ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

(Early Childhood Education and Elementary Teacher Education Department)

Course: Human Development and Learning (8610) Semester: Autumn, 2020

Level: B. Ed (1.5 Year) Total Marks: 100
Pass Marks: 50

Assignment No.2
(Units: 5-9)

Q.1 Describe Emotional Characteristics Of Elementary Level Students.

Ans. Emotional Development: Emotional development involves learning what feelings

and emotions are, understanding how and why they occur, recognizing your own feelings
and those of others, and developing effective ways for managing those feelings. Social
emotional development represents a specific domain of child development. It is a gradual,
integrative process through which children acquire the capacity to understand,
experience, express, and manage emotions and to develop meaningful relationships with
others.

Emotional Characteristics Of Elementary Level Students: Young children tend to

focus on themselves and the world around them. They are working hard to learn and
discover how their environment can help them learn, develop, and imagine. They are
focused on how they can make the world around them translate and relate to themselves.
As children grow, they are expected to develop a set of skills that allow them to interact
more broadly. To do this, children must go outside of their own world and take other
people’s emotions, cultures, and perspectives into consideration.

Typical Emotional Development of School-Age Children

5- to 7-Year-Olds

• Develop greater empathy

• Establish and maintain positive relationships and friendships
• Start developing a sense of morality
• Control impulsive behavior
• Identify and manage emotions
• Form a positive self-concept and self-esteem (identity formation has begun)

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 • Become resilient
• Begin to function more independently (from looking after personal possessions to
making decision without needing constant support)
• Form opinions about moral values and learn right and wrong
• Be able to express an opinion and negotiate
• Begin understanding different viewpoints
• Start making more sense of “who I am” ("Who am I like? Who likes me?)
• Develop a sense of family history (identity)
• Tackle questions about death
• Accept that parents are not all powerful

8- and 9-Year-Olds

o Fit in and are accepted by peers (preoccupied with comparisons—Do I fit in?)
o Have a best friend
o Strengthen cooperative skills
o Adjust to a sexually developing body and handle the agonies of feeling awkward
and self-conscious (What will I look like? Do I look normal?)
o Continue refining a sense of self (fluid and constantly changing)
o Work out values and beliefs and often passionately adopt an ethical stance
o Establish independence and individuality (intensely private, wanting alone time,
displays of noncompliance at school and home)

10- and 11-Year-Olds

o Behave appropriately in a variety of social situations

o Refine communication skills
o Resolve interpersonal conflicts and understand the difference between passive,
assertive and aggressive responses
o Become more independent and responsible for actions
o Value and respect rules and authority
o Know how to act appropriately and safely in cyber social world
o Manage emotional changes accompanying puberty (torn between needing the
security of the familiar and craving the unknown)
o Develop more positive self-esteem and resilience by building strengths and
accepting limitations
o Acknowledge “who I am” through an optimistic lens

12 Years and Onward

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 o Establish independence
o Adjust to a larger social world with greater expectations and demands
o Overcome the awkward and clumsy stage
o Find acceptance within a peer group
o Becoming more self-assured and able to say no
o Move further away from family and closer to friends for support
o Handle issues and growing concerns about sexuality and relationships
o Manage confusing and unexpected feelings, such as anger and rebellion
o Move toward self-acceptance
o School-Age Children and Social-Emotional Development

As a school-age staff member, part of your role is to observe and assess the children in
your care. You will accomplish this using a variety of developmental guidelines to
support children and their families. Because having a solid foundation of social-
emotional development is crucial for a child’s success in school and in life, it is important
to observe children in their learning environment.

When assessing a child’s social-emotional development, we will look at a variety of

components such as:

The Ability to Establish and Maintain Relationships: Relationships are the core of
emotional development. A child’s ability to establish and keep relationships is a very
important aspect of their development. This is primarily seen in a child’s ability to make
and keep friends. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, friendships allow
children to “broaden their horizons beyond the family unit, begin to experience the
outside world, form a self-image, and develop a social support system.” Because
relationships are so vital to a child’s social-emotional development, a lesson will be
dedicated to the topic later in this course.

The Ability to Manage Emotions: As children grow, they learn how to regulate their
emotions and feelings. The emotional surges we see in young children, such as crying
when separating from their family or hitting when they become frustrated, will begin to
lessen as the children age. School-age children will begin to have a better understanding
of what emotions are and will be able to discuss how they are feeling. Feeling of
sympathy and empathy for others will also begin to develop.

The Ability to Cope with Stress: As adults, we know that stress can come from a
variety of circumstances and can be overwhelming if we don’t find a way to cope with it.
You might cope with stress by going for a walk, spending some time with friends,
exercising, or taking some time for your favorite hobby. Other ways adults cope with

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stress are deep breathing, meditation exercises, or visiting a therapist or counselor. As
adults, we know when a situation is causing too much stress and can decide to use one of
these methods to help alleviate the stressor. School-age children are just learning how to
identify and deal with stress in their lives. According to the American Academy of
Pediatrics, the following are the most common circumstances that cause school-age
children to worry:
• Feeling sick
• Having nothing to do
• Not having enough money
• Feeling pressure to get good grades
• Feeling left out of a group of peers
• Not spending enough time with parents
• Not having homework done
• Not being good enough at sports
• Not being able to dress as desired
• Experiencing body changes
• Being late for school
• Being smaller than other children of the same age
• Having parents argue in front of them
• Not getting along with teachers
• Being overweight or bigger than other children of the same age
• Moving
• Changing schools
• Arguing with parents about rules in the family
• Adjusting to parents separating or divorcing
• Being pressured to try something they didn’t really want to (e.g., smoking)

School-age children are learning how to recognize what causes stress and how it affects
their behavior. Some children may still openly act out their feelings, whereas others will
keep their stress to themselves. We want children to learn how to manage their stress in a
healthy and positive way. Keeping the lines of communication open with families will
help you be on alert if a child may be experiencing a stressful situation at home or at
school. As a school-age staff member, it is important to watch for signs that a child may
be overloaded with stress so that you can help them cope with it in a healthy way.
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, common signs of stress overload are
when a child:

• Develops physical symptoms such as headaches or stomach pains

• Appears restless, tired and agitated

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 • Appears depressed and is uncommunicative about emotions
• Becomes irritable, negative, and shows little excitement or pleasure in activities
• Seems less interested in an activity that was once extremely important
• Grades at school begin to fall
• Has less interest than usual in attending classes and doing homework
• Exhibits antisocial behavior such as lying and stealing, forgets or refuses to do
chores/tasks and seems much more dependent on family members or teachers
than in the past

References:
1. www.wikipedia.com
2. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19230521/
3. https://www.edutopia.org/blog/elementary-social-emotional-curriculum-3-passion-randy-taran
4. https://www.virtuallabschool.org/school-age/social-emotional/lesson-2

Q.2 Suggest some activities which may promote moral development at elementary school
level.

Ans. Moral Development: Moral development is the process through which

children develop proper attitudes and behaviors toward other people in society, based on
social and cultural norms, rules, and laws. Moral development focuses on the emergence,
change, and understanding of morality from infancy through adulthood. Morality
develops across a lifetime and is influenced by an individual's experiences and their
behavior when faced with moral issues through different periods' physical and cognitive
development.

Activities Which May Promote Moral Development At Elementary School Level:

Expert and experienced educators have an obligation to teach their classroom about
morality, while public school educations might want to emphasize ethics also. You don't
have to teach to your students to get them to learn. Get them up and out of their seats to
engage in moral development activities that influence the way they lead their lives.

Morality is a system of beliefs about what is right and good compared to what is wrong
or bad. Moral development refers to changes in moral beliefs as a person grows older and
gains maturity. Moral beliefs are related to, but not identical with, moral behavior: it is
possible to know the right thing to do, but not actually do it. It is also not the same as
knowledge of social conventions, which are arbitrary customs needed for the smooth
operation of society. Social conventions may have a moral element, but they have a
primarily practical purpose. Conventionally, for example, motor vehicles all keep to the
same side of the street (to the right in the United States, to the left in Great Britain). The

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convention allows for smooth, accident-free flow of traffic. But following the convention
also has a moral element, because an individual who chooses to drive on the wrong side
of the street can cause injuries or even death. In this sense, choosing the wrong side of the
street is wrong morally, though the choice is also unconventional.

Group Activities: One way to encourage moral development is to teach children to play
fairly. They should understand that rules are important because of ethical reasons. They
should play by the rules because it is the right thing to do and not to avoid being
punished. A few examples of games they can play are races, hiding games, and aiming
games. Kids can play in a three-legged race and learn the lessons of shared responsibility
from the game. Although this is an athletic game, it can also be about moral
development--you have to introduce kids to the idea that the game teaches them broader
concepts, including cooperation and fairness.

Individual Activities: Children can also learn about individual's rights by participating
apart from other children. For instance, each child can have a brown paper bag full of
crafts, with different types of material including cloth, glue, crayons, markers, buttons,
and yarn. Instruct the children to make an inspirational work of art. They should spend
five minutes thinking about what inspiration means before beginning to make the piece of
art. Encourage them to create art that expresses their values. They should not believe that
their work is part of any type of competition. Avoid rewarding the best art with a prize--
you want the children to understand the significance of working hard for the sake of
bettering themselves.

Educational Activities or Games: You can also teach children moral development skills
by introducing them to educational games. Have them play a board game such as tic tac
toe, or start a game of hangman on the chalkboard. You can participate in the game to
show them that you are not the supreme authority They should begin to understand that
they have to answer to their conscience. When the students get confused about what to do
next during the game, ask them what they think. This shows them that they have some
control over their actions, and that everything they do is not dictated by authority.
Activities for Teaching Morals to Children

Childhood-development specialists name three criteria essential for group games that
assist in children’s moral development: the game has to have something interesting and
challenging to figure out; the game needs to be one where the children themselves can
assess their success; and all the children should be active throughout the game.

Chess: A key moral goal for games that are competitive is that the child can learn the
distinction between competition and antagonism. Children learn how to compete, but

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they do so within the constraints of rules. Internalizing the rules becomes a model for
internalizing more complex moral principles later in life. Ben Franklin said as much in an
essay entitled “The Morals of Chess.” Chess, said Franklin, teaches youth about caution,
circumspection and the “consequences of rash action.”

Action Games: Younger children find several types of games simultaneously interesting,
challenging and active -- the three criteria that are essential to engage children for the
purpose of moral education. These types of games include aiming, races, chasing, hiding,
guessing, verbal commands, card games and board games. Content matter in these games.
Aiming a dart at a board is morally neutral. Aiming a toy gun at another person is not. A
board game that teaches children about nature has one kind of moral content, while a
game about business -- where success is gained at another's expense -- has a different
moral subtext. Video games can also be added to that list, though many video games
include elements of aiming, racing and guessing. Many video games, however, contain
elements that run counter to what most parents and educators would qualify as moral.

Questioning Competition: Deciding on games that teach morals to children is more

subtle than it may first appear. It necessitates defining morality, and then determining
what is right or wrong. These are not uncontroversial issues. Morality is about more than
values and is more general than ethics. Values involve choices that may not suggest right
and wrong, like food preferences. Ethics are dilemma-resolution guidelines that are
specific to a particular practice. Morals, on the other hand, involve the motivation to do a
thing because it is right, or to avoid doing it because it is wrong.

This being the case, some parents may be uncomfortable with competition as the vehicle
for learning morality, because competition tends to undermine empathy and cooperation
– the bases of a selfless moral code, which views winning and conquest, even writ small,
as antithetical to moral action. Parents and educators in this category have some
alternatives.

Competition Alternatives: Kind Book is a publisher that emphasizes the development of

empathy as the basis for developing children’s moral sensibilities. In its books on the
virtues of kindness, the company includes stories, exercises, picture coloring, writing
exercises and games. One such game involves asking moral questions, for example,
“Should we be proud if we are rich?” A ball is rolled toward each of the circled children,
and if the answer is "no," the child is to let the ball go; if the answer is "yes," he must
catch the ball. If a child gets the answer wrong, the whole group stops for a discussion.

Children`s Activities on Fairness: Teaching children fairness is a pivotal part of their

development into well-rounded adults. While fairness is sometimes a difficult concept for

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 young children to understand or appreciate, incorporating classroom activities that teach
the skill will help them to develop a sense of fairness and equality.

Make Rules: Have each student in the class write a list of five rules that are required for
playing fair, such as sharing books and telling the truth. When they finish, compare each
of their lists to find the five or 10 most common rules the students agree on. Post the list
on the wall for everyone to see.

Play Without Rules: Allow students to play a board game or something as simple as tic-
tac-toe with a partner. Ask the students to play the game without following any of the
posted rules or the rules of the game. For instance, they can take more than one turn at a
time or lie about how many spaces they jumped. When the game is over, or just before
anyone gets too frustrated to continue to play, have the students stop and recount to you
as a class if it is possible or fun to play without fairness.

Writing Assignment: Have students write down a situation in which they were not fair
or someone was not fair to them. Ask them to describe how the situation felt to them and
what they could do to keep themselves fair in the future.

Recognize Fairness: When children are being fair and treating people nicely, it is
important that they are positively recognized for such behavior to reinforce that behavior.
Make a poster on the wall with students' names on it who have been recognized by the
teacher or other students for being fair. Alternatively, choose one child per day who
showed fairness, and give them a spot on the wall that day in recognition.

References:
1. www.wikipedia.com
2. http://www.earlychildhoodnews.com/earlychildhood/article_view.aspx?ArticleID=565
3. https://classroom.synonym.com/moral-development-activities-7211114.html
4. http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/mar03/vol60/num06/Moral-
Teachers,-Moral-Students.aspx
5. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/educationalpsychology/chapter/moral-development-
forming-a-sense-of-rights-and-responsibilities/
6. https://research.library.fordham.edu/dissertations/AAI9839511/
7. file:///C:/Users/Zulfiqar%20Al/Downloads/Documents/Promoting%20Moral%20Developm
ent%20through%20play%20during%20early%20childhood_1.pdf

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Q.3 What is language development? Explain the transitions and signs of language
development.

Ans. Language Development: Language development in humans is a process starting early in

life. Infants start without knowing a language, yet by 10 months, babies can distinguish
speech sounds and engage in babbling. Language development refers to the process
through which children acquire, or learn language. ... Language can be thought of in two
main categories: receptive and expressive. Receptive refers to a child's ability to
understand the communication of other people, including spoken words, gestures and
written words.

Language development is a critical part of child development. It supports your child's

ability to communicate, and express and understand feelings. It also supports thinking
and problem-solving, and developing and maintaining relationships.

Transitions & Signs of Language Development:

Role of Transitions: Transitions allow your audience to follow your presentation, they
help maintain the flow of a speech. In speeches, transitions serve this purpose. Take the
road example from above and apply it to your speech:

Proper transitions will not only eliminate such questions, but will also hopefully
eliminate the situation in which members of your audience drift off. Transitions enable
the flow of a speech. A speech without transitions often seems choppy, and can even
seem unorganized. Using them allows your audience to follow your presentation. The
words you use can lead them along, signal that you are moving from one point to another,
or signal that you are stressing a point.

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Types of Transitions: Various types of transactions include: transitional phrases,
internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts.

Transitional Phrase: A word or phrase that indicates when a speaker has finished one
thought and is moving onto another one.

Options:

• However;
• But;
• Nevertheless;
• On the contrary;
• Because;
• And;
• Lastly;
• Yet;
• On the other hand.

Example: In addition to being hilarious, The Office is also very entertaining.

Consequently, there have been many people who try to imitate Dwight, but none can
even come close.

Internal Previews

Internal previews are more detailed than simple transitional phrases, but serve a similar
function. While the preview in the introduction discloses to the audience the general
points to be made in the speech, the internal preview outlines the critical points to be
made within the body of the speech.

Internal previews cue the audience to listen for the key elements within major points.
Examples of internal previews include statements like “there are a couple of points I
would like to make here,””there is both a problem and a solution to propose,” or “there
are several items to note in this section. ” Each of these statements might be followed by
more detailed, though brief, explanations of what is to come in the speech.

Examples

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 • I will be focusing on two main points–Why Jim and Pam should get married, and
why Michael Scott needs to get married.
• Before I get started I would like to go over the three best episodes of The Office,
which are “Diversity Day,” “Beach Day,” and lastly “Casino Night. “

Internal Summaries

Internal summaries, in contrast to internal previews, review the key points a speaker just
made. These regular summaries help the audience to remember the key points just
articulated by the speaker.

Examples of internal summaries include statements like “I have reviewed…,””Now that I

have talked about a couple of the key points,” or “to summarize briefly what was just
discussed…. ” Each of these statements would be followed by more specific but still brief
summaries. Internal summaries reinforce the key issues in the speech.

Examples

• I hope I have made it clear that The Office is the best show ever, because it is
relevant to the audience, it makes fun of so many different people but still gets
away with it, and it is just plain funny.

Signposts

Signposts are often the numerical indications of the main body points. Many speakers
utilize “first, second, third” type numbering to indicate where they are in their speech.

Signposts allow an audience to remember the key points and follow along in the speech.
They serve to clearly distinguish main body points from each other and also from the
introduction and conclusion. Signposts can also be used as questions.

Examples:

• First I will discuss with you the importance of convincing everyone about the
greatness of The Office.
• To begin with, we must talk about how The Office came to be.
• Why do you think The Office is the number one show today?

Transitions are so important to a speech. Without them, your audience may just think that
you are rambling.

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Using Transitions: When using transitions, pair them with body language to make them
even more effective.

Transitions go a long way in improving the quality of your speech. However, there is
something that can make the quality of your transitions truly bring your speech alive:
combining your transitions with body language. You may be surprised to learn that only
7% of the information you transmit to others is in the language you use. The remainder
comes from the following:

• 38% is how you speak—the quality of voice, accent, voice projection, emphasis,
expression, pace, volume, pitch, etc.
• 55% Body language—posture, position, eye contact, facial expression, head and
body movements, gestures, touch, etc.

Using Transitions with Body Language: Transitions Paired with Hand and Arm
Movements

You can probably think of many good speakers who have used a finger wag or other hand
gesture to emphasize a point. President Kennedy did this quite a bit and so did Bill
Clinton. Be careful, however. If there is a note of admonishment in your voice, try to
avoid finger pointing because it will seem insulting. An open-palmed hand spread wide,
as if in appeal, is far less confrontational and is there fore more likely to be seen as
positive.

Understanding transitions: Understand ways transitions and change affect young

children. Learn ways to prepare children for changes.

In caring for children, one thing you can be certain of is change. To change means to
transition: changing from one state, stage, place, or subject to another. Take a look at the
words associated with transition:

Change, evolution, conversion, shift, move, switch, alteration, modification

\Transitions requires young children to put forth great amounts of effort, not only
physically, but emotionally, socially, and cognitively; all areas of development. There is a
lot of skill needed to be able to transition. No wonder transitions can be challenging!
Transitions: predictable, unpredictable, and emotional
To understand how transitions affect children, think of how transitions affect you.
Imagine what it feels like to be told to stop doing something when you are not ready;
when it is someone else’s idea and not your own. Think also how it feels to make several

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changes in your day—it can be exhausting! When you understand what you are asking of
children, you are better able to make developmentally appropriate decisions.

Take a look at the transitions in your program. Make a list of the predictable transitions in
your day, such as arrival, free play, eating times, clean-up, or going outside. Next make a
list of unpredictable transitions that may arise, such as a child not feeling well, a child
taking another child’s toy, a block building falling down, an unscheduled visitor, fire
drill, bad weather, and so forth.

Review the number of times you ask or expect children to make transitions and reflect on
whether or not the number of transitions needs to be changed. If you have children who
often fall apart when transitioning, or possibly have challenging behaviors before, during,
and after transitions, you may want to lessen the number of transitions in your
programming or plan for more support.

Another important concept to consider is emotional transitions. Emotional transitions are

when a child’s emotional state is altered for some reason (the transition may even be
what alters the emotion!). Examples might be a child missing her parent, frustration with
an activity or toy, fear of new experience, too many stimuli, or the child’s inability to
express himself with words.

Unpredictable or challenging transitions often remind children they miss their parents.
Therefore, early educators need to partner with parents in discussing the best ways to
comfort their child and to build nurturing relationships with children. When these two
foundations are set, the early educator will have more success in meeting the child’s
needs.

Be aware of child development

Having a sense of child development helps you understand what general skills children
have or are working on. Knowing these milestones and skills allows you to provide
children what they need to transition.

A child’s age provides us with general information on what they may be able to do, but
knowing the child well provides the best information. Know the child’s interests, likes,
dislikes, fears, comforts, temperament, family, culture, abilities, and overall background.

Signs Of Language Development: From birth up to the age of five, children develop
language at a very rapid pace. The stages of language development are universal among
humans. However, the age and the pace at which a child reaches each milestone of
language development vary greatly among children. Thus, language development in an

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individual child must be compared with norms rather than with other individual children.
In general girls develop language at a faster rate than boys. More than any other aspect of
development, language development reflects the growth and maturation of the brain.
After the age of five it becomes much more difficult for most children to learn language.

Toddlerhood: During the second year of life language development proceeds at very
different rates in different children. By the age of 12 months, most children use
"mama/dada" appropriately. They add new words each month and temporarily lose
words. Between 12 and 15 months children begin to do the following:

• recognize names
• understand and follow one-step directions
• laugh appropriately
• use four to six intelligible words, usually those starting with "b," "c," "d," and "g,"
although less than 20 percent of their language is comprehensible to outsiders
• use partial words
• gesture and speak "no"
• ask for help with gestures and sounds

At 15 to 18 months of age children usually do the following:

• understand "up," "down," "hot," "off"

• use 10 to 20 intelligible words, mostly nouns
• use complete words
• put two short words together to form sentences
• chatter and imitate, use some echolalia (repetitions of words and phrases)
• have 20 to 25 percent of their speech understood by outsiders

At 18 to 24 months of age toddlers come to understand that there are words for
everything and their language development gains momentum. About 50 of a child's first
words are universal: names of foods, animals, family members, toys, vehicles, and
clothing. Usually children first learn general nouns, such as "flower" instead of
"dandelion," and they may over generalize words, such as calling all toys "balls." Some
children learn words for social situations, greetings, and expressions of love more readily
than others. At this age children usually have 20 to 50 intelligible words and can do the
following:

• follow two-step directions

• point to parts of the body
• attempt multi-syllable words
• speak three-word sentences

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 • ask two-word questions
• enjoy challenge words such as "helicopter"
• hum and sing
• express pain verbally
• have 50 to 70 percent of their speech understood by outsiders

After several months of slower development, children often have a "word spurt" (an
explosion of new words). Between the ages of two and 18 years, it is estimated that
children add nine new words per day. Between two and three years of age children
acquire:

• a 400-word vocabulary including names

• a word for most everything
• the use of pronouns
• three to five-word sentences
• the ability to describe what they just saw or experienced
• the use of the past tense and plurals
• names for body parts, colors, toys, people, and objects
• the ability to repeat rhymes, songs, and stories
• the ability to answer "what" questions

Children constantly produce sentences that they have not heard before, creating rather
than imitating. This creativity is based on the general principles and rules of language
that they have mastered. By the time a child is three years of age, most of a child's speech
can be understood. However, like adults, children vary greatly in how much they choose
to talk.

Preschool
Three to four-year-olds usually can do the following:

• understand most of what they hear

• converse
• have 900 to 1,000-word vocabularies, with verbs starting to predominate
• usually talk without repeating syllables or words
• use pronouns correctly
• use three to six-word sentences
• ask questions
• relate experiences and activities
• tell stories (Occasional stuttering and stammering is normal in preschoolers.)

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Language skills usually blossom between four and five years of age. Children of this age
can do the following:

• verbalize extensively
• communicate easily with other children and adults
• articulate most English sounds correctly
• know 1,500 to 2,500 words
• use detailed six to eight-word sentences
• can repeat four-syllable words
• use at least four prepositions
• tell stories that stay on topic
• can answer questions about stories

School age
At age five most children can do the following:

• follow three consecutive commands

• talk constantly
• ask innumerable questions
• use descriptive words and compound and complex sentences
• know all the vowels and consonants
• use generally correct grammar

Six-year-olds usually can correct their own grammar and mispronunciations. Most
children double their vocabularies between six and eight years of age and begin reading
at about age seven. A major leap in reading comprehension occurs at about nine. Ten-
year-olds begin to understand figurative word meanings.
Adolescents generally speak in an adult manner, gaining language maturity throughout
high school.

When babies reach six to 12 months-of-age, parents should play word games with them,
label objects with words, and allow the baby to listen and participate in conversations.
Parents of toddlers should do the following:

• talk to the child in simple sentences and ask questions

• expand on the toddler's single words
• use gestures that reinforce words
• put words to the child's gestures
• name colors
• count items

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 • gently repeat correctly any words that the child has mispronounced, rather than
criticizing the child

Parents of two to three-year-olds should do the following:

• talk about what the child and parent are doing each day
• encourage the child to use new words
• repeat and expand on what the child says
• ask the child yes-or-no questions and questions that require a simple choice
• encourage the child to ask questions
• read books about familiar things, with pictures, rhymes, repetitive lines, and few
words
• read favorite books repeatedly, allowing the child to join in with familiar words
• encourage the child to pretend to read
• not interrupt children when they are speaking

Parents of four to six-year-olds should:

• not speak until the child is fully attentive

• pause after speaking to give the child a chance to respond
• acknowledge, encourage, and praise speech
• introduce new words
• talk about spatial relationships and opposites
• introduce limericks, songs, and poems
• talk about the television programs that they watch
• encourage the child to give directions
• give their full attention when the child initiates a conversation

Parents of six to 12-year-olds should talk to the children, not at them, encourage
conversation by asking questions that require more than a yes-or-no answer, and listen
attentively as the child recounts the day's activities.
Additional recommendations for parents and care-givers, by the American Academy of
Pediatrics and others, include:

• talking at eye level with a child and supplementing words with body language,
gestures, and facial expressions to enhance language comprehension
• talking in ways that catch a child's attention
• using language to comfort a child
• using correct pronunciations
• using expressive language to discuss objects, actions, and emotions
• playing with sounds and words

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 • labeling objects and actions with words
• providing objects and experiences to talk about
• choosing activities that promote language
• listening carefully to children and responding in ways that let them know that they
have been understood, as well as encouraging further communication
• using complete sentences and adding detail to expand on what a child has said
• knowing when to remain silent
• reading to a child by six months of age at the latest
• encouraging children to ask questions and seek new information
• encouraging children to listen to and ask questions of each other

References:

1. www.wikipedia.com
2. https://www.scholastic.com/parents/family-life/social-emotional-learning/development-
milestones/language-and-literacy-development-0-2-year-olds.html
3. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-communications/chapter/transitions/
4. https://extension.psu.edu/programs/betterkidcare/early-care/tip-pages/all/understanding-
transitions
5. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07434619712331277958
6. https://languageacts.org/language-transitions/language-transitions-research/

Q.4 Explain the associative theories of learning?

Ans. Learning: Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge,

behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by
humans, animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in
certain plants.

Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills,

values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals,
and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants.

Theories of Learning: Learning theory describes how students receive, process, and
retain knowledge during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as
well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is
acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained. There are five educational
learning theories.

• Cognitive learning theory.

• Behaviorism learning theory.

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 • Constructivism learning theory.
• Humanism learning theory.
• Connectivism learning theory.

Associative Theories of Learning: Associative learning is a form of conditioning,

a theory that states behavior can be modified or learned based on a stimulus and a
response. This means that behavior can be learned or unlearned based on the response it
generates. This type of learning can be helpful in classroom management.

Associative learning is a style of learning that happens when two unrelated elements (for
example, objects, sights, sounds, ideas, and/or behaviors) become connected in our brains
through a process known as conditioning.

Examples of associative learning include: If someone puts their hand on a hot stove and
hurts themselves, they may learn to associate hot stoves with pain, and have therefore
been conditioned not to put their hands on them.

If someone eats a particular food, then develops a headache soon afterwards, they may
learn to associate that food with headaches (even if the food didn’t cause the headache),
and not want to eat it again.

Every time a child cleans their room, their parent or carer gives them a treat. The child
starts associating cleaning their room with treats, making them more inclined to clean
their room more frequently.

When a kitten is misbehaving, its mother will flick its ears. The kitten eventually learns
to associate misbehaving with ear flicking (which is painful to them), so it stops.

Associative learning is something that all humans and animals do naturally. By linking
elements together and making a web of different connections, we build up our
memories and deepen our understanding of the world around us. If we did not do this, we
would not be able to recall even the most basic of things, such as how to get to the local
shops, or that we do not like certain foods.

As well as being something that humans and animals do naturally, associative learning is
also utilized by those who teach. Through using associative learning techniques, teachers
are better able to manage their classrooms, while parents and careers are better able to
encourage their children to behave well and responsibly.

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Types of Associative Learning: There are two types of associative learning: classical
conditioning and operant, or instrumental, conditioning.

Classical conditioning is when one neutral element (called the conditioned stimulus)
becomes associated with a different element (the unconditioned stimulus) that already
generates the desired response (the unconditioned response), until the neutral element
stops being neutral, and instead causes the same response (the conditioned response).
One very famous example of classical conditioning was conducted by Russian scientist
Ivan Pavlov, where he conditioned dogs to salivate whenever they heard a bell.

To do this, he would ring a bell (the conditioned stimulus), then give the dogs food (the
unconditioned stimulus) very soon afterwards. The food caused the dogs to salivate (the
unconditioned response), but after some time doing this bell ringing/food giving routine,
Pavlov noticed that the dogs would salivate immediately after the bell was rung - even
before they saw any food. Pavlov then tried ringing the bell without then producing the
food, and the dogs still salivated once the bell was rung (the conditioned response). At
this point, Pavlov concluded the dogs had been conditioned to salivate at the sound of the
bell.

Operant conditioning is quite similar to classical conditioning, but instead of conditioning

an unconscious response, operant conditioning is about conditioning an individual’s
conscious behavior, based on what the understood consequences of that behavior will be.
One well-known example of operant conditioning comes from the psychologist B.F.
Skinner, who conditioned rats to perform behaviors using positive and negative
reinforcements.

In his first experiment, he put a hungry rat into a specially designed Skinner box, which
was equipped with a lever mechanism that would dispel food when pressed. After
spending some time exploring the box, the rat pressed the lever and the food appeared.
Skinner repeated this experiment with the same rat several times, until eventually the first
thing the rat would do upon entering the box would be to press the lever. In this
instance, a positive reinforcement (the reward of food) had been used to condition the rat
to push the lever.

In his second experiment, Skinner put a different rat in a Skinner box that had an
uncomfortable electric current running through it. The rat, having experienced the
discomfort, moved around the box and accidentally knocked the lever, which
immediately stopped the current. Again, Skinner repeated the experiment several times,
until the rat knew to press the lever immediately to avoid discomfort. Here, a negative

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 reinforcement (the possibility of discomfort from the current) was used to condition the
rat to pull the lever.

Associative learning in the classroom: Associative learning is regularly used in

classrooms to encourage and discourage certain student behaviors.

Some examples of associative learning being utilized in the classroom include:

• Awarding students high grades for doing good work.

• Praising students for their effort and hard work.
• Using star charts. (When a student does something well, a star is added. After
earning a certain number of stars, the student gets a prize.)
• Removing classroom privileges from students who have been misbehaving in
class.
• Not allowing a misbehaving student to sit with their friends.
• Giving misbehaving students detention.

References:

1. www.wikipedia.com
2. https://blog.cognifit.com/associative-learning/
3. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/associationist-thought/
4. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/associative-
learning
5. https://www.twinkl.com/teaching-wiki/associative-learning

Q.5 What do you mean by individual differences?

Ans. Individual Differences: Individual differences are the more-or-less enduring

psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another and thus help to
define each person's individuality. Among the most important kinds of individual
differences are intelligence, personality traits, and values. Differential psychology studies
the ways in which individuals differ in their behavior and the processes that underlie it.
This is a discipline that develops classifications of psychological individual differences.

Definitions of Individual Differences:

1. Drever James: “Variations or deviations from the average of the group, with respect
to the mental or physical characters, occurring in the individual member of the group are
individual differences.”

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2. Good, C.V.: “The variation or deviations among individual is regard to a single
characteristics or a number of characteristics, those differences which in their totality
distinguish one individual from another.”

3. Skinner, C.E.: “Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable

aspect of the total personality.”

Types of Individual Differences:

1. Physical differences: Shortness or tallness of stature, darkness or fairness of

complexion, fatness, thinness, or weakness are various physical individual differences.

2. Differences in intelligence: There are differences in intelligence level among different

individuals. We can classify the individuals from super-normal (above 120 I.Q.) to idiots
(from 0 to 50 I.Q.) on the basis of their intelligence level.

3. Differences in attitudes: Individuals differ in their attitudes towards different people,

objects, institutions and authority.

4. Differences in achievement: It has been found through achievement tests that

individuals differ in their achievement abilities. These differences are very much visible
in reading, writing and in learning mathematics.

These differences in achievement are even visible among the children who are at the
same level of intelligence. These differences are on account of the differences in the
various factors of intelligence and the differences in the various experiences, interests and
educational background.

5. Differences in motor ability: There are differences in motor ability. These differences
are visible at different ages. Some people can perform mechanical tasks easily, while
others, even though they are at the same level, feel much difficulty in performing these
tasks.

6. Differences on account of sex: McNemar and Terman discovered the following

differences between men and women, on the basis of some studies:

(i) Women have greater skill in memory while men have greater motor ability.
(ii) Handwriting of women is superior while men excel in mathematics and logic.
(iii) Women show greater skill in making sensory distinctions of taste, touch and smell
etc., while men show greater reaction and conscious of size- weight illusion.

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(iv) Women are superior to men in languages, while men are superior in physics and
chemistry.
(v) Women are better than men in mirror drawing. Faults of speech etc. in men were
found to be three times of such faults in women.
(vi) Women are more susceptible to suggestion while there are three times as many
colour blind men as there are women.
(vii) Young girls take interest in stories of love, fairy tales, stories of the school and home
and day-dreaming and show various levels in their play. On the other hand boys take
interest in stories of bravery, science, war, scouting, stories of games and sports, stories
and games of occupation and skill.

7. Racial differences: There are different kinds of racial differences. Differences of

environment is a normal factor in causing these differences. Karl Brigham has composed
a list on the basis of differences in levels of intelligence among people who have
migrated to United States from other countries.

On the basis of these average differences between the races, the mental age of a particular
individual cannot be calculated since this difference is based on environment.

8. Differences due to nationality: Individuals of different nations differ in respect of

physical and mental differences, interests and personality etc. ‘Russians are tall and
stout’; ‘Ceylonese are short and slim’; ‘Germans have no sense of humour’; ‘Yellow
races are cruel and revengeful’; ‘Americans are hearty and frank’; Indians are timid and
peace-loving’ and the like observations enter into our common talk.

9. Differences due to economic status: Differences in children’s interests, tendencies

and character are caused by economic differences.

10. Differences in interests: Factors such as sex, family background level of

development, differences of race and nationality etc., cause differences in interests.

11. Emotional differences: Individuals differ in their emotional reactions to a particular

situation. Some are irritable and aggressive and they get angry very soon. There are
others who are of peaceful nature and do not get angry easily. At a particular thing an
individual may be so much enraged that he may be prepared for the worst crime like
murder, while another person may only laugh at it.

12. Personality differences: There are differences in respect of personality. On the basis
of differences in personality, individuals have been classified into many groups.

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Spranger, for example, has classified personalities into six types:

(a) Theoretical,
(b) Economic
(c) Aesthetic,
(d) Social,
(e) Political, and
(f) Religious.

Jung classified people into three groups:

(a) Introverts,
(b) Extroverts, and
(c) Ambiverts.
Trottor divided individuals into:
(a) Stable minded, and
(b) Unstable minded.

Jordon thinks of personalities into:

(a) Active, and

(b) Reflective type.

Thorndike has classified people into four categories on the basis of thinking:

(a) Abstract thinkers,

(b) Ideational thinkers,
(c) Object thinkers, and
(d) Thinkers in whom sensory experience is predominant.

Terman has classified people into nine classes according to their level of intelligence:

(a) Genius,
(b) Near genius
(c) Very superior,
(d) Superior,
(e) Average,
(f) Backward,
(g) Feebleminded,
(h) Dull, and

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(i) Idiot.

It is an admitted fact that some people are honest, others are dishonest, some are
aggressive, others are humble, some are social, others like to be alone, some are critical
and others are sympathetic. Thus we see that the differences in personality are dependent
on personality traits. Teacher should keep in mind these differences while imparting
education to the pupils.

Causes of Individual Differences: Some of the main causes of individual differences are
as under:

1. Heredity: One of the most significant and chief causes of individual differences is
heredity. Individuals inherit various physical traits like face with its features, colour of
eyes and hair, type of skin, shape of skull and size of hands, colour blindness, baldness,
stub-finger and tendency to certain diseases like cancer and tuberculosis, mental traits
like intelligence, abstract thinking, aptitudes and prejudices. Now it is an admitted fact
that heredity differences result in the quantity and rate of physical as well as mental
development being different and different individuals.

2. Environment: Environment significantly influences individual differences. Changes

in child’s environment are reflected in the changes in his personality. Psychologically
speaking, a person’s environment consists of sum total of stimulation which he receives
from conception until his death.

Environment consists of physical, intellectual, social, moral, political, economic and

cultural forces. All these forces cause individual differences. Modern psychologists
believe that individual differences are caused by both heredity and environment.
Personality is the outcome of mutual interaction between heredity and environment.

3. Influence of caste, race and nation: Individuals of different castes and races exhibit
very marked differences. It is generally seen that son of a Kshatriya has a more of
courage in him while the son of a trader has the traits of business.

Similarly individuals of different nations show differences in respect of their personality,

character and mental abilities. These are the outcome of their geographical, social and
cultural environment. Many studies have shown the existence of differences between
Americans and Negroes, Chineese and Japaneese, English and Indian individuals.

4. Sex differences: Development of boys and girls exhibits differences due to difference
in sex. The physical development of the girl takes place a year or two earlier than the

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boys. Between the age of 11 and 14, girls are taller and heavier than the boys. After 15,
boys start winning the race. Girls are kind, affectionate, sympathetic and tender while the
boys are brave, hard, choleric, efficient and competent.

5. Age and intelligence: Physical, intellectual and emotional development is caused by

the growth in age. Many individuals differ because of the differences in intelligence.
Individuals who are below the average in intelligence and mental age find much
difficulty in learning and the average intelligent persons can learn quickly.

6. Temperament and emotional stability: Some people are by temperament active and
quick, while others are passive and slow, some humorous and others short tempered.
Emotional stability of the individual is differently affected by physical, mental and
environmental factors. Differences in emotional stability cause individual differences.

7. Other Causes: Interests, aptitudes, achievements, sentiments, character, educational

and home background lead to individual differences.

8. Economic condition and education: Individual differences are caused by economic

condition of the parents and the education of the children. It is not possible for the
children of two economic classes to have a similarity and equality.

Role of Individual Differences in Education: One of the important objectives of

modern education is the complete development of the individual. Individuals have
different goals, different interests, different emotional problems and different abilities.
We cannot afford to ignore these individual differences in imparting education to
children. Since school work is planned on group basis it presents a formidable challenge
to all teachers.

Hence some practical procedures for adapting school work to individual differences are
suggested:

1. Limited size of the class: Generally there are 50 or more than 50 students in a class. In
such a large class, it is not possible for the teacher to pay individual attention to the
students. The size of the class should be small. It should be divided into various units so
that after class-room work their various difficulties may be found out.

2. Proper division of the class: Now there are separate classes for the students, who
have different intelligence. While bringing about this classification, the teacher should
keep in mind the difference in age, interests, emotional and social qualities.

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3. Home task: The teacher should assign home task to the students while keeping in view
the individual differences.

4. Factor of sex: Boys and girls are to play different roles in society. Hence the factor of
sex should be kept in mind.

5. Curriculum: The curriculum should be modified to suit the needs of all types of
children. A large number of subjects should be included in the curriculum so that
education can be provided to each child according to his interests, needs and abilities.
Curriculum should not be rigid but it should be flexible.

If we lay down the same curriculum for all the students, the brilliant students will not be
able to have full mental diet, and the backward students and the students of lower I.Q.
will lag far behind in the class, and they may start playing truancy from the school.

6. Methods of Teaching: Methods of teaching should be chosen on the basis of

individual differences. It is not advisable to use the same method of education in the case
of all children-gifted or backward.

7. Educational Guidance: Teacher should impart educational guidance to the students

while keeping in view their individual differences. He can assist them in the selection of
educational career, selection of subjects, selection of books, selection of hobbies and co-
curricular activities and in many other areas connected with education.

8. Vocational Guidance: While keeping in view the individual differences the teacher
can guide the students in the vocation that they should adopt.

9. Individual Training: Many plans and techniques for individualizing instructions have
been advocated.

Some of these plans are as under:

(i) Dalton Plan: This plan was introduced by Miss Helen Parkhurst at Dalton. According
to this plan, the school is regarded as a ‘children house.’ The principles underlying the
plan are freedom, co-operation and allocation of time. The pupils are free to continue
without interruption the work in which they are absorbed, unhindered by time tables.
They are not taught in classrooms. They are given subjects that suit their interests. The
advantage of this plan is that each pupil is allowed to proceed at his own rate and in
accordance with this individual ability. Thus the instructions are completely
individualized.

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 (ii) Morrison Plan: This Plan was devised by Professor H.Q. Morrison of the University
of Chicago. This plan is based on directed guidance and stresses unit assignment. To
establish learning unit is an important task in the Morrison plan. The plan is based on
individual needs and interests.

(iii) Winnetka Plan: This plan was instituted by C.W. Washburne in the school of
Winnetka, Illinois. This plan is based on the principle that the pupils should be allowed to
follow his own rate of learning in each of the subjects of his curriculum. Before
instituting this plan it is observed through an examination that how much an individual
already knows. On the basis of it, specific learning unit is planned for him.

Progress is checked by the pupils himself by means of self-administered tests. The

advantages of this plan are that the backward and the intelligent are to proceed at their
own rates. Moreover, there are no failures since the pupil is measured against his own
progress.

(iv) Contract Plan: In this plan, the subjects of study are determined like the Dalton
method; the pupil’s progress is measured through tests like the Winnetka method. Thus
this plan is a synthesis of Dalton and Winnetka methods.

(v) Project method: This method was suggested by Kilpatrick. In this method each
member of the group can work in terms of his interest and ability. Hence this method is
also in the direction of individualization of instructions.

References:

1. www.wikipedia.com
2. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/individual-
differences#:~:text=Individual%20differences%20are%20the%20more,%2C%20personality%20t
raits%2C%20and%20values.
3. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/individual-differences
4. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2017.0280
5. https://opentextbc.ca/socialpsychology/chapter/individual-and-cultural-differences-in-person-
perception/
6. https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/psychology/individual-differences-psychology/individual-
differences-types-causes-and-role-psychology/2557

***

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