5 + 5 = 10 Ω

𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 10 Ω
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is drawn below:
Fig.1.97
Under this condition, the maximum power dissipated to 𝑅𝐿 is
𝑉𝑇ℎ 2 52
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 0.625 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
4 × 𝑅𝑇ℎ 4 × 10
Example 1.23:
For the given circuit find the value of 𝑅𝐿 for maximum power transfer and calculate
themaximum power absorbed by𝑅𝐿 .
Solution
Removing the variable resistor RL from the network,
39
10 – 2I1 – 1(I1 – I2) – 8 (I1 – I2) = 0

11I1 – 9 I2 = 10 ……………………….(1)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2
–4 I2 – 5 I2 – 8 ( I2 –I1) – 1 ( I2 –I1) = 0
–9I1 + 18 I2 = 0 ………………………..(2)
I1 = 1.54 A
I2 = 0.77 A
– 1 (I2 – I1) – 4 I2 – VTH = 0
VTH = –1(I2 – I1) – 4 I2
= –1(0.77 – 1.54) – 4(0.77)
= –2.31 V
= 2.31 V (the terminal B is positive w.r.t. A)
Replacing the voltage source by a short circuit,
Redrawing the network,
Converting the upper delta into equivalent star network,
40
4𝑋2
R1 = =0.73Ω
4+2+5
4𝑋5
R2 = 4+2+5 =1.82Ω
5𝑋2
R3 = =0.91Ω
4+2+5
Simplifying the network,
RTH = 1.82 + (1.73 || 8.91) = 3.27 W

Step III: Value of RL
For maximum power transfer
RL = RTH = 3.27 Ω
Step IV: Calculation of PMAX
2
𝑇ℎ 𝑉 (2.31)2
PMAX= 4 ×𝑅 = =0.41W
𝑇ℎ 4𝑋3.27
Example 1.24:
41
For the given circuit, find the value of ‘𝑅𝐿 ’ so that maximum power is dissipated in it.
Also, find 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
Solution
Removing the resistor 𝑅𝐿 from the network,

8 – 2I1 – 1I1 – 2(I1– I2) = 0
5 I1 – 2I2 = 8……………….. (1)
–2(I2– I1) – 3I2 – 8I2 + 12 = 0
–2 I1 + 13I2= 12…………… (2)
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2),
I1 = 2.1 A
I2 = 1.25 A
1I1 + 10 – VTH + 3I2 = 0
VTH = 1I1 + 10 + 3I2
= 1(2.1) + 10 + 3(1.25)
= 15.85 V
Replacing the voltage sources by short circuits,
42
Converting the delta network formed by resistors of 2 Ω, 1 Ω and 2 Ω into equivalent

star
network,
2𝑋1
R1 = 2+1+2 =0.4Ω
2𝑋1
R2= 2+1+2 =0.4Ω
2𝑋2
R3 = 2+1+2 =0.8Ω
Simplifying the network,
RTH = 2.85 Ω
Step III: Value of 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿 = RTH = 2.85 Ω
Step IV: Calculation of Pmax
43
𝑉 2
𝑇ℎ (15.85)2
PMAX= 4 ×𝑅 = =22.04W
𝑇ℎ 4𝑋2.85
Example 1.25:
Find the value of resistance RL for maximum power transfer and calculate the maximum
power
Step I: Calculation of VTh


120 – 10I1 – 5(I1 – I2) = 0
15I1 – 5I2 = 120 (1)
Writing current equation for Mesh 2,
I2 = – 6 (2)
I1 = 6 A
Writing VTh equation,
120 – 10I1 – VTh = 0
VTh = 120 – 10 (6)
= 60 V
Step II: Calculation of RTh
circuit,
44
RTh = 10 | | 5 = 3.33 W
RL = RTh = 3.33 W
𝑉𝑇ℎ 2 (60)2
PMAX = =270.27W
4 ×𝑅𝑇ℎ 4𝑋3.33
Example 1.26:
Find the value of resistance RL for maximum power transfer and calculate maximum power.
Solution
Step I : Calculation of VTh
Meshes 1 and 2 will form a supermesh.

Writing the current equation for the supermesh,
I2 – I1 = 1 (1)
Writing the voltage equation for the supermesh,
5 – 1I1 – 10 (I2 – I3) = 0
I1 + 10 I2 – 10 I3 = 5 (2)
45

– 10 (I3 – I2) – 2 I3 – 3 I3 = 0
– 10 I2 + 15 I3 = 0 (3)
I1 = 0.38 A
I2 = 1.38 A
I3 = 0.92 A
V Th = 3 I3 = 2.76 V
Replacing voltage source by a short circuit and current source by an open circuit,
RTh = 6.48 W
RL = RTh = 6.48 W
𝑉𝑇ℎ 2 (2.67)2
PMAX= = =0.29W
4 ×𝑅𝑇ℎ 4𝑋6.48
Example 1.22:
Find the value of resistance the RL for maximum power transfer and calculate the maximum
power.
46
Solution
Step I: Calculation of VTh
By star-delta transformation,
100
I=5+5+20+9+9=2.08A
100 – 5I – VTh – 9I = 0
VTh = 100 – 14I
= 100 – 14(2.08)
= 70.88 V
Replacing the voltage source by a short circuit
47
RTh = 23.92 Ω
RL = RTh = 23.92 W
𝑉𝑇ℎ 2 (70.88)2
PMAX= = =52.51W
4 ×𝑅𝑇ℎ 4𝑋23.92
💡Learning from the lecture: Students should be able to find maximum power using
thevenin’s theorem.
1. For maximum transfer of power, internal resistance of the source should be

a) equal to load resistance b) less than the load resistance
c) greater than the load resistance d) none of the above
2. "Maximum power output is obtained from a network when the load resistance is equal
to the output resistance of the network as seen from the terminals of the load". The above
statement is associated with
a) Millman's theorem b) Thevenin's theorem
c) Superposition theorem d) Maximum power transfer theorem
48
3. In order to get maximum power transfer from a capacitive source, the load must
a) none of these
b) have a capacitive reactance equal to circuit resistance
c) be as capacitive as it is inductive
d) have an impedance that is the complex conjugate of the source impedance
Answers: 9. a, 10. d, 11. B
1. Find the value of the resistance RL for maximum power transfer and calculate the
maximum power.
[2.36W, 940 W]
maximum power.
[6W,2.52W]
3. Find the value of the resistance RL for maximum power transfer and calculate
maximum power.
[49 W, 0.32 W]
maximum power.
49
[2 W, 0.281 W]
5. Find the value of the resistance RL for maximum power transfer and calculate
maximum power.
[1.75 W, 1.29 W]
50
Lecture 7
1.1.20 Norton’s theorem

Learning objective: Learners shall be able to state Norton’s Theorem and explain the
steps for Norton’s Theorem.
1.1.20.1 Norton’s Theorem

Statement: Norton’s theorem states that any two terminals A&B of a network composed
of linear resistances (see fig.2.6) and independent sources (voltage or current,
combination of voltage and current sources) may be replaced by an equivalent current
source and a parallel resistance. The magnitude of current source is the current
measured in the short circuit placed across the terminal pair A&B. The parallel resistance
is the equivalent resistance looking into the terminal pair A&B with all independent
sources has been replaced by their internal resistances.
Fig.1.98 D.C circuit connected between A and B

Procedure to be followed for Norton’s Theorem:
Step-1: Short the output terminal after disconnecting the load resistance (𝑅𝐿 ) from the
terminals A & B and then calculate the short circuit current (as shown in fig. 2.7).
Fig.1.99 Short circuit connected between A and B

Step-2: Redraw the circuit with each practical source replaced by its internal resistance
while the short–circuit across the output terminals removed (note: voltage sources
should be short-circuited (just replace with plain wire) and current sources should be
open-circuited (just removed)
Step-3: Calculate the resistance that would exist between the load terminals A&B. This
resistance is denoted as𝑅𝑁 . It may be noted that the value of Norton’s resistance 𝑅𝑁 is
truly same as that of Thevenin’s resistance 𝑅𝑡ℎ in a circuit.
Step-4: Place 𝑅𝑁 in parallel with current 𝐼𝑁 to form the Norton’s equivalent circuit.
51
Fig.1.100 Norton’s equivalent circuit for the original circuit

𝑅𝑁
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝐿 = × 𝐼𝑁
𝑅𝑁 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿 × 𝑅𝐿
Example 1:
Q. Find current through 5 Ω resistance using Norton’s equation
Fig.1.101
Solution:
Step-1: Remove 5 Ω resistor and put a short across terminals A and B as shown.
Fig.1.102
As seen, 10 Ω resistor also becomes short-circuited.
Step-2: Calculate 𝐼𝑆𝐶 ⁄𝐼𝑁
The battery sees a parallel combination of 4ohm and 8ohm in series with 4 Ω resistance.
Total resistance seen by the battery = 4 + (4 ǁ 8) = 20⁄3
Hence, 𝐼 = 20⁄(20⁄3) = 3 𝐴
This current divides at point C. Current going along path CAB gives 𝐼𝑆𝐶 ⁄𝐼𝑁
Its value = 3 x 4/12 = 1 A.
Step-3: Calculate 𝑅𝑁
To find 𝑅𝑁 battery has been removed leaving behind its internal resistance which, in
this case, is zero. Resistance of the network looking into the terminals A and B is
𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 10 ǁ10 = 5 Ω
52
4 8
A
4 10 Ri
Fig.1.103
Step-4: Draw Norton’s equivalent circuit as
Fig.1.104
Step-5: Calculate 𝐼𝐿
5
𝐼𝐿 = 1 × = 0.5 𝐴
10
Example 2:
Q. Find the current through 1Ω resistor using Norton’s theorem
Fig.1.105
Solution:
Step-1: Remove 1Ω resistor and put a short across terminals A and B as shown.
Fig.1.106
Step-2: Calculate 𝐼𝑆𝐶 ⁄𝐼𝑁
Applying mesh analysis – Loop 1
3 − 𝑅4 (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) = 0
𝐼2 = −2 𝐴
53
∴ 𝐼1 = −0.5 𝐴
Applying mesh analysis – Loop 3

−𝑅1 𝐼3 − 𝑅3 (𝐼3 − 𝐼2 ) = 0
−3𝐼3 − 4(𝐼3 + 𝐼2 ) = 0
−7𝐼3 − 8 = 0
−8
𝐼3 =
7
𝐼𝑁 = (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 ) = (−0.5 + 8⁄7) = (−7 + 16) / 14
= 9⁄14 𝐴(Current is flowing ‘a’ to ‘b’)
Step-3: Calculate 𝑅𝑁
To compute𝑅𝑁 all sources are replaced with their internal resistances.
Fig.1.107
Step-4: Draw Norton’s equivalent circuit as
Fig.1.108
Step-5: Calculate 𝐼𝐿
𝑅𝑁 1.555
𝐼𝐿 = × 𝐼𝑁 = × 0.643 = 0.39 𝐴 (𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑏)
𝑅𝑁 + 𝑅𝐿 1.555 + 1
Example 3:
For the given circuit find the Norton equivalent between points A and B.
Solution
54
Step I: Calculation of IN
Replacing 2 Ω resistor by short circuit,

10 – 1I1 – 1(I1 – I2) = 0
2I1 = I2 = 10 …………….(1)
–1(I2 – I1) – 1I2 = 0
–I1 + 2I2 = 0 ………….....(2)
I1 = 6.67 A
I2 = IN = 3.33 A
Step II: Calculation of RN
Replacing voltage source by short circuit,
RN = 1.5 Ω
Step III: Norton’s equivalent network
Example 4:
Using Norton’s theorem, calculate the current flowing through the 15 Ω load resistor in the
given circuit.
Solution
55
Writing the current equation for the supermesh,

I1 – I2 = 4………………………….. (1)
Writing the voltage equation for the supermesh,
30 – 4 I1 – 6 I2 = 0
4 I1 + 6 I2 = 30……………………… (2)
I1 = 5.4 A
I2 = 1.4 A
IN = I2 = 1.4 A
10
IL =1.4x10+15=0.56 A
Example 5:
Find the value of current flowing in the 10 Ω resistor
Solution
56
Replacing the 10 Ω resistor by a short circuit,
The resistance of 40 Ω becomes redundant as it is connected across the 50 V source

50 – 50 I1 – 20 (I1 – I2) – 10 = 0
70 I1 – 20 I2 = 40……………. (1)
10 – 20 (I2 – I1) = 0
–20 I1 + 20 I2 = 10…………… (2)
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2),
I1 = 1 A
I2 = 1.5 A
IN = I2 = 1.5 A

Replacing voltage sources by short circuits, resistor of 40 Ω gets shorted.
RN = 50||20 = 14.28 Ω
14.28
IL =1.5x =0.88 A
14.28+10
Example 6:
Find the value of current flowing through the 8 Ω resistor
57
Solution
The resistor of the 4 Ω gets shorted as it is in parallel with the short circuit.
Simplifying
the network by source transformation,
Meshes 1 and 2 will form a supermesh.

Writing current equation for the supermesh,
I2 – I1 = 2 …………………..(1)
Applying KVL to the supermesh,
60 – 12I1 – 5 = 0
12I1 = 55 …………………...(2)
I1 = 4.58 A
I2 = 6.58 A
IN = I2 = 6.58 A
circuit,
RN = 12 || 4 = 3 Ω
58
15
IL =6.58x2+3=1.79 A
Example 7:
Find value of current flowing through the 1 Ω resistor.
Solution
By source transformation,

–3 – 3I1 – 2(I1 – I3) + 1 = 0
5I1 – 2I3 = – 2 ……………..(1)
–1 – 2 (I2 – I3) – 2 I2 = 0
4I2 – 2I3 = – 1 ……………(2)
–2 (I3 –I1) – 2 (I3 –I2) = 0
–2I1 – 2I2 + 4I3 = 0 ………..(3)
Solving Eqs. (1), (2) and (3),
59
I1 = – 0.64 A
I2 = – 0.55 A
I3 = – 0.59 A
IN = I3 = – 0.59 A
circuit,
RN = 2.2 Ω
2.2
IL =0.59x =0.41 A
2.2+1

1. The Norton equivalent current is
a) the short circuit current b) the current through the load
c) none of these d) the open-current from the
source
2. Which among the following is also regarded as 'Dual of Thevenin's Theorem'?
a) Norton's Theorem b) Superposition Theorem
c) Millman's Theorem d) Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
3. Application of Norton’s theorem to a circuit yields
a) equivalent voltage source and the equivalent series resistance
b) equivalent current source and the equivalent parallel resistance
c) equivalent current source and the equivalent series resistance
d) equivalent voltage source and the equivalent parallel resistance
Answers:1. a, 2. a, 3. B
60
[0.382 A]
. [0.68 A]
3. Find value of current flowing through the 10 Ω resistor.
[0.45 A]
4. Find the value of current flowing in the 10 Ω resistor.
[0.33 A]
61
[4.13 A]
Conclusion:
The basics of DC circuits such as sources, series and parallel resistances have been discussed.
The differnt theorems useful for circuit reduction such as thevenins theorem, nortons
theorem and superposiiton theorem were discussed. Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful
in the circuit analysis of power or battery systems and other interconnected resistive circuits
where it will have an effect on the adjoining part of the circuit.
List of references :
1. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/105/108105053/
2. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/105/108105066/
3. https://nptel.ac.in/noc/courses/noc20/SEM2/noc20-ee68/
Multiple Choice Questions:

1) The “Superposition theorem” is essentially based on the concept of
a) Linearity b) Duality c) Reciprocity d) Non-linearity
2) Superposition is not applicable to networks containing
a) nonlinear elements b) dependent voltage sources
c) dependent current sources d) transformers
3) The maximum power that can be transferred to 𝑅𝐿 from the voltage source in figure is
a) 1 W b) 10 W c) 0.25 W d) 0.5 W
4) The Thevenin’s resistance as seen from points A and B is
62
a) 1 Ω b) 2Ω c) 3Ω d) 4Ω
5) Norton’s Equivalent circuit consists of 𝐼𝑁 = 5 A, 𝑅𝑁 = 0.95 Ω , 𝑅𝐿 = 10 Ω. What will be
the value of load current 𝐼𝐿
a) 0.8 A b) 0.9 A c) 0.43 A d) 1 A
6) For a circuit with𝑉𝑇ℎ = 48.6 V, 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 8.57 what will be the value of 𝑅𝐿 for maximum
power transfer.
a) 8.57 Ω b) 9.57 Ω c) 7.57 Ω d) 10.57 Ω
7) For a circuit with𝑉𝑇ℎ = 48.6 V, 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 8.57  what will be the value of maximum power
transferred to the load.
a) 59.9 𝑊 b) 32.5 W c) 55.5 W d) 68.9 W
Answers:
1. a, 2. a , 3. c, 4. b, 5. c, 6. a,7. d
Short Questions and Answers:

Q.1. State and explain Superposition theorem.
Ans: It states that “In any linear network containing more than one source, the
current which flows at any point is the sum of all the currents which would
flow at that point if each source were considered separately and all the other
generators replaced for time being by resistances equal to their internal
resistances.
Q.2. State and explain Thevenin’s theorem.

Ans: It states that “Any two terminals of a network can be replaced by an equivalent
voltage source and an equivalent series resistance.”
The voltage source is the voltage across the two terminals with load, if any
removed. The series resistance is the resistance of the network measured
between two terminals with load removed and constant voltage being replaced
by tis internal resistance (or if it is not given with zero resistance, i.e. short
circuit) and constant current source replaced by infinite resistance, i.e. open
circuit.
Q.3. State and explain Norton’s theorem.

Ans: Norton’s theorem states that any two terminals A&B of a network composed
of linear resistances (see fig.2.6) and independent sources (voltage or current,
63
combination of voltage and current sources) may be replaced by an equivalent

current source and a parallel resistance. The magnitude of current source is the
current measured in the short circuit placed across the terminal pair A&B. The
parallel resistance is the equivalent resistance looking into the terminal pair
A&B with all independent sources has been replaced by their internal
resistances.
Q.4. State and explain Maximum power transfer theorem.

Ans: It states that “The maximum power is delivered from a source to a load when
the load resistance is equal to the source resistance”
Practice for DC theorems (Based on university pattern)

1. Find Norton’s equivalent network.
[0.382 A]
[0.33A]
3. Obtain current through 15 Ω resistance by nodal analysis. Take reference node
as marked.
64
[-3.58A]
4. Find Norton’s equivalent circuit for the portion of network shown in Fig. to the
left of ab. Hence obtain current in 10 Ω resistor.
[0.053 A]
Learning Outcomes:
1. Learners shall be able to State D.C theorems.
2. Learners shall be able to explain procedure for applying theorem in a circuit.
3. Learners shall be able to find the current, voltage and power using different theorems.
4. Learners shall be able to derive relation between Source resistance and load resistance.
5. Learners shall be able to calculate value of load resistance for maximum power
transfer.
6. Learners shall be able to choose correct theorem for finding current or voltage in
circuit.
Self Assessment Test
1. State Thevenin and superposition theorem. (Level 1)

2. Derive Maximum Power Transfer theorem. (Level 2)
3. Find current through 10Ω resistor using Norton’s theorem.
65
[1.68]
4. Find current through 20Ω resistor using Nodal analysis and verify it using
mesh, superposition and Thevenin’s theorem.
[5A]
Self Evaluation
Name of Student: Course Code: FEC105

Class & Div: Roll No:
1. Can you state and explain superposition theorem?

(a)Yes (b) No
2. Are you able to derive maximum power transfer theorem?
(a) Yes (b) No
3. Are you able to find the current using Thevenin’s Theorem?
(a) Yes (b) No
4. Are you able to find the value of load resistance for maximum power transfer theorem?
(a)Yes (b) No
5. Are you able to find the current using Superposition Theorem?
(a) Yes (b) No
66

Module 1 - DESHI

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 1 - DESHI

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 1 - DESHI

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 01: D.C.

1. Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws and sums 1 Lecture 2 hours

2. Mesh and Nodal analysis 1 Lecture 2 hours

3. Mesh and Nodal analysis 1 Lecture 2 hours

4. Mesh and Nodal analysis – Sums 1 Lecture 2 hours

Superposition Theorem 1 Lecture 2 hours

6. Superposition Theorem and sums 1 Lecture 2 hours

7. Thevenin's Theorem and sums 1 Lecture 2 hours

8. Norton's Theorem and sums 1 Lecture 2 hours

9. Revision and sums 1 Lecture 2 hours

1.1.3 Weightage: 15 to 20 Marks

1.1.5. Theoretical Background:

1.1.6 Key Definition:

Fig. 1.1 Flow of electric current

Fig. 1.2 Potential Difference

Fig. 1.3 Flow of electron

Fig. 1.4 Simple D.C Network

Fig.1.5 Bilateral element

Fig.1.6 Unilateral element

Fig.1.7 Series connection

Fig.1.8 Parallel connection

Fig.1.9 Star Delta connection

1.1.7 Key Relations:

12 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law ∑ 𝐼𝑅 + ∑ 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 = 0

1.1.8.1 Ohms Law:

Fig.1.10 Illustration of Ohm’s law

iv. Ohm’s law can be expressed in three forms, viz.

i. It is directly proportional to the length of the conductor.

(a) (b) (c)

1.1.8.3 Effect of temperature on temperature co-efficient of resistance

(iii) On the nature of the material of the conductor.

1.1.8.4 Electric Power

Fig.1.12Power dissipated in resistance

1.1.8.5 Electric Energy

In practice, electrical energy is measured in kilowatt-hour.

1.1.9 Electrical Connections:

Voltage drop across the resistance R1, V1=IR1

1.1.9.2 Voltage Division Rule:

1.1.9.3 Parallel Circuit:

Fig.1.15 Parallel Circuit

by the individual resistances.

1.1.9.4 Current Division Rule:

Fig.1.16 Illustration of current division rule

The total resistance or equivalent resistance can be obtained as

Current through R1,

Current through R2,

1.1.10 Kirchhoff’s Laws:

Sir Gustav Kirchhoff

Fig.1.17 Illustration of Kirchhoff’s law

1.1.10.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):

Fig.1.18 Five resistors connected at anode

Fig.1.19 Sign of battery EMF

Fig.1.20 Sign of IR Drop

Fig.1.21 Four resistors connected in loop

Using Kirchhoff's voltage law, we get

Let’s check the take away from this lecture

Self Practice Exercise: Unsolved Examples

[(i) Ix =4A, (ii) Iy =0A, (iii) Iz =-2A]