HUMAN BIOLOGY

Suzanne Wakim & Mandeep Grewal

Butte College
 Butte College
Human Biology

Suzanne Wakim & Mandeep Grewal

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This text was compiled on 04/26/2021

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Human biology is an interdisciplinary area of study that examines humans through the influences and interplay of many diverse fields
such as genetics, evolution, physiology, anatomy, epidemiology, anthropology, ecology, nutrition, population genetics and sociocultural
influences; it is closely related to physical anthropology.

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

AUTHORS
1: THE NATURE AND PROCESS OF SCIENCE
This chapter explains how scientists think and how they "do" science. It describes how scientific theories develop and how scientists
investigate questions to advance scientific knowledge. The chapter also explains how science may be misused and how and why human
subjects are protected in scientific research.

1.1: CASE STUDY: WHY SHOULD YOU LEARN ABOUT SCIENCE?

1.2: WHAT IS SCIENCE?
1.3: THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
1.4: THEORIES IN SCIENCE
1.5: SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS
1.6: SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS
1.7: EXTRAPOLATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS
1.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: SHOT AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

2: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN BIOLOGY

This chapter introduces the human species. It identifies traits we share with all other living things and basic principles of biology that
apply to us as well as to all other life. The chapter also describes the diversity of species on Earth, similarities we share with our closest
relatives in the animal kingdom, and traits that make us unique.

2.1: CASE STUDY: WHY SHOULD YOU STUDY HUMAN BIOLOGY?

2.2: SHARED TRAITS OF ALL LIVING THINGS
2.3: DIVERSITY OF LIFE
2.4: THE HUMAN ANIMAL
2.5: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: INHABITANTS AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

3: CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
This chapter provides the chemistry background needed to understand the human body, its functions, and its processes. The chapter
describes biochemical compounds and reactions as well as the significance of water to life.

3.1: CASE STUDY: CHEMISTRY AND YOUR LIFE

3.2: ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
3.3: CHEMICAL BONDING
3.4: BIOCHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
3.5: CARBOHYDRATES
3.6: LIPIDS
3.7: PROTEINS
3.8: NUCLEIC ACIDS
3.9: ENERGY IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
3.10: CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN LIVING THINGS
3.11: BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
3.12: ACIDS AND BASES
3.13: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: DIET AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

4: NUTRITION
This chapter describes nutrients, nutrient needs, and healthy eating to achieve good nutrition. It also discusses eating disorders,
problems of obesity and undernutrition, and causes and prevention of foodborne diseases.

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 4.1: CASE STUDY: FUELING OUR BODIES PROPERLY
4.2: NUTRIENTS
4.3: HEALTHY EATING
4.4: EATING DISORDERS
4.5: OBESITY
4.6: UNDERNUTRITION
4.7: FOODBORNE DISEASES
4.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: FAST FOOD AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

5: CELLS
This chapter outlines the discovery of cells and cell theory. It identifies ways in which all cells are alike and ways in which they vary.
The chapter describes in detail important cell structures and their functions; and it explains how cells obtain energy, grow, and divide.

5.1: CASE STUDY: THE IMPORTANCE OF CELLS

5.2: DISCOVERY OF CELLS AND CELL THEORY
5.3: VARIATION IN CELLS
5.4: PLASMA MEMBRANE
5.5: CYTOPLASM AND CYTOSKELETON
5.6: CELL ORGANELLES
5.7: CELL TRANSPORT
5.8: ACTIVE TRANSPORT AND HOMEOSTASIS
5.9: CELLULAR RESPIRATION
5.10: FERMENTATION
5.11: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: TIRED AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

6: DNA AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

This chapter contains information on DNA discovery, the central dogma of biology, DNA replication, transcription, and how proteins
are synthesized through the process of translation. Additionally, the chapter highlights gene regulation. This chapter also discusses the
types of mutations and their causes. The other topics of this chapter include biotechnology and the Human Genome Project.

6.1: CASE STUDY: WHY DO WE NEED TO SEQUENCE EVERYBODY'S GENOME?

6.2: DNA AND RNA
6.3: CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
6.4: PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
6.5: GENETIC CODE
6.6: MUTATIONS
6.7: REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
6.8: BIOTECHNOLOGY
6.9: THE HUMAN GENOME
6.10: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: PARMACOGENOMICS AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

7: CELL REPRODUCTION
This chapter introduces two types of cell divisions. First, it explains mitosis and then meiosis. This chapter also explains why cells
divide and how the divisions are regulated. The errors in the division may lead to diseases, such as leukemia.

7.1: CASE STUDY: GENETIC SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

7.2: CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
7.3: MITOTIC PHASE - MITOSIS AND CYTOKINESIS
7.4: MUTATIONS AND CANCER
7.5: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: MEIOSIS AND GAMETOGENESIS
7.6: GENETIC VARIATION
7.7: MITOSIS VS. MEIOSIS AND DISORDERS
7.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: GENES AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

8: INHERITANCE
This chapter provides the molecular background for understanding heredity; explains Mendelian and non-Mendelian inheritance in
humans; some genetic disorders and their treatment, and explores recent advances in genetics.

8.1: CASE STUDY: GENES AND INHERITANCE

8.2: LAWS OF INHERITANCE

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 8.3: GENETICS OF INHERITANCE
8.4: SIMPLE INHERITANCE
8.5: COMPLEX INHERITANCE
8.6: GENETIC DISORDERS
8.7: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: CANCER AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

9: BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
This chapter outlines how Darwin developed his theory of evolution by natural selection, Wallace's contribution to the theory, and
evidence for evolution. The chapter also describes tools for studying evolution, processes of microevolution and macroevolution, and
how Earth formed and life first evolved.

9.1: CASE STUDY: EVERYDAY EVOLUTION

9.2: DARWIN, WALLACE, AND THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION
9.3: EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
9.4: MICROEVOLUTION
9.5: MACROEVOLUTION
9.6: TOOLS FOR STUDYING EVOLUTION
9.7: ADAPTATION IN HUMANS
9.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: FLU AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

10: INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY

This chapter outlines the organization of the human body and describes human cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and body cavities.
It also explains how organ systems interact and how feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis in the body.

10.1: CASE STUDY: GETTING TO KNOW YOUR BODY

10.2: ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY
10.3: HUMAN CELLS AND TISSUES
10.4: HUMAN ORGANS AND ORGAN SYSTEMS
10.5: HUMAN BODY CAVITIES
10.6: INTERACTION OF ORGAN SYSTEMS
10.7: HOMEOSTASIS AND FEEDBACK
10.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: PRESSURE AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

11: NERVOUS SYSTEM

This chapter describes neurons and other cells of the nervous system and compares and contrasts divisions of the nervous system,
including central, peripheral, somatic, and autonomic divisions. The chapter explains how nerve impulses occur and how we sense
stimuli. It also describes disorders of the nervous system and the effects of psychoactive drugs on the nervous system.

11.1: CASE STUDY: THE CONTROL CENTER OF YOUR BODY

11.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
11.3: NEURONS
11.4: NERVE IMPULSES
11.5: CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
11.6: PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
11.7: HUMAN SENSES
11.8: PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
11.9: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: MEMORY AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

12: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

This chapter describes the endocrine system and its vital roles in communication, control, and homeostasis within the human body. The
focus is on the pituitary gland, as the master gland of the endocrine system, and three other endocrine glands: the thyroid gland, adrenal
glands, and pancreas. The chapter also explains the differing mechanisms of steroid and non-steroid endocrine hormones.

12.1: CASE STUDY: HORMONES AND HEALTH

12.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
12.3: ENDOCRINE HORMONES
12.4: PITUITARY GLAND
12.5: THYROID GLAND
12.6: ADRENAL GLANDS
12.7: PANCREAS

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 12.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: HORMONAL AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

13: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

This chapter describes the structure and functions of the epidermis and dermis, hair, and nails. In addition, the chapter outlines types of
skin cancer and risk factors for skin cancer.

13.1: CASE STUDY: SKIN CANCER

13.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
13.3: SKIN
13.4: HAIR AND NAILS
13.5: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: SKIN CANCER AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

14: SKELETAL SYSTEM

This chapter describes the structure and functions of the skeletal system and its two major divisions, the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton. It details the structure of bone, how bones grow, and how they are remodeled and repaired. The chapter also
explains how joints work and how they are classified as well as the causes and effects of major skeletal system disorders.

14.1: CASE STUDY: YOUR SUPPORT SYSTEM

14.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
14.3: DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
14.4: STRUCTURE OF BONE
14.5: BONE GROWTH, REMODELING, AND REPAIR
14.6: JOINTS
14.7: DISORDERS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
14.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: HEELS AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

15: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

This chapter describes the structure and functions of the muscular system. It compares and contrasts the three major types of muscle
tissue and explains in detail how muscles contract according to the sliding filament theory. The chapter also relates physical exercise to
fitness and health and describes several musculoskeletal and neuromuscular disorders.

15.1: CASE STUDY: MUSCLES AND MOVEMENT

15.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
15.3: TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
15.4: MUSCLE CONTRACTION
15.5: PHYSICAL EXERCISE
15.6: DISORDERS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
15.7: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: NEEDING TO RELAX AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

16: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

This chapter describes the structure and function of the respiratory system, including how breathing occurs and what controls it, as well
as how the process of gas exchange takes place in the lungs. The chapter also describes several disorders of the respiratory system and
details the adverse health effects of smoking.

16.1: CASE STUDY: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND GAS EXCHANGE

16.2: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
16.3: BREATHING
16.4: DISORDERS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
16.5: SMOKING AND HEALTH
16.6: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: BRONCHITIS AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

17: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

This chapter provides a detailed description of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. It explains how they function together to transport
substances throughout the body and maintain homeostasis. The chapter also describes several diseases of the cardiovascular system and
lifestyle choices that can help prevent most of them.

17.1: CASE STUDY: YOUR BODY'S TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

17.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
17.3: HEART

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 17.4: BLOOD VESSELS
17.5: BLOOD
17.6: BLOOD TYPES
17.7: CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
17.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: FLIGHT AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

18: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

This chapter outlines the structure and function of the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs of digestion. It explains the processes
of peristalsis, mechanical and chemical digestion of food, and absorption of nutrients. The chapter also describes several disorders of the
gastrointestinal tract.

18.1: CASE STUDY: FOOD PROCESSING

18.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
18.3: DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
18.4: UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
18.5: LOWER GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
18.6: ACCESSORY ORGANS OF DIGESTION
18.7: DISORDERS OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
18.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: CELIAC AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

19: URINARY SYSTEM

This chapter discusses the concept of excretion and explains the excretory functions of the skin, liver, large intestine, lungs, and
kidneys. It also describes the other organs of the urinary system and several urinary system disorders.

19.1: CASE STUDY: WASTE MANAGEMENT

19.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE URINARY SYSTEM
19.3: KIDNEYS
19.4: URETERS, URINARY BLADDER, AND URETHRA
19.5: DISORDERS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
19.6: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: ALCOHOL AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

20: IMMUNE SYSTEM

This chapter outlines the layered responses of the human immune system, including both innate and adaptive immune responses. It also
describes the structures and functions of the lymphatic system, with a focus on its roles in host defense. In addition, the chapter
examines three different types of immune system disorders.

20.1: CASE STUDY: YOUR DEFENSE SYSTEM

20.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
20.3: LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
20.4: INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM
20.5: ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM
20.6: DISORDERS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
20.7: HUMAN MICROBIOME
20.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: LYMPHOMA AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

21: DISEASE
This chapter discusses disease as homeostatic dysfunction and explores causes and types of human diseases, including both infectious
diseases and noninfectious diseases. Special emphasis is given to sexually transmitted infections, HIV/AIDS, and cancer.

21.1: CASE STUDY: THREATS TO OUR HEALTH

21.2: HOMEOSTASIS AND DISEASE
21.3: INFECTIOUS DISEASES
21.4: SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS
21.5: HIV AND AIDS
21.6: NONINFECTIOUS DISEASES
21.7: CANCER
21.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: LYME AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

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22: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Please note there are not only two genders in the human population. When male or female is mentioned in this chapter, it only refers to
the biological male and female sexes. This chapter outlines the structures and functions of the male and female reproductive systems,
explains how fertilization occurs, and discusses the menstrual cycle's role. The chapter describes the causes of and treatments for male
and female reproductive system disorders, infertility, and contraception methods.

22.1: CASE STUDY: MAKING BABIES

22.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
22.3: STRUCTURES OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
22.4: FUNCTIONS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
22.5: DISORDERS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
22.6: STRUCTURES OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
22.7: MENSTRUAL CYCLE
22.8: FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
22.9: DISORDERS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
22.10: INFERTILITY
22.11: CONTRACEPTION
22.12: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: TRYING TO CONCEIVE AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

23: HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

This chapter describes how the human organism grows and develops from fertilization through death. The following stages of life are
described in detail: germinal stage, embryonic stage, fetal stage, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

23.1: CASE STUDY: HOW OUR BODIES CHANGE THROUGHOUT LIFE

23.2: GERMINAL STAGE
23.3: EMBRYONIC STAGE
23.4: FETAL STAGE
23.5: INFANCY
23.6: CHILDHOOD
23.7: ADOLESCENCE AND PUBERTY
23.8: ADULTHOOD
23.9: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: LEAD DANGER AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

24: ECOLOGY
This chapter introduces the fundamentals of ecology, describes terrestrial and aquatic biomes, and outlines ecosystem processes and
their value to humans. The chapter also describes interspecific relationships in communities, how energy flows through ecosystems, and
how matter is recycled through ecosystems.

24.1: CASE STUDY: THE WEB OF LIFE

24.2: INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY
24.3: ECOSYSTEMS
24.4: COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIPS
24.5: ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEMS
24.6: CYCLES OF MATTER
24.7: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN POPULATIONS
24.8: POPULATION DYNAMICS
24.9: CLIMATE CHANGE
24.10: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: ORGANIC AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

BACK MATTER
INDEX
GLOSSARY

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PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book is dedicated to the students of Butte College and worldwide. The Biology Department faculty at Butte College have created this book
as part of our effort to help make education more affordable. Our goal was to create a book that helps students understand how human systems
function and how humans fit into the world around us.
In a few chapters, we have incorporated more inclusive gender-neutral pronouns, such as singular they/their/them. Around 1795, the language
authorities Lindley Murray, Joseph Priestly, and Hugh Blair, amongst others, campaigned against pronoun irregularities in pronoun use, such as
lack of agreement in gender and number. Without coining words, this can only be done in the third-person singular by use of compound terms
like “his or her”. Grammarians in 1879, 1922, 1931, 1957, and the 1970s have accepted “they” as a singular term that could be used in place of
“he” or “he or she,” though sometimes limiting it to informal constructions. Others in 1795, 1825, 1863, 1898, 1926, and 1982 argued against it
for various reasons. And whatever the grammarians might argue, people have been using the singular “they” for about the last 600 years, though
(as mentioned earlier) it can only be applied in certain cases. If new gender-neutral pronouns are not adopted, we are sure that singular “they”
will still be a point of contention for centuries to come. For further information on the use of singular “they/them/their” throughout the centuries,
see the large body of information that Henry Churchyard has compiled on this subject (LGBTQ+ Resource center; July 2020).
We wish the very best for all our students as they move forward in their goals!
Reference: Gender Pronouns; Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer Plus (LGBTQ+) Resource Center; University of Wisconsin-
Milwaukee; accessed on July 8, 2020, CC BY-NC

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
TECHNICAL SUPPORT: LIBRETEXTS LIBRARIES, UC DAVIS
This project could not have been possible without the voluminous support of Dr. Delmar Larsen and Henry Agnew. They helped us overcome
many technical difficulties during the creation of this book.

FINANCIAL SUPPORT: THE ACADEMIC SENATE FOR CALIFORNIA COMMUNITY COLLEGES OPEN
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCE INITIATIVE (ASCCC OERI)
Award number 54 (2019)
Award number 207 (2020)

CONTENT SUPPORT: CK-12 FOUNDATION AND OPENSTAX

This book is a product of a curation of the OER content from many sources. Butte College Biology Department thanks the following authors:
Barbara Akre
Dana Desonie
Douglas Wilkin
Dr. Katherine Harris
Jean Brainard
Jessica Harwood
Laura Guerin
Lensyl Urbano
Marcos Gridi-Papp
Milton Huling Ph.D.
Niamh Gray-Wilson
Rachel Henderson

Suzanne Wakim & Mandeep Grewal 4/25/2021 1 CC-BY-NC https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/22816

AUTHORS
SUZANNE WAKIM
Suzanne Wakim has designed and developed over a dozen biology courses including five online courses. She has helped write numerous
textbooks and learning ancillaries, including content for Nature, Discovery Education, Carnegie Mellon’s Open Learning Initiative and
OpenStax. She has presented on topics such as: Universal Design for Learning; Open Pedagogy for Equity-Minded Course Development; and
Learning Apps for Increased Student Engagement. Her current roles include Open Educational Resources Coordinator, Distance Education
Coordinator, Student Learning Outcomes Coordinator, Biology and Honors Faculty at Butte College.

MANDEEP GREWAL
Mandeep has been teaching since 2008. She started teaching at California State University, Chico, where she co-authored the principles of animal
and plant physiology laboratory manuals. When she taught at Yuba College, she co-authored a human anatomy lab manual that contains lab
instructions, worksheets, study guides, and competencies. Currently, she is working full time at Butte College. In her human biology course, she
teaches with open pedagogy using Wikipedia editing assignments. She is a recipient of the Academic Senate of California Community College
Open Educational Resources Initiative (ASCCC OERI) grant. As part of this grant, she has co-curated and published this human biology
textbook. This textbook is also available as a Canvas shell which incorporates chapter-specific homework, answers to the review questions,
worksheets, assignments, activities, and a quiz bank for each section.

Suzanne Wakim & Mandeep Grewal 4/25/2021 1 CC-BY-NC https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/25111

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
1: THE NATURE AND PROCESS OF SCIENCE
This chapter explains how scientists think and how they "do" science. It describes how scientific
theories develop and how scientists investigate questions to advance scientific knowledge. The
chapter also explains how science may be misused and how and why human subjects are protected in
scientific research.

1.1: CASE STUDY: WHY SHOULD YOU LEARN ABOUT SCIENCE?

Elena and Daris are expecting their first child. They are excited for the baby to arrive, but they are
nervous as well. Will the baby be healthy?

1.2: WHAT IS SCIENCE?

You may think of science as a large and detailed body of knowledge, but science is actually more
of a process than a set of facts. The real focus of science is the accumulation and revision of scientific knowledge. Science is a special
way of gaining knowledge that relies on evidence and logic. Evidence is used to continuously test ideas. Through time, with repeated
evidence gathering and testing, scientific knowledge advances.

1.3: THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

Science is a distinctive way of gaining knowledge about the natural world that starts with a question and then tries to answer the
question with evidence and logic. Science is an exciting exploration of all the whys and hows that any curious person might have
about the world. You can be part of that exploration. Besides your curiosity, all you need is a basic understanding of how scientists
think and how science is done. In this concept, you'll learn how to think like a scientist.

1.4: THEORIES IN SCIENCE

A scientific theory is a broad explanation of events that is widely accepted by the scientific community. To become a theory, an
explanation must be strongly supported by a great deal of evidence. People commonly use the word theory to describe a guess or
hunch about how or why something happens. For example, you might say, "I think a woodchuck dug this hole in the ground, but it's
just a theory." Using the word theory in this way is different from the way it is used in science.

1.5: SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

Science is more about doing than knowing. Scientists are always trying to learn more and gain a better understanding of the natural
world. There are basic methods of gaining knowledge that is common to all of science. At the heart of science is the scientific
investigation. A scientific investigation is a plan for asking questions and testing possible answers in order to advance scientific
knowledge.

1.6: SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS

An experiment is a special type of scientific investigation that is performed under controlled conditions. Like all investigations, an
experiment generates evidence to test a hypothesis. But unlike some other types of investigations, an experiment involves
manipulating some factor in a system in order to see how it affects the outcome. Ideally, experiments also involve controlling as many
other factors as possible in order to isolate the cause of the experimental results.

1.7: EXTRAPOLATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

Many questions in human biology are investigated with observational as opposed to experimental studies. An observational study
measures characteristics in a sample but does not attempt to manipulate variables of interest. A simple example of an observational
study is a political poll. A sample of adults might be asked how old they are and which of two candidates they favor. The study
provides a snapshot in time of potential voters' opinions and how they differ by age of the respondent.

1.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: SHOT AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

New mother Elena left her pediatrician’s office still unsure whether to vaccinate baby Juan. Dr. Rodriguez gave her a list of reputable
sources where she could look up information about the safety of vaccines for herself, such as the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC).

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1.1: CASE STUDY: WHY SHOULD YOU LEARN ABOUT SCIENCE?
knowledge. Specifically, you'll learn that:
CASE STUDY: TO GIVE A SHOT OR NOT Science is a distinctive way of gaining knowledge about the natural
Elena and Daris are expecting their first child. They are excited for the world that is based on evidence and logic. Scientists assume that
baby to arrive, but they are nervous as well. Will the baby be healthy? nature can be understood with systematic study; that scientific ideas
Will they be good parents? In addition to these big concerns, it seems are open to revision, although sound scientific ideas can withstand
like there are a million decisions to be made. Will Elena breastfeed or repeated testing; and that science is limited in the types of questions
will they use formula? Will they buy a crib or let the baby sleep in their it can answer.
bed? A scientific theory is at the pinnacle of explanations in science. A
theory is a broad explanation for many phenomena that is widely
accepted because it is supported by a great deal of evidence. An
example of a theory in human biology is the germ theory of disease.
It took more than two centuries of research to provide enough
evidence that microorganisms ("germs") cause disease for this
explanation to become widely accepted and attain the status of a
theory.
The process of science is epitomized by scientific investigation.
This is a procedure for gathering evidence to test a hypothesis. A
Figure 1.1.1: Pregnant Woman scientific investigation typically involves steps such as asking a
question based on observations and formulating a hypothesis as a
Elena goes online to try to find some answers. She finds a website from
testable answer to the question. It also generally involves collecting
an author who writes books on parenting. On this site, she reads an
data as evidence for or against the hypothesis, drawing conclusions,
article that argues that children should not be given many of the
and communicating results. In reality, the process of science is not
standard childhood vaccines, including the measles, mumps, and
simple and straightforward. The process actually tends to be
rubella (MMR) vaccine.
nonlinear, iterative, creative, and unpredictable. "Doing" science
The article claims that the MMR vaccine has been proven to cause can be very exciting!
autism and gives examples of three children who came down with Scientific experiments are a special type of scientific investigation,
autism-like symptoms shortly after their first MMR vaccination at one in which variables are manipulated by the researcher to test
year of age. The author believes that the recent increase in the expected outcomes. Experiments are performed under controlled
incidence of children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders is due conditions to mitigate the effects of other variables on the outcome
to the fact that the number of vaccinations given in childhood has variable. Experiments provide the best evidence that one variable
increased. causes another variable in scientific research. An example of an
Elena is concerned. She does not want to create lifelong challenges for experiment in human biology is the astounding public health
their child. Besides, aren’t diseases like measles, mumps, and rubella experiment to test Salk's polio vaccine that was undertaken in 1953.
basically eradicated by now? Why should they risk the health of their Some 600,000 children received a vaccine injection; another
baby by injecting them with vaccines for diseases that are a thing of the 600,000 received a placebo injection of useless salt water. The
past? vaccine group had a significant drop in polio cases relative to the
Once baby Juan is born, Elena brings them to the pediatrician’s office. placebo group, providing support for the hypothesis that the vaccine
Dr. Rodriguez says Juan needs some shots. Elena is reluctant and prevented the disease.
shares what she has read online. Dr. Rodriguez assures Elena that the Many questions in human biology are not amenable to experimental
study that originally claimed a link between the MMR vaccine and research. Consider the question: "Does smoking cause lung
autism has been found to be fraudulent and that vaccines have cancer?" It would not be ethical to deliberately experiment with
repeatedly been demonstrated to be safe and effective in peer-reviewed human subjects by exposing them to harmful tobacco smoke in
studies. order to see whether they develop lung cancer. For questions like
this, observational studies are done to look for correlations between
Although Elena trusts their doctor, she is not fully convinced. What
variables. For example, Doll and Hill gathered information on past
about the increase in the number of children with autism and the cases
smoking habits from a large sample of lung cancer patients and
where symptoms of autism appeared after MMR vaccination?
another large sample of controls without lung cancer. Smoking and
Elena has a tough decision to make, but a better understanding of
lung cancer were found to be correlated. Correlation does not imply
science can help her. In this chapter, you will learn about what science
causation, but it can be a big hint!
is (and what it is not), how it works, and how it relates to human
Research involving human subjects presents special challenges to
health.
scientists. Until the 1970s, there were few ethical guidelines for
CHAPTER OVERVIEW: THE NATURE AND researchers to follow when studying human subjects. A shamefully
PROCESS OF SCIENCE unethical syphilis study called the Tuskegee study changed all that.
The Tuskegee study was conducted on African-American men in
In the rest of the chapter, you'll learn much more about science,
Alabama from 1932 to 1972. This study was done to see the
including how scientists think and how they advance scientific
progression of syphilis. In this study, the control group with the

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 disease was not treated for syphilis. When details of the study were alternative explanations for the observations?
leaked to the media, the public was outraged and the U.S. Congress 3. Why do you think diseases like measles, polio, and mumps are rare
got involved. In 1974, Congress passed important legislation to these days, and why are we still vaccinating for these diseases?
protect human subjects in scientific research projects. Chief among
the protections was the necessity of informed consent. ATTRIBUTIONS
As you read this chapter, think about the following questions: 1. Pregnant woman by Petar Milošević licenced CC BY-SA 4.0 via
Wikimedia Commons
1. What do you think about the quality of Elena’s online source of
2. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
information about vaccines compared to Dr. Rodriguez’s sources?
3.0
2. Do you think the arguments presented here that claim that the
MMR vaccine causes autism are scientifically valid? Could there be

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1.2: WHAT IS SCIENCE?
OUCH!
This individual in Figure 1.2.1 is getting a flu vaccine. You
probably know that getting a vaccine can hurt, but it's usually worth
it. A vaccine contains dead or altered forms of "germs" that
normally cause a disease, such as flu or measles. The germs in
vaccines have been inactivated or weakened so they can no longer
cause illness, but they are still "noticed" by the immune system.
They stimulate the immune system to produce chemicals that can
kill the actual germs if they enter the body, thus preventing future
disease. How was such an ingenious way to prevent disease
discovered? The short answer is more than two centuries of science.

Figure 1.2.2 : A young child covered with skin lesions from smallpox.
Until it was eradicated, this highly contagious infection caused many
deaths, and those that survived were often severely scarred for life.
Medical advances such as the discovery of vaccines are one of the most
important benefits of science, but science and scientific knowledge are
also crucial for most other human endeavors. Science is needed to
Figure 1.2.1 : Getting an annual flu shot design safe cars, predict storms, control global warming, develop new
technologies of many kinds, help couples have children, and put
SCIENCE AS PROCESS humans on the moon! Clearly, the diversity of applications of scientific
You may think of science as a large and detailed body of knowledge, knowledge is vast!
but science is actually more of a process than a set of facts. The real
focus of science is the accumulation and revision of scientific REVIEW
knowledge. Science is a special way of gaining knowledge that relies 1. Explain why science is more accurately considered a process than a
on evidence and logic. Evidence is used to continuously test ideas. body of knowledge.
Through time, with repeated evidence gathering and testing, scientific 2. State three specific examples of human endeavors that are based on
knowledge advances. scientific knowledge.
We've been accumulating knowledge of vaccines for more than two 3. Jenner used a young boy as a research subject in his smallpox
centuries. The discovery of the first vaccine, as well as the process of vaccine research. Today, scientists must follow strict guidelines
vaccination, dates back to 1796. An English doctor named Edward when using human subjects in their research. What unique concerns
Jenner observed that people who became infected with cowpox did do you think might arise when human beings are used as research
not get sick from smallpox, a similar but much more virulent disease subjects?
(Figure 1.2.2). Jenner decided to transmit cowpox to a young child to 4. What gave Jenner the idea to develop a vaccine for smallpox?
see if it would protect them from smallpox. He gave the child cowpox 5. Why do you think almost a century passed between the
by scratching liquid from cowpox sores into the child's skin. Then, six development of the first vaccine (for smallpox) and the
weeks later, he scratched liquid from smallpox sores into the child's development of the next vaccine (for cholera)?
skin. As Jenner predicted, the child did not get sick from smallpox. 6. How does science influence your daily life?
Jenner had discovered the first vaccine, although additional testing was
needed to show that it really was effective. EXPLORE MORE
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16712#Explore_More
Almost a century passed before the next vaccine was discovered, a
vaccine for cholera in 1879. Around the same time, French chemist Attributions
Louis Pasteur found convincing evidence that many human diseases 1. Nurse administers a vaccine by Rhoda Baer for National Cancer
are caused by germs. This earned Pasteur the title of "father of germ Institute, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
theory." Since Pasteur's time, vaccines have been discovered for scores 2. Child with smallpox by CDC/James Hicks, public domain via
of additional diseases caused by "germs," and scientists are currently Wikimedia Commons
researching vaccines for many others. 3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0
BENEFITS OF SCIENCE

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1.3: THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
WHY DOES A MOOSE HAVE ANTLERS? Mendel's laws to predict your chances of having a particular blood
Did you ever wonder why a moose, like the one in Figure 1.3.1, type.
grows large antlers? The antlers may grow as wide as 1.8 m (6 ft) Barbara McClintock (Figure 1.3.2) added to our understanding of
from tip to tip! The antlers use up a lot of energy to grow and carry inheritance in the 1950s by discovering how chromosomes exchange
around. They can even get caught in brush and trees. In these ways, information during meiosis. Meiosis is how organisms produce
they would seem to be more of a detriment than a help, so what reproductive cells (such as egg or sperm). McClintock worked with
purpose do the antlers serve? And why do only male moose grow corn and, using the color traits in the kernels demonstrated how
them? If you've ever asked questions such as these about the natural crossing-over is used to exchange information between chromosomes.
world, then you were thinking like a scientist. An understanding of how crossing-over works is essential to our
understanding of inheritance because it explains why using Mendelian
rules of inheritance does not allways produce the correct ratios.

Figure 1.3.1 : Bull moose in Superior National Forest

DEFINING SCIENCE
Science is a distinctive way of gaining knowledge about the natural
world that starts with a question and then tries to answer the question
with evidence and logic. Science is an exciting exploration of all the
whys and hows that any curious person might have about the world.
You can be part of that exploration. Besides your curiosity, all you need
is a basic understanding of how scientists think and how science is
done. In this section, you'll learn how to think like a scientist.

THINKING LIKE A SCIENTIST

Thinking like a scientist rests on certain underlying assumptions.
Scientists assume that:
Nature can be understood through systematic study.
Scientific ideas are open to revision.
Sound scientific ideas withstand the test of time. Figure 1.3.2 : Science is an ongoing process of gaining knowledge.
Science cannot provide answers to all questions. Gregor Mendel discovered laws of inheritance in the mid-1800s.
Barbara McClintok refined these laws in the 1950s. Many other
NATURE IS UNDERSTANDABLE scientists have also contributed to our understanding of inheritance.

Scientists think of nature as a single system controlled by natural laws. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS ARE OPEN TO CHANGE
By discovering natural laws, scientists strive to increase their
Science is more of a process than a set body of knowledge. Scientists
understanding of the natural world. Laws of nature are expressed as
are always testing and revising their ideas, and as new observations are
scientific laws. A scientific law is a statement that describes what
made, existing ideas may be challenged. Ideas may be replaced with
always happens under certain conditions in nature.
new ideas that better fit the facts, but more often existing ideas are
Examples of scientific laws include Mendel's Laws of Inheritance. simply revised. For example, when scientists discovered how genes
These laws were discovered by an Austrian Monk, named Gregor control genetic traits, they didn't throw out Mendel's laws of
Mendel (Figure 1.3.2), in the mid-1800s. The laws describe how inheritance. The new discoveries helped to explain why Mendel's laws
certain traits are inherited from parents by their offspring. Although applied to certain traits but not others. They showed that Mendel's laws
Mendel discovered his laws of inheritance by experimenting with pea are part of a bigger picture. Through many new discoveries over time,
plants, we now know that the laws apply to many other organisms, scientists gradually build an increasingly accurate and detailed
including human beings. The laws describe how we inherit relatively understanding of the natural world.
simple genetic traits, such as blood type, from our parents. For
Occasionally, scientific ideas change radically. Radical changes in
example, if you know the blood types of your parents, you can use
scientific ideas were given the name paradigm shifts by the

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philosopher Thomas Kuhn in 1962. Kuhn agreed that scientific but the media generally do not distinguish between the two types.
knowledge typically accumulates gradually, as new details are added to Therefore, many people may infer that what they read about
established theories. However, Kuhn also argued that from time to frontier science is typical of all science.
time, a scientific revolution occurs in which current theories are Consensus science refers to scientific ideas that have been
abandoned and completely new ideas take their place. researched for a long period of time and for which a great deal
Although there is debate among scientists as to what constitutes a of evidence has accumulated. This type of research generally
paradigm shift, the theory of evolution is widely accepted as a good fits well within current scientific paradigms. A good example of
example in biology. In fact, some scientists argue that it is the only consensus science is global climate change. Data showing the
example of a paradigm shift in biology. Prior to Charles Darwin's impact of increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, due
publication of his theory of evolution in the 1860s, most scientists to human activities, on global warming have been accumulating
believed that God had created living species and that the species on for many decades. Today, virtually all climate scientists agree
Earth had not changed since they were created. Drawing on a great deal that global warming is occurring and that human actions are
of evidence and logical arguments, Darwin demonstrated that species largely responsible for it. However, the few scientists — and
could change and that new species could arise from pre-existing ones. many politicians — who do not agree with the consensus view
This was such a radical change in scientific thinking that Darwin was receive greater media attention because the consensus view is
reluctant to publish his ideas for fear of a backlash from other scientists "old" news. The findings have been coming in for years, and
and the public. Indeed, Darwin was at first ridiculed for new research in the area keeps finding similar results.
his evolutionary theory, but in time, it was widely accepted and became Frontier science, in contrast, refers to scientific ideas that are
a cornerstone of all life sciences. relatively new and have not yet been supported by years of
scientific evidence. Frontier research takes place at the frontiers
SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE MAY BE LONG of knowledge in a particular field. A good example of frontier
LASTING science is research into the presumed link between cholesterol
Many scientific ideas have withstood the test of time. For example, in the diet and cholesterol in the blood. The consensus view for
about 200 years ago, the scientist John Dalton proposed atomic theory many years was that a diet high in cholesterol increases blood
— the theory that all matter is made of tiny particles called atoms. This levels of cholesterol, which may lead, in turn, to cardiovascular
theory is still valid today. During the two centuries since the theory was disease. Recent research challenging this accepted view found
first proposed, a great deal more has been learned about atoms and the that genes play a more significant role than diet in blood levels
even smaller particles of which they are composed. Nonetheless, the of cholesterol and risk of cardiovascular disease.
idea that all matter consists of atoms remains valid. There are many The media tend to focus on frontier science because it seems
other examples of basic scientific ideas that have been tested controversial and may lead to major new scientific breakthroughs.
repeatedly and found to be sound. You will learn about many of them With more research, ideas in frontier science may be supported by
as you study human biology. more evidence, gain wider acceptance, and become consensus
science. In some cases, frontier science that is at odds with a
NOT ALL QUESTIONS CAN BE ANSWERED BY current paradigm may even lead to a paradigm shift. However, the
SCIENCE opposite may happen instead. Additional research may undermine
Science rests on evidence and logic, and evidence comes from the initial findings of frontier research so that the new and exciting
observations. Therefore, science deals only with things that can be ideas are rejected. Unfortunately, when frontier science is later
observed. An observation is anything that is detected through human shown to be mistaken, people may infer that all science, including
senses or with instruments and measuring devices that extend human consensus science, is unreliable.
senses. Things that cannot be observed or measured by current means
Another example of frontier science is research purporting to show
— such as supernatural beings or events — are outside the bounds of
that certain vaccines given to children cause autism. Learn more
science. Consider these two questions about life on Earth:
about this research and how popular media reports of it continue to
Did life on Earth evolve over time? influence public behavior, even though the research findings have
Was life on Earth created by a supernatural deity? since been debunked. You can start with this video below from a
The first question can be answered by science on the basis of scientific mainstream media outlet to gain perspective on the issue:
evidence such as fossils and logical arguments. The second question
could be a matter of belief but no evidence can be gathered to support
or refute it. Therefore, it is outside the realm of science.
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS
Scientific research is often reported in the popular media. In fact,
that's how most people learn about new scientific findings.
Informing the public about scientific research is a valuable media
Video 1.3.1 : Vaccines: An Unhealthy Skepticism (Measles Virus
service, but the types of scientific investigations that are reported Outbreak 2015).
may lead to a distorted public perception of what science is and
how reliable its results are. Why? There are actually two types of
REVIEW
science, often referred to as consensus science and frontier science.
1. Define science.
The latter type of science is the type that usually makes the news,
2. What is the general goal of science?

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 3. Identify four basic assumptions that scientists make when they 12. True or False: A scientific law describes what happens most of the
study the natural world. time under certain conditions.
4. Explain why science cannot provide answers to all questions. 13. What is one piece of evidence that life on Earth evolved over time?
5. Do observations in science have to be made by the naked eye? Can 14. Why do you think that as technology advances, scientific
you think of a way in which scientists might be able to make knowledge expands?
observations about something they cannot directly see?
6. If something cannot be observed, can it be tested scientifically? EXPLORE MORE
7. What do you think would be more susceptible to being https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16713#Explore_More
disproved — conclusions drawn from frontier science or consensus Attributions
science? Explain your reasoning. 1. Moose Superior by USDA Forest Service, public domain via
8. Scientific knowledge builds upon itself. Give an example of a Wikimedia Commons
scientific idea from the reading where the initial idea became 2. Gregor Mendel by Hugo Iltis via the Wellcome Library, London,
extended as science advanced. public domain via Wikimedia Commons
9. What is a dramatic change in scientific understanding is called? 1. Barbara McClintock by mithsonian Institution/Science Service;
10. Discuss this statement: “Scientific ideas are always changing, so Restored by Adam Cuerden, public domain via Wikimedia
they can't be trusted.” Do you think this is true? Commons
11. True or False: Science is a process.
3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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1.4: THEORIES IN SCIENCE
OH VAPOR SO FOUL! through populations, making many people sick, through direct or
An individual in this sketch is holding his nose to avoid breathing indirect contact between individuals.
in the miasma. Miasma refers to a toxic vapor that people believed Fracastoro's idea, though essentially correct, was disregarded by other
for centuries was a cause of many diseases, including cholera and physicians. Instead, Galen's idea of miasma remained the accepted
plague. The idea that miasma causes diseases was first proposed in explanation for the spread of disease for another 300 years. However,
the second century B.C.E. by a prominent Greek physician named evidence for Fracastoro's idea accumulated during that time. Some of
Galen. They believed that miasma, which is identifiable by its foul the earliest evidence was provided by the Dutch lens and microscope
smell, emanates from rotting organic matter and sickens people maker Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who discovered microorganisms. By
who live close enough to inhale it. Miasma was the predominant the 1670s, van Leeuwenhoek had directly observed many different
explanation for disease transmission from the time of Galen until types of microorganisms, including bacteria.
the germ theory of disease became widely accepted in the late
1800s. EVIDENCE FROM PUERPERAL FEVER
One of the first physicians to demonstrate that a microorganism is the
cause of a specific human disease was the Hungarian obstetrician Ignaz
Semmelweis in the 1840s. The disease was puerperal fever, an often-
fatal infection of the female reproductive organs. Puerperal fever is
also called childbed fever because it usually affects women who have
just given birth.
Semmelweis observed that deaths from puerperal fever occurred much
more often when women had been attended by doctors at his hospital
than by midwives at home. Semmelweis also noticed that doctors often
came directly from autopsies to the beds of women about to give birth.
From his observations, Semmelweis inferred that puerperal fever was a
contagious disease caused by some type of matter carried to pregnant
Figure 1.4.1 : A man holding his nose to avoid breathing in a
miasma patients on the hands of doctors from autopsied bodies. As a
consequence, Semmelweis urged doctors and medical students at his
WHAT IS A SCIENTIFIC THEORY? hospital to wash their hands with chlorinated lime water before
examining pregnant women. After this change, the hospital's death rate
Germ theory, which is described in detail below, is one of several
for women who had just given birth fell from 18 to 2 percent, which
scientific theories you will read about in human biology. A scientific
was a 90 percent reduction. Some of Semmelweis' findings are
theory is a broad explanation of events that is widely accepted by the
presented in Figure 1.4.3.
scientific community. To become a theory, an explanation must be
strongly supported by a great deal of evidence. Semmelweis published his results, but they were derided by the
medical profession. The idea that doctors themselves were the carriers
People commonly use the word theory to describe a guess or hunch
of a fatal disease was taken as a personal affront by his fellow
about how or why something happens. For example, you might say, "I
physicians. One of Semmelweis' peers protested indignantly that
think a woodchuck dug this hole in the ground, but it's just a theory."
doctors are gentlemen and that gentlemen's hands are always clean. As
Using the word theory in this way is different from the way it is used in
a result of attitudes such as this, Semmelweis became the target of a
science. A scientific theory is not just a guess or hunch that may or
vicious smear campaign. Eventually, Semmelweis had a mental
may not be true. In science, a theory is an explanation that has a high
breakdown and was committed to a mental hospital, where he died.
likelihood of being correct because it is so well supported by evidence.

GERM THEORY: A HUMAN BIOLOGY EXAMPLE

The germ theory of disease states that contagious diseases are caused
by "germs," or microorganisms, which are organisms that are too small
to be seen without magnification. Microorganisms that cause disease
are called pathogens. Human pathogens include bacteria and viruses,
among other microscopic entities. When pathogens invade humans or
other living hosts, they grow, reproduce, and make their hosts sick.
Diseases caused by germs are contagious because the microorganisms
that cause them can spread from person to person.

FIRST STATEMENT OF GERM THEORY

Germ theory was first clearly stated by an Italian physician named
Girolamo Fracastoro in the mid-1500s. Fracastoro proposed that
contagious diseases are caused by transferable "seed-like entities,"
which we now call germs. According to Fracastoro, germs spread

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 Scientific theories are not static and neither is the world around us.
While we have been studying disease for hundreds of years, there is
always more to learn. One reason for this is that organisms (such as
those that cause disease) are always changing. This evolution of
organisms leads to new diseases such as the COVID-19 pandemic. This
resulted from a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) which is a
descendent of coronaviruses that did not infect humans. Scientists are
continually developing new strategies for learning about and curing
emerging diseases.

Figure 1.4.2: This graph compares mortality rates from 1784-1849 in

two maternity clinics (Wien and Dublin). Rates increased in the Wien
clinic when they started studying pathological anatomy in 1823. The
rates decreased sharply in 1847 when they started using chlorine
handwashing. The Dublin clinic, which did not study pathological
anatomy, shows a low rate of infection throughout the timeframe.

DISCOVERING MICROBES
Throughout the later 1800s, more formal investigations were conducted
on the relationship between germs and disease. Some of the most Figure 1.4.4 : Pennsylvania Commonwealth microbiologist Kerry
important was undertaken by Louis Pasteur (pictured in his lab in Pollard performs a manual extraction of the coronavirus inside the
Figure 1.4.4). Pasteur was a French chemist who did careful extraction lab at the Pennsylvania Department of Health Bureau of
Laboratories on Friday, March 6, 2020.
experiments to show that fermentation, food spoilage, and certain
diseases are caused by microorganisms. REVIEW
He discovered the cause of puerperal fever in 1879 and determined it 1. Define scientific theory.
was an infection caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes 2. Contrast how the word theory is used in science and in everyday
(Figure 1.4.5). Although Pasteur was not the first person to propose language.
germ theory, his investigations clearly supported it. He also became a 3. What is the germ theory of disease? How did it develop?
strong proponent of the theory and managed to convince most of the 4. Explain why Pasteur, rather than Fracastoro or Semmelweis, is
scientific community of its validity. called the father of germ theory.
5. Galen and Fracastoro may have come up with different
explanations for how a disease is spread, but what observations do
you think they made that were similar?
6. Use the explanation of Semmelweis’ research and the graph in
Figure 1.4.2 to answer the following questions.
A. What was Semmelweis’ observation that led him to undertake
this study? What question was he trying to answer?
B. What was the hypothesis (i.e. proposed answer for a scientific
question) that Semmelweis was testing?
C. Why did Semmelweis track death rates from puerperal fever at
Dublin Maternity Hospital where autopsies were not performed?
D. What were the two pieces of evidence shown in the graph that
supported Semmelweis’ hypothesis?
E. Why do you think it was important that Semmelweis compared
Dublin Maternity Hospital and Wien Maternity Clinic over the
same years?
7. What is the difference between a microorganism and a pathogen?
8. Explain why the development of the microscope lent support to the
germ theory of disease.
9. Does the observation of microorganisms alone conclusively prove
that germ theory is correct? Why or why not?
Figure 1.4.3 : Louis Pasteur (left) discovered that the bacterium
Streptococcus pyogenes (right) causes puerperal fever. 10. Who do you think was using more scientific reasoning -
Semmelweis or the physicians that derided his results? Explain
EMERGING DISEASES your answer.

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EXPLORE MORE 3. Louis Pasteur public domain via Wikimedia Common
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16714#Explore_More 1. Streptococcus pyogenes by CDC, public domain via Wikimedia
Commons
ATTRIBUTIONS
4. Microbiologist by Governor Tom Wolf, licensed CC-BY 2.0 via
1. Man holding his nose by Wellcome Collection gallery, CC BY 4.0
Flickr
via Wikimedia Commons
5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
2. Yearly mortality rates by Power.corrupts, public domain via
3.0
Wikimedia Commons

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1.5: SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS
WHAT TURNED THE WATER ORANGE?
If you were walking in the woods and saw this stream, you
probably would wonder what made the water turn orange. Is the
water orange because of something growing in it? Is it polluted
with some kind of chemicals? To answer these questions, you might
do a little research. For example, you might ask local people if they
know why the water is orange, or you might try to learn more about
it online. If you still haven't found answers, you could undertake a
scientific investigation. In short, you could "do" science.

Figure 1.5.1 :Rio Tinto river

"DOING" SCIENCE
Science is more about doing than knowing. Scientists are always trying
to learn more and gain a better understanding of the natural world.
There are basic methods of gaining knowledge that is common to all of
science. At the heart of science is the scientific investigation. A
scientific investigation is a plan for asking questions and testing
possible answers in order to advance scientific knowledge. Figure 1.5.2 : The Scientific Method: The scientific method is a process
for gathering data and processing information. It provides well-defined
Figure 1.5.2 outlines the steps of the scientific method. Science steps to standardize how scientific knowledge is gathered through a
textbooks often present this simple, linear "recipe" for a scientific logical, rational problem-solving method. This diagram shows the steps
investigation. This is an oversimplification of how science is actually of the scientific method, which are listed below.
done, but it does highlight the basic plan and purpose of any scientific
investigation: testing ideas with evidence. We will use this flowchart to MAKING OBSERVATIONS
help explain the overall format for scientific inquiry. A scientific investigation typically begins with observations. An
observation is anything that is detected through human senses or with
Science is actually a complex endeavor that cannot be reduced to a
instruments and measuring devices that enhance human senses. We
single, linear sequence of steps, like the instructions on a package of
usually think of observations as things we see with our eyes, but we
cake mix. Real science is nonlinear, iterative (repetitive), creative,
can also make observations with our sense of touch, smell, taste, or
unpredictable, and exciting. Scientists often undertake the steps of an
hearing. In addition, we can extend and improve our own senses with
investigation in a different sequence, or they repeat the same steps
instruments such as thermometers and microscopes. Other instruments
many times as they gain more information and develop new ideas.
can be used to sense things that human senses cannot detect at all, such
Scientific investigations often raise new questions as old ones are
as ultraviolet light or radio waves.
answered. Successive investigations may address the same questions
but at ever-deeper levels. Alternatively, an investigation might lead to Sometimes chance observations lead to important scientific
an unexpected observation that sparks a new question and takes the discoveries. One such observation was made by the Scottish biologist
research in a completely different direction. Alexander Fleming (Figure 1.5.3) in the 1920s. Fleming's name may
sound familiar to you because he is famous for the discovery in
Knowing how scientists "do" science can help you in your everyday
question. Fleming had been growing a certain type of bacteria on glass
life, even if you aren't a scientist. Some steps of the scientific process
plates in his lab when he noticed that one of the plates had been
— such as asking questions and evaluating evidence — can be applied
contaminated with mold. On closer examination, Fleming observed
to answering real-life questions and solving practical problems.
that the area around the mold was free of bacteria.

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 2. Does what I actually observe match what predicted?
A hypothesis is supported if the actual observations (data) match the
expected observations. A hypothesis is refuted if the actual
observations differ from the expected observations.

TESTING FLEMING'S HYPOTHESIS

To test his hypothesis that the mold kills bacteria, Fleming grew
colonies of bacteria on several glass plates and introduced mold to just
some of the plates. He subjected all of the plates to the same conditions
except for the introduction of mold. Any differences in the growth of
bacteria on the two groups of plates could then be reasonably attributed
to the presence/absence of mold. Fleming's data might have included
actual measurements of bacterial colony size, like the data shown in the
Figure 1.5.3 : Alexander Fleming experimenting with penicillin and
bacteria in his lab in the 1940s. data table below, or they might have been just an indication of the
presence or absence of bacteria growing near the mold. Data like the
ASKING QUESTIONS former, which can be expressed numerically, are called quantitative
Observations often lead to interesting questions. This is especially true data. Data like the later, which can only be expressed in words, such as
if the observer is thinking like a scientist. Having scientific training and present or absent, are called qualitative data.
knowledge is also useful. Relevant background knowledge and logical Table 1.5.1 : Hypothetical data of bacterial growth on plates with and without
thinking help make sense of observations so the observer can form mold introduction.
Bacterial Plate Introduction of Total Area of Bacterial Growth on
particularly salient questions. Fleming, for example, wondered whether
Identification Number Mold to Plate? Plate after 1 Week (mm2)
the mold — or some substance it produced — had killed bacteria on
Bacterial Plate I… 1 yes 48
the plate. Fortunately for us, Fleming didn't just throw out the mold-
Bacterial Plate I… 2 yes 57
contaminated plate. Instead, he investigated his question and in so
Bacterial Plate I… 3 yes 54
doing, discovered the antibiotic penicillin.
Bacterial Plate I… 4 yes 59
Bacterial Plate I… 5 yes 62
HYPOTHESIS FORMATION
Bacterial Plate I… 6 no 66
To find the answer to a question, the next step in a scientific
Bacterial Plate I… 7 no 75
investigation typically is to form a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a
Bacterial Plate I… 8 no 71
possible answer to a scientific question. But it isn’t just any answer. A
Bacterial Plate I… 9 no 69
hypothesis must be based on scientific knowledge. In other words, it
Bacterial Plate I… 10 no 68
shouldn't be at odds with what is already known about the natural
world. A hypothesis also must be logical, and it is beneficial if the ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA
hypothesis is relatively simple. In addition, to be useful in science, a The data scientists gather in their investigations are raw data. These are
hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable. In other words, it must be the actual measurements or other observations that are made in an
possible to subject the hypothesis to a test that generates evidence for investigation, like the measurements of bacterial growth shown in the
or against it, and it must be possible to make observations that would data table above. Raw data usually must be analyzed and interpreted
disprove the hypothesis if it really is false. before they become evidence to test a hypothesis. To make sense of
A hypothesis is often expressed in the form of prediction: If the raw data and decide whether they support a hypothesis, scientists
hypothesis is true, then B will happen to the dependent variable. generally use statistics.
Fleming's hypothesis might have been: "If a certain type of mold is There are two basic types of statistics: descriptive statistics and
introduced to a particular kind of bacteria growing on a plate, the inferential statistics. Both types are important in scientific
bacteria will die." Is this a good and useful hypothesis? The hypothesis investigations.
is logical and based directly on observations. The hypothesis is also
Descriptive statistics describe and summarize the data. They
simple, involving just one type each of mold and bacteria growing on a
include values such as the mean, or average, value in the data.
glass plate. This makes it easy to test. In addition, the hypothesis is
Another basic descriptive statistic is the standard deviation, which
falsifiable. If bacteria were to grow in the presence of the mold, it
gives an idea of the spread of data values around the mean value.
would disprove the hypothesis if it really is false.
Descriptive statistics make it easier to use and discuss the data and
HYPOTHESIS TESTING also to spot trends or patterns in the data.
Inferential statistics help interpret data to test hypotheses. They
Hypothesis testing is at the heart of a scientific investigation. How
determine how likely it is that the actual results obtained in an
would Fleming test his hypothesis? He would gather relevant data as
investigation occurred just by chance rather than for the reason
evidence. Evidence is any type of data that may be used to test a
posited by the hypothesis. For example, if inferential statistics show
hypothesis. Data (singular, datum) are essentially just observations.
that the results of an investigation would happen by chance only 5
The observations may be measurements in an experiment or just
percent of the time, then the hypothesis has a 95 percent chance of
something the researcher notices. Testing a hypothesis then involves
being correctly supported by the results. An example of a statistical
using the data to answer two basic questions:
hypothesis test is a t-test. It can be used to compare the mean value
1. If my hypothesis is true, what would I expect to observe?

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 of the actual data with the expected value predicted by the correlation really did imply causation, then you could conclude that ice
hypothesis. Alternatively, a t-test can be used to compare the mean cream sales cause burglaries or vice versa. It is more likely, however,
value of one group of data with the mean value of another group to that a third variable, such as the weather, influences rates of both ice
determine whether the mean values are significantly different or cream sales and burglaries. Both might increase when the weather is
just different by chance. sunny.
Assume that Fleming obtained the raw data shown in the data table An actual example of the correlation-causation fallacy occurred during
above. We could use a descriptive statistic such as the mean area of the latter half of the 20th century. Numerous studies showed that
bacterial growth to describe the raw data. Based on these data, the women taking hormone replacement therapy (HRT) to treat
mean area of bacterial growth for plates with mold is 56 mm2, and the menopausal symptoms also had a lower-than-average incidence of
mean area for plates without mold is 69 mm2. Is this difference in coronary heart disease (CHD). This correlation was misinterpreted as
bacterial growth significant? In other words, does it provide convincing evidence that HRT protects women against CHD. Subsequent studies
evidence that bacteria are killed by the mold or something produced by that controlled other factors related to CHD disproved this presumed
the mold? Or could the difference in mean values between the two causal connection. The studies found that women taking HRT were
groups of plates be due to chance alone? What is the likelihood that more likely to come from higher socio-economic groups, with better-
this outcome could have occurred even if mold or one of its products than-average diets and exercise regimens. Rather than HRT causing
does not kill bacteria? A t-test could be done to answer this question. lower CHD incidence, these studies concluded that HRT and lower
The p-value for the t-test analysis of the data above is less than 0.05. CHD were both effects of higher socioeconomic status and related
This means that one can say with 95% confidence that the means of the lifestyle factors.
above data are statistically different.
COMMUNICATING RESULTS
DRAWING CONCLUSIONS The last step in a scientific investigation is communicating the results
A statistical analysis of Fleming's evidence showed that it did indeed to other scientists. This is a very important step because it allows other
support his hypothesis. Does this mean that the hypothesis is true? No, scientists to try to repeat the investigation and see if they can produce
not necessarily. That's because a hypothesis can never be proven the same results. If other researchers get the same results, it adds
conclusively to be true. Scientists can never examine all of the possible support to the hypothesis. If they get different results, it may disprove
evidence, and someday evidence might be found that disproves the the hypothesis. When scientists communicate their results, they should
hypothesis. In addition, other hypotheses, as yet unformed, may be describe their methods and point out any possible problems with the
supported by the same evidence. For example, in Fleming's investigation. This allows other researchers to identify any flaws in the
investigation, something else introduced onto the plates with the mold method or think of ways to avoid possible problems in future studies.
might have been responsible for the death of the bacteria. Although a Repeating a scientific investigation and reproducing the same results is
hypothesis cannot be proven true without a shadow of a doubt, the called replication. It is a cornerstone of scientific research. Replication
more evidence that supports a hypothesis, the more likely the is not required for every investigation in science, but it is highly
hypothesis is to be correct. Similarly, the better the match between recommended for those that produce surprising or particularly
actual observations and expected observations, the more likely a consequential results. In some scientific fields, scientists routinely try
hypothesis is to be true. to replicate their own investigations to ensure the reproducibility of the
Many times, competing hypotheses are supported by evidence. When results before they communicate them.
that occurs, how do scientists conclude which hypothesis is better?Scientists may communicate their results in a variety of ways. The
There are several criteria that may be used to judge competing most rigorous way is to write up the investigation and results in the
hypotheses. For example, scientists are more likely to accept a form of an article and submit it to a peer-reviewed scientific journal for
hypothesis that: publication. The editor of the journal provides copies of the article to
explains a wider variety of observations. several other scientists who work in the same field. These are the peers
explains observations that were previously unexplained. in the peer-review process. The reviewers study the article and tell the
generates more expectations and is thus more testable. editor whether they think it should be published, based on the validity
is more consistent with well-established theories. of the methods and significance of the study. The article may be
is more parsimonious, that is, is a simpler and less convoluted rejected outright, or it may be accepted, either as is or with revisions.
explanation. Only articles that meet high scientific standards are ultimately
published.
CORRELATION-CAUSATION FALLACY
Many statistical tests used in scientific research calculate correlations REVIEW
between variables. Correlation refers to how closely related two data 1. Outline the steps of a typical scientific investigation.
sets are, which may be a useful starting point for further investigation. 2. What is a scientific hypothesis? What characteristics must a
However, correlation is also one of the most misused types of hypothesis have to be useful in science?
evidence, primarily because of the logical fallacy that correlation 3. Explain how you could do a scientific investigation to answer this
implies causation. In reality, just because two variables are correlated question: Which of the following surfaces in my home has the most
does not necessarily mean that either variable causes the other. bacteria: the house phone, TV remote, bathroom sink faucet, or
A simple example can be used to demonstrate the correlation-causation outside door handle? Form a hypothesis and state what results
fallacy. Assume a study found that both ice cream sales and burglaries would support it and what results would refute it.
are correlated; that is, rates of both events increase together. If

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4. Use the Table 1.5.1 above that shows data on the effect of mold on C. Would the size of each tumor be considered raw data or
bacterial growth to answer the following questions descriptive statistics?
A. Look at the areas of bacterial growth for the plates in just one D. The scientist determines the average decrease in tumor size for
group – either with mold (plates 1-5) or without mold (plates 6- the drug-treated group. Is this raw data, descriptive statistics, or
10). Is there a variation within the group? What do you think inferential statistics?
could be possible sources of variation within the group? E. The average decrease in tumor size in the drug-treated group is
B. Compare the area of bacterial growth for plate 1 vs. plate 7. larger than the average decrease in the untreated group. Can the
Does this appear to be more of a difference between the mold scientist assume that the drug shrinks tumors? If not, what do
group vs. the no mold group than if you compared plate 5 vs. they need to do next?
plate 6? Using these differences among the individual data 6. Do you think results published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal
points, explain why it is important to find the mean of each are more or less likely to be scientifically valid than those in a self-
group when analyzing the data. published article or book? Why or why not
C. Why do you think it would be important for other researchers to 7. Explain why real science is usually “nonlinear”?
try to replicate the findings in this study?
5. A scientist is performing a study to test the effects of an anti-cancer EXPLORE MORE
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drug in mice with tumors. They look in the cages and observes that
the mice that received the drug for two weeks appear more ATTRIBUTIONS
energetic than those that did not receive the drug. At the end of the
1. Rio Tinto River by Carol Stoker, NASA, public domain via
study, the scientist performs surgery on the mice to determine
Wikimedia Commons
whether their tumors have shrunk. Answer the following questions
2. Scientific Method by OpenStax, licensed CC BY 4.0
about the experiment.
3. Alexander Flemming by Ministry of Information Photo Division
A. Is the energy level of the mice treated with the drug a qualitative
Photographer, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
or quantitative observation?
4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
B. At the end of the study, the scientist measures the size of the
3.0
tumors. Is this qualitative or quantitative data?

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1.6: SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS
Table 1.6.1 : Lind's Scurvy Experiment
SEEING SPOTS
Pair of Subjects Daily Supplement to the Diet Received by this Pair
The spots on this child's tongue are an early sign of vitamin C
Pair of Subjects 1 1 quart of cider
deficiency, which is also called scurvy. This disorder, which may be
Pair of Subjects 2 5 drops of sulfuric acid
fatal, is uncommon today because foods high in vitamin C are
Pair of Subjects 3 6 spoons of vinegar
relatively available. They include tomatoes, peppers, and citrus
Pair of Subjects 4 1 cup of seawater
fruits such as oranges, lemons, and limes. However, scurvy was a
Pair of Subjects 5 2 oranges and 1 lemon
well-known problem on navy ships in the 1700s. It was said that
Pair of Subjects 6 spicy paste and a drink of barley water
scurvy caused more deaths in the British fleet than did French and
Spanish arms. At that time, the cause of scurvy was unknown and Lind's experiment ended after just five days when the fresh citrus fruits
vitamins had not yet been discovered. Anecdotal evidence ran out for pair 5. However, the two sailors in this pair had already
suggested that eating citrus fruits might cure scurvy. However, no fully recovered or greatly improved. The sailors in pair 1 (receiving the
one knew for certain until 1747, when a Scottish naval physician quart of cider) also showed some improvement, but sailors in the other
named John Lind did an experiment to test the idea. Lind's pairs showed none.
experiment was one of the first clinical experiments in the history
Can you identify the independent and dependent variables in Lind's
of medicine.
experiment? The independent variable is the daily supplement received
by the pairs. The dependent variable is the improvement/non
improvement in scurvy symptoms. Lind's results supported the citrus
fruit cure for scurvy, and it was soon adopted by the British navy with
good results. However, the fact that scurvy is caused by a vitamin C
deficiency was not discovered until almost 200 years later.

SAMPLING
Lind's scurvy experiment included just 12 subjects. This is a very small
Figure 1.6.1 : Scorbutic tongue sample by modern scientific standards. The sample in an experiment or
other investigation consists of the individuals or events that are actually
studied. It rarely includes the entire population because doing so would
WHAT IS AN EXPERIMENT?
likely be impractical or even impossible.
An experiment is a special type of scientific investigation that is
performed under controlled conditions. Like all investigations, an There are two types of errors that may occur by studying a sample
experiment generates evidence to test a hypothesis. But unlike some instead of the entire population: chance error and bias.
other types of investigations, an experiment involves manipulating A chance error occurs if the sample is too small. The smaller the
some factors in a system in order to see how it affects the outcome. sample is, the greater the chance that it does not fairly represent the
Ideally, experiments also involve controlling as many other factors as whole population. Chance error is mitigated by using a larger
possible in order to isolate the cause of the experimental results. sample.
An experiment generally tests how one particular variable is affected Bias occurs if the sample is not selected randomly with respect to a
by some other specific variable. The affected variable is called the variable in the study. This problem is mitigated by taking care to
dependent variable, or outcome variable. The variable that affects the choose a randomized sample.
dependent variable is called the independent variable. It is also called A reliable experiment must be designed to minimize both of these
the manipulated variable because this is the variable that is potential sources of error. You can see how the sources of error were
manipulated by the researcher. Any other variables (control variable) addressed in another landmark experiment: Jonas Salk's famous 1953
that might also affect the dependent variable are held constant, so the trial of his newly developed polio vaccine. Salk's massive experiment
effects of the independent variable alone are measured. has been called the "greatest public health experiment in history."

LIND'S SCURVY EXPERIMENT SALK'S POLIO VACCINE EXPERIMENT

Lind began his scurvy experiment on board a British ship after it had Imagine a nation-wide epidemic of a contagious flu-like illness that
been at sea for two months and sailors had started showing signs of attacks mainly children and often causes paralysis. That's exactly what
scurvy. He chose a group of 12 sailors with scurvy and divided the happened in the U.S. during the first half of the 20th century. Starting
group into 6 pairs. All 12 sailors received the same diet, but each pair in the early 1900s, there were repeated cycles of polio epidemics, and
also received a different daily supplement to the diet (Table 1.6.1). each seemed to be stronger than the one before. Many children ended
up on life support in so-called "iron lungs" (see photo below) because
their breathing muscles were paralyzed by the disease.

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 Well-done experiments are generally the most rigorous and reliable
scientific investigations. However, their hallmark feature of
manipulating variables to test outcomes is not possible, practical, or
ethical in all investigations. As a result, many ideas cannot be tested
through experimentation. For example, experiments cannot be used to
test ideas about what our ancestors ate millions of years ago or how
long-term cigarette smoking contributes to lung cancer. In the case of
our ancestors, it is impossible to study them directly. Researchers must
rely instead on indirect evidence, such as detailed observations of their
fossilized teeth. In the case of smoking, it is unethical to expose human
subjects to harmful cigarette smoke. Instead, researchers may use large
Figure 1.6.2 : This photo shows the iron lung ward in a California observational studies of people who are already smokers, with
hospital in 1953, the same year that Salk undertook his nationwide nonsmokers as controls, to look for correlations between smoking
vaccine experiment.
habits and lung cancer.
Polio is caused by a virus, and there is still no cure for this potentially
devastating illness. Fortunately, it can now be prevented with vaccines.
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS
The first polio vaccine was discovered by Jonas Salk in 1952. After Lind undertook his experiment to test the effects of citrus fruits on
testing the vaccine on himself and his family members to assess its scurvy at a time when seamen were dying by the thousands from
safety, Salk undertook a nationwide experiment to test the effectiveness this nutritional disease as he explored the world. Today's explorers
of the vaccine using more than a million schoolchildren as subjects. It's are astronauts in space, and their nutrition is also crucial to the
hard to imagine a nationwide trial of an experimental vaccine using success of their missions. However, maintaining good nutrition in
children as "guinea pigs." It would never happen today. However, in astronauts in space can be challenging. One problem is that
1953, polio struck such fear in the hearts of parents that they accepted astronauts tend to eat less while in space. Not only are they very
Salk's word that the vaccine was safe and gladly permitted their busy on their missions, but they may also get tired of the space food
children to participate in the study. rations. The environment of space is another problem. Factors such
as microgravity and higher radiation exposure can have major
Salk's experiment was very well designed. First, it included two very
effects on human health and require nutritional adjustments to help
large, random samples of children — 600,000 in the treatment group,
counteract them. A novel way of studying astronaut nutrition and
called the experimental group, and 600,000 in the untreated group,
health is provided by identical twin astronauts Scott and Mark
called the control group. Using very large and randomized samples
Kelly, (Figure 1.6.3).
reduced the potential for chance error and bias in the experiment.
Children in the experimental group were injected with the experimental
polio vaccine. Children in the control group were injected with a
harmless saline (saltwater) solution. The saline injection was a placebo.
A placebo is a "fake" treatment that actually has no effect on health. It
is included in trials of vaccines and other medical treatments so
subjects will not know in which group (control or experimental) they
have been placed. The use of a placebo helps researchers control for
the placebo effect. This is a psychologically-based reaction to a
treatment that occurs just because the subject is treated, even if the
treatment has no real effect.
Experiments in which a placebo is used are generally blind Figure 1.6.3 : Homozygote twin astronauts Mark and Scott Kelly at
experiments because the subjects are "blind" to their experimental the Johnson Space Center.
group. This helps prevent bias in the experiment. Often, even the The Kellys are the first identical twin astronauts, but twin studies
researchers do not know which subjects are in each group. This type of are nothing new. Scientists have used identical (homozygotic) twins
experiment is called a double-blind experiment because both subjects as research subjects for many decades. Identical twins have the
and researchers are "blind" to which subjects are in each group. Salk's same genes, so any differences between them generally can be
vaccine trial was a double-blind experiment, and double-blind attributed to environmental influences rather than genetic causes.
experiments are now considered the gold standard of clinical trials of Mark Kelly spent almost a full year on the International Space
vaccines, therapeutic drugs, and other medical treatments. Station (ISS) between 2015 and 2016, while his twin, Scott Kelly,
Salk's polio vaccine proved to be highly successful. Analysis of data stayed on the ground, serving as a control in the experiment. You
from his study revealed that the vaccine was 80 to 90 percent effective may have noticed a lot of media coverage of Mark Kelly's return to
in preventing polio. Almost overnight, Salk was hailed as a national Earth in March 2016, because his continuous sojourn in space was
hero. He appeared on the cover of Time magazine and was invited to the longest of any American astronaut at that time. NASA is
the White House. Within a few years, millions of children had received learning a great deal about the effects of long-term space travel on
the polio vaccine. By 1961, the incidence of polio in the U.S. had been the human body by measuring and comparing nutritional indicators
reduced by 96 percent. and other health data in the twins. Watch this NASA video to learn
more about NASA's nutritional experiments involving the Kelly
LIMITS ON EXPERIMENTATION twins.

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 5. Fill in the blanks. The _____________ variable is manipulated to
see the effects on the ___________ variable.
6. True or False. In studies of identical twins, the independent
variable is their genetics.
7. True or False. Experiments cannot be done on humans.
8. True or False. Larger sample sizes are generally better than smaller
ones in scientific experiments.
HRP Nutrition In Space: An Orange a Day Keeps Scurvy Away. 9. Answer the following questions about Lind’s scurvy experiment.
Identical twins who were reared apart from birth make especially A. Why do you think it was important that the sailors’ diets were
good subjects for studying the effects of genes vs. the environment all kept the same, other than the daily supplement?
on human health, development, and behavior. Watch the news B. Can you think of some factors other than diet that could have
report below to learn more. In the video, a researcher who potentially been different between the sailors that might have
specializes in studying twin pairs explains why they are so affected the outcome of the experiment?
important as research subjects. C. Why do you think the sailors who drank cider had some
improvement in their scurvy symptoms?
10. Explain why double-blind experiments are considered to be more
rigorous than regular blind experiments.
11. Why are studies using identical twins so useful?
12. Do you think it is necessary to include a placebo (such as an
injection with saline in a drug testing experiment) in experiments
that use animals? Why or why not?
Twins: Is it All in the Genes?
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REVIEW
1. How do experiments differ from other types of scientific ATTRIBUTIONS
investigations? 1. Scorbutic tongue by CDC, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
2. Identify the independent and dependent variables in Salk's 2. Iron lung ward by Food and Drug Administration, public domain
nationwide polio vaccine trial. via Wikimedia Commons
3. Compare and contrast chance error and bias in sampling. How can 3. Mark and Scott Kelly by NASA/Robert Markowitz, public domain
each type of error be minimized? via Wikimedia Commons
4. What is the placebo effect? Explain how Salk's experimental design 4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
controlled for it. 3.0

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1.7: EXTRAPOLATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS
UP IN SMOKE the time of the study. In other words, the two variables seemed to be
You've probably seen this warning label dozens of times. It's been associated.
required on cigarette packs in the U.S. since 1965, one year after Cross-sectional studies are relatively cheap and easy to do, but their
the U.S. Surgeon General first issued a report linking cigarette results are weak, so they are rarely used alone. More often, a researcher
smoking with diseases such as lung cancer. The report was based uses a cross-sectional study to find variables that may be linked and
on thousands of research articles, including important research then does a case-control or cohort study to further investigate a
results published by British scientists Richard Doll and Austin possible relationship between the two variables.
Bradford Hill. Starting in 1950, Doll and Hill conducted large- CASE-CONTROL STUDIES
scale, long-term observational studies on smoking and lung cancer
A case-control study is a type of observational study that compares a
and demonstrated a strong correlation between the two.
group of subjects having a trait of interest (cases) with a group of
similar subjects not having the trait (controls). This type of study is
retrospective. Subjects are asked to report their behaviors in the past in
an attempt to find correlations between specific past behaviors and
current status. The retrospective nature of case-control studies is their
main weakness. Subjects' responses may be inaccurate because they
forget or are dishonest about past habits.
A classic example of a case-control study is the early research on
Figure 1.7.1 : Surgeon General's warning on a box of cigarettes: smoking and lung cancer carried out by Doll and Hill (Figure 1.7.2). In
Smoking causes lung cancer, heart disease, emphysema and may 1950, the two scientists interviewed 700 lung cancer patients (cases)
complicate pregnancy. and 700 people without lung cancer (controls). They gathered
information on past smoking habits and other characteristics of people
OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES in the two groups. When they compared the two groups, they found a
Many questions in human biology are investigated with observational strong association between past smoking behavior and current lung
as opposed to experimental studies. An observational study measures cancer status.
characteristics in a sample but does not attempt to manipulate variables
of interest. A simple example of an observational study is a political
poll. A sample of adults might be asked how old they are and which of
two candidates they favor. The study provides a snapshot in time of
potential voters' opinions and how they differ by age of the respondent.
Whether the results of the study apply to the population as a whole
depends mainly on how large and random the sample is.
How is an observational study different from an experiment — the gold
standard of scientific research studies? The main difference is how
subjects are treated. In an observational study, no attempt is made to
influence the subjects in any way. In an experiment, in contrast, the
researcher applies a treatment to a group of subjects and attempts to Figure 1.7.2 : Austin Bradford Hill was named a British knight for his
isolate the effects of the treatment on an outcome variable by important research in public health, including his work with Richard
comparing the experimental group with a control group. For example, Doll establishing a link between tobacco smoking and lung cancer.
in 1954, Jonas Salk did an experimental trial of his newly discovered COHORT STUDIES
polio vaccine by giving it to a very large sample of children. Children A cohort study is an observational study in which a group of similar
in an equally large control group were given a harmless injection of a subjects (the cohort) is selected at the start of the study and then
saline solution but no vaccine. Salk then compared the two groups of followed over time. This type of study is prospective. The researchers
children and determined that the vaccine was 80 to 90 percent effective collect data on the cohort periodically for months or even years into the
in preventing polio. future. Because the researchers collect the information directly, the data
are likely to be more accurate than the self-reported recall data in case-
TYPES OF OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES
control studies. Prospective data also allow researchers to establish the
There are three different types of observational studies: cross-sectional,
sequence of progression of disease states or other conditions of interest.
case-control, and cohort studies. All three types have pros and cons.
On the other hand, cohort studies are the most costly and difficult
CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES observational studies to undertake.
A cross-sectional study is a type of observational study that collects One of the largest-ever cohort studies was undertaken by Doll and Hill
data from a sample of subjects just once at a certain point in time. The in 1951. It was based on their earlier case-control study and further
political poll described above is a simple example of a cross-sectional investigated the link between smoking and lung cancer. The cohort that
study. A possible link between smoking and lung cancer was also first began the study included almost 50,000 British male physicians, and
suggested by cross-sectional studies. Researchers found a higher rate of they were followed by the researchers over the next 50 years. Initial
lung cancer in people who smoked than in those who did not smoke at

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findings of the study were first reported in 1954, and then updated cause changes in another. Unfortunately, when observational studies
results were reported periodically after that. The last report was are reported in the news media, this distinction is not often made.
published in 2004, and it reflected on the previous 50 years of research Instead, a variable that is correlated with another in an observational
findings. This study provided even stronger evidence for the study may be reported incorrectly as causing changes in the other
correlation between smoking and lung cancer. variable.
Numerous other research studies, including experimental studies, have In observational studies, it is always possible that some other variable
shown conclusively that smoking causes lung cancer, among many affects both of the variables of interest and explains the correlation. An
other health problems. Figure 1.7.3 shows some of the ill effects that example of the confusion of correlation and causation in observational
have since been demonstrated to be caused by smoking. studies is the case of the health effects of coffee. Many early
observational studies of coffee consumption and health found a
positive correlation between drinking coffee and health problems such
as heart disease and cancer. Does this mean that drinking coffee causes
these health problems? Not necessarily, although news media have
reported this conclusion. Looking more deeply into the issue reveals
that coffee drinking is also associated with a less health-conscious
lifestyle. People who drink coffee tend to practice other behaviors that
may negatively impact their health, such as smoking cigarettes or
drinking alcohol. Larger observational studies in which such lifestyle
differences were taken into account have found no correlation between
coffee consumption and health problems. In fact, they have found that
moderate coffee consumption may actually have some health benefits.

RATIONALE FOR OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES

If observational studies cannot establish causation, why are they done?
Why aren't all research questions investigated experimentally? There
are several important reasons to do observational studies:
An observational study may be the only type of study that is
feasible for certain research questions because experiments are
Figure 1.7.3: Lung cancer is just one of many adverse effects on the impossible, impractical, or unethical to undertake. For example, it
human body that research studies have shown to be caused by smoking. would be unethical to do an experiment on smoking and health in
The more common adverse effects are in bold and include: myocardial which subjects in the smoking sample are deliberately exposed to
infarction, system atherosclerosis, lung cancer, chronic bronchitis and tobacco smoke and then observed to see if they develop lung
emphysema. Other effects include: larynx cancer, esophagus cancer,
cancer.
bladder cancer, oral cavity cancer, peptic ulcer and pancreas cancer.
An observational study is generally cheaper and easier to conduct
CORRELATION VS. CAUSATION IN OBSERVATIONAL than an experimental study.
STUDIES An observational study usually can study more subjects and obtain
a larger set of data than an experimental study.
Observational studies can generally establish correlation but not
necessarily causation. Correlation is an association between two
MODELS
variables in which a change in one variable is associated with a change
Another way to gain scientific knowledge without experimentation is
in the other variable. Correlation may be strong or weak. It can also be
with modeling. A model is a representation of part of the real world.
positive or negative.
Did you ever build a model car or airplane? Scientific models are
If two variables are shown to have a positive correlation, both something like that. They represent the real world but are simpler. This
variables change in the same direction. For example, an is one reason that models are especially useful for investigating
observational study might find that more smoking is correlated with complex systems. By studying a much simpler model, it is easier to
a higher risk of lung cancer. In other words, as smoking goes up, so learn how the real system works.
does lung cancer.
As a hypothesis, a model must be evaluated. It is assessed by criteria
If two variables are shown to have a negative correlation, they
such as how well it represents the real world, what limitations it has,
change in opposite directions. For example, an observational study
and how useful it is. The usefulness of a model depends on how well
might find that people who exercise more are less likely to develop
its predictions match observations of the real world. Keep in mind that
lung cancer. In other words, as exercise increases, lung cancer
even when a model's predictions match real-world observations, it
decreases.
doesn't prove that the model is correct or that it is the only model that
One of the main differences between observational studies and works.
experiments is the issue of correlation vs. causation. Because
observational studies do not control all variables, any correlations they MODELING BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
show between variables cannot be interpreted as one variable causing Many phenomena in biology occur as part of a complex system,
another. In experiments, in contrast, all possible variables are whether the system is a cell, a human organ such as the brain, or an
controlled, making it safer to conclude that changes in one variable entire ecosystem. Models of biological systems can range from simple

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two-dimensional diagrams to complex computer simulations. Figure You may get most of your news from the Internet. You probably
1.7.3 depicts a model of nicotine's effect on cells in the nervous also research personal questions and term paper topics online.
system. Unlike the information in newspapers and most television news
broadcasts, information on the Internet is not regulated for quality
or accuracy. Almost anybody can publish almost anything they
wish on the web. The responsibility is on the user to evaluate
Internet resources. How do you know if the resources you find
online are reliable? The questions below will help you assess their
reliability.
1. How did you find the web page? If you just "googled" a topic or
question, the search results may or may not be reliable. More
likely to be trustworthy are web pages recommended by a
faculty member, cited in an academic source, or linked with a
reputable website.
2. What is the website's domain? If its URL includes .edu, it is
affiliated with a college or university. If it includes .gov, it is
Figure 1.7.4 : Nicotine binds to specific receptors on the presynaptic affiliated with the federal government, and if it includes .org it
neuron. When nicotine binds to receptors at the cell body, it excites the
neuron so that it fires more action potentials (electrical signals, is affiliated with a nonprofit organization. Such websites are
represented by jagged shape in lower left of figure) that move toward generally more trustworthy sources of information than .com
the synapse, causing more dopamine release (not shown in figure). websites, which are commercial or business websites.
When nicotine binds to nicotine receptors at the nerve terminal, the 3. Who is the author of the web page? Is the author affiliated with
amount of dopamine released in response to an action potential is
increased. a recognized organization or institution? Are the author's
credentials listed, and are they relevant to the information on the
MODEL ORGANISMS page? Is current contact information for the author provided?
Using other organisms as models of the human body is another way 4. Is the information trustworthy? Are sources cited for facts and
models are used in human biology research. A model organism is a figures? Is a bibliography provided? Does there seem to be a
nonhuman species that is extensively studied to understand particular particular bias or point of view presented, or does the
biological phenomena. The expectation is that discoveries made in the information seem fair and balanced? Does the page contain
model organism will provide insights into the workings of the human advertising that might impact the content of information that is
organism. In researching human diseases, for example, model included?
organisms allow for a better understanding of the disease process 5. Is the information current? When was the page created and last
without the added risk of harming actual human beings. The model updated? Are the links on the page current and functional?
species chosen should react to the disease or its treatment in a way that
Put this advice into practice. Go online and find several web pages
resembles human physiology. Although biological activity in a model
that provide information on the topic of smoking and lung cancer.
organism does not ensure the same effect in humans, many drugs,
Which websites do you think provide the most reliable
treatments, and cures for human diseases are developed in part with the
information? Why?
guidance of model organisms.
Model organisms that have been used in human biology research range REVIEW
from bacteria such as E. coli to nonhuman primates such as
1. Explain why observational studies cannot establish causation.
chimpanzees. The mouse Mus musculus, pictured below, is a
Describe an example to illustrate your explanation.
commonly used model organism in human medical research. For
2. Compare and contrast the three types of observational studies
example, it has been widely used to study diet-induced obesity and
described above.
related health problems. In fact, the mouse model of diet-induced
3. Identify three possible reasons for doing an observational study.
obesity has become one of the most important tools for understanding
4. Why are models commonly used in human biology research?
the interplay of high-fat Western diets and the development of obesity.
5. Multiple answers: What kind of a study involves the recall of
variables that occurred in the past? What kind involves the
observation of variables from the beginning?
A. positive correlation; negative correlation
B. negative correlation; positive correlation
C. retrospective; prospective
D. prospective; retrospective
6. True or False. A positive correlation means there are health
benefits to the variable under investigation.
7. True or False. A cohort is a group of subjects of different ages,
Figure 1.7.5 : The mouse Mus musculus is commonly used as a model
organism in human biology research. weights, genders, and health statuses.
8. A study is done to investigate whether soda consumption influences
FEATURE: RELIABLE SOURCES
the development of diabetes. The subjects are individuals recently

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 diagnosed with diabetes compared to controls who do not have 10. Explain why both observational and experimental investigations are
diabetes. All of the respondents are asked how many times a week useful in science.
they drank soda over the last two years. Answer the following
questions about this scientific investigation. EXPLORE MORE
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16892#Explore_More
A. What type of observational study is this?
B. The subjects with diabetes are “matched” to the controls, ATTRIBUTIONS
meaning that the researchers tried to minimize the effect of
1. Tobacco package warning by CDC/ Debora Cartagena, public
other variables outside of the variable of interest (i.e. soda
domain via Wikimedia Commons
consumption). What do you think some of those other variables
2. Sir Austin Bradford Hill by Wellcome Collection gallery, licensed
could be?
CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
C. Do you think the data about soda consumption will be accurate?
3. Adverse effects of tobacco by Mikael Häggström, released into the
Why or why not?
public domain via Wikimedia Commons
D. How could you change the study to get more accurate data on
4. Nicotine increases dopamine by National Institute of Health, public
whether there is a relationship between soda consumption and
domain via Wikimedia Commons
diabetes? Explain why your new study would be more accurate.
5. Mouse by US government, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
9. Do you think that computer simulation models of biological 6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
systems can be accurate without observations or experiments on 3.0
actual living organisms or tissues?

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1.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: SHOT AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
2000 (Figure 1.8.2). Globally, measles fell 60 percent from an
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: TO GIVE A SHOT estimated 873,000 deaths in 1999 to 164,000 in 2008. This advance is
OR NOT attributed entirely to a comprehensive vaccination program.
New mother Elena left her pediatrician’s office still unsure whether to
vaccinate baby Juan. Dr. Rodriguez gave Elena a list of reputable
sources where she could look up information about the safety of
vaccines herself, such as the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC). Elena reads that the consensus within the scientific
community is that there is no link between vaccines and autism. She
finds a long list of studies published in peer-reviewed scientific
journals that disprove any link. Additionally, some of the studies are
“meta-analyses” that analyzed the findings from many individual
studies. Elena is reassured by the fact that many different researchers,
using a large number of subjects in numerous well-controlled and well-
reviewed studies, all came to the same conclusion.

Figure 1.8.2 : Measles cases reported in the United States, 1944-2007.

From 1944 to 1963 measles cases fluctuated between 100 - 800 cases
per thousand individuals. The measles vaccine was licensed in 1963
and the number of cases plummeted to less than 100 per thousand
individuals. A second dose was recommended in 1988 an causes the
total number of cases to fall to nearly zero.
However, Elena came across news about a measles outbreak that
originated in California in 2014, 2015, and the latest outbreak of 2019
(Figure 1.8.3). Measles wasn’t just a disease of the past as she had
thought! She learned that measles and whooping cough, which had
previously been rare thanks to widespread vaccinations, are now on the
rise, and that people choosing not to vaccinate their children seems to
be one of the contributing factors. Elena realized that it is important to
Figure 1.8.1 : Infant on parent's lap vaccinate their baby against these diseases, not only to protect the
Elena also went back to the author’s website that originally scared baby from their potentially deadly effects but to also protect others in
her about the safety of vaccines. She found that the author was not a the population.
medical doctor or scientific researcher, but rather was a self-proclaimed In her reading, Elena learns that scientists do not yet know the causes
“child wellness expert.” Also, the doctor sold books and advertising on of autism, but she feels reassured by the abundance of data that
their site, some of which were related to claims of vaccine injury. disproves any link with vaccines. She thinks that the potential benefit
Elena realized that the doctor was both an unqualified and potentially of protecting their baby’s health against deadly diseases outweighs any
biased source of information. unsubstantiated claims about vaccines. She will be making an
Also, Elena realized that some of the doctor's arguments were based on appointment to get baby Juan their shots soon.
correlations between autism and vaccines, but, as the saying goes,
“correlation does not imply causation.” For instance, the recent rise in
autism rates may have occurred during the same time period as an
increase in the number of vaccines given in childhood, but Elena could
think of many other environmental and social factors that have also
changed during this time period. There are just too many variables to
come to the conclusion that vaccines, or anything else, are the cause of
the rise in autism rates based on that type of argument alone. Also,
Elena learned that the age of onset of autism symptoms happens to Figure 1.8.3 : Measles cases reported in the US as of June 2019 - 1044
typically be around the time that the MMR vaccine is first given, so the cases of measles were reported in the states of Arizona, California,
apparent association in the timing may just be a coincidence. Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa,
Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, New
Public health, sanitation, and the use of antibiotics and vaccines have Mexico, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma,
lessened the impact of infectious disease on human populations. Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Tennessee, Virginia, and Washington.
Through vaccination programs, better nutrition, and vector control This is much higher than any year in the past decade where the number
(carriers of disease), international agencies have significantly reduced of cases flucuated from 55 to 667.
the global infectious disease burden. Reported cases of measles in the
CHAPTER SUMMARY
United States dropped from around 700,000 a year in the 1950s to
Science is a distinctive way of gaining knowledge about the natural
practically zero by the late 1990s and declared eradicated by the year
world that is based on the use of evidence to logically test ideas. As

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 such, science is more of a process than a body of knowledge. 10. True or False. A scientific investigation always follows the same
A scientific theory, such as the germ theory of disease, is the sequence of steps in a linear fashion.
highest level of explanation in science. A theory is a broad 11. True or False. Data that does not support a hypothesis is not useful.
explanation for many phenomena that is widely accepted because it 12. True or False. Experimentation is the only valid type of scientific
is supported by a great deal of evidence. investigation.
The scientific investigation is the cornerstone of science as a 13. True or False. Correlation does not imply causation.
process. An investigation is a procedure for gathering evidence to 14. Explain why science is considered an iterative process.
test a hypothesis. 15. A statistical measurement called a P-value is often used in science
A scientific experiment is a type of scientific investigation in which to determine whether or not a difference between two groups is
the researcher manipulates variables under controlled conditions to actually significant or simply due to chance. A P-value of 0.03
test expected outcomes. Experiments are the gold standard for means that there is a 3% chance that the difference is due to chance
scientific investigations and can establish causation between alone. Do you think a P-value of 0.03 would indicate that the
variables. difference is likely to be significant? Why or why not?
Nonexperimental scientific investigations such as observational 16. a. Why is it important that scientists communicate their findings to
studies and modeling may be undertaken when experiments are others? How do they usually do this?
impractical, unethical, or impossible. Observational studies 17. What is a “control group” in science?
generally can establish correlation but not causation between 18. In a scientific experiment, why is it important to only change one
variables. variable at a time?
19. Which is the dependent variable – the variable that is manipulated
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW or the variable that is being affected by the change?
1. Which of the following is the best example of “doing science?” 20. Which is most likely to show or disprove causation between two
A. memorizing the processes of the water cycle variables?
B. learning how to identify trees from their leaves A. a controlled experiment
C. learning the names of all the bones in the human body B. an observational study
D. making observations of wildlife while hiking in the woods C. the development of a hypothesis
2. A scientist develops a new idea based on their observations of D. an observation
nature. What should they do next? 21. You see an ad for a “miracle supplement” called NQP3 that claims
A. think of a way to test the idea the supplement will reduce belly fat. They say it works by reducing
B. claim that they have discovered a new theory the hormone cortisol and by providing your body with missing
C. reject any evidence that conflicts with the idea unspecified “nutrients”, but they do not cite any peer-reviewed
D. look only for evidence that supports the idea clinical studies. They show photographs of three people who appear
slimmer after taking the product. A board-certified plastic surgeon
3. Which of the following is defined as a possible answer to a
endorses the product on television. Answer the following questions
scientific question?
about this product.
A. an observation
A. Do you think that because a doctor endorsed the product, it
B. data
really works? Explain your answer.
C. a hypothesis
B. Do you think the photographs are good evidence that the
D. statistics
product works? Why or why not?
4. Do scientists usually come up with a hypothesis in the absence of
any observations? Explain your answer. ATTRIBUTIONS
5. Why does a good hypothesis have to be falsifiable?
1. Sad mom by dirvish, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
6. Name one scientific law.
2. Measles by 2over0, released into the public domain via Wikimedia
7. Name one scientific theory.
Commons
8. Give an example of a scientific idea that was later discredited.
3. Measles cases by CDC, public domain
9. Would the idea that the Earth revolves around the Sun be
4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
considered consensus science or frontier science?
3.0

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
2: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN BIOLOGY
This chapter introduces the human species. It identifies traits we share with all other living things
and basic principles of biology that apply to us as well as to all other life. The chapter also describes
the diversity of species on Earth, similarities we share with our closest relatives in the animal
kingdom, and traits that make us unique.

2.1: CASE STUDY: WHY SHOULD YOU STUDY HUMAN BIOLOGY?

Human biology is the scientific study of the human species that includes the fascinating story of
human evolution and a detailed accounting of our genetics, anatomy, physiology, and ecology. In
short, human biology focuses on how we got here, how we function, and the role we play in the
natural world. Importantly, this helps us to better understand human health – how to stay healthy
and how diseases and injuries can be treated.

2.2: SHARED TRAITS OF ALL LIVING THINGS

You've probably seen this famous statue created by the French sculptor Auguste Rodin. Rodin's skill as a sculptor is evident because
the statue looks so lifelike. In fact, the statue is made of rock so its only resemblance to life is how it appears.

2.3: DIVERSITY OF LIFE

The collage above shows a single species in each of the six kingdoms into which all of Earth's living things are commonly classified.

2.4: THE HUMAN ANIMAL

Relative to all animals, this child and monkey are practically "cousins." From genes to morphology to behavior, they are similar in
many ways. That's because both of them are primates, and they share an evolutionary past.

2.5: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: INHABITANTS AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

As you may recall, Wajiha’s strep throat was caused by Streptococcus pyogenes bacteria, the species shown in the photomicrograph
above. She took antibiotics to kill the S. pyogenes, but this also killed her "good" bacteria, throwing off the balance of
microorganisms living inside of her, which resulted in diarrhea and a yeast infection.

1 4/25/2021
2.1: CASE STUDY: WHY SHOULD YOU STUDY HUMAN BIOLOGY?
the natural world. Importantly, this helps us to better understand human
CASE STUDY: OUR INVISIBLE INHABITANTS health – how to stay healthy and how diseases and injuries can be
Wajiha is suffering from a fever, body aches, and a painful sore throat treated. This is probably of personal interest to you in terms of your
that gets worse when she swallow. She visits her doctor who examines own health and the health of your friends and family, and also has
her and performs a throat culture. When the results come back, the broader implications for society and the human species as a whole.
doctor tells Wajiha she has strep throat, which is caused by the bacteria As you read this book, think about what you want to learn about your
Streptococcus pyogenes. The doctor prescribes an antibiotic to kill the own human body. What questions or concerns do you have? Make a
bacteria and advises Wajiha to take the full course of the treatment list of them and use the list to guide your study of human biology. You
even if she is feeling better earlier because stopping early can cause an can revisit the list throughout the course to see if your questions have
increase in bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics. been answered. If not, you'll have the tools to find the answers. You
will have learned how to find sources of information about human
biology and how to judge which sources are most reliable.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW: INTRODUCTION TO

HUMAN BIOLOGY
In the rest of this chapter, you'll learn about the traits shared by all
living things, the basic principles that underlie all of biology, the vast
diversity of living organisms, what it means to be human, and our place
in the animal kingdom. Specifically, you'll learn:
The seven traits shared by all living things including the
maintenance of a more-or-less constant internal environment, called
homeostasis; multiple levels of organization consisting of one or
Figure 2.1.1 : being examined for a soar throat more cells; using energy and exhibiting metabolism; the ability to
grow and develop; the ability to evolve adaptations to the
Wajiha takes the antibiotic as prescribed. Towards the end of the
environment; the ability to detect and respond to environmental
course, her throat is feeling much better but she can’t say the same for
stimuli; and the ability to reproduce.
other parts of her body! She has developed diarrhea and an itchy
The diversity of life, including the different kinds of biodiversity,
vaginal yeast infection. Wajiha calls her doctor, who suspects that the
the definition of a species, the classification and naming systems
antibiotic treatment has caused both her digestive distress and her yeast
for living organisms, and how evolutionary relationships can be
infection. The doctor explains that our bodies are home to many
represented through diagrams such as phylogenetic trees.
different kinds of microorganisms, some of which are actually
How the human species is classified, our close relatives and
beneficial to our bodies by helping us digest our food or keeping the
ancestors, and some ways in which we evolved.
population of harmful microorganisms down. When we take an
The traits humans share with other primates including physical
antibiotic, many of these “good” bacteria are killed along with the
characteristics and social behaviors.
“bad” disease-causing bacteria, which can result in diarrhea and yeast
infections. As you read this chapter, think about the following questions about
The doctor prescribes an antifungal medication for Wajiha’s yeast Wajiha’s situation:
infection. The doctor also recommends that Wajiha eat yogurt with 1. What do single-celled organisms, such as the bacteria and yeast
“live cultures” to try to help replace the beneficial bacteria in her gut. living in and on Wajiha, have in common with humans?
Clearly, our bodies contain a delicate balance of inhabitants that are 2. How are bacteria, yeast (a fungus), and humans classified?
invisible without a microscope, and changes in that balance can cause 3. How do the concepts of homeostasis and biodiversity apply to
unpleasant health effects. Wajiha’s situation?
4. Why can stopping antibiotics early cause the development of
WHAT IS HUMAN BIOLOGY? antibiotic-resistant bacteria?
As you read the rest of this book, you'll learn more amazing facts about
the human organism and how biology relates to your health. Human ATTRIBUTIONS
biology is the scientific study of the human species that includes the 1. Capt. Wan Mun Chin examines a patient by U.S. Navy photo by
fascinating story of human evolution and a detailed accounting of our Journalist 1st Class Jeremy L. Wood., public domain via Wikimedia
genetics, anatomy, physiology, and ecology. In short, human biology Commons
focuses on how we got here, how we function, and the role we play in 2. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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2.2: SHARED TRAITS OF ALL LIVING THINGS
THE THINKER
You've probably seen this famous statue created by the French
sculptor Auguste Rodin. Rodin's skill as a sculptor is evident
because the statue looks so lifelike. In fact, the statue is made of
rock so its only resemblance to life is how it appears. How does a
statue made of rock differ from a living, breathing human being or
other living organisms? What is life? What does it mean to be
alive? Science has answers to these questions. Figure 2.2.2 : A human cell (right) is flake-shaped; the nucleus is
visible as a blue sphere in the center of the cell. Onion cells (left) are
organized like bricks in a wall. The nucleus of each onion cell is visible
as a blue sphere on the edge of the cell.

METABOLISM
All living things can use energy. Their cells have the "machinery" of
metabolism, which is the building up and breaking down of chemical
compounds. Living things can transform energy by converting
chemicals and energy into cellular components. This form of
metabolism is called anabolism. They can also break down, or
decompose, organic matter, which is called catabolism. Living things
require energy to maintain internal conditions (homeostasis), for
Figure 2.2.1 : The Thinker at Musée Rodin, Paris growth, and other life processes.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS GROWTH

To be classified as a living thing, most scientists agree that an object All living things have the capacity for growth. Growth is an increase in
must have all seven of the following traits. These are traits that human size that occurs when there is a higher rate of anabolism than
beings share with other living things. catabolism. For example, a human infant has changed dramatically in
1. homeostasis size by the time it reaches adulthood, as is apparent from the image
2. organization below. In what other ways do we change as we grow from infancy to
3. metabolism adulthood?
4. growth
5. adaptation
6. response to stimuli
7. reproduction

HOMEOSTASIS
All living things are able to maintain a more-or-less constant internal
environment. They keep things relatively stable on the inside
regardless of the conditions around them. The condition in which a
system is maintained in a more-or-less steady state is called
homeostasis. Human beings, for example, maintain stable internal Figure 2.2.3 : A human infant has a lot of growing to do before
body temperature. If you go outside when the air temperature is below adulthood.
freezing, your body doesn't freeze. Instead, by shivering and other
ADAPTATIONS AND EVOLUTION
means, it maintains a stable internal temperature.
An adaptation is a characteristic of populations. Individuals of a
ORGANIZATION population carry a variety of genes. When the environment changes,
Living things have multiple levels of organization. Their molecules are some individuals of the population can withstand the changed
organized into one or more cells. A cell is the basic unit of the structure conditions and reproduce more than the individuals who cannot live in
and function of living things. Cells are the building blocks of living the given environment. A change in the allele frequencies and makeup
organisms. An average adult human being, for example, consists of of the populations over time is called evolution. It comes about
trillions of cells. Living things may appear very different from one through the process of natural selection.
another on the outside, but their cells are very similar. Compare the
RESPONSE TO STIMULI
human cells and onion cells in the figure below. What similarities do
you see? All living things detect changes in their environment and respond to
them. A response can take many forms, from the movement of a
unicellular organism in response to external chemicals (called
chemotaxis), to complex reactions involving all the senses of a

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multicellular organism. A response is often expressed by motion; for giant viruses may be able — or were once able — to reproduce
example, the leaves of a plant turning toward the sun (called without a host cell. Some of the strongest evidence that viruses are
phototropism). living things comes from studies of their proteins, which show that
viruses and cellular life share a common ancestor in the distant
REPRODUCTION past. Viruses may have once existed as primitive cells but at some
All living things are capable of reproduction. Reproduction is the point lost their cellular nature to become modern viruses that
process by which living things give rise to offspring. Reproduction require host cells to reproduce. This idea is not so far-fetched when
may be as simple as a single cell dividing into two cells. This is how you consider that many other species require a host to complete
bacteria reproduce. Reproduction in human beings and many other their life cycle.
organisms is much more complicated. Nonetheless, whether a living
thing is a human being or a bacterium, it is normally capable of REVIEW
reproduction. 1. Identify seven traits that most scientists agree are shared by all
FEATURE: MYTH VS. REALITY living things.
Myth: Viruses are living things. 2. What is homeostasis? What is one way humans fulfill this criterion
of living things?
Envelope protein
3. Define reproduction, and describe an example.
Envelope 4. Assume that you found an object that looks like a dead twig. You
wonder if it might be a stick insect. How could you determine if it
is a living thing?
Capsid
Viral genome 5. Describe viruses and what traits they do and do not share with
living things. Do you think viruses should be considered living
things? Why or why not?
Enzyme 6. People who are biologically unable to reproduce are certainly still
considered to be alive! Discuss why this situation does not
invalidate the criteria that living things must be capable of
reproduction.
7. What are the two types of metabolism described here and what are
Figure 2.2.4 : Diagram of a general virus. The capsid encloses the their differences?
genetic material of the virus. The envelope which surrounds the
8. What are some similarities between cells of different organisms? If
capsid is typically made from portions of the host cell membranes
(phospholipids and proteins). Not all viruses have a viral envelope. you are not familiar with the specifics of cells, simply describe the
Some viruses contain other proteins and enzymes similarities you see in the pictures above.
Reality: The traditional scientific view of viruses is that they 9. What are two processes that use energy in a living thing?
originated from bits of DNA or RNA that were shed from the cells 10. Give an example of a response to stimuli in humans.
of living things but that they are not living things themselves. 11. Do unicellular organisms, such as bacteria, have an internal
Scientists have long argued that viruses are not living things environment that they maintain through homeostasis?
because they do not have most of the defining traits of living 12. Evolution occurs through ___________ ____________ .
organisms. A single virus called a virion, consists of a set of genes 13. If alien life is found on other planets, do you think they will
(DNA or RNA) inside a protective protein coat, called a capsid. necessarily have cells? Discuss your answer.
Viruses have an organization, but they are not cells and do not 14. Movement in response to an external chemical is called
possess the cellular "machinery" that living things use to carry out ___________, while movement towards light is called
life processes. As a result, viruses cannot undertake metabolism, ___________ .
maintain homeostasis, or grow. They do not seem to respond to
their environment, and they can reproduce only by invading and EXPLORE MORE
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using "tools" inside host cells to produce more virions. The only
traits viruses seem to share with living things is the ability to evolve
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adaptations to their environment. In fact, some viruses evolve so
1. The Thinker by innoxiuss, Licensed CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
quickly that it is difficult to design drugs and vaccines against them.
Commons
That's why maintaining protection from the viral disease influenza,
2. Human cheek cells by Krishna satya 333, CC BY-SA 4.0
for example, requires a new flu vaccine each year.
via Wikimedia Commons
Within the last decade, new discoveries in virology, the study of
1. Onion cells by kaibara87, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
viruses, suggest that this traditional view about viruses may be
incorrect and the "myth" that viruses are living things may be the 3. Baby, public domain via Nappy
reality. Researchers have discovered giant viruses that contain more 4. Basic scheme of a virus by DEXi, dedicated CC0 via Wikimedia
genes than cellular life forms such as bacteria. Some of the genes Commons
code for proteins needed to build new viruses, suggesting that these 5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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2.3: DIVERSITY OF LIFE
SO MANY SPECIES! many biologists and virtually all paleontologists generally define
The collage below shows six kingdoms into which all of Earth's species on the basis of morphology, rather than breeding behavior.
living things are commonly classified. How many species are there Morphology refers to the form and structure of organisms. For
in each kingdom? In a word, millions. A total of almost 2 million classification purposes, it generally refers to relatively obvious physical
living species have already been identified, and new species are traits. Typically, the more similar to one another different organisms
being discovered all the time. Scientists estimate that there may be appear, the greater the chance that they will be classified in the same
as many as 30 million different species alive on Earth today! species.
Clearly, there is a tremendous variety of life on Earth.
CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS
People have been trying to classify the tremendous diversity of life on
Earth for more than two thousand years. The science of classifying
organisms is called taxonomy. Classification is an important step in
understanding the present diversity and past evolutionary history of life
on Earth. It helps make sense of the overwhelming diversity of living
things.

LINNAEAN CLASSIFICATION
All modern classification systems have their roots in the Linnaean
classification system. It was developed by Swedish botanist Carolus
Linnaeus in the 1700s. He tried to classify all living things that were
known at his time. He grouped together organisms that shared obvious
morphological traits, such as the number of legs or shape of leaves.
Figure 2.3.1: Six
kingdoms of life: Archaea, Bacteria, Protista, Fungi, Animalia, and
Plantae

WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?
Biological diversity, or biodiversity, refers to all of the variety of life
that exists on Earth. Biodiversity can be described and measured at
three different levels: species, genetic, and ecosystem diversity.
Species diversity refers to the number of different species in an
ecosystem or on Earth as a whole. This is the commonest way to
measure biodiversity. Current estimates for Earth's total number of
living species range from 5 to 30 million species.
Genetic diversity refers to the variation in genes within all these
species.
Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of ecosystems on Earth.
An ecosystem is a system formed by populations of many different Figure 2.3.2 : Classification of life into smaller subcategories: Domain,
species interacting with each other and their environment. Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.
The Linnaean system of classification consists of a hierarchy of
DEFINING A SPECIES groupings, called taxa (singular, taxon). Figure 2.3.2 shows an
Biodiversity is most often measured by counting species, but what is a expanded version of Linnaeus's original classification system. In the
species? The answer to that question is not as straightforward as you original system, taxa range from the kingdom to the species. The
might think. The formal biological definition of species is a group of kingdom is the largest and most inclusive grouping. It consists of
actually or potentially interbreeding organisms. This means that organisms that share just a few basic similarities. Examples are the
members of the same species are similar enough to each other to plant and animal kingdoms. The species is the smallest and most
produce fertile offspring together. By this definition of species, all exclusive grouping. Ideally, it consists of organisms that are similar
human beings alive today belong to one species, Homo sapiens. All enough to interbreed, as discussed above. Similar species are classified
humans can potentially interbreed with each other but not with together in the same genus (plural, genera), similar genera are
members of any other species. classified together in the same family, and so on all the way up to the
In the real world, it isn't always possible to make the observations kingdom.
needed to determine whether different organisms can interbreed. For
one thing, many species reproduce asexually, so individuals never BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
interbreed even with members of their own species. When studying Perhaps the single greatest contribution Linnaeus made to science was
extinct species represented by fossils, it is usually impossible to know his method of naming species. This method, called binomial
whether different organisms could interbreed. Therefore, in practice, nomenclature, gives each species a unique, two-word Latin name

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consisting of the genus name followed by a specific species identifier. REVIEW
An example is Homo sapiens, the two-word Latin name for humans. It 1. What is biodiversity? Identify three ways that biodiversity may be
literally means “wise human.” This is a reference to our big brains. measured.
Why is having two names so important? It is similar to people having a 2. Define biological species. Why is this definition often difficult to
first and a last name. You may know several people with the first name apply?
Michael, but adding Michael’s last name usually pins down exactly 3. Explain why it is important to classify living things and outline the
who you mean. In the same way, having two names uniquely identifies Linnaean system of classification.
a species. 4. What is binomial nomenclature? Give an example.
5. Contrast Linnaean and phylogenetic systems of classification.
REVISIONS IN THE LINNAEAN CLASSIFICATION 6. Describe the taxon called the domain, and compare the three widely
Linnaeus published his classification system in the 1700s. Since then, recognized domains of living things.
many new species have been discovered. Scientists can also now 7. True or False. Humans have identified all of the species on Earth.
classify organisms on the basis of their biochemical and genetic 8. True or False. In the binomial nomenclature for humans, Homo is
similarities and differences rather than just their outward morphology. the genus and sapiens refers to the specific species.
These changes have led to revisions in the original Linnaean system of 9. A kingdom is a:
classification.
A. domain
A major change to the Linnaean system is the addition of a new taxon B. taxon
called the domain. The domain is a taxon that is larger and more C. genera
inclusive than the kingdom, as shown in Figure 2.3.2. Most biologists D. phylogeny
agree that there are three domains of life on Earth: Bacteria, Archaea,
10. In Linnaean classification, similar classes together make up a
and Eukarya (Figure 2.3.3). Both the Bacteria and the Archaea
___________ .
domains consist of single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus. This
11. Based on the phylogenetic tree for the three domains of life above,
means that their genetic material is not enclosed within a membrane
explain whether you think Bacteria are more closely related to
inside the cell. The Eukarya domain, in contrast, consists of all
Archaea or Eukarya.
organisms whose cells have a nucleus. In other words, their genetic
12. A scientist discovers a new single-celled organism. Answer the
material is enclosed within a membrane inside the cell. The Eukarya
following questions about this discovery.
domain is made up of both single-celled and multicellular organisms.
A. If this is all you know, can you place the organism into a
This domain includes several kingdoms, including the animal, plant,
particular domain? If so, what is the domain and if not, why
fungus, and protist kingdoms.
not?
B. What is one type of information that could help the scientist
classify the organism?
13. Define morphology. Give an example of a morphological trait in
humans.
14. Which type of biodiversity is represented by the differences
between humans?

Figure 2.3.3 : Three domains of life: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya 15. Why do you think it is important for the definition of a species that
members of a species can produce fertile offspring?
PHYLOGENETIC CLASSIFICATION
Linnaeus classified organisms based on morphology. Basically,
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organisms were grouped together if they looked alike. After Darwin
published his theory of evolution in the 1800s, scientists looked for a ATTRIBUTIONS
way to classify organisms that took into account phylogeny. Phylogeny
1. Tree of living organisms by Maulucioni y Doridí, licensed CC BY-
is the evolutionary history of a group of related organisms. It is
SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
represented by a phylogenetic tree, or some other tree-like diagram,
2. Biological classification by Peter Halasz, released into the public
like the one in Figure 2.3.3 for the three domains. A phylogenetic tree
domain via Wikimedia Commons
shows how closely related different groups of organisms are to one
3. Domain Trees by Crion, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
another. Each branching point represents a common ancestor of the
4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
branching groups. Figure 2.3.3, for example, shows that the Eukarya
3.0
shared a more recent common ancestor with the Archaea than they did
with the Bacteria. This is based on comparisons of important
similarities and differences between the three domains.

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2.4: THE HUMAN ANIMAL
"COUSINS" Living members of the primate order include monkeys, apes, and
Relative to all animals, this child and monkey are practically humans; and any member of this order of mammals is called a
"cousins." From genes to morphology to behavior, they are similar primate. At some point in the distant past, we shared ape-like
in many ways. That's because both of them are primates, and they ancestors with all these modern groups of primates. We share between
share an evolutionary past. 93 percent and almost 99 percent of our DNA sequences with them,
providing hard evidence that we have relatively recent common
ancestors. Besides genes, what traits do we share with other primates?
Primates are considered generalists among the mammals. A generalist
is an organism that can thrive in a wide variety of environmental
conditions and make use of a variety of different resources, such as
consuming many different types of food. Although primates exhibit a
wide range of characteristics, there are several traits that are shared by
most primates.

PRIMATE TRAITS
Primates have five digits (fingers or toes) on each extremity (hand or
foot). The fingers and toes have nails instead of claws and are covered
with sensitive tactile pads. The thumbs (and in many species the big
Figure 2.4.1 : Child and monkey
toes as well) are opposable, meaning they can be brought into
opposition with the other digits, allowing both a power grasp and a
HOW HUMANS ARE CLASSIFIED
precision grip. You can see these features of the primate extremities in
You probably know that modern humans belong to the species Homo the capuchin monkey pictured below.
sapiens. But what is our place in nature? How are our species
classified? A simple classification is represented in Figure 2.4.2.
Humans can move on their own and are placed in the animal kingdom.
Further, humans belong to the animal phylum known as chordates
because we have a backbone. The human animal has hair and milk
glands, so we are placed in the class of mammals. Within the mammal
class, humans are placed in the primate order.

Figure 2.4.3 : The five fingers, opposable thumb, and other primate
features of the hand give this capuchin monkey great manual dexterity.
This is the primary reason these primates are trained to assist
quadriplegic human beings with daily tasks.
The primate body is generally semi-erect or erect, and primates have
one of several modes of locomotion, including walking on all four legs
(quadrupedalism), vertical clinging and leaping, swinging from branch
to branch in trees (brachiation), or walking on two legs (bipedalism),
the last of which applies only to our own species today. The primate
shoulder girdle has a collar bone (clavicle), which is associated with a
wide range of motion of the upper limbs.
Relative to other mammals, primates rely less on their sense of smell.
Figure 2.4.2 : This taxonomic diagram shows how our species, Homo They have a reduced snout and relatively small area in the brain for
sapiens, is classified.Our scientific name indicates that we are in the processing olfactory (odor) information. Primates rely more on their
genus and species homo and sapiens. Our family is the hominid, within
sense of vision, which shows several improvements over that of other
the order primate, within the class mammal, within the phylum
chordate, within the kingdom animalia, within the domain Eukarya. mammals. Most primates can see in color. Primates also tend to have
large eyes with forward placement in a relatively flat face. This results
HUMANS AS PRIMATES in an overlap of the visual fields of the two eyes, allowing stereoscopic
vision, or three-dimensional, vision. Other indications of the

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importance of vision to primates is the protection given the eyes by a
complete bony eye socket and the large size of the occipital lobe of the
brain where visual information is processed.
Primates are noted for their relatively large brains, high degree of
intelligence, and complex behaviors. The part of the brain that is
especially enlarged in primates is the cerebrum, which analyzes and
synthesizes sensory information and transforms it to motor behaviors
appropriate to the environment. Primates tend to have longer lifespans
than most other mammals. In particular, there is a lengthening of the
prenatal period and the postnatal period of dependency of infants on
adults, providing an extended opportunity for learning in juveniles.
Most primates live in social groups. In fact, primates are among the
most social of animals. Depending on the species, adult nonhuman
primates may live in mated pairs or in groups of up to hundreds of
members.

LIFE IN THE TREES

Scientists think that many primate traits are adaptations to an arboreal, Figure 2.4.5 : Orangutan
or tree-dwelling, lifestyle. Primates are thought to have evolved in mother and child
trees, and the majority of primates still live in trees. For life in the
trees, the sense of vision trumps the sense of smell, and three-
dimensional vision is especially important for grasping the next branch
or limb. Having mobile limbs, a good grip, and manual dexterity are
matters of life and death when one lives high above the ground. While
some modern primates are mainly terrestrial (ground-dwelling) rather
than arboreal, all primates possess adaptations for life in the trees.
Hominids are relatively large, tailless primates, ranging in size from
Figure 2.4.4 shows the present distribution of nonhuman primates
the bonobo, or pygmy chimpanzee, which may weigh as little as 30 kg
around the world. Tropical forests in Central and South America are
(66 lb), to the eastern gorilla, which may weigh over 200 kg (440 lb).
home to many species of monkeys, including the capuchin monkey
Most modern humans fall somewhere in between that range. In all
pictured above. Old World tropical forests in Africa and Asia are home
species of hominids, males are somewhat larger and stronger, on
to many other species of monkeys, including the crab-eating macaque
average, than females, but the differences may not be great. Except for
pictured above, as well as all modern apes.
humans, hominids are mainly quadrupedal, although they can get
around bipedally if need be to gather food or nesting materials.
Humans are the only habitually bipedal species of living hominids.

THE HUMAN GENUS

Within the hominid family, our species is placed in the genus Homo.
Our species, Homo sapiens, is the only living species in this genus.
Several earlier species of Homo existed but have since gone extinct,
including the species Homo erectus. An artist's reconstruction of a
Homo erectus individual is shown in figure 2.4.6.
Figure 2.4.4 : This map shows the present worldwide distribution of
nonhuman primates.

HUMANS AS HOMINIDS
Who are our closest relatives in the primate order? We are placed in the
family called Hominidae. Any member of this family is called a
hominid. Hominids include four living genera: chimpanzees, gorillas,
orangutans, and humans. Among these four genera are just seven living
species: two in each genera except humans, with our sole living
species, Homo sapiens. The Orangutan mother pictured in figure 2.4.5
cradling her child shows how similar these hominids are to us.
Figure 2.4.6 : A Homo erectus individual, reconstructed here, shows
both similarities and differences with modern Homo sapiens.
By about 2.8 million years ago, early Homo species such as Homo
erectus were probably nearly as efficient at bipedal locomotion as
modern humans. Relative to quadrupedal primates, they had a broader
pelvis, longer legs, and arched feet. However, from the neck up, they

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were still quite different from us. They typically had bigger jaws and early members of our genus were intentionally depositing their
teeth, a sloping forehead, and a relatively small brain. dead in a remote place. This behavior was previously thought to be
limited to later humans.
HOMO SAPIENS Like other early Homo species, Homo naledi exhibits a mosaic of
During the roughly 2.8 million years of the evolution of the Homo old and modern traits. From the neck down, these early hominins
genus, the remaining features of Homo sapiens evolved. These features were well adapted for upright walking. Their feet were virtually
include: indistinguishable from modern human feet (see image below), and
small front teeth (incisors and canines) with relatively large molars, their legs were also long like ours. Homo naledi had relatively
at least compared to other primates. small front teeth but also a small brain, no larger than an average
a decrease in the size of the jaws and face, and an increase in the orange. Clearly, the spurt in brain growth in Homo did not occur in
size of the cranium, forming a nearly vertical forehead. this species.
a tremendous enlargement of the brain, especially in the cerebrum,
which is the site of higher intellectual functions.
The increase in brain size occurred very rapidly as far as evolutionary
change goes, between about 800,000 and 100,000 years ago. During
this period, the size of the brain increased from about 600 cm3 to about
1400 cm3 and the earliest Homo sapiens appeared. This was also a
period of rapid climate change, and many scientists think that climate
change was a major impetus for the evolution of a larger, more
complex brain. In this view, as the environment became more
unpredictable, bigger, "smarter" brains helped our ancestors survive.
Paralleling the biological evolution of the brain was the development
of culture and technology as behavioral adaptations for exploiting the
Figure 2.4.7 . The reconstructed foot bones of H. naledi are
environment. These developments, made possible by a big brain, virtually the same as our own
allowed modern humans and their recent ancestors to occupy virtually
Watch the news for more exciting updates about this early species
the entire world and become the dominant land animals.
of our genus. Paleotontolgists researching the cave site estimate
Our species Homo sapiens is the most recent iteration of the basic that there are hundreds if not thousands of fossilized bones still
primate body plan. Because of our big, complex brain, we clearly have remaining in the cave. There are sure to be many more discoveries
a much greater capacity for abstract thought and technological reported in the news media about this extinct Homo species.
advances than any other primate, even chimpanzees who are our
closest living relatives. However, it is important to recognize that in REVIEW
other ways, we are not as adept as other living hominids around the
1. Outline how humans are classified. Name their taxa, starting with
world. We are physically weaker than gorillas, far less agile
the kingdom and ending with the species.
orangutans, and arguably less well-mannered than bonobos.
2. List several primate traits. Explain how they are related to life in
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS the trees.
Imagine squeezing through a seven-inch slit in rock to enter a 3. What are hominids? Describe how living hominids are classified.
completely dark cave full of lots and lots of old bones. It might 4. Discuss species in the genus Homo.
sound like a nightmare to most people, but it was a necessary part 5. Relate climatic changes to the evolution of the genus Homo within
of a recent exploration of human origins in South Africa as reported the last million years.
in the New York Times in September 2015. The cave and its bones 6. What is the significance of the fact that we share 93 to 99 percent of
were actually first discovered by spelunkers in 2013, who reported our DNA sequence with other primates?
it to paleontologists. An international research project was soon 7. Which species do you think we are more likely to share a greater
launched to explore the cave. The researchers would eventually amount of DNA sequence with — nonprimate mammals or
conclude that the cave was a hiding place for the dead of a nonmammalian chordates? Explain your answer.
previously unknown early species of Homo, whom they gave the 8. What is the relationship between shared DNA and shared traits?
name Homo naledi. Members of this species lived in South Africa 9. Compared to other mammals, primates have a relatively small area
around 2.5 to 2.8 million years ago. of their brain dedicated to olfactory processing. What does this tell
Homo naledi individuals were about 5 feet tall and weighed around you about the sense of smell in primates compared to other
100 pounds, so they probably had no trouble squeezing into the mammals? Why?
cave. Modern humans are considerably larger on average. In order 10. The part of the brain in primates that is specially enlarged is the:
to retrieve the fossilized bones from the cave, six very slender A. cerebrum
female researchers had to be found on social media. They were the B. cerebellum
only ones who could fit through the crack to access the cave. The C. clavicle
work was difficult and dangerous but also incredibly exciting. The D. brainstem
site constitutes one of the largest samples for any extinct early 11. Why do you think it is interesting that nonhuman primates can use
Homo species anywhere in the world, and the fossils represent a tools?
completely new species of that genus. The site also suggests that 12. True or False. All primates are primarily quadrupedal.

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13. True or False. Homo erectus was in the same family as modern 3. White-fronted Capuchi Monkey by WolfmanSF, licensed CC BY
humans. 2.5 via Wikimedia Commons
14. True or False. Humans are superior in all ways to other primates. 4. Non-human primate range by Jackhynes dedicated to the public
15. Explain why the discovery of Homo naledi was exciting. domain via Wikimedia Commons
5. Orangutan mother and baby by Bonnie U. Gruenberg, CC BY-SA
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https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16721#Explore_More 6. Homo erectus by Ryan Somma, CC BY-SA 2.0 via Flickr
7. Foot of Homo naledi by W. E. H. Harcourt-Smith, Z.
ATTRIBUTIONS
Throckmorton, K. A. Congdon, B. Zipfel, A. S. Deane, M. S. M.
1. Child and monkey, public domain via piqsels Drapeau, S. E. Churchill, L. R. Berger & J. M. DeSilva,
2. Human taxonomy by Suzanne Wakim dedicated to the public 8. Licensed CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
domain is based on biological classification by Peter Halasz, public 9. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
domain via Wikimedia Commons 3.0

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2.5: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: INHABITANTS AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
of antibiotics leading to increased antibiotic resistance is a major
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: OUR INVISIBLE concern of public health experts.
INHABITANTS After reading the last section of this chapter, you know how humans
As you may recall, Wajiha’s strep throat was caused by Streptococcus are classified and some characteristics of humans and our near
pyogenes bacteria, the species shown in the photomicrograph above. relatives. Beyond our more obvious features of big brains, intelligence,
Wajiha took antibiotics to kill the S. pyogenes, but this also killed and the ability to walk upright, we also serve as a home to many
her “good” bacteria, throwing off the balance of microorganisms living different organisms that may be invisible to the naked eye but play a
inside of her, which resulted in diarrhea and a yeast infection. big role in maintaining our health.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this chapter, you learned about the basic principles of biology and
how humans are situated among other living organisms. Specifically,
you learned:
To be classified as a living thing, most scientists agree that an
object must exhibit seven characteristics, including:
Maintaining a more-or-less constant internal environment,
which is called homeostasis.
Having multiple levels of the organization and consisting of one
or more cells.
Figure 2.5.1 : Streptococcus pyogenes Using energy and being capable of metabolism.
After reading this chapter, you should now know that microorganisms The ability to grow and develop.
such as the bacteria and yeast that live in humans are also similar to us The ability to evolve adaptations to the environment.
in many ways. They are living organisms and therefore share the traits The ability to detect and respond to environmental stimuli.
of homeostasis, organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response The ability to reproduce, which is the process by which living
to stimuli, and reproduction with us. They, like us, contain genes, things give rise to offspring.
consist of cells, and have the ability to evolve. Wajiha’s beneficial gut Biodiversity refers to the variety of life that exists on Earth. It
bacteria help digest her food as part of her metabolic processes. Wajiha includes species diversity, genetic diversity within species, and
got a yeast infection likely because the growth and reproductive rates ecosystem diversity.
of the yeast living on her body were not held in check by beneficial The formal biological definition of species is a group of actually or
bacteria after she took antibiotics. You can see that there are many potentially interbreeding organisms. In reality, organisms are often
ways in which an understanding of the basic characteristics of life can classified into species on the basis of morphology.
directly apply to your own. A system for classifying living things was introduced by Linnaeus
You also learned how living organisms are classified, from bacteria that in the 1700s. It includes taxa from the species (least inclusive) to
are in the Bacteria domain, to yeast (fungus kingdom) and humans the kingdom (most inclusive). Linnaeus also introduced a system of
(animal kingdom) that are both in the Eukarya domain. You probably naming species, called binomial nomenclature.
now recognize that Streptococcus pyogenes is the binomial The domain, a taxon higher than the kingdom, was later added to
nomenclature for this species and the fact that Streptococcus refers to the Linnaean system. Living things are generally grouped into three
the genus name. domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Humans and other
As Wajiha’s doctor told her, there are many different species of animal species are placed in the Eukarya domain.
microorganisms living in the human digestive system. You should Modern systems of classification take into account phylogenies, or
recognize this as a type of biodiversity called species diversity. This evolutionary histories of related organisms, rather than just
diversity is maintained in a balance, or homeostasis, that can be upset morphological similarities and differences. These relationships are
when one type of organism is killed — for instance, by antibiotics. often represented by phylogenetic trees or other tree-like diagrams.
Wajiha’s doctor advised her to complete the entire course of antibiotics The human species, Homo sapiens, is placed in the primate order of
because stopping too early would kill the bacteria that are most the class of mammals, which are chordates in the animal kingdom.
susceptible to the antibiotic while leaving the bacteria that are more Traits humans share with other primates include five digits with
resistant to the antibiotic alive. This difference in susceptibility to nails and opposable thumbs; an excellent sense of vision including
antibiotics is an example of genetic diversity. Over time, the surviving the ability to see in color and stereoscopic vision; a large brain, high
antibiotic-resistant bacteria will have increased survival and degree of intelligence, and complex behaviors. Like most other
reproductive rates compared to the more susceptible bacteria, and the primates, we also live in social groups. Many of our primate traits
trait of antibiotic resistance will become more common in the are adaptations to life in the trees.
population. In this way, the bacteria can evolve and become better Within the primate order, our species is placed in the hominid
adapted to their environment — at a major cost to our health because family, which also includes chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans.
our antibiotics will no longer be effective. This issue of improper use The genus Homo first evolved about 2.8 million years ago. Early
Homo species were fully bipedal but had small brains. All are now

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 extinct. F. If they are the same species, but one type of insect has a better
During the last 800,000 years, Homo sapiens evolved, with smaller sense of smell for their limited food source than the other type,
faces, jaws, and front teeth but much bigger brains than earlier what do you think will happen over time? Assume the insects
Homo species. will experience natural selection.
Now that you understand the basic principles of biology and some of 11. Put the following taxa in order from the most specific to the most
the characteristics of living organisms, in the next chapter, you will inclusive: phylum; species; kingdom; genus; family; domain; class;
learn about the molecules that make up living organisms and the order
chemistry that allows organisms to exist and function. 12. Humans are in the which domain?
13. Monkeys, apes, and humans are all in the:
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW A. Same genus
1. What are the seven traits of life? B. Same order
2. A scientist is exploring in a remote area with many unidentified C. Same class
species. They find an unknown object that does not appear to be D. Both B and C
living. What is one way they could tell whether it is a dead 14. Amphibians, such as frogs, have a backbone but no hair. What is
organism that was once alive, versus an inanimate object that was the most specific taxon that they share with humans?
never living? 15. Arboreal means:
3. Cows are dependent on bacteria living in their digestive systems to A. Living on the ground
help break down cellulose in the plant material that the cows eat. B. Living in the ocean
Explain what characteristics these bacteria must have to be C. Living in trees
considered living organisms themselves, and not just part of the D. Living on grasslands
cow.
16. What is one characteristic of extinct Homo species that was larger
4. What is the basic unit of structure and function in living things?
than that of modern humans?
5. Give one example of homeostasis that occurs in humans.
17. What is one characteristic of modern humans that is larger than that
6. Can a living thing exist without using energy? Why or why not?
of extinct Homospecies?
7. True or False. Evolution is a change in the characteristics of living
18. True or False. Most primates live in social groups.
things over time.
19. True or False. Most other mammals have longer lifespans than
8. True or False. Only some living things have genes.
primates.
9. Give an example of a response to stimuli that occurs in a unicellular
20. True or False. Archaea are classified into the Bacteria domain.
organism.
21. How is the long period of dependency of infants on adults in
10. A scientist discovers two types of similar-looking insects that have
primates related to learning?
not been previously identified. Answer the following questions
22. Name one type of primate in the hominid family, other than
about this discovery.
humans.
A. What is one way they can try to determine whether the two 23. Why do you think that scientists compare the bones of structures
types are the same species? (such as the feet) of extinct Homo species to ours?
B. If they are not the same species, what are some ways they can 24. Some mammals other than primates also have their eyes placed in
try to determine how closely related they are to each other? the front of their face, such as cats. How do you think the vision of
C. What is the name for a type of diagram they can create to a cat compares to that of a mouse, where the eyes are placed more
demonstrate their evolutionary relationship to each other and to at the sides?
other insects? 25. Living sponges are animals. Are we in the same kingdom as
D. If they determine that the two types are different species but the sponges? Explain your answer.
same genus, create your own names for them using binomial
nomenclature. You can be creative and make up the genus and ATTRIBUTIONS
species names, but be sure to put them in the format of binomial 1. Streptococcus pyogenes by CDC, public domain via Wikimedia
nomenclature. Commons
E. If they are the same species but have different colors, what kind
of biodiversity does this most likely reflect?

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
3: CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
This chapter provides the chemistry background needed to understand the human body, its functions,
and its processes. The chapter describes biochemical compounds and reactions as well as the
significance of water to life.

3.1: CASE STUDY: CHEMISTRY AND YOUR LIFE

Mohinder is a college student who has watched his father suffer from complications of type 2
diabetes over the past few years.

3.2: ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

An element is a pure substance. It cannot be broken down into other types of substances. Each
element is made up of just one type of atom.

3.3: CHEMICAL BONDING

When you think of bonding, you may not think of ions. Like most of us, you probably think of bonding between people. Like people,
molecules bond -- and some bonds are stronger than others.

3.4: BIOCHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

The compounds found in living things are known as biochemical compounds. Biochemical compounds make up the cells and other
structures of organisms and carry out life processes. Carbon is the basis of all biochemical compounds, so carbon is essential to life on
Earth. Without carbon, life as we know it could not exist. Contrary to popular belief, carbohydrates are an important part of a healthy
diet. They are also one of four major classes of biochemical compounds.

3.5: CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are the most common class of biochemical compounds. They include sugars and starches. Carbohydrates are used to
provide or store energy, among other uses. Like most biochemical compounds, carbohydrates are built of small repeating units, or
monomers, which form bonds with each other to make larger molecules, called polymers. In the case of carbohydrates, the small
repeating units are known as monosaccharides.

3.6: LIPIDS
Fats are actually a type of lipid. Lipids are a major class of biochemical compounds that includes oils as well as fats. Organisms use
lipids to store energy and for many other uses. Lipid molecules consist mainly of repeating units called fatty acids. There are two
types of fatty acids: saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids. Both types consist mainly of simple chains of carbon atoms
bonded to one another and to hydrogen atoms.

3.7: PROTEINS
Protein shakes are popular with people who want to build muscle because muscle tissue consists mainly of protein. Proteins are one of
the four major Macromolecules.

3.8: NUCLEIC ACIDS

DNA and RNA are polynucleotides and categorized under Nucleic acids, a type of Macromolecule. They are built of small monomers
called nucleotides.

3.9: ENERGY IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

These old iron chains give off a small amount of heat as they rust. The rusting of iron is a chemical process. It occurs when iron and
oxygen go through a chemical reaction similar to burning, or combustion.

3.10: CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN LIVING THINGS

We stay alive because millions of different chemical reactions are taking place inside our bodies all the time.

3.11: BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

It's often called the "water planet," or "the blue marble." You probably just call it "home." Almost three-quarters of our home planet is
covered by water. Water, like carbon, has a special role in living things.

3.12: ACIDS AND BASES

Strong acids can hurt you if they come into contact with your skin or eyes. Therefore, it may surprise you to learn that your life
depends on acids.

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3.13: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: DIET AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
After reading this chapter, you should be able to see numerous connections between chemistry, human life, and health.

2 4/25/2021
3.1: CASE STUDY: CHEMISTRY AND YOUR LIFE
nutrition by understanding chemistry. Chemistry is so much more than
CASE STUDY: DIET DILEMMA reactions in test tubes in a lab — it is the atoms, molecules, and
Mohinder is a college student who has watched their father suffer from reactions that make us who we are and keep us alive and functioning
complications of type 2 diabetes over the past few years. Mohinder properly. Our diets are one of the main ways our bodies take in raw
likes to use gender-neutral pronouns, such as they, them, and their's. In materials that are needed for the important chemical reactions that take
type 2 diabetes, the hormone insulin does not transmit its signal place inside of us.
sufficiently. Because insulin normally removes sugar from the
bloodstream and brings it into the body’s cells, diabetes causes blood CHAPTER OVERVIEW: CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
sugar levels to not be regulated properly. This can cause damage to the As you read this chapter, you will learn more about how chemistry
cells of the body. relates to our lives, health, and the foods we eat. Specifically, you will
learn:
The nature of chemical substances, including elements and
compounds and their component atoms and molecules.
The types and mechanisms of the formation of chemical bonds.
The structures and functions of biochemical compounds including
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids such as DNA and
RNA.
What chemical reactions are, how energy is involved in chemical
reactions, how enzymes assist in chemical reactions, and what some
types of biochemical reactions in living organisms are.
Figure 3.1.1 : Diabetes Detritus Properties of water and the importance of water for most
biochemical processes.
Diabetes can be treated with insulin injections, as shown above, as well
What pH is and why maintaining a proper pH in the body is
as dietary modifications, but sometimes complications can still occur.
important for biochemical reactions.
Mohinder’s father has some nerve damage, or neuropathy, in his feet
due to his diabetes. This made his feet numb and so he didn’t notice As you read the chapter, think about the following questions regarding
when he got minor injuries to his feet, which led to some serious Mohinder’s situation and how diabetes and diet relate to the chemistry
infections. of life.
Mohinder is obese and knows that their weight plus a family history of 1. Why do you think Mohinder’s father having diabetes increases his
diabetes increases their risk of getting diabetes themselves. risk of getting diabetes?
They want to avoid the health issues that their father has suffered. 2. What is the difference between refined (simple) carbohydrates and
Mohinder begins walking every day for exercise and starts to lose some complex carbohydrates? Why are refined carbohydrates particularly
weight. They also want to improve their diet in order to lose more problematic for people with diabetes?
weight, lower their risk of diabetes, and improve their general health, 3. Insulin is a peptide hormone. In which class of biochemical
but they are overwhelmed with all the different dietary advice compounds would you categorize insulin?
they read online and hear from their friends and family. 4. Why is drinking enough water important for overall health? Can
Mohinder's father tells them to limit refined carbohydrates, such as you drink too much water?
white bread and rice because that is what he does to help keep his 5. Sometimes “eating clean” is described as avoiding “chemicals” in
blood sugar at an acceptable level. But Mohinder’s friend tells food. Think about the definition of “chemicals” and how it relates
them that eating a diet high in carbohydrates and low in fat is a good to what we eat.
way to lose weight. Mohinder reads online that “eating clean” by
eating whole, unprocessed foods and avoiding food with “chemicals”
ATTRIBUTIONS
can help with weight loss. One piece of advice that everyone seems to 1. Diabetes Detritus by Alden Chadwick, licensed CC BY 2.0 via
agree on is that drinking enough water is good for overall health. Flickr
2. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
All of this dietary advice may sound confusing, but you can better
3.0
understand health conditions such as diabetes and the role of diet and

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3.2: ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
WHAT ARE YOU MADE OF?
If you look at your hand, what do you see? Of course, you see skin,
which consists of cells. But what are skin cells made of? Like all
living cells, they are made of matter. In fact, all things are made of
matter. Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass.
Matter, in turn, is made up of chemical substances. A chemical
substance is a matter that has a definite composition and the same
composition throughout. A chemical substance may be either an
element or a compound.

Figure 3.2.2 : A model of a Carbon atom. Carbon hs 6 protons and 6

neutrons (found in the nucleus). The image also shows the 6 electrons
outside of the nucleus in 2 separate orbitals.
If the number of protons and electrons in an atom are equal, then an
atom is electrically neutral because the positive and negative charges
Figure 3.2.1 : Diversity and Unity cancel out. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than protons, then it
has an overall negative or positive charge, respectively, and it is called
ELEMENTS AND ATOMS an ion.
An element is a pure substance. It cannot be broken down into other The negatively charged electrons of an atom are attracted to the
types of substances. Each element is made up of just one type of atom. positively charged protons in the nucleus by a force called
electromagnetic force, for which opposite charges attract.
STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
Electromagnetic force between protons in the nucleus causes these
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that still has the subatomic particles to repel each other because they have the same
properties of that element. Every substance is composed of atoms. charge. However, the protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted
Atoms are extremely small, typically about a ten-billionth of a meter in to each other by a different force, called nuclear force, which is
diameter. However, atoms do not have well-defined boundaries, as usually stronger than the electromagnetic force repelling the positively
suggested by the atomic model shown in figure 3.2.2. An atom is charged protons from each other.
composed of my subatomic particles. We will only discuss protons,
neutron, and electrons. PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
Table 3.2.1 : Subatomic Particles There are almost 120 known elements. As you can see in the Periodic
Particle Proton Neutron Electron Table of the Elements shown in Figure 3.2.3, the majority of elements
Electric Charge +1 0 -1 are metals. Examples of metals are iron (Fe) and copper (Cu). Metals
Location Nucleus Nucleus Outside the nucleus are shiny and good conductors of electricity and heat. Nonmetal
Mass 1 amu 1 amu ~0 amu elements are far fewer in number. They include hydrogen (H) and
oxygen (O). They lack the properties of metals. The element most
important to life is Carbon (C). Find carbon in the table. What type of
element is it, metal or nonmetal?

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 REVIEW
1. What is an element? Give three examples.
2. Define compound. Explain how compounds form.
3. Compare and contrast atoms and molecules.
4. The compound called water can be broken down into its constituent
elements by applying an electric current to it. What ratio of
elements is produced in this process?
5. Relate ions to elements and atoms.
6. What is the most important element of life?
7. Iron oxide is often known as rust — the reddish substance you
might find on corroded metal. The chemical formula for this type of
iron oxide is Fe2O3. Answer the following questions about iron
oxide and briefly explain each answer.
Figure 3.2.3: Periodic Table of the Elements. The periodic table of the
elements arranges elements in groups based on their properties. You A. Is iron oxide an element or a compound?
may prefer to use an interactive periodic table or an accessible periodic B. Would one particle of iron oxide be considered a molecule or an
table. atom?
C. Describe the relative proportion of atoms in iron oxide.
COMPOUNDS AND MOLECULES D. What causes the Fe and O to stick together in iron oxide?
E. Is iron oxide made of metal atoms, metalloid atoms, nonmetal
A compound is a unique substance that consists of two or more
atoms, or a combination of any of these?
elements combined in fixed proportions. This means that the
composition of a compound is always the same. The smallest particle 8. Explain why ions have a positive or negative charge.
of most compounds in living things is called a molecule. Consider 9. Name the three subatomic particles described in this section.
water as an example. A molecule of water always contains one atom of
oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen. The composition of water is
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expressed by the chemical formula H2O. A model of a water molecule
is shown in Figure 3.2.4. Notice that molecules can be drawn in ATTRIBUTIONS
different ways, but represent the same molecule. In this case, a
1. Diversity and unity by Frerieke, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
molecule made of one oxygen and two hydrogens.
Commons
What causes the atoms of a water molecule to “stick” together? The 2. Carbon atom licensed CC BY-SA 3.0 via Ascension Glossary
answer is chemical bonds. A chemical bond is a force that holds 3. Periodic table by Dmarcus100, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia
together the atoms of molecules. Bonds in molecules involve atoms Commons
sharing electrons. New chemical bonds form when substances react 4. Water molecule by Booyabazooka, released into the public domain
with one another. via Wikimedia Commons
5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

Figure 3.2.4 : Water Molecule. A water molecule always has this

composition, one atom of oxygen, and two atoms of hydrogen.

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3.3: CHEMICAL BONDING
CHEMICAL BONDING Not all chemical bonds form in the same way as the bonds in water.
When you think of bonding, you may not think of ions. Like most There are actually four different types of chemical bonds that we will
of us, you probably think of bonding between people. Like people, discuss here are non-polar covalent, polar covalent, hydrogen, and
molecules bond — and some bonds are stronger than others. It's ionic bonding. Each type of bond is described below.
hard to break up a mother and baby, or a molecule made up of one NON-POLAR COVALENT BONDS
oxygen and two hydrogen atoms! A chemical bond is a force of
For methane (CH4) in Figure 3.3.3, the carbon atom (with four
attraction between atoms or ions. Bonds form when atoms share or
electrons in its outermost valence energy shell) shares a single electron
transfer valence electrons. Valence electrons are the electrons in the
from each of the four hydrogens. Hydrogen has one valence electron in
outer energy level of an atom that may be involved in chemical
its first energy shell. Covalent bonding is prevalent in organic
interactions. Valence electrons are the basis of all chemical bonds.
compounds. In fact, your body is held together by electrons shared by
carbons and hydrogens! The electrons are equally shared in all
directions; therefore, this type of covalent bond is referred to as non-
polar.

Figure 3.3.1 : Mother and daughter

H C H
WHY BONDS FORM
To understand why chemical bonds form, consider the common H
compound known as water, or H2O. It consists of two hydrogen (H)
atoms and one oxygen (O) atom. As you can see in the on the left side Electron from hydrogen
of the Figure 3.3.2 below, each hydrogen atom has just one electron, Electron from carbon
which is also its sole valence electron. The oxygen atom has six
valence electrons. These are the electrons in the outer energy level of Figure 3.3.3 : Methane is formed when four hydrogens and one carbon
the oxygen atom. covalently bond.

POLAR COVALENT BONDS AND HYDROGEN BONDS

A covalent bond is the force of attraction that holds together two
nonmetal atoms that share a pair of electrons. One electron is provided
by each atom, and the pair of electrons is attracted to the positive
nuclei of both atoms. The water molecule represented in Figure 3.3.4
contains polar covalent bonds.
The attractive force between water molecules is a dipole interaction.
The hydrogen atoms are bound to the highly electronegative oxygen
atom (which also possesses two lone pair sets of electrons, making for
a very polar bond. The partially positive hydrogen atom of one
Figure 3.3.2 : Bonds between hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a water
molecule. Electrons are drawn as spheres on the circle indicating an molecule is then attracted to the partially negative oxygen atom of a
electron orbit. The nucleus is shown as the big sphere in the center of nearby water molecule as shown in Figure 3.3.4 ).
the atom.
In the water molecule on the right in Figure 3.3.2, each hydrogen atom
shares a pair of electrons with the oxygen atom. By sharing electrons,
each atom has electrons available to fill its sole or outer energy level.
The hydrogen atoms each have a pair of shared electrons, so their first
and only energy level is full. The oxygen atom has a total of eight
valence electrons, so its outer energy level is full. A full outer energy
Figure 3.3.4 : A hydrogen bond in water occurs between the hydrogen
level is the most stable possible arrangement of electrons. It explains atom of one water molecule and the lone pair of electrons on an oxygen
why elements form chemical bonds with each other. atom of a neighboring water molecule
A hydrogen bond is an intermolecular and intramolecular attractive
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS force in which a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to a highly
electronegative atom is attracted to a lone pair of electrons on an atom

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or a partially negative atom in a neighboring polar molecule. Hydrogen common example of an ionic compound. Note that sodium is on the
bonds are also found intramolecularly in the tertiary and quaternary left side of the periodic table and that chlorine is on the right side of the
structure of protein and DNA strands. periodic table. In Figure 3.3.7, an atom of lithium donates an electron
Hydrogen bonding occurs only in molecules where hydrogen is to an atom of fluorine to form an ionic compound. This happens to full
covalently bonded to one of three elements: fluorine, oxygen, or fill their outermost valence shell. The transfer of the electron gives the
nitrogen. These three elements are so electronegative that they lithium ion a net charge of +1, and the fluorine ion a net charge of -1.
withdraw the majority of the electron density in the covalent bond with These ions bond because they experience an attractive force due to the
hydrogen, leaving the H atom very electron-deficient. The H atom difference in sign of their charges.
nearly acts as a bare proton, leaving it very attracted to lone pair
electrons on a nearby atom.

Figure 3.3.7 : Sodium (left) and fluorine (right) form an ionic

compound called Sodium fluoride. The animation shows sodium (Na)
losing an electron. This electron is taken by fluorine (F). This makes
Figure 3.3.5 : Multiple hydrogen bonds occur simultaneously in water Na positively charged and F negatively charged. These ions are then
because of its bent shape and the presence of two hydrogen atoms per attracted to each other.
molecule.
REVIEW
The hydrogen bonding that occurs in water leads to some unusual, but
very important properties. Most molecular compounds that have a mass 1. How is a covalent bond different from an ionic bond?
similar to water are gases at room temperature. Because of the strong 2. Why is a hydrogen bond a relatively weak bond?
hydrogen bonds, water molecules are able to stay condensed in the 3. Diagram the polarity of a water molecule.
liquid state. Figure 3.3.5 shows how the bent shape and two hydrogen 4. What is a chemical bond?
atoms per molecule allow each water molecule to be able to hydrogen 5. Explain why hydrogen and oxygen atoms are more stable when
bond to two other molecules. they form bonds in a water molecule.
6. How many valence electrons does sodium have? How many
In the liquid state, the hydrogen bonds of water can break and reform
valence electrons does chlorine have? How does a chlorine atom
as the molecules flow from one place to another. When water is cooled,
bonds with sodium? What is the charge on a sodium ion? What
the molecules begin to slow down. Eventually, when water is frozen to
about the chlorine ion?
ice, the hydrogen bonds form a very specific network shown on the
7. When does covalent bonding occur? How does it work?
right side of Figure 3.3.6. When water is liquid, the molecules are
8. How many valence electrons does oxygen have?
more motile and don't produce this rigid structure.
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ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Mother & daughter by Lyd235, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia
Commons
2. Water molecule by CNX OpenStax, licensed CC BY 4.0 via
Wikimedia Commons
3. Covalent bond by DynaBlast, licensed CC BY-SA 2.5 via
Wikimedia Commons
4. Hydrogen bonding in water, public domain via Wikimedia
Commons
Figure 3.3.6 : When water freezes to ice, the hydrogen bonding 5. 3D model hydrogen bonds by Michal Maňas, public domain via
network becomes more stable. Each oxygen atom has an approximately Wikimedia Commons
tetrahedral geometry – two covalent bonds and two hydrogen bonds.
6. Liquid water and ice by P99am, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
IONIC BONDS Commons
Electrons are transferred between atoms. An ion will give one or more 7. NaF by Wdcf, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
electrons to another ion. Table salt, sodium chloride (NaCl), is a 8. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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3.4: BIOCHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
CARBS GALORE Although there are millions of different biochemical compounds in
What do all these foods have in common? All of them consist Earth's living things, all biochemical compounds contain the elements
mainly of large compounds called carbohydrates, often referred to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Some contain only these elements;
as "carbs." Contrary to popular belief, carbohydrates are an others contain additional elements as well. The vast number of
important part of a healthy diet. They are also one of four major biochemical compounds can be grouped into just four major classes:
classes of biochemical compounds. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates include sugars and starches. These compounds contain
only the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Functions of
carbohydrates in living things include providing energy to cells, storing
energy, and forming certain structures, such as the cell walls of plants.
The monomer that makes up large carbohydrate compounds is called a
monosaccharide. The sugar glucose, represented by the chemical
model below, is a monosaccharide. It contains six carbon atoms (C)
and several atoms of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). Thousands of
glucose molecules can join together to form a polysaccharide such as
starch.

Figure 3.4.1 : Grain product food

CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS IN LIVING THINGS

The compounds found in living things are known as biochemical
compounds. Biochemical compounds make up the cells and other
structures of organisms and carry out life processes. Carbon is the basis
of all biochemical compounds, so carbon is essential to life on Earth.
Without carbon, life as we know it could not exist.
Why is carbon so basic to life? The reason is carbon’s ability to form
stable bonds with many elements, including itself. This property allows Figure 3.4.3 : Model of a monosaccharide (glucose) molecule. Glucose
carbon to form a huge variety of very large and complex molecules. In has 6 carbons forming a backbone. Each carbon has a total of 4 bonds.
Each bond connects carbon to a carbon, hydrogen, or oxygen atom.
fact, there are nearly 10 million carbon-based compounds in living
things! LIPIDS
Most biochemical compounds are very large molecules called Lipids include fats and oils. They contain primarily the elements
polymers. A polymer is built of repeating units of smaller compounds carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, although some lipids contain additional
called monomers. Monomers are like the individual beads on a string elements such as phosphorus. Functions of lipids in living things
of beads, and the whole string is the polymer. The strings of beads include storing energy, forming cell membranes, and carrying
pictured below are simple models of polymers in biochemical messages. Lipids consist of repeating units that join together to form
compounds. chains called fatty acids. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have an
unbranched chain of an even number (generally from 4 to 28) of
carbon atoms.

PROTEINS
Proteins include enzymes, antibodies, and many other important
compounds in living things. They contain the elements carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Functions of proteins are very
numerous. They include helping cells keep their shape, making up
muscles, speeding up chemical reactions, and carrying messages and
materials. The monomers that make up large protein compounds are
Figure 3.4.2 : A Fio de conta: Beads on a string are similar to the called amino acids. There are 23 different amino acids that combine
formation of polymers from repeating units called monomers. into long chains (called polypeptides) to form the building blocks of a
vast array of proteins in living things.
CLASSES OF BIOCHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
NUCLEIC ACIDS

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Nucleic acids include the molecules DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and 3. Describe the diversity of biochemical compounds, and explain how
RNA (ribonucleic acid). They contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, they are classified.
oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Their functions in living things are 4. Identify two types of carbohydrates. What are the main functions of
to encode instructions for making proteins, to help make proteins, and this class of biochemical compounds?
to pass the instructions from parents to offspring. The monomer that 5. What roles are played by lipids in living things?
makes up nucleic acids is the nucleotide. All nucleotides are the same 6. The enzyme amylase is found in saliva. It helps break down
except for a component called a nitrogen base. There are four different starches in foods into simpler sugar molecules. What type of
nitrogen bases, and each nucleotide contains one of these four bases. biochemical compound do you think amylase is?
The sequence of nitrogen bases in the chains of nucleotides in DNA 7. Explain how DNA and RNA contain the genetic code.
and RNA makes up the code for protein synthesis, called the genetic 8. What are the three elements present in every class of biochemical
code. The animation below represents the very complex structure of compound?
DNA, which consists of two chains of nucleotides. 9. For each of the following terms (nucleic acid; amino acid;
monosaccharide; protein; nucleotide; polysaccharide)
A. Determine whether it is a monomer or a polymer.
B. Match each monomer with its correct polymer.
C. Identify which class of biochemical compound is represented by
each monomer/polymer pair.
10. Is glucose a monomer or a polymer? Explain your answer.
11. What is one element contained in proteins and nucleic acids, but not
in carbohydrates?
12. Describe the relationship between proteins and nucleic acids.
13. Why do you think it is important to eat a diet that contains a
balance of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats?

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ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Grain products by Scott Bauer USDA, public domain via
Wikimedia Commons
2. Fio de conta by Toluaye, released into the public domain via
Figure 3.4.4 : This rotating DNA model shows the complexity of this Wikimedia Commons
two-stranded nucleic acid. There are many different atoms making the 3. Glucose by Ben; Yikrazuul, public domain via Wikimedia
double helix structure.
Commons
REVIEW 4. DNA cropped by Spiffistan, released into the public domain via
Wikimedia Commons
1. Why is carbon so important to life on Earth?
5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
2. What are the biochemical compounds?
3.0

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3.5: CARBOHYDRATES
THE CELLULOSE OF OUR LIVES Other sugars contain two monosaccharide molecules and are called
Where would we be without our jeans? They have been the go-to disaccharides. An example is sucrose or table sugar. It is composed of
pants for many people for decades, and they are still as popular as one fructose molecule and one glucose molecule. Other disaccharides
ever. Jeans are made of denim, a type of cotton fabric. Cotton is a include maltose (two glucose molecules) and lactose (one glucose
soft, fluffy fiber that grows in a protective case around the seeds of molecule and one galactose molecule). Lactose occurs naturally in
cotton plants. The fiber is almost pure cellulose. Cellulose is the milk. Some people can't digest lactose. If they drink milk, it causes gas,
single most abundant biochemical compound found in Earth's cramps, and other unpleasant symptoms unless the milk has been
living things and one of several types of carbohydrates. processed to remove the lactose.

COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
The simple sugars form the foundation of more complex
carbohydrates. The cyclic forms of two sugars can be linked together
by means of a condensation reaction. The figure below shows how a
glucose molecule and a fructose molecule combine to form a sucrose
molecule. A hydrogen atom from one molecule and a hydroxyl group
from the other molecule are eliminated as water, with a resulting
covalent bond linking the two sugars together at that point.
Glucose and fructose combine to produce the disaccharide sucrose in a
condensation reaction as shown in Figure 3.5.3. Sucrose, commonly
known as table sugar, is an example of a disaccharide.

Figure 3.5.1 : Body paint and jeans

WHAT ARE CARBOHYDRATES?

Carbohydrates are the most common class of biochemical
compounds. They include sugars and starches. Carbohydrates are used
to provide or store energy, among other uses. Like most biochemical
compounds, carbohydrates are built of small repeating units, or
monomers, which form bonds with each other to make larger
molecules, called polymers. In the case of carbohydrates, the small
repeating units are known as monosaccharides. Each monosaccharide
consists of six carbon atoms, as shown in the model of the
monosaccharide glucose below.

Figure 3.5.3 : Glucose and fructose combine to produce the

disaccharide sucrose in a condensation reaction. The diagram shows
how water is produced when the reaction occurs. This is because the
oxygen in glucose binds to the carbon in fructose. That removes an
oxygen and two hydrogens from the new molecule.
A disaccharide is a carbohydrate formed by the joining of two
monosaccharides. Other common disaccharides include lactose and
maltose. Lactose, a component of milk, is formed from glucose and
galactose, while maltose formed from two glucose molecules. During
Figure 3.5.2 : The six black balls in this model of the monosaccharide
glucose represent carbon atoms. These six carbons make up the digestion, these disaccharides are hydrolyzed in the small intestine to
backbone in the center of glucose. The red balls are oxygen, and the form the component monosaccharides, which are then absorbed across
white ones are hydrogen. the intestinal wall and into the bloodstream to be transported to the
cells.
SUGARS
Some carbohydrates consist of hundreds or even thousands of
Sugars are the general name for sweet, short-chain, soluble monosaccharides bonded together in long chains. These carbohydrates
carbohydrates, which are found in many foods. Their function in living are called polysaccharides ("many saccharides"). Polysaccharides are
things is to provide energy. The simplest sugars consist of a single also referred to as complex carbohydrates. Complex carbohydrates
monosaccharide. They include glucose, fructose, and galactose. that are found in living things include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and
Glucose is a simple sugar that is used for energy by the cells of living chitin. Each type of complex carbohydrate has different functions in
things. Fructose is a simple sugar found in fruits, and galactose is a
simple sugar found in milk.

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living organisms but they generally either store energy or make up liver glycogen is converted to glucose for use throughout the rest of the
certain structures of living things. body. Glycogen forms an energy reserve that can be quickly mobilized
to meet a sudden need for glucose, but one that is less compact than the
energy reserves of lipids, which are the primary form of energy storage
in animals.
Glycogen plays a critical part in the homeostasis of glucose levels in
the blood. When blood glucose levels rise too high, excess glucose can
be stored in the liver by converting it to glycogen. When glucose levels
in the blood fall too low, glycogen in the liver can be broken down into
glucose and released into the blood.

Figure 3.5.5 : Starch, Glycogen, and Cellulose have different

arrangements of monosaccharides.

CELLULOSE
Cellulose is a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several
hundred to many thousands of linked glucose units. Cellulose is an
important structural component of the cell walls of plants and many
algae. Human uses of cellulose include the production of cardboard and
paper, which consist mostly of cellulose from wood and cotton. The
cotton fibers pictured below are about 90 percent cellulose.
Certain animals, including termites and ruminants such as cows, can
digest cellulose with the help of microorganisms that live in their gut.
Figure 3.5.4 : (left) Potatoes are starch-filled tubers of potato plants. Humans cannot digest cellulose, but it nonetheless plays an important
They are harvested by digging them up from underground. (center) role in our diet. It acts as a water-attracting bulking agent for feces in
Cotton fibers represent the purest natural form of cellulose, containing the digestive tract and is often referred to as "dietary fiber."
more than 90 percent of this polysaccharide. (right) The tough outer
skeleton (exoskeleton) of this ten-lined beetle is made partly of the CHITIN
complex carbohydrate chitin.
Chitin is a long-chain polymer of a derivative of glucose. It is found in
many living things. For example, it is a component of the cell walls of
STARCH fungi, the exoskeletons of arthropods such as crustaceans and insects
(including the beetle pictured in Figure 3.5.7), and the beaks and
Starch is a complex carbohydrate that is made by plants to store
internal shells of animals such as squids and octopuses. The structure
energy. For example, the potatoes pictured below are packed full of
of chitin is similar to that of cellulose.
starches that consist mainly of repeating units of glucose and other
simple sugars. The leaves of potato plants make sugars by FEATURE: MY HUMAN BIOLOGY
photosynthesis, and the sugars are carried to underground tubers where You probably know that you should eat plenty of fiber, but do you
they are stored as starch. When we eat starchy foods such as potatoes, know how much fiber you need, how fiber contributes to good
the starches are broken down by our digestive system to sugars, which health, or which foods are good sources of fiber? Dietary fiber
provide our cells with energy. Starches are easily and quickly digested consists mainly of cellulose, so it is found primarily in plant-based
with the help of digestive enzymes such as amylase, which is found in foods, including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and legumes.
the saliva. If you chew a starchy saltine cracker for several minutes, Dietary fiber can't be broken down and absorbed by your digestive
you may start to taste the sugars released as the starch is digested. system. Instead, it passes relatively unchanged through your
gastrointestinal tract and is excreted in feces. That's how it helps
GLYCOGEN keep you healthy.
Animals do not store energy as starch. Instead, animals store the extra
energy as the complex carbohydrate glycogen. Glycogen is a
polysaccharide of glucose. It serves as a form of energy storage in
fungi as well as animals and is the main storage form of glucose in the
human body. In humans, glycogen is made and stored primarily in the
cells of the liver and the muscles. When energy is needed from either
storage depot, the glycogen is broken down to glucose for use by cells.
Muscle glycogen is converted to glucose for use by muscle cells, and

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 Starch is a complex carbohydrate that is made by plants to store
energy. Potatoes are a good food source of dietary starch, which is
readily broken down to its component sugars during digestion.
Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate that is made by animals and
fungi to store energy. Glycogen plays a critical part in the
homeostasis of blood glucose levels in humans.
Cellulose is the single most common biochemical compound in
living things. It forms the cell walls of plants and certain algae.
Like most other animals, humans cannot digest cellulose, but it
makes up most of the crucial dietary fiber in the human diet.
Chitin is a complex carbohydrate, similar to cellulose, that makes
Figure 3.5.6 : Beans are an excellent source of both soluble and up organic structures such as the cell walls of fungi and the
insoluble fiber.
exoskeletons of insects and other arthropods.
The fiber in food is commonly classified as either soluble or
insoluble fiber. REVIEW
Soluble fiber dissolves in water to form a gel-like substance as it 1. What are carbohydrates? Describe their structure.
passes through the gastrointestinal tract. Its health benefits 2. Compare and contrast sugars and complex carbohydrates.
include lowering blood levels of cholesterol and glucose. Good 3. Identify the four main types of complex carbohydrates and their
sources of soluble fiber include whole oats, peas, beans, and functions.
apples. 4. If you chew on a starchy food such as a saltine cracker for several
Insoluble fiber does not dissolve in water. This type of fiber minutes, it may start to taste sweet. Explain why.
increases the bulk of feces in the large intestine and helps keep 5. True or False. Glucose is mainly stored by lipids in the human
food wastes moving through, which may help prevent or correct body.
constipation. Good sources of insoluble fiber include whole 6. Put the following carbohydrates in order from smallest to
wheat, wheat bran, beans, and potatoes. largest:cellulose; fructose; sucrose
How much fiber do you need for good health? That depends on 7. Name three carbohydrates that contain glucose as a monomer.
your age and gender. The Institute of Medicine recommends the 8. Jeans are made of tough, durable cotton. Explain how you think this
daily fiber intake for adults shown in the table below. Most fabric gets its tough qualities, based on what you know about the
dietitians further recommend a ratio of about 3 parts insoluble fiber structure of carbohydrates.
to 1 part soluble fiber each day. Most fiber-rich foods contain both 9. Which do you think is faster to digest — simple sugars or complex
types of fiber, so it usually isn't necessary to keep track of the two carbohydrates? Explain your answer.
types of fiber as long as your overall fiber intake is adequate. 10. True or False. Cellulose is broken down in the human digestive
Use food labels and online fiber counters to find out how much system into glucose molecules.
total fiber you eat in a typical day. Are you consuming enough fiber 11. Which type of fiber dissolves in water? Which type does not
for good health? If not, consider ways to increase your intake of dissolve in water?
this important substance. For example, substitute whole grains for 12. What are the similarities and differences between muscle glycogen
refined grains, eat more legumes such as beans, and try to consume and liver glycogen?
at least five servings of fruits and vegetables each day. 13. Which carbohydrate is used directly by the cells of living things for
energy?
Table 3.5.1 : Recommended Daily Fiber Intake for Males and Females
14. Which of the following is not a complex carbohydrate?
Gender Age 50 or Younger Age 51 or Older A. chitin
Male 38 grams 30 grams B. starch
Female 25 grams 21 grams C. disaccharide
D. none of the above

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compounds. The basic building block of carbohydrates is the Attributions
monosaccharide, which consists of six carbon atoms. 1. Body paint by Cuerpos Pintados, licensed CC BY 2.0 via
Sugars are sweet, short-chain, soluble carbohydrates that are found Wikimedia Commons
in many foods and supply us with energy. Simple sugars, such as 2. Glucose public domain via Wikimedia Commons
glucose, consist of just one monosaccharide. Some sugars, such as 3. Sucrose by Christopher Auyeung and Joy Sheng, CC BY-NC 3.0,
sucrose, or table sugar, consist of two monosaccharides and are via CK-12
called disaccharides. 4. Potatoes by Elza Fiuza/ABr, licensed CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
Complex carbohydrates, or polysaccharides, consist of hundreds or Commons Brazil
even thousands of monosaccharides. They include starch, glycogen,
1. Cotton by KoS, released into the public domain via Wikimedia
cellulose, and chitin. They generally either store energy or form
Commons
structures, such as cell walls, in living things.

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 2. Ten-lined June beetle by Junkyardsparkle, dedicated CC0 via 6. Beans by Charles Brooking, released into the public domain via
Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons
5. Three Polysaccharides by OpenStax College, licensed CC BY 3.0 7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
via Wikimedia Commons Brazil 3.0

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3.6: LIPIDS
YUM! the refrigerator. Good food sources of polyunsaturated fats include
It glistens with fat, from the cheese to the steak. You may never safflower and soybean oils and many nuts and seeds.
have visited Philadelphia, but you probably know about its famous
gastronomic delight, the Philly cheesesteak, pictured here. Both
cheese and steak are typically high-fat foods, so this sandwich is
definitely not recommended if you are following a low-fat diet. We
need some fats in our diet for good health, but too much of a good
thing can be harmful to our health, no matter how good it tastes.
What are fats? And why do we have such a love-hate relationship
with them? Read on to find out.

Figure 3.6.2 : Fatty Acids models. The blue balls, white balls, and red
balls represent carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, respectively. Saturated
fatty acids, such as arachidic, stearic and palmitic, have straight chains.
Unsaturated fatty acids have bent chains. Monounsaturated fatty acids,
such as erucic and oleic have a single double bond between carbons
creating a single bend in the chain. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as
arachidoic and linoleic, have multiple carbon-carbon double bonds
Figure 3.6.1 : Philly Cheesesteak Sandwich
creating multiple bends.

LIPIDS AND FATTY ACIDS TYPES OF LIPIDS

Fats are actually a type of lipid. Lipids are a major class of Lipids may consist of fatty acids alone, or they may contain other
biochemical compounds that includes oils as well as fats. Organisms molecules as well. For example, some lipids contain alcohol or
use lipids to store energy and for many other uses. phosphate groups. Types of lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids,
Lipid molecules consist mainly of repeating units called fatty acids. and steroids. Each type has different functions in living things.
There are two types of fatty acids: saturated fatty acids and unsaturated
TRIGLYCERIDES
fatty acids. Both types consist mainly of simple chains of carbon atoms
bonded to one another and to hydrogen atoms. The two types of fatty Triglycerides are formed by combining a molecule of glycerol with
acids differ in how many hydrogen atoms they contain. three fatty acid molecules. Glycerol (also called glycerine) is a simple
compound known as a sugar alcohol. It is a colorless, odorless liquid
SATURATED FATTY ACIDS that is sweet tasting and nontoxic. Triglycerides are the main
In saturated fatty acids, carbon atoms are bonded to as many hydrogen constituent of body fat in humans and other animals. They are also
atoms as possible. All the carbon-to-carbon atoms share just single found in fats derived from plants. There are many different types of
bonds between them. This causes the molecules to form straight chains, triglycerides, with the main division being between those that contain
as shown in Figure 3.6.2. The straight chains can be packed together saturated fatty acids and those that contain unsaturated fatty acids.
very tightly, allowing them to store energy in a compact form. In the human bloodstream, triglycerides play an important role in
Saturated fatty acids have relatively high melting points, explaining metabolism as energy sources and transporters of dietary fat. They
why they are solids at room temperature. Animals use saturated fatty contain more than twice as much energy as carbohydrates, the other
acids to store energy. major source of energy in the diet. When you eat, your body converts
any calories it doesn't need to use right away into triglycerides, which
UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
are stored in your fat cells. When you need energy between meals,
In unsaturated fatty acids, some carbon atoms are not bonded to as hormones trigger the release of some of these stored triglycerides back
many hydrogen atoms as possible. Instead, they form double or even into the bloodstream.
triple bonds with other carbon atoms. This causes the chains to bend
(see Figure 3.6.2). The bent chains cannot be packed together very
tightly. Unsaturated fatty acids have relatively low melting points,
which explains why they are liquids at room temperature. Plants use
unsaturated fatty acids to store energy.
Monounsaturated fatty acids contain one less hydrogen atom than the
same-length saturated fatty acid chain. Monounsaturated fatty acids are
liquids at room temperature but start to solidify at refrigerator
temperatures. Good food sources of monounsaturated fats include olive Figure 3.6.3 : Triglyceride Molecule. The left part of this triglyceride
and peanut oils and avocados. molecule represents glycerol. Each of the three long chains on the right
represents a different fatty acid. From top to bottom, the fatty acids are
Polyunsaturated fatty acids contain at least two fewer hydrogen atoms palmitic acid, oleic acid, and alpha-linolenic acid. These fatty acids are
than the same-length saturated fatty acid chain. Polyunsaturated fatty shown in Figure 3.6.2 . The chemical formula for this triglyceride is
O . KEY: H=hydrogen, C=carbon, O=oxygen.
acids are liquids at room temperature and remain in the liquid state in C
55
H
98 6

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PHOSPHOLIPIDS During a routine checkup with your family doctor, your blood was
Phospholipids are a major component of the cell membranes of all collected for a lipid profile. The results are back, and your
living things. Each phospholipid molecule has a "tail" consisting of two triglyceride level is 180 mg/dL. Your doctor says this is a little
long fatty acids and a "head" consisting of a phosphate group and high. A blood triglyceride level of 150 mg/dL or lower is
glycerol molecule (see diagram below). The phosphate group is a small considered normal. Higher levels of triglycerides in the blood have
negatively charged molecule. The phospholipid head is hydrophilic or been linked to increased risk of atherosclerosis, heart disease, and
attracted to water. The fatty acid tail of the phospholipid is stroke.
hydrophobic or repelled by water. These properties allow If a blood test reveals that you have high triglycerides, the levels
phospholipids to form a two-layer, or bilayer, cell membrane. can be lowered through healthy lifestyle choices and/or prescription
As shown in the diagram below, a phospholipid bilayer forms when medications. Healthy lifestyle choices to control triglyceride levels
many phospholipid molecules line up tail to tail, forming an inner and include:
outer surface of hydrophilic heads. The hydrophilic heads point toward losing weight. If you are overweight, losing even 5 or 10
both the watery extracellular space and the watery intracellular space pounds may help lower your triglyceride level.
(lumen) of the cell. cutting back on calories. Extra calories are converted to
triglycerides and stored as fat, so reducing your calories should
also reduce your triglyceride level.
avoiding sugary and refined foods. Simple carbohydrates, such
as sugars and foods made with white flour, can increase
triglyceride levels.
choosing healthier fats. Trade saturated fats found in animal
foods for healthier unsaturated fats found in plants and oily fish.
For example, substitute olive oil for butter and salmon for red
meat.
limiting alcohol consumption. Alcohol is high in calories and
sugar and has a strong effect on triglyceride levels.
exercising regularly. Aim for at least 30 minutes of physical
activity on most or all days of the week to lower triglyceride
levels.
Figure 3.6.4 : The phospholipid bilayer consists of two adjacent sheets
of phospholipids, arranged tail to tail. The hydrophobic tails associate If healthy lifestyle changes aren't enough to bring down high
with one another, forming the interior of the membrane. The polar triglyceride levels, drugs prescribed by your doctor are likely to
heads contact the fluid inside and outside of the cell.
help.
STEROIDS
Steroids are lipids with a ring structure. Each steroid has a core of REVIEW
seventeen carbon atoms arranged in four rings of five or six carbons 1. What are lipids?
each (see model pictured below). Steroids vary by the other 2. Compare and contrast saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
components attached to this four-ring core. Hundreds of steroids are 3. Identify three major types of lipids, and describe differences in their
found in plants, animals, and fungi, but most steroids have one of just structures.
two principal biological functions: some steroids, such as cholesterol, 4. How do triglycerides play an important role in human metabolism?
are important components of cell membranes; many other steroids are 5. Explain how phospholipids form cell membranes.
hormones, which are messenger molecules. In humans, steroid 6. What is cholesterol, and what is its major function?
hormones include cortisone, a fight-or-flight hormone; and the sex 7. Give three examples of steroid hormones in humans.
hormones estrogen and testosterone. 8. Which type of fatty acid do you think is predominant in the steak
and cheese of the cheesesteak shown above? Explain your answer.
9. Which type of fat would be the most likely to stay liquid in colder
temperatures — bacon fat, olive oil, or soybean oil? Explain your
answer.
10. Why do you think that the shape of the different types of fatty acid
molecules affects how easily they solidify?
11. High cholesterol levels in the bloodstream can cause negative
health effects but explain why we wouldn’t want to get rid of all the
cholesterol in our bodies.
12. Name two types of lipids that are part of the cell membrane.
Figure 3.6.5 : Each steroid molecule consists of a four-ring core of 17 13. True or False. Fatty acids are made up of triglycerides.
carbon atoms (black balls in the model). The red balls are representing 14. Which type of lipid often functions as chemical messenger
oxygen and white balls are representing hydrogen in the model. The molecules?
components of the molecule may vary and determine the steroid's
function.
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3.7: PROTEINS
PROTEIN SHAKE (uncharged) but polar, (3) acidic, with a net negative charge, and (4)
Drinks like this shake contain a lot of protein. Such drinks are basic, with a net positive charge at neutral pH.
popular with people who want to build muscle because muscle Proteins can differ from one another in the number and sequence
tissue consists mainly of protein. Making up muscles is just one of (order) of amino acids. It is because of the side chains of the amino
a plethora of functions of this amazingly diverse class of acids that proteins with different amino acid sequences have different
biochemicals. shapes and different chemical properties. Small proteins can contain
just a few hundred amino acids. Yeast proteins average 466 amino
acids. The largest known proteins are the titins, found in muscle, which
are composed from over 27,000 amino acids.

PROTEIN STRUCTURE
Amino acids join together to form a molecule called a dipeptide. The –
OH from the carboxyl group of one amino acid combines with a
hydrogen atom from the amino group of the other amino acid to
produce water. This is called a condensation reaction - a reaction in
which two molecules combine to form a single molecule with a release
of water. Figure 3.7.3) shows this process. The top part of the image
shows two amino acids; note the -OH in amino acid 1 and the the -H in
amino acid two are highlighted. These are the atoms that will be
Figure 3.7.1 : Protein shake
removed from the amino acids to form water. This allows a covalent
bond forms between the carboxyl carbon of one amino acid and the
WHAT ARE PROTEINS?
amine nitrogen of the second amino acid. This reaction forms a
molecule called a dipeptide and the carbon-nitrogen covalent bond is
called a peptide bond. When repeated numerous times, a lengthy
molecule called a polypeptide is eventually produced. Very lengthy
polypeptides with functional configuration are called proteins.
Amino acid (1) Amino acid (2)

N-terminus C-terminus

Figure 3.7.2 : General Structure of Amino Acids. This model shows the Peptide bond
general structure of all amino acids. Only the side chain, R, varies from
one amino acid to another. For example, in the amino acid glycine, the
side chain is simply hydrogen (H). In glutamic acid, in contrast, the
side chain is CH CH COOH CH2CH2COOH. Variable side chains
2 2

give amino acids different chemical properties. The order of amino

acids, together with the properties of the amino acids, determines the Water
shape of the protein, and the shape of the protein determines the
function of the protein. KEY: H = hydrogen, N = nitrogen, C = carbon, Dipeptide
O = oxygen, R = variable side chain. Figure 3.7.3 : Amino acids join together to form a molecule called a
Proteins are organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, dipeptide. The C−N bond is called a peptide bond. The order of amino
oxygen, nitrogen, and, in some cases, sulfur. These compounds have acids is by convention shown with the free amino group on the left and
the free carboxyl group on the right.
many essential functions within the cell (see below). Proteins are made
of smaller units called amino acids. There are 20 different common Proteins may have up to four levels of structure, from primary to
amino acids needed to make proteins. All amino acids have the same quaternary, as described and shown in the diagram below, giving them
basic structure, which is shown in Figure 3.7.3. Only the side chain the potential for tremendous diversity:
(labeled R in the figure) differs from one amino acid to another. These A protein’s primary structure is the sequence of amino acids in its
side chains can vary in size from just one hydrogen atom in glycine to polypeptide chain(s). This sequence of amino acids determines the
a large heterocyclic group in tryptophan. The variable side chain gives higher levels of protein structure and is encoded in genes.
each amino acid unique properties. The side chains can also A protein's secondary structure consists of regularly repeating local
characterize the amino acid as (1) nonpolar or hydrophobic, (2) neutral structures stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the carboxylic
and amino groups of the backbone. The most common secondary

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 structures include the alpha-helix and beta-sheet. Because
secondary structures are local, many regions of different secondary
structure can be present in the same protein molecule.
A protein's tertiary structure refers to the overall three-dimensional
shape of a single protein molecule. It is determined by the spatial
relationship of non-covalent and covalent bonds between the "R"
groups of distant amino acids in a polypeptide. The tertiary
structure is what controls the basic function of the protein.
Not all proteins have a final, quaternary structure. This is a
structure formed by several protein molecules that function together
as a single protein complex.

Figure 3.7.5 : Myoglobin is a protein found in the muscle tissues of

most mammals. It binds with oxygen to supply the cells with this
element. The modle shows the 3D structure of the protein.
The chief characteristic of proteins that allows their diverse set of
functions is their ability to bind other molecules specifically and
tightly. For example, myoglobin can bind specifically and tightly with
oxygen. The region of a protein responsible for binding with another
molecule is known as the binding site. This site is often a depression
on the molecular surface, determined largely by the tertiary structure of
the protein.

PROTEIN CONSUMPTION, DIGESTION, AND

SYNTHESIS
Proteins are necessary for the diets of humans and other animals. We
cannot make all the different amino acids we need, so we must obtain
some of them from the foods we consume. Through the process of
Figure 3.7.4 : The levels of structure of a protein called hemoglobin.
digestion, we break down the proteins in food into free amino acids
that can then be used to synthesize our own proteins. Protein synthesis
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
from amino acid monomers takes place in all cells and is controlled by
The diversity of protein structures explains how this class of
genes. Once new proteins are synthesized, they generally do not last
biochemical compounds can play so many important roles in living
very long before they are degraded and their amino acids are recycled.
things. What are the roles of proteins?
A protein's lifespan is generally just a day or two in mammalian cells.
Some proteins have structural functions. They may help cells keep
their shape or make up muscle tissues. SUMMARY
Many proteins are enzymes that speed up chemical reactions in Proteins are a major class of biochemical compounds made up of
cells. Enzymes are usually highly specific and accelerate only one small monomer molecules called amino acids, of which more than
or a few chemical reactions. Thousands of different biochemical 20 are commonly found in the proteins of living things. Proteins
reactions are known to be catalyzed by enzymes, including most of have a tremendous diversity of structure and function.
the reactions involved in metabolism. A reaction without an Long chains of amino acids form polypeptides via a condensation
enzyme might take millions of years to complete, whereas, with the reaction. The sequence of amino acids in polypeptides makes up the
proper enzyme, it may take just a few milliseconds! primary structure of proteins. Proteins also have higher levels of
Other proteins are antibodies. These are proteins that bind to structure. Secondary structure refers to configurations such as
specific foreign substances, such as proteins on the surface of helices and sheets within polypeptide chains. Tertiary structure is a
bacterial cells. This targets the cells for destruction. protein's overall three-dimensional shape, which controls the
Still, other proteins carry messages or materials. For example, a molecule's basic function. A quaternary structure forms if multiple
protein called myoglobin is an oxygen-binding protein found in the protein molecules join together and function as a complex.
muscle tissues of most mammals including humans. You can see a Functions of proteins include helping cells keep their shape, making
model of the tertiary structure of myoglobin in the figure below. up muscle tissues, acting as enzymes or antibodies, and carrying
messages or materials. The chief characteristic that allows proteins'
diverse functions is their ability to bind specifically and tightly with
other molecules.
We cannot make all the amino acids we need to synthesize our own
proteins, so we must obtain some of them from proteins in the
foods we consume.

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REVIEW 10. Arrange the following in order from the smallest to the largest level
1. What are proteins? of organization:
2. How do two amino acids combine together to make a dipeptide? 11. peptide; protein; amino acid; polypeptide
3. Outline the four levels of protein structure. 12. True or False. You can tell the function of all proteins from their
4. Identify four functions of proteins. quaternary structure.
5. Explain why proteins can take on so many different functions in 13. Explain what the reading means when it says that amino acids are
living things. “recycled.”
6. What is the role of proteins in the human diet? https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17000#Explore_More
7. Can you have a protein with both an alpha helix and a beta-sheet?
Why or why not? ATTRIBUTIONS
8. If there is a mutation in a gene that causes a different amino acid to 1. Protein Shake by Sandstein, licensed CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
be encoded than the one that is usually encoded in that position Commons
within the protein, would that affect: 2. Amino acid by YassineMrabet, public domain via Wikimedia
A. The primary structure of the protein? Explain your answer. Commons
B. The higher structures (secondary, tertiary, quaternary) of the 3. Peptide formation by YassineMrabet, public domain via Wikimedia
protein? Explain your answer. Commons
C. The function of the protein? Explain your answer. 4. Peptide bond by OpenStax, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
5. Myoglobin by AzaToth, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
9. What is the region of a protein responsible for binding to another
6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
molecule called? Which level/s of protein structure create this
3.0
region?

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3.8: NUCLEIC ACIDS
WHO'S WHO?
Identical twins show clearly the importance of genes in making us
who we are. Genes, in turn, would not be possible without nucleic
acids.

Figure 3.8.3 : Nucleic Acid

Figure 3.8.1 : Twins The hydrogen bonding of complementary bases causes DNA molecules
automatically to take their well-known shape, called a double helix,
Nucleic acids are the class of biochemical compounds that includes which is shown in the animation in Figure 3.8.4. A double helix is like
DNA and RNA. These molecules are built of small monomers called a spiral staircase. The double helix shape forms naturally and is very
nucleotides. Many nucleotides bind together to form a chain called a strong, making the two polynucleotide chains difficult to break apart.
polynucleotide. The nucleic acid DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
consists of two polynucleotide chains. The nucleic acid RNA
(ribonucleic acid) consists of just one polynucleotide chain.

STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

Each nucleotide consists of three smaller molecules:
1. a sugar molecule (the sugar deoxyribose in DNA and the sugar
ribose in RNA).
2. a phosphate group.
3. a nitrogenous base.

Figure 3.8.4 : DNA molecule

ROLES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

The DNA of cells is organized into structures called chromosomes as
shown in Figure 3.8.5. The letters A, T, G, and C stand for the bases
adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. The sequence of these four
bases in DNA is a code that carries instructions for making proteins.
The DNA helix is wrapped around proteins called histones to form
Figure 3.8.2 : Nucleotides consist of a sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a
nucleosomes. These are then further structured into chromatin and,
phosphate group
finally, chromosomes. Human cells have 46 chromosomes; other
Nucleotides are connected to form DNA as shown in Figure 3.8.3. The
organisms have different number of chromosomes.
sugar molecule of one nucleotide binds to the phosphate group of the
next nucleotide. These two molecules alternate to form the backbone of DNA makes up genes, and the sequence of bases in DNA makes up the
the nucleotide chain. The nitrogen bases in a nucleic acid stick out genetic code. Between “starts” and “stops,” the code carries
from the backbone. There are four different nitrogenous bases: instructions for the correct sequence of amino acids in a protein. The
cytosine, adenine, guanine, and either thymine (in DNA) or uracil (in information in DNA is passed from parent cells to daughter cells
RNA). In DNA, hydrogen bonds form between bases on the two whenever cells divide. The information in DNA is also passed from
nucleotide chains and hold the chains together. Each type of base binds parents to offspring when organisms reproduce. This is how inherited
with just one other type of base: cytosine always bonds with guanine, characteristics are passed from one generation to the next.
and adenine always bonds with thymine. These pairs of bases are
called complementary base pairs.

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 Figure 3.8.7 . A scientist works to extract DNA from a fossilized
Neanderthal bone
New research published in Science early in 2016 shows that our
inherited Neanderthal DNA may be more than just an interesting
curiosity or useful evidence of our evolutionary past. These bits of
Figure 3.8.5 : The organization of a chromsome DNA may actually be affecting our health today. In the research
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS reported in Science, scientists looked for Neanderthal DNA
Look at the Neanderthals in Figure 3.8.6. The image is an artist's sequences in the DNA from an electronic database compiled from
reconstruction of these close human relatives, who seem to have health records of almost 30,000 modern American adults. The
disappeared from Europe some 50,000 years ago. The consensus scientists found that certain segments of Neanderthal DNA are
that Neandertals were brutish and went extinct when overtaken by especially common in people who have particular medical
modern humans is undergoing revision as we learn more about conditions, such as depression and increased amounts of blood
these interesting members of the genus Homo. clotting. Other bits of Neanderthal DNA seems to boost the
immune response to certain parasites and other pathogens.
Most of the Neanderthal DNA segments that have persisted into our
modern gene pool were probably beneficial in prehistoric times.
Now, however, they may increase the risk of disease because our
lifestyles and environments have changed so much since then. For
example, an increase in blood clotting would have helped prevent
life-threatening bleeding from injuries or childbirth in the past, but
today it may increase the risk of blood clots and strokes in older
people with sedentary lifestyles. Even immune-boosting bits of
Neanderthal DNA may now do more harm than good for
Figure 3.8.6 : Neanderthals were stocky and barrel-chested, but Americans who live in environments where there are far fewer
DNA evidence shows that they mated with modern humans parasites. They may make our immune systems overactive and
thousands of years ago. cause allergies and autoimmune disorders.
Several years ago, scientists were able to extract DNA from
fossilized bones of Neanderthals (see Figure 3.8.7). When the REVIEW
Neanderthal DNA was compared with modern human DNA,
1. What are the nucleic acids?
researchers discovered similarities in the DNA of Neanderthals and
2. How does RNA differ in structure from DNA?
modern European-derived peoples that suggest modern humans
3. Describe a nucleotide. Explain how nucleotides bind together to
mated with Neanderthals. Some experts now think that
form a polynucleotide.
Neanderthals didn’t go extinct but were simply incorporated into
4. What role do nitrogen bases in nucleotides play in the structure and
the much larger population of Homo sapiens.
function of DNA?
5. What is the role of RNA?
6. Explain why Mark and Scott Kelly look so similar, using what you
learned about nucleic acids in this article.
7. True or False. A, C, G, and T represent the bases in RNA.
8. True or False. The two polynucleotide chains of RNA twist into a
double helix shape.
9. True or False. Cytosine always binds to guanine in DNA.
10. If part of a chain of DNA has the sequence of bases: ATTG, what is
the corresponding sequence of bases that it binds to on the other
chain?
11. Arrange the following in order from the smallest to the largest level
of organization: DNA; nucleotide; polynucleotide

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12. As part of the DNA replication process, the two polynucleotide https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17001#Explore_More
chains are separated from each other, but each individual chain
remains intact. Which bonds are broken in this process? ATTRIBUTIONS
A. Bonds between adjacent sugars and phosphate groups 1. Twins by Peter Voerman, licensed CC BY-NC 2.0 via Flickr.com
B. Bonds within nucleotides 2. DNA nucleotides by OpenStax, licensed CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia
C. Bonds between complementary bases Commons
D. Bonds between adenine and guanine 3. DNA nucleotides by OpenStax, licensed CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia
Commons
13. Adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine are:
4. DNA cropped by Jahobr, released into the public domain via
A. Nucleotides
Wikimedia Commons
B. Nitrogenous bases
5. DNA macrostructure by OpenStax, licensed CC BY 4.0 via
C. Sugars in DNA and RNA
Wikimedia Commons
D. Phosphate groups
6. Le Moustier, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
14. Some diseases and disorders are caused by genes. Explain why 7. Neanderthal DNA extraction by Max Planck Institute for
these genetic disorders can be passed down from parents to their Evolutionary Anthropology, public domain via Wikimedia
children. Commons
8. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
EXPLORE MORE 3.0

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3.9: ENERGY IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
SLOW BURN The arrow in a chemical equation separates the reactants from the
These old iron chains give off a small amount of heat as they rust. products and shows the direction in which the reaction proceeds. If the
The rusting of iron is a chemical process. It occurs when iron and reaction could occur in the opposite direction as well, two arrows
oxygen go through a chemical reaction similar to burning, or pointing in opposite directions would be used. The number 2 in front of
combustion. The chemical reaction that occurs when something O2 and H2O shows that two oxygen molecules and two water
burns obviously gives off energy. You can feel the heat, and you molecules are involved in the reaction. If just one molecule is involved,
may be able to see the light of flames. The rusting of iron is a much no number is placed in front of the chemical symbol.
slower process, but it still gives off energy. It's just that it releases
energy so slowly you can't detect a change in temperature.
ROLE OF ENERGY IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Matter rusting or burning are common examples of chemical changes.
Chemical changes involve chemical reactions, in which some
substances, called reactants, change at the molecular level to form new
substances, called products. All chemical reactions involve energy.
However, not all chemical reactions release energy, as rusting and
burning do. In some chemical reactions, energy is absorbed rather than
released.

EXERGONIC REACTIONS
A chemical reaction that releases energy is called an
exergonic reaction. This type of reaction can be represented by a
general chemical equation:
Figure 3.9.1 : Rusty chain
Reactants → Products + Energy (3.9.2)

WHAT IS A CHEMICAL REACTION? Besides rusting and burning, examples of exothermic reactions include
A chemical reaction is a process that changes some chemical chlorine combining with sodium to form table salt. The decomposition
substances into others. A substance that starts a chemical reaction isof organic matter also releases energy because of exergonic reactions.
called a reactant, and a substance that forms as a result of a chemical
Sometimes on a chilly morning, you can see steam rising from a
reaction is called a product. During the reaction, the reactants are used
compost pile because of these chemical reactions (see Figure 3.9.3).
up to create the products. Exergonic chemical reactions also take place in the cells of living
Another example of a chemical reaction is the burning of methane gas, things. In a chemical process similar to combustion, called cellular
shown in Figure 3.9.2. In this chemical reaction, the reactants are respiration, the sugar glucose is "burned" to provide cells with energy.
methane (CH4) and oxygen (O2), and the products are carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O). As this example shows, a chemical reaction
involves the breaking and forming of chemical bonds. Chemical bonds
are forces that hold together the atoms of a molecule. Bonds occur
when atoms share electrons. When methane burns, for example, bonds
break within the methane and oxygen molecules, and new bonds form
in the molecules of carbon dioxide and water.

Figure 3.9.3: This compost pile is steaming because it is much warmer

than the chilly air around it. The heat comes from all the exothermic
chemical reactions taking place inside the compost as it decomposes.

ENDERGONIC REACTIONS
A chemical reaction that absorbs energy is called an endergonic
Figure 3.9.2 : Flames from methane burning reaction. This type of reaction can also be represented by a general
chemical equation:
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Reactants + Energy → Products (3.9.3)
Chemical reactions can be represented by chemical equations. A
chemical equation is a symbolic way of showing what happens during Did you ever use a chemical cold pack like the one in the picture
a chemical reaction. For example, the burning of methane can be below? The pack cools down because of an endergonic reaction. When
represented by the chemical equation: a tube inside the pack is broken, it releases a chemical that reacts with
CH +2O → CO +2H O (3.9.1)
4 2 2 2

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water inside the pack. This reaction absorbs heat energy and quickly
cools down the contents of the pack.

Figure 3.9.4 : This pack gets cold due to an endergonic reaction

Many other chemical processes involve endergonic reactions. For
example, most cooking and baking involves the use of energy to
produce chemical reactions. You can't bake a cake or cook an egg
without adding heat energy. Arguably, the most important endergonic Figure 3.9.5 : This diagram of activation energy shows the reactants on
the far left and the products on the right. Notice that the reactants hare
reactions occur during photosynthesis. When plants produce sugar by at a higher energy level than the products; so this reaction releases
photosynthesis, they take in light energy to power the necessary energy overall. But the reaction consumes energy to get started - this is
endergonic reactions. The sugar they produce provides plants and the activation energy for the reaction.
virtually all other living things with glucose for cellular respiration.
REVIEW
ACTIVATION ENERGY 1. What is a chemical reaction?
All chemical reactions need energy to get started. Even reactions that 2. Identify reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
release energy need a boost of energy in order to begin. The energy 3. List three examples of common changes that involve chemical
needed to start a chemical reaction is called activation energy. reactions.
Activation energy is like the push a child needs to start going down a 4. Define a chemical bond.
playground slide. The push gives the child enough energy to start 5. What is a chemical equation? Give an example.
moving, but once she starts, she keeps moving without being pushed 6. Our cells use glucose (C6H12O6) to obtain energy in a chemical
again. Activation energy is illustrated in Figure 3.9.5. reaction called cellular respiration. In this reaction, six oxygen
molecules (O2) react with one glucose molecule. Answer the
Why do all chemical reactions need energy to get started? In order for
following questions about this reaction.
reactions to begin, reactant molecules must bump into each other, so
they must be moving, and movement requires energy. When reactant A. How many oxygen atoms are in one molecule of glucose?
molecules bump together, they may repel each other because of B. Write out what the reactant side of this equation would look
intermolecular forces pushing them apart. Overcoming these forces so like.
the molecules can come together and react also takes energy. C. How many oxygen atoms are in the reactants in total? Explain
how you calculated your answer.
D. How many oxygen atoms are in the products in total? Is it
possible to answer this question without knowing what the
products are? Why or why not?
7. Answer the following questions about the equation you saw above:
CH4+ 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
A. Can carbon dioxide (CO2) become transformed into methane
(CH4) and oxygen (O2) in this reaction? Why or why not?
B. How many molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2) are produced in
this reaction?
8. Is the evaporation of liquid water into water vapor a chemical
reaction? Why or why not
9. Why do bonds break in the reactants during a chemical reaction?
10. Contrast endergonic and exergonic chemical reactions. Give an
example of each.
11. Define activation energy.
12. Explain why all chemical reactions require activation energy.
13. Heat is a form of ____________ .
14. In which type of reaction is heat added to the reactants?
15. In which type of reaction is heat produced?

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16. If there was no heat energy added to an endothermic reaction, ATTRIBUTIONS
would that reaction occur? Why or why not? 1. Chaîne by Daplaza, licensed CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
17. If there was no heat energy added to an exothermic reaction, would Commons
that reaction occur? Why or why not? 2. Gas Stove Burner Blue Flame by Federico Cardoner, licensed CC
18. Explain why a chemical cold pack feels cold when activated. BY 2.0 via Flickr
19. Explain why cellular respiration and photosynthesis are “opposites” 3. Compost steaming by Lucabon, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia
of each other. Commons
20. Explain how the sun indirectly gives our cells energy. 4. Cooler pack by Julie Magro, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
5. Activation energy by Hana Zavadska for CK-12 licensed CC BY-
EXPLORE MORE NC 3.0
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6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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3.10: CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN LIVING THINGS
ASSEMBLY LINE oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. The overall reaction
We stay alive because millions of different chemical reactions are releases energy, but an initial activation energy is needed to start the
taking place inside our bodies all the time. Each of our cells is like process. The activation energy without an enzyme is much higher than
the busy auto assembly line pictured here. Raw materials, half- the activation energy when an enzyme is used.
finished products, and waste materials are constantly being used,
produced, transported, and excreted. The "workers" on the cellular
assembly line are mainly enzymes. These are the proteins that make
biochemical reactions happen.

Figure 3.10.1 : Assembly line

Figure 3.10.2 : Enzyme Action. This graph shows what happens when
glucose combines with oxygen. An enzyme speeds up the reaction by
WHAT ARE BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS? lowering the activation energy. Compare the activation energy needed
Chemical reactions that take place inside living things are called with and without the enzyme.
biochemical reactions. The sum of all the biochemical reactions in an HOW WELL ENZYMES WORK
organism is referred to as metabolism. Metabolism includes both
Enzymes are involved in most biochemical reactions, and they do their
exothermic (heat-releasing) chemical reactions and endothermic (heat-
jobs extremely well. A typical biochemical reaction that would take
absorbing) chemical reactions.
several days or even several centuries to occur without an enzyme is
CATABOLIC REACTIONS likely to occur in just a split second with the proper enzyme! Without
Exergonic reactions in organisms are called catabolic reactions. These enzymes to speed up biochemical reactions, most organisms could not
reactions break down molecules into smaller units and release energy. survive. Enzymes are substrate-specific. The substrate of an enzyme is
An example of a catabolic reaction is the breakdown of glucose during the specific substance it affects (Figure 3.10.3). Each enzyme works
cellular respiration, which releases energy that cells need to carry out only with a particular substrate, which explains why there are so many
life processes. different enzymes. In addition, for an enzyme to work, it requires
specific conditions, such as just the right temperature and pH. Some
ANABOLIC REACTIONS enzymes work best under acidic conditions, for example, while others
Endergonic reactions in organisms are called anabolic reactions. work best in neutral environments.
These reactions absorb energy and build bigger molecules from smaller
ENZYME-DEFICIENCY DISORDERS
ones. An example of an anabolic reaction is the joining of amino acids
to form a protein. Which type of reactions — catabolic or anabolic — There are hundreds of known inherited metabolic disorders in humans.
do you think occur when your body digests food? In most of them, a single enzyme is either not produced by the body at
all or is produced in a form that doesn't work. The missing or defective
ENZYMES enzyme is like an absentee worker on the cell's assembly line. The
Most biochemical reactions in organisms need help in order to take absence of the normal enzyme means that toxic chemicals build-up or
place. Why is this the case? For one thing, temperatures are usually too an essential product isn't made. Generally, the normal enzyme is
low inside living things for biochemical reactions to occur quickly missing because the individual with the disorder inherited two copies
enough to maintain life. The concentrations of reactants may also be of a gene mutation, which may have occurred originally many
too low for them to come together and react. Where do the biochemical generations in the past.
reactions get the help they need to proceed? The help comes from Any given inherited metabolic disorder is generally quite rare in the
enzymes. general population. However, there are so many different metabolic
disorders that a total of 1 in 1,000 to 2,500 newborns can be expected
An enzyme is a protein that speeds up a biochemical reaction. It is a
to have one. In certain ethnic populations, such as Ashkenazi Jews
biological catalyst. An enzyme generally works by reducing the
(Jews of central and eastern European ancestry), the rate of certain
amount of activation energy needed to start the reaction. Figure 3.10.2
inherited metabolic disorders is much higher.
shows the activation energy needed for glucose to combine with

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 3. Compare and contrast catabolic and anabolic reactions.
4. Explain the role of enzymes in biochemical reactions.
5. What are enzyme-deficiency disorders?
6. True or False. Metabolism is one specific type of catabolism.
7. True or False. Biochemical reactions include catabolic and anabolic
reactions.
8. Explain why the relatively low temperature of living things, as well
as the low concentration of reactants, would cause biochemical
reactions to occur very slowly in the body without enzymes.
9. Answer the following questions about what happens after you eat a
sandwich.
A. Pieces of the sandwich go into your stomach, where there are
digestive enzymes that break down the food. Which type of
metabolic reaction is this? Explain your answer.
B. Through the process of digestion, some of the sandwich is
broken down to glucose, which is then further broken down to
Figure 3.10.3 : The figure shows how enzymes convert substrates into release energy that your cells can use. Is this an exergonic or
products. the substrate (A) binds at the activation site of the enzyme(D) endergonic reaction? Explain your answer.
and makes a substrate-enzyme complex (B). Then, the enzyme C. The proteins in the cheese, meat, and bread in the sandwich are
converts the substrate into the product (C) by breaking or making
broken down into their component amino acids. Then your body
bonds between the atoms of the substrate.
uses those amino acids to build new proteins. Which kind of
FEATURE: RELIABLE SOURCES metabolic reaction is represented by the building of these new
The most common of all known enzyme-deficiency disorders is proteins? Explain your answer.
glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase, or G6PD, deficiency. In the 10. Explain why your body doesn’t just use one or two enzymes for all
U.S., the disorder occurs most often in African-American males. of its biochemical reactions.
The enzyme G6PD is needed to prevent the abnormal breakdown of 11. What is the specific substance that an enzyme affects in a
red blood cells. Without the enzyme, red blood cells break down biochemical reaction called?
prematurely and anemia results. 12. An enzyme is a biological
Choose one of the following topics about G6PD deficiency: A. catabolism
genetic basis B. form of activation energy
signs and symptoms C. catalyst
diagnosis and treatment D. reactant
worldwide distribution
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For the topic, you chose, go online to learn more about it. Find at https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17003#Explore_More
least three sources of additional information that you think are
reliable. Compare the information provided by the different ATTRIBUTIONS
sources, and identify any discrepancies among them. Do additional 1. Final Assembly by Brian Snelson, licensed CC BY 2.0 via
online research as needed to try to find a reliable consensus view of Wikimedia Commons
the discrepant issue. 2. Enzyme action by Hana Zavadska for CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0
REVIEW 3. Enzymes by SweetChickaD, licensec CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 via Flickr
1. What are biochemical reactions? 4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
2. Define metabolism. 3.0

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3.11: BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
THE BLUE MARBLE
It's often called the "water planet," and it's been given the nickname
"the blue marble." You probably just call it "home." Almost three-
quarters of our home planet is covered by water, and without it, life
as we know it could not exist on Earth. Water, like carbon, has a
special role in living things. It is needed by all known forms of life.
Although water consists of simple molecules, each containing just
three atoms, its structure gives it unique properties that help explain
why it is vital to all living organisms.

Figure 3.11.2: This model is an atomic diagram of water, showing the

two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom in the center.

Figure 3.11.1 : Planet Earth

CHEMICAL STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF

WATER IS A GOOD SOLVENT
WATER
Water is considered a very good solvent in the biochemical reactions.
You are probably already familiar with many of the water’s properties.
Figure 3.11.3 illustrates how water dissolves salts. Table salt (NaCl)
For example, you no doubt know that water is tasteless, odorless, and
consists of a positively charged sodium ion and a negatively charged
transparent. In small quantities, it is also colorless. However, when a
chloride ion. The oxygen of water is attracted to the positive Na ion.
large amount of water is observed, as in a lake or the ocean, it is
The hydrogens of water are attracted to the negative Cl ion.
actually light blue in color. The blue hue of the water is an intrinsic
property and is caused by selective absorption and scattering of white
light. These and other properties of water depend on its chemical
structure.
The transparency of water is important for organisms that live in water.
Because water is transparent, sunlight can pass through it. Sunlight is
needed by water plants and other water organisms for photosynthesis.

CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF WATER

Each molecule of water consists of one atom of oxygen and two atoms
of hydrogen, so it has the chemical formula H2O. The arrangement of
atoms in a water molecule, shown in Figure 3.11.2, explains many of
the water’s chemical properties. In each water molecule, the nucleus of
the oxygen atom (with 8 positively charged protons) attracts electrons
much more strongly than do the hydrogen nuclei (with only one
positively charged proton). This results in a negative electrical charge
near the oxygen atom (due to the "pull" of the negatively charged
electrons toward the oxygen nucleus) and a positive electrical charge Figure 3.11.3 : This diagram shows the positive and negative parts of a
near the hydrogen atoms. A difference in electrical charge between water molecule. It also depicts how a charge, such as on an ion (Na or
different parts of a molecule is called polarity. A polar molecule is a Cl, for example) can interact with a water molecule.
molecule in which part of the molecule is positively charged and part
HYDROGEN BONDING
of the molecule is negatively charged.
Opposite electrical charges attract one another. Therefore, the positive
part of one water molecule is attracted to the negative parts of other
water molecules. Because of this attraction, bonds form between
hydrogen and oxygen atoms of adjacent water molecules, as
demonstrated in Figure 3.11.4. This type of bond always involves a
hydrogen atom, so it is called a hydrogen bond.

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Hydrogen bonds can also form within a single large organic molecule. before you even place your mouth on the straw. The water has created
For example, hydrogen bonds that form between different parts of a hydrogen bonds with the surface of the straw, causing the water to
protein molecule bend the molecule into a distinctive shape, which is adhere to the sides of the straw. As the hydrogen bonds keep
important for the protein’s functions. Hydrogen bonds also hold interchanging with the straw's surface, the water molecules interchange
together the two nucleotide chains of a DNA molecule. positions and some begin to ascend the straw.
Adhesion and capillary action are necessary to the survival of most
organisms. It is the mechanism that is responsible for water transport in
plants through roots and stems, and in animals through small blood
vessels.
Hydrogen bonds also explain why water’s boiling point (100°C) is
higher than the boiling points of similar substances without hydrogen
bonds. Because of water’s relatively high boiling point, most water
exists in a liquid state on Earth. Liquid water is needed by all living
organisms. Therefore, the availability of liquid water enables life to
survive over much of the planet.
Furthermore, water has a high specific heat because it takes a lot of
energy to raise or lower the temperature of the water. As a result, water
plays a very important role in temperature regulation. Since cells are
made up of water, this property helps to maintain homeostasis.
Figure 3.11.4 : Hydrogen bonds form between positively and THE DENSITY OF ICE AND WATER
negatively charged parts of water molecules. The bonds hold the water
molecules together. How do you think this might affect water’s The melting point of water is 0°C. Below this temperature, water is a
properties? solid (ice). Unlike most chemical substances, water in a solid state has
a lower density than water in a liquid state. This is because water
STICKY, WET WATER
expands when it freezes. Again, hydrogen bonding is the reason.
Water has some unusual properties due to its hydrogen bonds. One Hydrogen bonds cause water molecules to line up less efficiently in ice
property is cohesion, the tendency for water molecules to stick than in liquid water. As a result, water molecules are spaced farther
together. The cohesive forces between water molecules are responsible apart in ice, giving ice a lower density than liquid water. A substance
for the phenomenon known as surface tension. The molecules at the with lower density floats on a substance with higher density. This
surface do not have other like molecules on all sides of them and explains why ice floats on liquid water, whereas many other solids sink
consequently, they cohere more strongly to those directly associated to the bottom of liquid water.
with them on the surface. For example, if you drop a tiny amount of
In a large body of water, such as a lake or the ocean, the water with the
water onto a very smooth surface, the water molecules will stick
greatest density always sinks to the bottom. Water is most dense at
together and form a droplet, rather than spread out over the surface.
about 4°C. As a result, the water at the bottom of a lake or the ocean
The same thing happens when water slowly drips from a leaky faucet.
usually has a temperature of about 4°C. In climates with cold winters,
The water doesn't fall from the faucet as individual water molecules
this layer of 4°C water insulates the bottom of a lake from freezing
but as droplets of water. The tendency of water to stick together in
temperatures. Lake organisms such as fish can survive the winter by
droplets is also illustrated by the dew drops in Figure 3.11.5.
staying in this cold, but unfrozen, water at the bottom of the lake.

REVIEW
1. Describe the structure of a water molecule. What is polarity, and
why is water polar?
2. Explain how the internal polarity of the water molecule makes it a
good solvent?
3. Explain how hydrogen bonds cause molecules of liquid water to
Figure 3.11.5 : Droplets of dew cling to a spider web, demonstrating stick together.
cohesion, the tendency of water molecules to stick together because of
hydrogen bonds. 4. What is capillary action? Give an example.
5. What property of water helps to maintain homeostasis and how?
Another important physical property of water is adhesion. In terms of
water, adhesion is the bonding of a water molecule to another
EXPLORE MORE
substance, such as the sides of a leaf's veins. This process happens https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17004#Explore_More
because hydrogen bonds are special in that they break and reform with
great frequency. This constant rearranging of hydrogen bonds allows a ATTRIBUTIONS
percentage of all the molecules in a given sample to bond to another 1. Water Planet by NASA/Robert Simmon and Marit Jentoft-Nilsen,
substance. This grip-like characteristic that water molecules form public domain via Wikimedia Commons
causes capillary action, the ability of a liquid to flow against gravity 2. Water by Lumen Learning licensed CC BY 2.0
in a narrow space. An example of capillary action is when you place a 3. Dissolving salt by Charles Molnar and Jane Gair, licensed CC BY
straw into a glass of water. The water seems to climb up the straw 4.0

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4. Hydrogen bonding by Lumen Learning licensed CC BY 2.0 6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
5. Water drops by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, public domain via 3.0
Wikimedia Commons

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3.12: ACIDS AND BASES
DANGER! BATTERY ACID!
You probably know that car batteries like this one contain
dangerous chemicals such as strong acids. Strong acids can hurt
you if they come into contact with your skin or eyes. Therefore, it
may surprise you to learn that your life depends on acids. There are
many acids inside your body, and some of them are as strong as
battery acid. Acids are needed for digestion and some forms of
energy production. Genes are made of nucleic acids, proteins of
amino acids, and lipids of fatty acids.

Figure 3.12.1 : Car battery Figure 3.12.2 : This pH scale shows the acidity of many common
substances. The lower the pH value, the more acidic a substance is.

WATER AND SOLUTIONS Examples of pH

Acids such as battery acid are solutions. A solution is a mixture of two Liquid drain cleaner has a pH = 14
or more substances that has the same composition throughout. Many Bleaches, oven cleaner, lye have a pH = 13.5
solutions are a mixture of water and some other substance. Not all Ammonia solution has a pH = 10.5 - 11.5
solutions are acids. Some are bases and some are neither acids nor Baking soda has a pH = 9.5
bases. To understand acids and bases, you need to know more about Sea water has a pH = 8
pure water. Blood has a pH = 7.4
Milk, urine, saliva have a pH = 6.3 - 6.6
In pure water (such as distilled water), a tiny fraction of water
Black coffee has a pH = 5
molecules naturally breaks down to form ions. An ion is an electrically
Grapefruit juice, soda, tomato juice have a pH = 2.5 - 3.5
charged atom or molecule. The breakdown of water is represented by
Lemon juice, vinegar have a pH = 2
the chemical equation:
Batter acid, hydrochloric acid have a pH = 0
+ −
2 H2 O → H3 O + OH (3.12.1)
ACIDS
The products of this reaction are a hydronium ion (H3O+)and a If a solution has a higher concentration of hydronium ions than pure
hydroxide ion (OH-). The hydroxide ion, which has a negative charge, water, it has a pH lower than 7. A solution with a pH lower than 7 is
forms when a water molecule gives up a positively charged hydrogen called an acid. As the hydronium ion concentration increases, the pH
ion (H+). The hydronium ion, which has a positive charge, forms when value decreases. Therefore, the more acidic a solution is, the lower its
another water molecule accepts the hydrogen ion. pH value is. Did you ever taste vinegar? Like other acids, it tastes sour.
Stronger acids can be harmful to organisms. For example, stomach acid
ACIDITY AND PH would eat through the stomach if it were not lined with a layer of
The concentration of hydronium ions in a solution is known as acidity. mucus. Strong acids can also damage materials, even hard materials
In pure water, the concentration of hydronium ions is very low; only such as glass.
about 1 in 10 million water molecules naturally breaks down to form a
hydronium ion. As a result, pure water is essentially neutral. Acidity is BASES
measured on a scale called pH. Pure water has a pH of 7, so the point If a solution has a lower concentration of hydronium ions than pure
of neutrality on the pH scale is 7. water, it has a pH higher than 7. A solution with a pH higher than 7 is
called a base. Bases, such as baking soda, have a bitter taste. Like
strong acids, strong bases can harm organisms and damage materials.
For example, lye can burn the skin, and bleach can remove the color
from clothing.

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ACIDS, BASES, AND ENZYMES Some people are helped by sleeping with the head of the bed
Many acids and bases in living things provide the pH that enzymes elevated. This allows gravity to help control the backflow of
need. Enzymes are biological catalysts that must work effectively for acids into the esophagus from the stomach.
biochemical reactions to occur. Most enzymes can do their job only at a
certain level of acidity. Cells secrete acids and bases to maintain the REVIEW
proper pH for enzymes to do their work. 1. What is the solution?
Every time you digest food, acids and bases are at work in your 2. Define acidity.
digestive system. Consider the enzyme pepsin, which helps break down 3. Explain how acidity is measured.
proteins in the stomach. Pepsin needs an acidic environment to do its 4. Compare and contrast acids and bases.
job. The stomach secretes the strong acid called hydrochloric acid that 5. Hydrochloric acid is secreted by the stomach to provide an acidic
allows pepsin to work. When stomach contents enter the small environment for the enzyme pepsin. What is the pH of this acid?
intestine, the acid must be neutralized. This is because enzymes in the How strong of an acid is it compared with other acids?
small intestine need a basic environment in order to work. An organ 6. True or False. Strong bases are gentle and cannot hurt you, unlike
called the pancreas secretes a base named bicarbonate into the small strong acids.
intestine, and this base neutralizes the acid. 7. True or False. The lower the pH, the higher the concentration of
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY hydronium ions.
8. Define an ion.
Do you ever have heartburn? The answer is probably "yes." More
9. Identify the ions in the following equation and explain why they are
than 60 million Americans have heartburn at least once a month,
ions:
and more than 15 million suffer from it on a daily basis. Knowing
more about heartburn may help you prevent it or know when it's 2 H2 O → H3 O
+
+ OH
−
(3.12.2)

time to seek medical treatment.

10. Explain why the pancreas secretes bicarbonate into the small
Heartburn doesn't have anything to do with the heart, but it does
intestine.
cause a burning sensation in the vicinity of that organ. Normally,
11. Do you think pepsin would work in the small intestine? Why or
the acid secreted into the stomach remains in the stomach where it
why not?
is needed to allow pepsin to do its job of digesting proteins. A long
12. How does the pH of the stomach compare to the small intestine? It
tube called the esophagus carries food from the mouth to the
is
stomach. A sphincter, or valve, between the esophagus and
A. the same as
stomach, opens to allow swallowed food to enter the stomach and
B. not as important as the pH of
then closes to prevent stomach contents from back flowing into the
C. higher than
esophagus. If this sphincter is weak or relaxes inappropriately,
D. lower than
stomach contents flow into the esophagus. Because stomach
contents are usually acidic, this causes the burning sensation known 13. You may have mixed vinegar and baking soda and noticed that
as heartburn. People who are prone to heartburn and suffer from it they bubble and react with each other.
often may be diagnosed with GERD, which stands for A. Explain why this happens.
gastroesophageal reflux disease. B. Explain what happens to the pH of this solution after you mix
GERD — as well as occasional heartburn — often can be improved the vinegar and baking soda.
by dietary and other lifestyle changes that decrease the amount and 14. Pregnancy hormones can cause the lower esophageal sphincter to
acidity of reflux from the stomach into the esophagus. relax. What effect do you think this has on pregnant women?
Some foods and beverages seem to contribute to GERD, so Explain your answer.
these should be avoided. They include chocolate, fatty foods,
peppermint, coffee, and alcoholic beverages.
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https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17005#Explore_More
Decreasing portion size and eating the last meal of the day at
least a couple of hours before bedtime may reduce the risk of ATTRIBUTIONS
reflux occurring.
1. Battery by dave_7, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
Smoking tends to weaken the lower esophageal sphincter, so
2. pH scale by OpenStax College, licensed CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
quitting the habit may help control reflux.
Commons
GERD is often associated with being overweight, and losing
3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
weight often brings improvement.
3.0

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3.13: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: DIET AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
preferences. Mohinder should consult with their doctor about their diet
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: DIET DILEMMA and exercise plan so that their specific situation can be taken into
After reading this chapter, you should be able to see numerous account and monitored by a medical professional.
connections between chemistry, human life, and health. In Mohinder’s Drinking enough water is usually good advice for everyone, especially
situation, chemistry is involved in the reasons why their father has if it replaces sugary drinks like soda. You now know that water is
diabetes, why their personal risk of getting diabetes is high, and the important for many of the chemical reactions that take place in the
different dietary changes they are considering. body.
Finally, you probably now realize that “chemicals” do not have to be
scary, toxic substances. All matter consists of chemicals, including you,
water, and healthy fresh fruits and vegetables, like the ones pictured
above. When people advocate “clean eating” and avoiding “chemicals”
in food, they are usually referring to avoiding synthetic, or man-made,
chemical additives such as preservatives. This can be a healthy way to
eat because it involves eating a variety of whole, fresh, unprocessed
foods. But there is no reason to be scared of chemicals in general –
they are simply molecules and how they react depends on what they
are, what other molecules are present, and the environmental
Figure 3.13.1 : Fruits and yogurt conditions surrounding them.
For instance, type 2 diabetes is caused mainly by a lack of response in
CHAPTER SUMMARY
the body to the hormone insulin, which causes problems in the
regulation of blood sugar, or glucose. Insulin is a peptide hormone, and By now, you should have a good understanding of the basics of the
as you have learned, peptides are chains of amino acids. Therefore, chemistry of life. Specifically, you have learned:
insulin is in the class of biochemical compounds called proteins. All matter consists of chemical substances. A chemical substance
Mohinder is at increased risk of diabetes partly because there is a has a definite and consistent composition and may be either an
genetic component to the disease. DNA, which is a type of chemical element or a compound.
compound called a nucleic acid, is passed down from parents to their An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into
offspring and carries the instructions for the production of proteins in other types of substances.
units called genes. If there is a problem in a gene (or genes) that An atom is the smallest particle of an element that still has the
contributes to the development of a disease, such as type 2 diabetes, properties of that element. Atoms, in turn, are composed of
this can get passed down to the offspring and may raise that child’s risk subatomic particles, including negative electrons, positive
of getting the disease. protons, and neutral neutrons. The number of protons in an atom
But genetics is only part of the reason why Mohinder is at an increased determines the element it represents.
risk of diabetes. Obesity itself is a risk factor and one that can be Atoms have equal numbers of electrons and protons so they
shared in families due to shared lifestyle factors such as poor diet and have no charge. Ions are atoms that have lost or gained electrons
lack of exercise, in addition to genetics. Consumption of too many so they have either a positive or negative charge. Atoms with
refined carbohydrates, such as white bread and soda, also may the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
contribute to obesity and the development of diabetes. As you probably are called isotopes.
now know, these simple carbohydrates are more easily and quickly There are almost 120 known elements. The majority of the
broken down in the digestive system to glucose than larger complex elements are metals. A smaller number are nonmetals, including
carbohydrate molecules, such as those found in vegetables and whole carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
grains. This can lead to dramatic spikes in blood sugar levels, which is A compound is a substance that consists of two or more elements in
particularly problematic for people with diabetes because they have a unique composition. The smallest particle of a compound is called
trouble maintaining their blood sugar at a safe level. You can a molecule. Chemical bonds hold together the atoms of molecules.
understand why Mohinder’s father limits the consumption of refined We discussed four types of bonds, polar covalent bond, hydrogen
carbohydrates, and in fact, some scientific studies have shown that bond, non-polar covalent bond, and ionic bond.
avoiding refined carbohydrates may actually help reduce the risk of In an ionic bond, an atom gives away one or more electrons to
getting diabetes in the first place. another atom.
Mohinder’s friend recommended eating a low fat and high In a covalent bond, two atoms share one or more electrons. The
carbohydrate diet to lose weight, but you can see that which type of equal sharing of electrons gives rise to a non- polar covalent
carbohydrate — simple or complex — is an important consideration. bond, and unequal sharing of electrons gives rise to a polar
Eating lots of white bread and rice may not help Mohinder reduce covalent bond.
their risk of diabetes! But a healthy diet that helps them lose weight The polar molecules make hydrogen bonds between them and
may lower their risk of diabetes since obesity itself is a factor. Which within themselves.
specific diet will work best to help them lose weight probably depends A chemical bond is a force of attraction between atoms or ions.
on a variety of factors including their biology, lifestyle, and food Bonds form when atoms share or transfer valence electrons.

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 Atoms form chemical bonds to achieve a full outer energy level, speeding up chemical reactions, and carrying messages and
which is the most stable arrangement of electrons. materials.
Compounds can form only in chemical reactions, and they can Proteins are made up of small monomer molecules called amino
break down only in other chemical reactions. acids.
Biochemical compounds are carbon-based compounds found in A peptide bond is formed between two amino acids when they
living things. They make up cells and other structures of organisms come together in a condensation synthesis reaction. Long chains
and carry out life processes. Most biochemical compounds are large of amino acids form polypeptides. The sequence of amino acids
molecules called polymers that consist of many repeating units of in polypeptides makes up the primary structure of proteins.
smaller molecules called monomers. Secondary structure refers to configurations such as helices and
There are millions of different biochemical compounds, but all of sheets within polypeptide chains. Tertiary structure is a protein's
them fall into four major classes: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, overall three-dimensional shape, which controls the molecule's
and nucleic acids. basic function. A quaternary structure forms if multiple protein
Carbohydrates are the most common class of biochemical molecules join together and function as a complex.
compounds. They provide cells with energy, store energy, and make The chief characteristic that allows proteins' diverse functions is
up organic structures such as the cell walls of plants. The basic their ability to bind specifically and tightly with other
building block of carbohydrates is the monosaccharide. molecules.
Sugars are short-chain carbohydrates that supply us with energy. Nucleic acids include DNA and RNA. They encode instructions for
Simple sugars, such as glucose, consist of just one making proteins, helping make proteins, and passing the encoded
monosaccharide. Some sugars, such as sucrose, or table sugar, instructions from parents to offspring.
consist of two monosaccharides and are called disaccharides. Nucleic acids are built of monomers called nucleotides, which
Disaccharides are formed with the condensation reaction. bind together in long chains to form polynucleotides. DNA
Complex carbohydrates, or polysaccharides, consist of hundreds consists of two polynucleotides, and RNA consists of one
or even thousands of monosaccharides. They include starch, polynucleotide.
glycogen, cellulose, and chitin. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar molecule, phosphate group,
Starch is made by plants to store energy and is readily and a nitrogen base. Sugars and phosphate groups of adjacent
broken down to its component sugars during digestion. nucleotides bind together to form the "backbone" of the
Glycogen is made by animals and fungi to store energy and polynucleotide. Bonds between complementary bases hold
plays a critical part in the homeostasis of blood glucose together the two polynucleotide chains of DNA and cause it to
levels in humans. take on its characteristic double helix shape.
Cellulose is the most common biochemical compound in DNA makes up genes, and the sequence of nitrogen bases in
living things. It forms the cell walls of plants and certain DNA makes up the genetic code for the synthesis of proteins.
algae. Humans cannot digest cellulose, but it makes up most RNA helps synthesize proteins in cells. The genetic code in
of the crucial dietary fiber in the human diet. DNA is also passed from parents to offspring during
Chitin makes up organic structures such as the cell walls of reproduction, explaining how inherited characteristics are
fungi and the exoskeletons of insects and other arthropods. passed from one generation to the next.
Lipids include fats and oils. They store energy, form cell A chemical reaction is a process that changes some chemical
membranes, and carry messages. substances into others. A substance that starts a chemical reaction is
Lipid molecules consist mainly of repeating units called fatty called a reactant, and a substance that forms in a chemical reaction
acids. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated, depending on is called a product. During the chemical reaction, bonds break in
the proportion of hydrogen atoms they contain. Animals store reactants and new bonds form in products.
fat as saturated fatty acids; plants store fat as unsaturated fatty Chemical reactions can be represented by chemical equations.
acids. According to the law of conservation of mass, mass is always
Types of lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, and conserved in a chemical reaction, so a chemical equation must be
steroids. balanced, with the same number of atoms of each type of element
in the products as in the reactants.
Triglycerides contain glycerol (an alcohol) in addition to
Many chemical reactions occur all around us each day, such as iron
fatty acids. Humans and other animals store fat as
rusting and organic matter rotting, but not all changes are chemical
triglycerides in fat cells.
processes. Some changes, such as ice melting or paper being torn
Phospholipids contain phosphate and glycerol in addition to
into smaller pieces, are physical processes that do not involve
fatty acids. They are the main component of cell membranes
chemical reactions and the formation of new substances.
in all living things.
All chemical reactions involve energy and need activation energy to
Steroids are lipids with a four-ring structure. Some steroids,
begin. Exergonic reactions release energy. Endergonic reactions
such as cholesterol, are important components of cell
absorb energy.
membranes. Many other steroids are hormones.
Biochemical reactions are chemical reactions that take place inside
Proteins include enzymes, antibodies, and numerous other
living things. The sum of all the biochemical reactions in an
important compounds in living things. They have many functions
organism is referred to as metabolism. Metabolism includes
including helping cells keep their shape, making up muscles,
catabolic reactions, which are exothermic reactions, and anabolic
reactions, which are endothermic reactions.

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 Most biochemical reactions need a biological catalyst called an 5. For each of the following polymers, identify the name of its
enzyme to speed up the reaction by reducing the amount of monomers.
activation energy needed for the reaction to begin. Most enzymes A. RNA
are proteins that affect just one specific substance, called the B. Protein
enzyme's substrate. C. Complex carbohydrate
Water is a polar molecule; therefore, water molecules make
6. What is the difference between a protein and a polypeptide?
hydrogen bonds between them. Due to this property water exists as
7. People with diabetes have trouble controlling the level of glucose in
a liquid over a wide range of temperatures and dissolves many
their bloodstream. Knowing this, why do you think it is often
substances. These properties depend on water's polarity, which
recommended that people with diabetes limit their consumption of
causes water molecules to "stick" together.
carbohydrates?
Organisms need water to dissolve many substances and for most
8. Identify each of the following reactions as endergonic or exergonic.
biochemical processes, including photosynthesis and cellular
A. Cellular respiration
respiration.
B. Photosynthesis
A solution is a mixture of two or more substances that has the same
C. Catabolic reactions
composition throughout. Many solutions consist of water and one
D. Anabolic reactions
or more dissolved substances.
Acidity is a measure of the hydronium ion concentration in a 9. Pepsin is an enzyme in the stomach that helps us digest protein.
solution. Pure water has a very low concentration and a pH of 7, Answer the following questions about pepsin.
which is the point of neutrality on the pH scale. Acids have a higher A. What is the substrate for pepsin?
hydronium ion concentration than pure water and a pH lower than B. How does pepsin work to speed the reaction of protein
7. Bases have a lower hydronium ion concentration than pure water digestion?
and a pH higher than 7. C. Given what you know about the structure of proteins, what do
Many acids and bases in living things are secreted to provide the you think are some of the products of the reaction that pepsin
proper pH for enzymes to work properly. catalyzes?
D. The stomach is normally acidic. What do you think would
Now that you understand the chemistry of the molecules that make up
happen to the activity of pepsin and the effect on protein
living things, in the next chapter you will learn how these molecules
digestion if the pH is raised significantly?
make up the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms —
cells — and will be able to understand some of the crucial chemical 10. What defines a neutral pH? What is the numerical value of a neutral
reactions that occur within cells. pH?
11. True or False. Unsaturated fatty acids have straight chains.
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW 12. True or False. The DNA code carries instructions for the correct
1. The four major classes of biochemical compounds are sequence of nucleic acids in a protein.
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. For each of the 13. True or False. Phospholipids make up cell membranes.
substances below, identify which of these classes includes the 14. The function of proteins can include
substance. A. helping cells keep their shape
A. Enzymes B. helping to destroy foreign substances
B. Fructose C. speeding up biochemical reactions
C. DNA D. all of the above
D. RNA 15. Which of the following is not part of a nucleotide?
E. Steroids A. nitrogen base
2. The chemical formula for the complex carbohydrate glycogen is B. cellulose molecule
C24H42O21. C. sugar molecule
A. What are the elements in glycogen? D. phosphate group
B. How many atoms are in one molecule of glycogen? 16. The “push” needed to start a chemical reaction is the
C. Is glycogen an ion? Why or why not? A. enzymatic energy
D. Is glycogen a monosaccharide or polysaccharide? Besides B. endothermic energy
memorizing this fact, how would you know this based on the C. activation energy
information in the question? D. reactant energy
E. What is the function of glycogen in the human body?
3. What is the difference between an ion and a polar molecule? Give ATTRIBUTIONS
an example of each in your explanation. 1. Soy whey protein diet by Peggy Greb, USDA ARS, public domain
4. Define monomer and polymer. via Wikimedia Commons
2. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
4: NUTRITION
This chapter describes nutrients, nutrient needs, and healthy eating to achieve good nutrition. It also
discusses eating disorders, problems of obesity and undernutrition, and causes and prevention of
foodborne diseases.

4.1: CASE STUDY: FUELING OUR BODIES PROPERLY

What does this nutritional information mean? As you read this chapter, you will learn about the
nutrients your body needs to function and stay healthy, and how eating too much or too little of
certain nutrients can wreak havoc on your health. You will learn how to interpret the tables above,
and will better understand the health consequences of a diet that is heavy in typical fast food items.

4.2: NUTRIENTS
Nutrients are substances the body needs for energy, building materials, and control of body processes. There are six major classes of
nutrients based on biochemical properties: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, vitamins, and minerals. Fiber, which consists largely
of nondigestible carbohydrates, is sometimes added as the seventh class of nutrients.

4.3: HEALTHY EATING

Healthy eating is a panacea for many human ailments. A healthy diet reduces risk of obesity, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes,
osteoporosis, and cancer. Not surprisingly, it also extends the length of life. In fact, an unhealthy diet is one of the leading preventable
causes of death. A healthy diet also has mental health benefits. It may stall or reduce the risk of dementia and have a positive effect on
memory.

4.4: EATING DISORDERS

Eating disorders are mental health disorders defined by abnormal eating habits that adversely affect health. Eating disorders typically
begin during late childhood, adolescence, or early adulthood. In developed countries such as the United States, they occur in about 4
percent of people and are much more common in females than males. In developing countries, they are less common but increasing in
frequency. Eating disorders are serious diseases and can even be fatal.

4.5: OBESITY
Obesity is a disease in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it is likely to have negative effects on health. Obesity
is commonly diagnosed on the basis of the body mass index (BMI). BMI is an estimate of body fatness based on a person's weight
relative to his or her height. BMI is calculated by dividing a person's weight (in kilograms) by the square of the person's height (in
meters).

4.6: UNDERNUTRITION
Undernutrition is defined as insufficient intake of nutritious foods. People who are undernourished are likely to have low body fat
reserves, so one indicator of undernutrition in individuals is a low body mass index (BMI). Adults are considered underweight if their
body mass index (BMI) is less than 18.5 kg/m2. Children are considered underweight if their BMI is less than the 5th percentile of the
reference values for children of the same age.

4.7: FOODBORNE DISEASES

Foodborne disease, commonly called food poisoning, is any disease that is transmitted via food. Picnic foods create a heightened risk
of foodborne disease mainly because of problems with temperature control. If hot foods are not kept hot enough or cold foods are not
kept cold enough, foods may enter a temperature range in which microorganisms such as bacteria can thrive.

4.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: FAST FOOD AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

What is wrong with fast food? That is the question that Carlos, who you read about in the beginning of the chapter, asked himself after
learning that his friend Kevin eats it five or six times a week, and thinks that this diet is not necessarily that bad for him.

1 4/25/2021
4.1: CASE STUDY: FUELING OUR BODIES PROPERLY
nutrients your body needs to function and stay healthy, and how eating
CASE STUDY: WHAT'S WRONG WITH FAST too much or too little of certain nutrients can wreak havoc on your
FOOD? health. You will learn how to interpret the tables above, and will better
Like many Americans, 20-year-old Abdul eats fast food several times a understand the health consequences of a diet that is heavy in typical
week. After a long day of classes and work, it’s easy for him to pick up fast food items. At the end of the chapter, you will learn why eating
fast food for dinner from a drive-through window on his way home. He this meal frequently is not the best choice for Abdul’s health, and how
also often have fast food for lunch on his short break. He knows that he — and you — can make better food choices.
fast food probably isn’t the healthiest choice, but it is convenient and
he likes it. Besides, he is young and only slightly overweight, with no CHAPTER OVERVIEW: NUTRITION
major health problems, so he is not too concerned about it affecting In this chapter, you will learn about nutrients, proper nutrition, and the
his health. negative health consequences of bad nutrition and improperly prepared
food. Specifically, you will learn about:
The six major classes of nutrients — carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
water, vitamins, and minerals — are substances the body needs for
energy, building materials, and body processes.
Essential nutrients, which must be obtained from food, and
nonessential nutrients, which can be synthesized by the body.
Macronutrients, which the body needs in relatively large quantities,
Figure 4.1.1 :Fast and micronutrients, which the body needs in relatively small
Food Menu quantities.
The functions of specific nutrients in the body and sources of these
One day, Abdul gives his friend Carlos a ride home and suggests they
nutrients.
pick up some fast food on the way. Carlos says, “Nah, I don’t eat that
Phytochemicals and their potential role in maintaining normal body
stuff very often. It’s not good for you.” Abdul feels a little defensive
functions and good health.
and asks Carlos what exactly is wrong with it. Carlos says, “Well, it
Guidelines for healthy eating and good nutrition, and why a healthy
has a lot of calories and it’s not exactly fresh food.” Abdul says he
diet can reduce the risk of many diseases.
doesn't think it has any more calories than other types of meals, and he
Energy homeostasis, which is the balance between calories
eats some fresh fruit and vegetables at other times — is it really that
consumed and those that are used by the body.
bad for his health to eat fast food five or six times a week?
Types of malnutrition, including undernutrition, overnutrition, and
Carlos thinks about this. He has heard many times that fast food is not unbalanced nutrition.
good for your health, but he is not sure of the exact reasons. When Nutrient and energy density and how knowledge of these factors
he gets home, he decides to do some research. He visits the website of can be used to make healthier food choices.
Abdul’s favorite fast food restaurant and looks up the nutritional How appetite is regulated.
information for Abdul's typical meal of a cheeseburger, large fries, and Eating disorders including anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and
a large soda. Some of the information he finds is shown in the tables binge eating disorder and their causes, health effects, and
below. treatments.
Figure 4.1.1 : Nutritional Information for a Typical Fast Food Meal Obesity and how it is defined, its causes, health consequences,
Total Fat Saturated Fat Trans Carbohydrates ways to prevent and treat it, and the impact on public health.
Food Calories
(%DV) (%DV) Fat (%DV)
Undernutrition and how it is defined, its causes, specific
Burger 540 43% 49% 1g 15%
undernutrition syndromes, and the often irreversible effects on
Fries 510 37% 17% 0g 22%
children.
Soda 300 0% 0% 0g 27%
The impact of undernutrition around the world, including richer
Total 1,350 80% 66% 1g 64%
nations, and public health approaches to treat and prevent
undernutrition.
The causes of foodborne diseases, including microorganisms and
Figure 4.1.2 : Percentage of the adult recommended daily value (%DV) for
each nutrient, based on a 2,000 Calorie a day diet. toxins; symptoms of the foodborne diseases; and ways to prevent
Sodium Iron Vitamin A Vitamin C Calcium foodborne disease including good hygiene and proper food
Food
(%DV) (%DV) (%DV) (%DV) (%DV) preparation and storage.
Burger 40% 25% 10% 2% 15%
As you read this chapter, think about the following questions related to
Fries 15% 6% 0% 30% 2%
the tables above that contain nutritional information for Abdul’s typical
Soda 1% 0% 0% 0% 0%
fast food meal:
Total 56% 31% 10% 32% 17%
1. Which nutrients might Abdul consume too much of if he eats meals
What does this nutritional information mean? How can it help Carlos like this frequently? Why would these nutrients be a concern? What
understand the potential health impact of Abdul frequently eating health issues could be caused by consuming them in excess?
meals like this? As you read this chapter, you will learn about the

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2. Which nutrients might Abdul not get enough of if he eats meals like ATTRIBUTIONS
this frequently? What health issues could this cause? 1. Costco menu by Quazie, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
3. What are some ways Abdul can make better food choices, even at a 2. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
fast-food restaurant? Why would these choices improve his diet and 3.0
health?

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4.2: NUTRIENTS
FIGHTING PHYTOCHEMICALS
Many wars have been fought to acquire these spices from India. Chemicals and oils in the spices infuse specific smell and taste in the Indian
cuisine. Food and culture are intertwined, and people bring their culture with them when they settle in a foreign country. Sometimes their
culture is accepted, and sometimes it becomes a cause of discrimination that people have to face for embracing their culture.
This colorful display of Indian spices is not just pretty to look at. The items pictured are also rich in phytochemicals. Phytochemicals are a
large group of recently discovered chemicals, such as oils and colors, that occur naturally in plants. Many of them are known to protect plants
by fighting off insect attacks and infectious diseases. Phytochemicals in the food we eat may also be needed to help keep us healthy. If so,
some nutritionists think they should be classified as nutrients.

Figure 4.2.1: Indian Spices

Carbohydrates are organic compounds made up of simple sugars (as in

WHAT ARE NUTRIENTS? the cotton candy pictured below). Carbohydrates are classified by the
Nutrients are substances the body needs for energy, building materials, number of sugars they contain as monosaccharides (one sugar), such as
and control of body processes. There are six major classes of nutrients glucose and fructose; disaccharides (two sugars), such as sucrose and
based on biochemical properties: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, lactose; and polysaccharides (three or more sugars), including starch,
vitamins, and minerals. Fiber, which consists largely of nondigestible glycogen, and cellulose (the main component of dietary fiber). Dietary
carbohydrates, is sometimes added as the seventh class of nutrients. carbohydrates come mainly from grains, fruits, and vegetables. All
Besides the biochemical classification of nutrients, nutrients are also digestible carbohydrates in the diet are used by the body for energy.
categorized as either essential or nonessential nutrients. Essential One gram of dietary carbohydrates provides 4 Calories of
nutrients cannot be synthesized by the human body, at least not in energy. Fiber, such as the cellulose in plant foods, cannot be digested
sufficient amounts for normal functioning, so these nutrients must be by the human digestive system, so most of it just passes through the
obtained from food. Nonessential nutrients, in contrast, can be digestive tract. Although it does not provide energy as other
synthesized in the body in sufficient quantities for normal functioning, carbohydrates do, it is nonetheless considered an essential nutrient for
although they are generally obtained from food as well. Except for its physiological roles. There are two types of fiber in many plant
dietary fiber, all dietary carbohydrates are considered nonessential. foods: soluble fiber and insoluble fiber.
Every other major class of nutrients contains multiple essential
compounds. For example, there are nine essential amino acids, at least
two essential fatty acids, and many essential vitamins and minerals.
Water and fiber are also essential nutrients.
The major classes of nutrients are also categorized as macronutrients or
micronutrients depending on how much of them the body needs.

MACRONUTRIENTS
Macronutrients are nutrients that the body needs in relatively large
amounts. They include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and water. All
macronutrients except water are used by the body for energy, although
this is not their sole physiological function. The energy provided by
macronutrients in food is measured in kilocalories, commonly called
Calories, where 1 Calorie is the amount of energy needed to raise 1
kilogram of water by 1 degree Celsius.

CARBOHYDRATES

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Figure 4.2.2: This cotton candy may look like a big cotton ball made of Figure 4.2.3 : Average soybean seed composition: 19% oil, 34% protein
(essential and non-essential amino acids), 21% insoluble carbohydrates
real cotton, which consists mostly of cellulose, but it actually consists (fiber), 9% soluble carbohydrates, 4% ash (minerals), 13% moisture.
almost entirely of simple sugars.
The most important aspect of protein structure from a nutritional
Soluble fiber consists of nondigestible complex plant carbohydrates standpoint is amino acid composition. About 20 amino acids are
that dissolve in water, forming a gel. This type of dietary fiber thickens commonly found in the human body, of which about 11 are
and slows the movement of chyme through the small intestine and nonessential because they can be synthesized internally. The other 9
thereby slows the absorption of glucose into the blood. The consistency amino acids are essential amino acids that must be obtained from
of food after it has been mechanically digested in the stomach is dietary sources. Essential amino acids are phenylalanine, valine,
referred to as chyme. This may lessen insulin spikes and the risk of threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and
type 2 diabetes. Soluble fiber can also help lower blood cholesterol. histidine. Animal proteins such as meat and fish are concentrated
Good dietary sources of soluble fiber include oats, apples, and beans. sources of all 9 essential amino acids, whereas plant proteins may have
Insoluble fiber consists mainly of cellulose and does not dissolve in only trace amounts of one or more essential amino acids.
water. As insoluble fiber moves through the large intestine, it
LIPIDS
stimulates peristalsis. Peristalsis is the involuntary constriction of the
Lipids, commonly called fats, are organic compounds made up mainly
smooth muscle of the GI tract that pushes the food content in the tract.
of fatty acids. Fats in foods (Figure 4.2.4), as well as fats in the human
This keeps food wastes moving and helps prevent constipation. The
body, are typically triglycerides (three fatty acids attached to a
insoluble fiber in the diet may also lessen the risk of colon cancer.
molecule of glycerol). Fats provide the body with energy and serve
Good dietary sources of insoluble fiber include cabbage, bell peppers,
other vital functions, including helping to make and maintain cell
and grapes.
membranes and functioning as hormones. When used for energy, one
PROTEINS gram of fat provides 9 Calories of energy.
Proteins are organic compounds made up of amino acids. You may
think of meat and fish as major sources of dietary proteins — and they
are — but there are many good plant sources as well, including
soybeans (see the figure below) and other legumes. Proteins in food are
broken down during digestion to provide the amino acids needed for
protein synthesis. Proteins in the human body are the basis of many
body structures, including muscles and skin. Proteins also function as
enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions, hormones that regulate
body functions in other ways, and antibodies that help fight pathogens.
Any amino acids from food that are not needed for these purposes are
excreted in the urine, converted to glucose for energy, or stored as fat.
One gram of protein provides 4 Calories of energy.
Figure 4.2.4 : A variety of forms of fat are commonly used in food
preparation. Fatty food sources shown here include butter, mayonnaise,
vegetable oil, and salad dressing.
SATURATED VS UNSATURATED FATS
Fats are classified as either saturated or unsaturated depending on the
type of bonds in their fatty acids.
In saturated fats, carbon atoms share only single bonds, so each
carbon atom is bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible.

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 Saturated fats tend to be solids at room temperature. Most saturated Micronutrients are nutrients the body needs in relatively small
fat in the diet comes from animal foods, such as meat and butter. amounts. Micronutrients do not provide energy. Instead, they are
In unsaturated fats, at least one pair of carbon atoms share a double necessary for the biochemical reactions of metabolism, among other
bond, so these carbon atoms are not bonded to as many hydrogen vital functions. They include vitamins, minerals, and possibly
atoms as possible. Unsaturated fats with just one double bond are phytochemicals as well.
called monounsaturated fats. Those with multiple double bonds are
called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats tend to be liquids at VITAMINS
room temperature. Unsaturated fats in the diet come mainly from Vitamins are organic compounds that generally function as
certain fish such as salmon and from plant foods such as seeds and coenzymes. A coenzyme is a “helper” molecule that is required for a
nuts. protein enzyme to work. In this capacity, vitamins play many roles in
good health, ranging from maintaining normal vision (vitamin A) to
ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS
help the blood to clot (vitamin K). Some functions of these and several
Most fatty acids are not essential. The body can make them as needed, other vitamins are listed in the table below. Most vitamins are essential
generally from other fatty acids, although this takes energy. Only two nutrients and must be obtained from food. Fruits, vegetables, meat, and
fatty acids are known to be essential, called omega-3 and omega-6 fatty fish are all high in one or more essential vitamins. There are only a few
acids. They cannot be synthesized in the body, so they must be nonessential vitamins. Vitamins B7 and K are produced by bacteria in
obtained from food. The most commonly used cooking oils in the large intestine, and vitamin D is synthesized in the skin when it is
processed foods are rich in omega-6 fatty acids, so most people get exposed to UV light
plenty of these fatty acids in their diet. Omega-3 fatty acids are not as
Table 4.2.1 : Selected Vitamins and Some of Their Functions
prevalent in foods, and most people do not get enough of them in food. Vitamin Function
Good food sources of omega-3 fatty acids include oily fish such as
Vitamin A normal vision
salmon, walnuts, and flax seeds. Vitamin B1 (thiamin) production of cellular energy from food
TRANS FATS Vitamin B3(niacin) cardiovascular health

Trans fats are unsaturated fats that contain types of bonds Vitamin
that are rare B7 (biotin) support of carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism
Vitamin
in nature. Trans fats are typically created in an industrial process called B9 (folic acid) fetal health and development

partial hydrogenation. They may be used in a variety of Vitamin processed B12 normal nerve function and production of red blood cells

foods (such as those shown in Figure 4.2.5) because they tend Vitamin
to have C making connective tissue

a longer shelf life without going rancid. Trans fats are known Vitaminto be D healthy bones and teeth

detrimental to human health. Vitamin E normal cell membranes

Vitamin K blood clotting

MINERALS
Minerals are inorganic chemical elements that are necessary for
normal body processes and good health. Because they are inorganic
and not synthesized biologically, all nutrient minerals are considered
essential nutrients.
Several minerals are needed in relatively large quantities (> 150
mg/day), so they are sometimes referred to as macrominerals or bulk
minerals. They include:
calcium, which is needed for bone strength, neutralizing acidity in
the digestive tract, and nerve and cell membrane functions. Dairy
products are good sources of calcium.
Figure 4.2.5 : All of the foods pictured here contain harmful trans fats.
magnesium, which is needed for strong bones, maintaining pH,
WATER processing ATP, and other functions. Green leafy vegetables, bran,
Water is essential to life because biochemical reactions take place in and almonds are high in magnesium.
water. Water is continuously lost from the body in multiple ways, phosphorus, which is needed for bone strength, energy processing,
including in urine and feces, during sweating, and as water vapor in pH regulation, and phospholipids in cell membranes. Milk and meat
exhaled breath. This constant loss of water makes water an essential are good sources of phosphorus.
nutrient that must be replenished often. sodium, which is needed to regulate blood volume, blood pressure,
water balance, and pH. Most processed foods have added sodium.
Too little water is called dehydration. It can cause weakness, dizziness,
A salt shaker is another common source of sodium.
and heart palpitations. Severe dehydration can lead to death. It is easy
chloride, which is needed for the production of hydrochloric acid in
to become dehydrated in hot weather, especially when exercising. It is
the stomach and for cell membrane transport. Chloride in table salt
more difficult to consume too much water, but overhydration is also
and added to processed foods provides plenty of chloride in most
possible. It can result in water intoxication, a serious and potentially
diets.
fatal condition.
potassium, which is needed for the proper functioning of the heart
and nerves, water balance, and pH. Many fruits and vegetables are
MICRONUTRIENTS
high in potassium.

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 sulfur, which is needed for the synthesis of many proteins. Meat
and fish are good sources of sulfur.
Other minerals are needed in much smaller quantities (≤150 mg/day),
so they are often referred to as trace minerals. The table below lists
several trace minerals and some of their functions. Good dietary
sources of trace minerals include whole grains, seafood, fruits,
vegetables, nuts, and legumes.
Table 4.2.2 : Selected Trace Minerals and Some of Their Functions
Trace Mineral Function
Cobalt synthesis of vitamin B12 by gut bacteria
Copper component of many enzymes
Chromium metabolism of sugar
Iodine synthesis of thyroid hormones
Iron component of hemoglobin and many enzymes
Figure 4.2.6 : The colors of berries and other fruits are attributable to
Manganese processing of oxygen
phytochemicals.
Molybdenum component of several enzymes
Selenium component of oxidases (antioxidants) REVIEW
Zinc component of several enzymes
1. What are the nutrients?
2. List the six major classes of nutrients based on biochemical
PHYTOCHEMICALS
properties.
The naturally occurring, disease- and pest-fighting plant chemicals
3. Compare and contrast essential and nonessential nutrients.
known as phytochemicals are commonly consumed in plant foods,
4. Identify macronutrients.
particularly spices and fresh vegetables and fruits. Besides fighting
5. Which nutrients are classified as micronutrients? Why?
attacks on plants, many phytochemicals give plants their distinctive
6. Describe carbohydrates, state how much energy they provide, and
colors and characteristic flavors and aromas. Phytochemicals are the
list good food sources of carbohydrates.
reason that blueberries are blue (Figure 4.2.6) and that garlic has its
7. If fiber in food cannot be digested, why is it considered a nutrient?
characteristically strong, pungent taste and smell. There are known to
8. Describe proteins, state their general uses in the human body, and
be as many as 4,000 different phytochemicals in plants. Preliminary
identify food sources that are high in proteins. How much energy
evidence suggests that certain phytochemicals in the diet help protect
do proteins provide?
human health. For example, some phytochemicals may act as
9. Describe lipids, identify how much energy they provide, and state
antioxidants that counter cancer-causing free radicals. Research on
their general uses in the human body.
phytochemicals is still relatively young, so time will tell whether they
10. Distinguish among saturated, unsaturated, and trans fats.
will eventually be classified as micronutrients.
11. Water provides no energy or materials the body needs for building
or controlling body processes. Why is it considered a nutrient?
12. What are vitamins? What is the general role of most vitamins?
Which vitamins are not essential nutrients? Why?
13. What are the dietary minerals? Give examples of macrominerals
and trace minerals.
14. What are phytochemicals? What are good food sources of
phytochemicals?
15. Which of the following are inorganic substances?
A. Vitamins
B. Minerals
C. All micronutrients
D. A and B

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ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Indian Spices by Joe mon bkk, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
2. Cotton candy fan by college.library, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
3. Soybean Composition Infographic by United Soybean Board, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
4. Butter and oil by National Cancer Institute, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
5. Avoiding trans fat by The U.S. Food and Drug Administration, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
6. Weather tomorrow - sunny with plentiful blueberries by Gordana Adamovic-Mladenovic, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0

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4.3: HEALTHY EATING
BALANCING ACT
If you practice yoga, then you know that yoga positions such as the
headstand demonstrated here can help you develop a good balance.
Having good balance, in turn, can reduce your risk of falls and
injuries. Another kind of balance is important to ensure that you
have good health and prevent disease, and that kind of balance is a
balance in your diet. Achieving a dietary balance requires healthy
eating.

Figure 4.3.2 : Black beans, prepared here in a salad with corn and other
veggies, are nutrient-dense in both protein and fiber. One cup of
cooked black beans provides about 30 percent of the protein and 60
percent of the fiber needed by a typical adult while providing virtually
no fat, sodium, or sugar. Black beans are also nutrient-dense sources of
many micronutrients, including folate, thiamin, manganese,
Figure 4.3.1 : Yoga magnesium, phosphorus, and iron.

BENEFITS OF HEALTHY EATING ENERGY HOMEOSTASIS AND ENERGY DENSITY

It sounds like something a snake-oil salesman would say, but it’s true: Good nutrition also requires achieving energy homeostasis. Energy
healthy eating is a panacea for many human ailments. A healthy diet homeostasis is a balance between the energy consumed in food and the
reduces risk of obesity, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, energy expended in metabolism and physical activity. If more energy is
osteoporosis, and cancer. Not surprisingly, it also extends the length of taken in as food than is used for metabolism and activity, then the extra
life. In fact, an unhealthy diet is one of the leading preventable causes energy is stored as fat. An extra 3,500 Calories of food energy results
of death. A healthy diet also has mental health benefits. It may stall or in the storage of almost half a kilogram (1 lb) of body fat. If less
reduce the risk of dementia and have a positive effect on memory. energy is taken in than is used, then stored fat may be used for energy.
The human brain, particularly the hypothalamus, plays a central role in
DIET AND NUTRITION regulating energy homeostasis. Based on biochemical signals from the
If you adopt healthy eating habits and get enough exercise, you are body, the hypothalamus generates a sense of hunger or satiation as
likely to have good nutrition. Nutrition is the process of taking in needed to maintain energy balance.
nutrients in food and using them for growth, metabolism, and repair.
Energy homeostasis depends on more than hunger and satiation. It also
Good nutrition requires eating foods rich in nutrients with the right
depends on dietary choices, eating habits, and activity levels. To
amount of food energy (Calories) to balance energy use.
achieve energy balance, it is important to consider the energy density
NUTRIENT BALANCE AND NUTRIENT DENSITY of the food. Energy density refers to the number of Calories a food
Eating a wide range of foods, especially fruits and vegetables, is the provides per gram (or ounce). Foods high in carbohydrates or proteins
basis of healthy eating. This helps ensure that you are eating a wide are generally less energy-dense than foods high in lipids.
range of nutrients. However, there is only a limited amount of food you Carbohydrates and proteins provide 4 Calories of energy per gram,
can eat in a single day without consuming too many Calories. In order whereas lipids provide 9 Calories of energy per gram. However, within
to maximize the number of nutrients you take in, you need to spend nutrient classes, there is considerable variation in the energy density of
your “Calorie budget” wisely by choosing foods that have high foods. For example, fruits are high in carbohydrates that the body uses
nutrient density. Nutrient density refers to how much of a given for energy. Both casaba melons and figs are fruits and provide energy,
nutrient is provided by a particular food, relative to the mass of the but an ounce of casaba melon provides only about 8 Calories of energy,
food or the number of Calories it provides. Consider vitamin K as an whereas an ounce of figs provides about 80 Calories of energy. This
example. The recommended daily value of vitamin K for adults is 90 means that figs have 10 times the energy density of casaba melons.
µg. Both kale and iceberg lettuce provide vitamin K. A cup of iceberg MALNUTRITION
lettuce provides about 50 µg vitamin K; a cup of kale provides more
Bad nutrition is referred to as malnutrition. The word malnutrition
than 1000 µg of vitamin K. Therefore, kale has about 20 times the
may make you think of starving children in Africa who do not have
nutrient density for vitamin K as lettuce. Black beans, pictured below,
enough food to eat. This type of malnutrition is called undernutrition,
are another good example of nutrient-dense food.
and it is the major nutritional problem in developing countries.
Undernutrition is typically caused by inadequate energy intake, often
coupled with frequent bouts of infectious disease. It usually results in

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people being underweight for their height, and it commonly leads to to keep track of the nutrient content of everything you eat to guarantee
growth failure in children. that you are meeting your nutrient needs? Fortunately, the answer is no.
Undernutrition is just one type of malnutrition. Excessive food intake Healthy eating is much easier than that. Just use MyPlate and nutrition
can also cause malnutrition, in this case, overnutrition. This is the facts labels and follow the tips below. This approach will help ensure
major nutritional problem in developed countries. Overnutrition is that you are meeting your nutrient needs.
typically caused by excessive energy intake coupled with inadequate
MYPLATE
energy expenditure in physical activity. Overnutrition usually leads to
One of the most useful tools for healthy eating is MyPlate, which is
people becoming overweight or obese (see Figure 4.3.3). Obesity is
shown below. This is a visual guide to healthy eating that was
associated with a host of health problems and diseases, including
developed by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in
metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and some
2011. MyPlate replaces the previous MyPyramid guide from the USDA
types of cancer, among others.
and is easier to apply to daily eating. MyPlate depicts the relative
proportions of different types of foods you should eat at each meal (or
cumulatively by the end of the day). The foods are selected from five
different food groups: vegetables, fruits, grains (such as cereal, bread,
or pasta), proteins (such as meat, fish, or legumes), and dairy (such as
milk, cheese, or yogurt).

Figure 4.3.3 : Body Mass Index is a measure that can be used to help
determine if a person is obese. A simple BMI scale compares height vs.
weight. A BMI below 18 is generally considered to be underweight; a
BMI over 25 is overweight and over 30 is obese.
Unbalanced nutrition is another type of malnutrition. In this case, the
diet contains too much or not enough of specific nutrients other than
energy. This type of malnutrition often occurs with undernutrition.
However, a person doesn’t have to be undernourished to lack specific Figure 4.3.4 : MyPlate makes it relatively simple to eat balanced meals
nutrients. People with adequate food intake and even people with that meet nutrition needs.
overnutrition may have unbalanced nutrition. Getting either too much According to MyPlate, about half of the food on your plate should be
or not enough of particular nutrients may cause diseases or other health vegetables and fruits, and the other half should be grains and proteins.
problems. For example, inadequate vitamin A intake may cause A serving of a dairy product should also accompany each meal. A meal
blindness, whereas too much vitamin A can be toxic. Likewise, dietary based on MyPlate might include a serving of kale, an apple, a turkey
calcium deficiency may contribute to osteoporosis, whereas too much sandwich, and a glass of milk. Think about some of your own typical
calcium can cause kidney stones. meals. Do they match MyPlate? If not, how could you modify them to
get the right proportions of foods from each food group?
NUTRIENT NEEDS
NUTRITION FACTS LABELS
The goal of healthy eating is to take in the proper amount of each
nutrient to meet nutrient and energy needs. The FDA identifies the If you are like most Americans, you rely heavily on packaged and
recommended adult daily values (DV) for a wide variety of nutrients, processed foods. Although limiting these foods in your diet is a good
based on a 2,000 Calorie daily diet. The values in the table are average aim, in the meantime, make use of the nutrition facts labels on these
values. The exact amount of each nutrient that a given individual needs foods. A nutrition facts label, like the one shown above, gives the
may differ, depending on factors, such as age and gender. Different nutrient content and ingredients in food and makes it easy to choose the
stages of adulthood have different nutrient needs for several nutrients, best options. A quick look at the nutrition facts can help you choose
and males have somewhat higher needs for many nutrients than do foods that are high in nutrients you are likely to need more of (such as
females at most ages, mainly because of gender differences in body fiber and protein) and low in nutrients you probably need less of (such
size. Other factors that influence individual nutrient needs include as sodium and sugar). Checking the ingredients list on labels can help
health status and activity level. People in poor health may need some you choose food items that contain the most nutritious ingredients,
nutrients in greater quantities. People who are very active need to such as whole grains instead of processed grains.
obtain more energy from macronutrients in their diet.

TOOLS AND TIPS FOR HEALTHY EATING

There are so many nutrients and daily values. Eating to meet all these
nutrient needs may seem like an overwhelming challenge. Do you need

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 Make healthy grain choices. Try to make at least half your grains
whole grains. Choose food items with whole grains listed as the
main ingredient. Avoid foods that contain mainly or only processed
grains, such as white flour or white rice. Include a variety of grains,
such as rice, oats, and wheat.
Make healthy fruit and vegetable choices. Include a variety of
green, yellow, red, and orange fruits and vegetables, like those
pictured below. These foods are high in vitamins and
phytochemicals. Consume whole fruits instead of juices. Whole
fruits are higher in fiber and more filling and may also have less
sugar. The highest fiber fruits include plums and prunes.
Combine amino acids in plant foods. The right combinations, such
as beans and rice, make complete proteins with all nine essential
amino acids. The two foods do not have to be eaten at the same
meal to be used together by the body.
Limit sugar and salt intake. Fresh foods generally have less of these
two nutrients than processed foods. For packaged foods, read
nutrition facts labels and choose options that are lower in sodium
and sugars. Keep in mind that sugar may come in many forms,
including high fructose corn syrup. Put away the salt shaker and
sugar bowl so you won’t be tempted to add extra sodium or sugar at
the table.
Limit saturated fats. Eat more fish and legumes and less red meat.
Use nut and vegetable oils instead of butter or other fats derived
from animals.
Always check for trans fats on nutrition facts labels. Try to avoid
Figure 4.3.5 : Nutrition facts labels like this one can help you make these harmful artificial fats completely.
good food choices. Increase omega-3 fatty acids. Foods that contain these essential
The sample nutrition label in Figure 4.3.5 indicates that a serving of fatty acids include salmon, walnuts, flax seeds, and canola oil.
this food is 55 g (with about 8 servings in the package). Each serving Stay hydrated. Eat foods high in water, such as fruits and
contains: vegetables. Also, try to drink 2 liters (about 8 cups) of fluids each
day. Choose water or unsweetened beverages such as tea or coffee
230 calories (with 40 calories from fat)
instead of sweetened beverages. Sweetened drinks such as soft
8 g total fat (making up 12% of the recommended fats per day)
drinks contain no nutrients except sugar. Frequent consumption of
1 g of this total fat is saturated fat (making up 5% of the daily
sweetened beverages is a major risk factor for metabolic syndrome,
value)
obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.
0 g is trans fat
Engage in at least 30 minutes of physical activity most days of the
0 mg cholesterol (0% of the daily value) week. Besides all the other benefits of exercise to human health,
160 mg sodium (7% of the daily value) such as strong bones and muscles, exercise uses energy that helps to
37 g total carbohydrates (12% of daily value) balance the Calories in food.
4 g of that is dietary fiber (16% of daily value) FEATURE: MY HUMAN BIOLOGY
1 g sugars
The Zone Diet, Blood Type Diet, Paleo Diet, grapefruit diet — no
3 g proteins doubt, you’ve heard of them all. Such diets — often referred to as
10% of the recommended daily value of vitamin A fad diets — certainly feature prominently in the media, and many
8% of the recommended daily value of vitamin C people try them. If you want to lose weight, you may be thinking
20% of the recommended daily value of calcium about trying a fad diet yourself. And why not? Fad diets are
45% of the recommended daily value of orpm certainly appealing. They often promise quick weight loss without
exercise. They also generally spell out exactly what you can and
TIPS FOR HEALTHY EATING
cannot eat. This makes it easier for some people to consume less in
The following tips can help you attain energy homeostasis while
the short term. But do fad diets really work, and are they healthy
meeting your nutrient needs.
ways to lose weight?
Eat several smaller meals throughout the day rather than a few
In reality, most fad diets do not lead to significant, long-term
larger meals. Eating more frequently keeps energy, blood glucose,
weight loss. People may lose a lot of weight initially, but the weight
and insulin levels stable.
loss is likely to be due to loss of water rather than fat. In addition,
Make healthy food choices. Try to eat whole foods rather than
many fad diets are unhealthy because they are unbalanced. They
processed foods. Whole foods have more nutrients than processed
typically restrict or eliminate foods — such as fruits, dairy, or
foods. Raw foods also generally retain more nutrients than cooked
whole grains — that should be the basis of a healthy eating plan
foods. Overall, try to eat more plant foods and fewer animal foods.
because they are dense in critical nutrients. At the same time, such

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 diets may recommend overconsumption of certain nutrients that can Follow MyPlate but use a smaller plate. If you use a salad plate
actually compromise health when eaten in excess. For example, instead of a dinner plate, for example, the same-sized serving of
high-protein diets can put a strain on the kidneys and potentially food will look larger. You will eat less without feeling deprived.
lead to kidney stones and gout. Fad diets that are restricted to
Following the healthy-eating guidelines in this concept and the
certain foods also quickly become boring and difficult to stick with.
specific tips above should lead to a slow but steady weight loss of a
They generally are not intended to become a healthy, lifetime eating
pound or two a week. Losing weight slowly may be frustrating, but
plan. Once the weight is lost (if it is), dieters usually go back to
it is more likely to stay off than weight that is lost rapidly. It took
their old ways of eating and regain the weight.
you time to gain excess weight so it will take time to lose it. The
How can you tell if a diet is a fad diet? Ask these questions about it: only way to keep it off is to establish a healthy pattern of eating and
1. Does the diet promise rapid weight loss (> 2 pounds a week)? physical activity that you can live with lifelong.
2. Does the diet claim that the weight loss will be from certain
parts of the body (such as “stubborn belly fat”)? REVIEW
3. Does the diet claim to work even without exercise? 1. Why is healthy eating important for good health?
4. Does the diet help sell a product, such as prepackaged meals, 2. Define nutrition. What does good nutrition depend on?
pills, or books? 3. Define malnutrition, and identify types of malnutrition.
5. Does the diet lack well-validated scientific evidence to back its 4. Briefly describe what healthy eating means.
claims? 5. What is nutrient density? How is it related to nutritious food
6. Does the diet use “before and after” photos or testimonials from choices?
individual dieters to “prove” that the diet works? 6. Define energy homeostasis, and identify factors that regulate or
7. Does the diet identify “bad” foods and “good” foods? influence energy homeostasis.
8. Does the diet require following a rigid menu or meal plan? 7. What is energy density, and how is it related to energy homeostasis?
9. Does the diet sound too good to be true? 8. What are the recommended daily values of nutrients?
If you can answer “yes” to even one of these questions, then the 9. List factors that influence nutrient needs of individuals.
diet is likely to be a fad diet. If you are serious about losing weight 10. Describe MyPlate. What food groups is it based on?
safely and permanently, avoid fad dieting. Instead, follow the 11. What information do nutrition facts labels provide? How can the
general eating and physical activity recommendations made in this information be used to choose the most nutritious food options?
concept as well as the following specific tips. 12. Give two tips for healthy eating.
13. If there are 100 Calories per 100 grams of a baked potato, and 5.5
Practice portion control. This means knowing serving sizes,
Calories per 1 gram of potato chips, which has a higher energy
which are generally smaller than most people think. You can use
density — a baked potato or potato chips? Explain your answer.
nutrition facts labels and the table below to avoid super-sizing
14. When comparing two multivitamins in the store, you see that one
your food.
has 500% of the daily value for a particular vitamin, while the other
Table 4.3.1 : Serving Size Comparisons for Selected Types of Food
has 100% of the daily value for that vitamin. Is the one with 500%
Type of Food Serving Size Comparison
of the daily value necessarily better for your health? Explain your
d Raw leafy vegetables
small fist answer.
Baked potato
d Milk or yogurt 15. Explain why it is better for your health to eat whole fruits instead of
baseball
Fresh fruit drinking fruit juices.
d Cereal
hockey puck
Bread EXPLORE MORE
d Meat https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16734#Explore_More
computer mouse
Poultry
d Fish checkbook ATTRIBUTIONS
d Cheese six stacked dice 1. Yoga by YogawithAmit via Pixabay license
d Margarine
one die
2. Corn and black bean salad by National Cancer Institute, public
Butter domain via Wikimedia Commons
3. BMI by Adriana Arcaia, Janet Woolen, and Suzanne Bakken
Eat breakfast every day and do not skip meals. This will keep
(Article: A Systematic Method for Exploring Data Attributes in
your metabolism fired up so you use more energy. If you go
Preparation for Designing Tailored Infographics of Patient Reported
long periods without eating, your body goes into starvation
Outcomes), CC BY 4.0 via Research Gate
mode and starts “hoarding” Calories.
4. My plate infographic by United States Department of Agriculture,
Get off the couch. Choose physical activities that you enjoy so
public domain via Wikimedia Commons
you will do them regularly. The only exercise that works is the
5. Nutrition label by USFDA, public domain via Wikimedia
one you will actually do. Also, include more physical activity
Commons
throughout each day. Park farther from your destination and
6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
walk the rest of the way. Take the stairs whenever you can.
3.0
Wearing a pedometer may challenge you to reach the
recommended 10,000 steps a day.

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4.4: EATING DISORDERS
BEFORE AND AFTER one’s true body size and shape, along with dissatisfaction with that
The child on the left in this sketch is in the throes of a serious misperception, is called body dysmorphic disorder. It is very common
disorder. They are extremely emaciated and on the brink of death. in people with eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa. In fact, the
The same child is depicted on the right after being treated for majority of people with body dysmorphic disorder also have an eating
their disorder. They have gained weight and appear to be healthy. disorder.
What disease wreaked such havoc on this child’s health? Was it The food restriction in anorexia nervosa results in excessive weight
cancer? Some terrible parasitic infection? The answer may surprise loss and often amenorrhea (cessation of menses) in females. Other
you. The disease that caused such serious health consequences is a serious consequences of this pattern of eating include loss of bone
mental health disorder, specifically, the eating disorder anorexia mass; weakening of the heart and other muscles; abnormally low heart
nervosa. rate and blood pressure; and weakness, dizziness, and fainting. Because
of such consequences, there is a significant risk of heart failure, and
this can result in death.

BULIMIA NERVOSA
Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder in which people recurrently
binge on large amounts of food. Because of the extreme fear of gaining
weight, each binge is usually followed by trying to purge the food from
the body. This may be done — more or less successfully — by
vomiting, using laxatives or enemas, taking diuretics, or exercising
excessively.
People with bulimia nervosa may or may not have an abnormal weight,
but they are likely to develop an electrolyte imbalance due to the
repeated binging and purging. This imbalance may cause an irregular
heartbeat, which can lead to heart failure and death. Frequent vomiting
can also cause rupture of the stomach or esophagus, which can be fatal,
as well as erode dental enamel.
Figure 4.4.1 Anorexia Nervosa (CC BY 4.0; John Ryle via
Wikimedia Commons) BINGE EATING DISORDER
Binge eating disorder is an eating disorder in which people repeatedly
WHAT ARE EATING DISORDERS? binge on large amounts of food, and each binge is followed by feelings
Eating disorders are mental health disorders defined by abnormal of guilt but not by purging. Adverse health impacts of binge eating
eating habits that adversely affect health. Eating disorders typically disorder include excessive weight gain, obesity, high blood pressure,
begin during late childhood, adolescence, or early adulthood. In and high cholesterol. People with binge eating disorder are also at
developed countries such as the United States, they occur in about 4 increased risk of gallbladder disease, cardiovascular disease, and type 2
percent of people. In a study of 9,713 participants showed that about diabetes.
5.5% of young males (adolescents and young adults from 12 colleges
and universities) manifested elevated eating disorder risk in the United CAUSES OF EATING DISORDERS
States (Mariusz Jaworski et al., 2019). In developing countries, they The causes of eating disorders are not fully understood and are likely to
are less common but increasing in frequency. Eating disorders are vary among individuals. However, in virtually all cases, both biological
serious diseases and can even be fatal. In fact, they result in about and environmental factors appear to play a role.
7,000 deaths a year in the United States, making them the mental
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
disorders with the highest mortality rate.
Genes are likely to be involved in the development of eating disorders
MAJOR EATING DISORDERS because having a close biological relative with an eating disorder
increases one’s own risk tenfold or more. At a biochemical level, eating
Common eating disorders in the United States include anorexia
disorders are thought to be caused in part by the deregulation of
nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder. They differ in the
neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine. Serotonin normally
patterns of disordered eating that characterize them, but all of them can
has an inhibitory effect on eating and dopamine regulates the
have life-threatening health consequences. They may also have similar
rewarding property of food. Imbalance in these neurotransmitters is
causes.
likely to affect appetite and eating behavior. Deregulation of the
ANOREXIA NERVOSA hormones leptin and ghrelin may also be involved in eating disorders.
Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder in which people consistently These two hormones normally help maintain the body’s energy balance
eat very little even though they may be obsessed with food. They by increasing or decreasing food intake. This occurs through the
typically have an obsessive fear of gaining weight. They also usually regulation of appetite and eating behavior. Leptin is produced mainly
have an unrealistic perception of their own low body weight and see by fat cells in the body. It normally inhibits appetite by inducing a
themselves as fat even when they are very thin. This misperception of feeling of satiety. Ghrelin is produced in the stomach and small

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intestine. Its normal role is to stimulate the appetite. If these hormones useful information on eating disorders, including anorexia nervosa,
are out of balance, the imbalance will affect appetite and may lead to but some websites, blogs, and social media pages actually have the
disordered eating. agenda of promoting disordered eating. The term pro-ana (from
“pro-anorexia”) refers to organizations, websites, and other sources
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS that promote anorexia nervosa. Their mission is to normalize or
A number of environmental factors have also been shown to increase even glamorize anorexia nervosa. They defend it as a lifestyle
the risk of developing eating disorders. One of the most salient is abuse choice and an accomplishment of self-control rather than as a
suffered as a child, including physical, psychological, or sexual abuse. mental disorder. Research has shown that visiting pro-ana sites can
Child abuse has been shown to triple the risk of developing an eating have a negative impact on eating behavior in people both with and
disorder. Parental pressure to control a child’s eating habits can also without eating disorders. After visiting such sites, people tend to
increase the risk, as can having a fragile sense of self-identity. In older decrease their Caloric intake, although most of them do not actually
individuals, social isolation increases the risk of eating disorders. perceive that they have reduced their intake of Calories.
For women, cultural ideal relates to slenderness, and for men to the Following a 2001 episode of the Oprah Winfrey Show that focused
musculature that is thought to be a major contributing cause of on pro-ana, the mainstream press started covering the issue.
anorexia and bulimia nervosa. Dancers (like the one pictured below), Pressure from the public and pro-recovery organizations led to
jockeys, and athletes such as gymnasts are the groups of young some social media and other websites adopting policies of blocking
individuals who may feel exceptional pressure to be thin. Up to 12 pro-ana pages or labeling them with warning messages. As a result,
percent of dancers develop anorexia or bulimia, compared with about 2 many pro-ana groups have taken steps to conceal themselves. For
percent of individuals in the general population. example, they may claim that they are simply providing a
nonjudgmental forum for people with anorexia nervosa to discuss
their disorder. They may also claim that they exist in part to provide
support for those who choose to enter recovery.
Some clues that a website or page may be pro-ana include
providing information on topics such as:
crash dieting techniques and recipes.
socially acceptable pretexts for refusing food, such as veganism.
ways to hide weight loss from parents and doctors.
reducing the adverse health effects of anorexia.
ways to ignore or suppress hunger pangs.
Do you think you can tell the difference between pro-ana websites
and legitimate pro-recovery websites, which are designed to
encourage the development and maintenance of healthy behaviors
and cognition? Go online and try to find at least one pro-ana
Figure 4.4.2 : Eating disorders are very common in dancers and elite website and at least one pro-recovery website. Then write a brief
athletes, who may feel a great deal of pressure to remain thin. (CC BY- explanation of how you made your choices.
SA 4.0; Alexey Yakovlev via Wikimedia Commons)

TREATMENT AND RECOVERY SUMMARY

Treatment of eating disorders varies according to the type and severity Eating disorders are mental health disorders defined by abnormal
of the eating disorder. Usually, more than one treatment option is used. eating habits that adversely affect health. They generally begin by
Treatment typically includes mental health counseling, which can take young adulthood and are much more common in females than
place in a variety of settings, such as a community program, private males. Eating disorders are mental disorders with the highest
practice, or hospital. Treatment may also include the use of mortality rate.
antidepressants or other medications because many people with eating Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder in which people consistently
disorders also suffer from depression or other mental health disorders. eat very little and become extremely thin. They may also develop
Nutritional counseling is often recommended as well. Hospitalization is amenorrhea and other serious health problems. People with
occasionally required, in many cases to treat the adverse physical anorexia nervosa often fail to appreciate how thin they are and how
health consequences of the disordered eating. severe their illness is.
Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder in which people recurrently
The goal of treatment is recovery, including gaining control of eating,
binge on large amounts of food, followed by purging the food from
adopting normal eating habits, and attaining a normal weight. About 50
the body through vomiting, using laxatives, exercising excessively,
to 85 percent of people with eating disorders recover with treatment.
or other methods. People with bulimia nervosa may have normal
However, some may have to struggle to maintain normal eating
weight but often have serious health problems such as electrolyte
behaviors throughout the rest of their life.
imbalances and irregular heartbeat.
FEATURE: RELIABLE SOURCES Binge eating disorder is an eating disorder in which people
People with anorexia nervosa, as with many other health problems, repeatedly binge on large amounts of food, followed by feelings of
may seek information and advice online before or instead of guilt but not by purging. This generally leads to excessive weight
contacting a healthcare professional. The web offers a plethora of gain, obesity, and other serious disorders.

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 Genes are likely to be involved in the development of eating 11. True or False. Someone who is a normal weight cannot have an
disorders because eating disorders tend to “run in families.” At a eating disorder.
biochemical level, eating disorders may be caused in part by 12. True or False. The neurotransmitter serotonin normally has an
dysregulation of neurotransmitters or the hormones leptin and inhibitory effect on eating.
ghrelin, which normally help maintain the body’s energy 13. When you are feeling hungry, what do you think are the relative
homeostasis. levels of your ghrelin and leptin hormones? Explain your answer.
Environmental factors that increase the risk of eating disorders 14. Which disorder is most likely to affect teeth enamel?
include being abused as a child, tight parental control over eating A. Anorexia nervosa
habits, fragile sense of self-identity, and social isolation. Cultural
B. Binge eating disorder
idealization of thinness in females may be a major cause of
anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa in particular. C. Bulimia nervosa
Treatment of an eating disorder depends on the type and severity of D. None of the above
the disorder. Treatment options include mental health counseling, 15. Female dancers are _____ as likely to develop anorexia or bulimia
medications, nutritional counseling, and hospitalization. The than women in the general population.
majority of people with eating disorders recover with treatment. A. half

REVIEW B. just

1. What are eating disorders? How serious are they? C. two times
2. What demographic group is most likely to be diagnosed with eating D. six times
disorders?
3. Describe anorexia nervosa and its adverse effects on health. REFERENCES:
4. What is bulimia nervosa? How does it affect health? Mariusz Jaworski, Mariusz Panczyk, Andrzej Śliwczyński, Melania
5. Define binge eating disorder, and identify its health consequences. Brzozowska, Katarzyna Janaszek, Piotr Małkowski, Joanna
6. Why are genes likely to be involved in the development of eating Gotlib. Eating Disorders in Males: An 8-Year Population-Based
disorders? Observational Study; First Published July 3, 2019 Research
7. Explain how the deregulation of biochemicals may be involved in Article Find in PubMed https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988319860970.
eating disorders. CC BY-NC 4.0
8. Discuss environmental factors that may increase the risk of eating
disorders. EXPLORE MORE
9. Identify types of treatment for eating disorders. How effective is the https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16735#Explore_More
treatment likely to be Facing so much pressure in the media to be skinny, little girls often
10. What is a common ultimate cause of death in people with anorexia become self-conscious about their body image. Watch this video to see
nervosa and bulimia nervosa? identical twin girls and their struggles with an eating disorder.

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4.5: OBESITY
TOO MUCH OF A GOOD THING The medical profession breaks down obesity into additional categories,
Everybody needs food energy just to stay alive, but too much although the exact delineation of the categories is not universally
energy consumption, coupled with too little energy use, is too much agreed upon. Commonly accepted categories include:
of a good thing. People who consistently consume more food severe obesity, which is diagnosed when a person has a BMI ≥ 35
energy than they use may become obese like the woman pictured kg/m2.
here. morbid obesity, which is diagnosed when a person has a BMI ≥ 35
kg/m2 and obesity-related health problems, or when a person has a
BMI ≥ 40 kg/m2 but < 45 kg/m2.
super obesity, which is diagnosed when a person has a BMI ≥ 45
kg/m2 (like the man in the following photo).

Figure 4.5.1 : (CC BY 3.0; Mallinaltzin via Wikimedia Commons).

WHAT IS OBESITY?
Obesity is a disease in which excess body fat has accumulated to the
extent that it is likely to have negative effects on health. Obesity is
commonly diagnosed on the basis of the body mass index (BMI). BMI
Figure 4.5.3 : With a weight of 182 kg (400 lb.) and a height of 185 cm
is an estimate of body fatness based on a person’s weight relative to
(just over 6 ft.), this individual has a BMI of 53 kg/m2, making
their height. BMI is calculated by dividing a person’s weight (in them super obese. (Public domain; FatM1ke assumed via Wikimedia
kilograms) by the square of the person’s height (in meters). The graph Commons)
below shows how BMI is used to categorize obesity and other body
FAT DISTRIBUTION IN OBESITY
mass classes for adults. A BMI value of 18.5 to 25 kg/m2 is considered
normal. A BMI between 25 and 30 kg/m2 places a person in the Obesity can also be categorized in terms of fat distribution, as
overweight range. A BMI greater than 30 kg/m2 classifies a person as measured by waist-to-hip ratio (waist circumference divided by hip
obese. circumference). A waist-to-hip ratio greater than 0.85 for women or
0.90 for men is diagnostic of central obesity, in which most of the
excess fat is stored in the abdomen. This type of fat distribution gives a
person an apple shape, like the man pictured above. People with central
obesity are at greater risk of the adverse health consequences of obesity
than people who store most of their excess fat around the hips (giving
them a pear shape). Because it accounts for the elevated risks
associated with central obesity, waist-to-hip ratio is a better predictor
than BMI of mortality in older obese patients

CAUSES OF OBESITY
Like many other diseases, most cases of obesity are the result of an
interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Obesity is most
commonly caused by a combination of excessive food intake,
inadequate physical activity, and genetic susceptibility.

GENETIC INFLUENCES ON OBESITY

Figure 4.5.2: BMI estimates body fatness on the basis of weight and Various genes that control appetite and metabolism predispose people
height. (Public domain; InvictaHOG via Wikimedia.org) to develop obesity when sufficient food energy is present. It is likely
that dozens of such genes exist. Family studies reveal the strength of
Obesity in children and adolescents is generally defined not simply by
the genetic influence on obesity. When both parents are obese, 80
BMI but by comparison of BMI with reference values. Obesity is
percent of their offspring will also be obese. For comparison, when
diagnosed when a child has a BMI that is greater than the 95th
both parents are of normal weight, less than 10 percent of their
percentile of the reference values for children of the same age. This
offspring will be obese.
means that the child’s BMI is higher than that of 95 percent of same-
aged children in the reference sample. The reference values are based
on large samples of children from the mid-to-late 20th century, before
the recent rise in childhood obesity.

CATEGORIES OF OBESITY

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DIET AND OBESITY PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF OBESITY
From 1971 to 2000 in the United States, the average amount of food A recently proposed physiological mechanism for the development of
consumed by women actually increased by 335 Calories per day, and obesity is leptin resistance. Leptin is called the satiety hormone. It is
by men by 168 Calories per day. During the same period, the rate of secreted by fat cells and helps to regulate appetite based on the body’s
obesity in U.S. adults increased from about 15 to 31 percent. Most of fat reserves. When fat reserves are high, more leptin is secreted and
the extra food energy came from an increase in carbohydrate appetite is inhibited, so you eat less. The opposite occurs when fat
consumption. Primary sources of these extra carbohydrates were sugar- reserves are low. In obesity, decreased sensitivity to leptin occurs,
sweetened beverages, like those pictured below. Sugary beverages resulting in an inability to detect satiety despite high-fat reserves. As a
include not only soft drinks but also fruit drinks, sweetened iced tea consequence, people with leptin resistance never feel satiated and are
and coffee, and energy and vitamin water drinks. Such drinks now likely to overeat and gain more weight.
account for almost 25 percent of daily food energy in young adults in
the United States. This is an alarming statistic, given that these drinks HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF OBESITY
provide no other nutrients except energy.

ACTIVITY LEVELS AND OBESITY

A sedentary lifestyle plays a significant role in obesity. Worldwide,
there has been a large shift toward less physically demanding work.
There has also been an increased reliance on cars and labor-saving
devices at home. Currently, an estimated 30 percent of the world’s
population gets insufficient exercise.

OTHER CAUSES OF OBESITY

A minority of cases of obesity are caused by certain medications or by
other diseases. Medications that may increase the risk of obesity
include antidepressant and antipsychotic drugs, steroids such as
prednisone, and some forms of hormonal contraception, among others.
Diseases that increase the risk of obesity include hypothyroidism,
Cushing’s disease, binge eating disorder, and Prader-Willi syndrome.
Consider Prader-Willi syndrome as an example. A young child with
this syndrome is pictured below. The syndrome occurs due to the loss
of function of specific genes on chromosome 15. Symptoms of the
syndrome include constant hunger, which typically leads to severe
obesity in childhood. Prader-Willi syndrome is caused by genetic
defects but it is not generally inherited. Instead, the genetic changes
happen during the formation of the egg or sperm or during embryonic
development.

Figure 4.5.5 : Obesity has a detrimental effect on most body systems,

both because of the added mass of fat and because of the increased
number of fat cells. (Public domain; CDC via Wikimedia Commons)
As shown in Figure 4.5.5, obesity increases the risk of many other
health problems and diseases, including cardiovascular disease, type 2
diabetes, fatty liver, certain types of cancer, pancreatitis, osteoarthritis,
obstructive sleep apnea, and asthma. The health consequences of
obesity are mainly due to the effects of either increased fat mass or
increased numbers of fat cells. Extra weight from excess body fat
places a lot of stress on the body and its organ systems, causing
diseases such as osteoarthritis and obstructive sleep apnea. An
increased number of fat cells increases inflammation and the risk of
blood clots. It also changes the body’s metabolism, altering the body’s
response to insulin and potentially leading to insulin resistance and
type 2 diabetes. This explains why the link between obesity and type 2
Figure 4.5.4 : This super-obese eight-year-old child has Prader-Willi diabetes is so strong. Obesity is thought to be the root cause of 64
syndrome. (CC BY 4.0; Doc James;
percent of cases of type 2 diabetes in men and 77 percent of cases in
via Wikimedia Commons)
women.
Not surprisingly, obesity has been found to reduce life expectancy. On
average, obesity reduces life expectancy by six or seven years. Super
obesity reduces life expectancy by as much as ten years.

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TREATING AND PREVENTING OBESITY is diagnosed in adults when their body mass index (BMI), which is
Most cases of obesity are treatable or preventable through changes in an estimate of body fatness, is greater than 30 kg/m2. Obesity is
diet and physical activity that restore energy balance to the body. In diagnosed in children when their BMI is greater than the
fact, obesity is one of the leading preventable causes of disease and 95thpercentile for children of that age.
death worldwide. The amount of energy provided by the diet can be Obesity may be further categorized by the medical profession as
reduced by decreasing consumption of energy-dense (high-Calorie) severe obesity, morbid obesity, and super obesity. Obese people
foods, such as foods high in fat and sugar, and increasing consumption who store most of their excess fat in the abdomen have central
of high-fiber foods. The fiber in the diet cannot be digested, so it adds obesity, putting them at greater risk of adverse health consequences
bulk and a feeling of fullness without adding Calories. All types of of obesity.
low-carbohydrate and low-fat diets appear equally beneficial in A minority of cases of obesity are caused by medications such as
reducing obesity and its health risks. In some cases, medications may antidepressants and steroids or by diseases such as hypothyroidism
be prescribed to help control obesity by reducing appetite or fat and binge eating disorder. However, obesity is most commonly
absorption. caused by a combination of excessive food intake, inadequate
physical activity, and genetic susceptibility.
BARIATRIC SURGERY Dozens of genes that control appetite and metabolism may
predispose people to develop obesity when sufficient food energy is
present. While rates of obesity have risen, diets have increased in
Calories, mainly from excess carbohydrates (often in the form of
sugary drinks), and activity levels have declined due to changes in
work and technology.
Leptin resistance has been proposed as a physiological mechanism
underlying obesity. When the body’s fat reserves are high, leptin
normally causes feelings of satiety. Leptin resistance results in an
inability to detect satiety despite high-fat reserves, leading to
overeating and weight gain.
Obesity increases the risk of many other health problems and
diseases, including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, certain
types of cancer, osteoarthritis, and obstructive sleep apnea. The
health consequences of obesity are due to the effects of either
increased fat mass or increased numbers of fat cells.
Most cases of obesity are treatable or preventable through changes
in diet and physical activity that restore energy balance to the body.
All types of low-carbohydrate and low-fat diets appear equally
Figure 4.5.6 : Modifying the digestive tract with bariatric surgery is the beneficial in reducing obesity and its health risks. Other treatments
most effective medical treatment for obesity. The changes limit the may include medications to control appetite or reduce nutrient
intake of food and the absorption of nutrients from food. (CC BY 3.0;
Blausen.com staff via Wikimedia Commons). absorption and bariatric surgery to modify the digestive tract in
ways that limit the intake of food and absorption of nutrients from
If changes in diet and exercise and even medications are not effective,
food.
bariatric surgery may be recommended as a treatment for obesity.
Public health approaches to the problem of obesity generally focus
Bariatric surgery is the single most effective medical treatment for
on ways to reduce energy consumption or promote physical
obesity. There are several different types of bariatric surgery, one of
activity. Specific approaches include limiting access to soft drinks
which is illustrated below. In this particular type of surgery, the size of
in schools and increasing access to parks.
the stomach is greatly reduced so less food can be eaten at a time. The
length of the small intestine is also reduced so fewer nutrients can be
REVIEW
absorbed from food.
1. Define obesity.
PUBLIC HEALTH APPROACHES 2. How is obesity generally diagnosed in adults? In children?
Public health approaches to the problem of obesity include efforts to 3. Compare and contrast severe obesity, morbid obesity, and super
understand and correct the environmental factors responsible for obesity.
increasing obesity rates. The goals are to reduce food energy 4. What is central obesity? What is its relationship to the adverse
consumption and promote energy expenditure in physical activity. health consequences of obesity?
Efforts to reduce energy consumption include promoting healthy meals 5. Give examples of medications and disorders that may cause obesity.
and limiting access to sugary beverages and junk foods in schools. 6. Discuss factors that cause most cases of obesity.
Efforts to promote physical activity include increasing access to parks 7. What is leptin resistance, and what is its connection with obesity?
and developing pedestrian routes in urban environments. 8. Identify some of the health consequences of obesity.
9. Describe types of treatments available for obesity.
SUMMARY 10. Describe public health approaches to treating and preventing
Obesity is a disease in which excess body fat has accumulated to obesity.
the extent that it is likely to have negative effects on health. Obesity 11. Which is likely to be worse for a person’s health — having their hip
circumference be larger than their waist circumference, or vice

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 versa? Explain your answer. EXPLORE MORE
12. What factors is BMI based on? https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16736#Explore_More
13. Why is the recent increase in childhood obesity a public health
concern?

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4.6: UNDERNUTRITION
THEN AND NOW
This photo was taken in the late 1960s. It shows an American
volunteer nurse and their patients at an orphanage in Nigeria. The
children’s distended bellies are signs of kwashiorkor, a severe form
of undernutrition caused by inadequate Calorie and protein intake,
usually exacerbated by frequent bouts of infectious disease.
Kwashiorkor and other forms of undernutrition still occur at high
rates in Nigeria and many other places in the world. Today, one out
of every seven people on our planet goes to bed hungry, and 25,000
people a day die of hunger-related diseases. Clearly, undernutrition
is still a major problem now as it was then.

Figure 4.6.2 : In this photo, a public health worker is measuring the arm
circumference of a young child in order to assess their nutritional
status. Their virtual absence of body fat and very limited (CC BY 3.0;
World Vision Deutschland via Wikimedia Commons)

UNDERNUTRITION AND INFECTION

Undernutrition and infectious diseases in children have a positive
synergistic relationship. Each increases the risk of the other and makes
the other worse. Children who are undernourished may be weakened
and have a less than robust immune system. This makes them more
susceptible to infectious diseases and likely to become sicker when
they have infectious diseases. Children who are sick with infectious
diseases may need more nutrients to defend against infection. At the
Figure 4.6.1 : (Public domain; US Government via Wikimedia same time, they may have reduced intake or absorption of nutrients due
Commons) to symptoms such as vomiting and diarrhea. In these ways, infectious
disease increases the risk of undernutrition or makes existing
DEFINING UNDERNUTRITION undernutrition worse.
Undernutrition is defined as an insufficient intake of nutritious foods. UNDERNUTRITION AND LOW BIRTHWEIGHT
People who are undernourished are likely to have low body fat
Many children are born with the disadvantage of low birth weight (<
reserves, so one indicator of undernutrition in individuals is a low body
2.5 kg, or 5.5 lb.) caused by maternal undernutrition and intrauterine
mass index (BMI). Adults are considered underweight if their body
growth restriction. Babies with low birth weight are more susceptible
mass index (BMI) is less than 18.5 kg/m2. Children are considered
to disease and more likely to die in infancy. In children that survive
underweight if their BMI is less than the 5th percentile of the reference
infancy, low birthweight may result in slow growth and developmental
values for children of the same age.
delays throughout early childhood.
UNDERNUTRITION IN CHILDREN UNDERNUTRITION SYNDROMES
The effects of undernutrition are particularly important during
Severe cases of undernutrition may develop into life-threatening
childhood when energy and other nutrients are needed for normal
syndromes such as kwashiorkor, as in the Nigerian orphans pictured
growth and development. Children are more likely than adults to
above. Another common severe undernutrition syndrome is called
become severely undernourished as well as to suffer permanent effects
marasmus.
from undernutrition. They may become dangerously thin, with loss of
muscle as well as fat. This is called wasting (see the photo below). If KWASHIORKOR
they lack adequate energy for growth, they will stop growing. If they Kwashiorkor was first described in the medical literature in the 1930s.
are chronically undernourished, the growth deficits may cause them to The name comes from a West African word meaning “disease of the
be too short for their age. This is called stunting. Unless adequate deposed child.” The original meaning of the term is a clue to the cause
nutrition becomes available later so they can make up their growth of this syndrome. If a young child is weaned from the breast so a new
deficits, stunted children will end up shorter than their genetic potential baby can be breastfed, the “deposed child” is likely to go from a mostly
for height by the time they are adults. breastmilk diet, which is high in protein, to a mostly plant-food diet,
which is low in protein. Although Kwashiorkor may occur in a child
who lacks protein but not Calories, it occurs more often when the diet
is also deficient in Calories. That’s why kwashiorkor is commonly
called protein-Calorie malnutrition.

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The defining sign of kwashiorkor in an undernourished child is edema pulse, and cold extremities. Without treatment, marasmus is often fatal,
(swelling) of the ankles and feet and often a distended belly, both of although it generally has a better prognosis than untreated kwashiorkor.
which are clearly visible in the child pictured below. The lack of
protein causes osmotic imbalances that prevent tissue fluids from being MICRONUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES
returned to the bloodstream. This mechanism accounts for the Besides deficiencies in food energy and protein, many undernourished
accumulation of fluid in the ankles, feet, and abdomen. Other common people suffer from deficiencies of specific vitamins or minerals. Some
signs of kwashiorkor include enlarged liver (which contributes to the of the most common micronutrient deficiencies worldwide are iron,
abdominal distension), thinning hair, loss of teeth, skin rash, and skin vitamin A, and iodine deficiencies.
and hair depigmentation. Children with kwashiorkor may also be
irritable and lose their appetite. Kwashiorkor can have a long-term IRON DEFICIENCY
impact on a child's physical and mental development and frequently Iron deficiency is the single most common micronutrient deficiency
leads to death without treatment. worldwide, affecting about 2 billion people. Iron deficiency, in turn,
causes anemia, which is especially common in women and children
under the age of five years. Anemia can lead to increased mortality in
infancy and poor cognitive and motor development in early childhood.
The problems caused by iron-deficiency anemia in childhood cannot be
reversed.

VITAMIN A DEFICIENCY
Vitamin A deficiency is also very common in developing countries. In
young children, vitamin A plays an essential role in the development of
the immune system, so vitamin A deficiency adversely affects the
ability of the immune system to fight off infections. Vitamin A
deficiency also contributes to anemia and causes visual impairments,
ranging from night blindness (inability to see well at low light levels)
to total blindness.

IODINE DEFICIENCY
Figure 4.6.3 : This African child shows several characteristic signs of
Since the early 1900s, iodine has been added to salt in many countries,
kwashiorkor, including edema of the ankles and feet, distended
abdomen, and loss of hair. (Public domain; Dr. Lyle Conrad via including the United States and most of Europe, virtually eliminating
Wikimedia Commons) iodine deficiency in these countries. However, inadequate iodine intake
is still a public health problem in dozens of countries, and about 30
MARASMUS
percent of the world’s people are iodine deficient.

Figure 4.6.5 : Before salt was iodized in North America and Europe
starting in the early 1900s, goiters caused by iodine deficiency were far
more common. (Public domain; Martin Finborud via Wikimedia
Figure 4.6.4 : This
Commons)
Russian child shows the characteristic emaciation of marasmus but
lacks the edema and abdominal distension typical of kwashiorkor. Iodine is needed for thyroid hormone production. In adults, iodine
(Public domain; Fridtjof Nansen via Wikimedia Commons) deficiency causes reversible signs and symptoms of inadequate thyroid
hormone. These may include an enlarged thyroid gland, called a goiter
Marasmus comes from a Greek word meaning “wasting away.” It is a (see the photo above), and a sluggish metabolism. In children, iodine
severe undernutrition syndrome caused by extremely low intakes of deficiency is much more serious. It causes permanent intellectual
food energy. Signs and symptoms of marasmus include wasting (as disability because thyroid hormone is needed for normal brain growth
depicted above, low body temperature, anemia, dehydration, weak and development, from the fetal stage through early childhood. Iodine

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deficiency is the most important cause of preventable intellectual
disability in the world.

CAUSES OF UNDERNUTRITION
A small percentage of undernutrition occurs because of diseases such
as cancer, anorexia nervosa, celiac disease, and cystic fibrosis (all of
which you can read about in other concepts). However, the vast
majority of undernutrition globally occurs because people simply don’t
have enough nutritious food to eat. They take in less energy than the
minimum daily energy requirement so they are underweight, and they
are likely to have other nutritional deficiencies as well.
Worldwide food supplies are adequate to provide food to all if the food
supplies were equally distributed and accessible to everyone.
Unfortunately, that is not the case. As shown on the map below,
adequate food is not available to people over large areas of Africa and
Asia. Even if food supplies were equally distributed, most
undernutrition would still occur in these areas because of the inability
of many people to access food due to poverty. Poverty is a consequence
Figure 4.6.7 : An impoverished woman in New York City scavenges
as well as a cause of undernutrition, and the two form a self- food from a dumpster. (CC BY 2.0; Carlos. A. Martinez via Wikimedia
perpetuating cycle. Impoverished individuals are less likely to have Commons)
access to enough nutritious food for good health and for normal growth
and development. As a result, they are more likely to be TREATMENT AND PREVENTION OF
undernourished. Undernutrition, in turn, makes them less likely to UNDERNUTRITION
attend or perform well in school and as adults to be less productive
workers, thus limiting their income.

Figure 4.6.8 : The United States Agency for International Development

(USAID) provides therapeutic foods to treat and prevent malnutrition
among children in some of the poorest nations in the world. These
young Ethiopian children are being fed a ready-to-eat, peanut-based
Figure 4.6.6 : Problems in food distribution and accessibility help protein supplement called Plumpy’nut. (Public domain; USAID Africa
explain the worldwide distribution of undernourished people. (Public Bureau via Wikimedia Commons)
domain; Alexchris via Wikimedia Commons) Treating and preventing undernutrition is a huge and complex problem
Although undernutrition is not as common in the richer nations of the requiring multifaceted approaches. Potential solutions must target both
world as it is elsewhere, it still occurs in significant proportions of individual and public health. Meeting individual needs is generally
people. Even in a land of plenty like the United States, socioeconomic achieved through direct nutrition interventions (like the one illustrated
disparities result in some people being undernourished due to lack of in the photo above). In such interventions, the health-care sector
access to sufficient nutritious food. The photo below, taken in New typically delivers nutritional supplements directly to acutely
York City, shows a woman searching for edible food in a garbage malnourished people who might otherwise require hospitalization.
dumpster. Besides lacking adequate money to buy nutritious foods, Public health interventions may focus on improvements in agriculture,
many poor people in the United States live in areas that are considered water, sanitation, or education, among other public health targets. Some
“food deserts,” defined as areas with limited access to nutritious foods. of the most successful public health interventions have been those
In these food deserts, supermarkets with fresh produce and other aimed at eliminating specific micronutrient deficiencies. For example,
nutritious food choices are typically too far away for people to utilize. in the early 1990s, iodine deficiency was addressed by a global
Instead, they must rely on small neighborhood stores that stock mainly campaign to iodize salt. This campaign reduced the rate of iodine
over-priced processed foods or on fast food restaurants that offer deficiency from about 70 percent to 30 percent.
primarily high-fat and high-sugar food options. With social inequalities
on the rise in the United States and some other rich nations, problems SUMMARY
of food access and undernutrition may worsen. Undernutrition is defined as insufficient intake of nutritious foods.
People who are undernourished are usually underweight. Adults are
considered underweight if their BMI is less than 18.5 kg/m2.
Children are considered underweight if their BMI is less than the
5th percentile of the reference values for children of the same age.

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 Undernutrition is a more significant problem in children who need water, sanitation, education, or the like. The most successful
nutrients for growth and development. They may become interventions have been those that address deficiencies of specific
dangerously thin (called wasting) or stop growing so they are too micronutrients such as iodine.
short for their age (stunting). Growth deficits often begin in utero
due to maternal undernutrition, resulting in low birthweight and its REVIEW
associated risks. 1. Define undernutrition.
Severe undernutrition may develop into life-threatening syndromes, 2. How is underweight status determined in adults? How is it
such as kwashiorkor or marasmus, both of which can be fatal determined in children?
without treatment. Kwashiorkor occurs when the diet is especially 3. Why is undernutrition a more significant problem in children than
deficient in protein, causing edema and other characteristic signs of adults?
the syndrome. Marasmus occurs when the diet is especially 4. What are wasting and stunting?
deficient in food energy, causing extreme emaciation and other 5. Describe kwashiorkor.
abnormalities. 6. What is marasmus?
Some of the most common micronutrient deficiencies worldwide 7. List three of the most common micronutrient deficiencies
are iron, vitamin A, and iodine deficiencies. Iron deficiency causes worldwide. Describe how each deficiency affects health.
anemia, which in childhood can lead to permanent cognitive and 8. Why do the vast majority of cases of undernutrition occur?
motor deficits. Vitamin A deficiency can weaken the immune 9. Explain how undernutrition and poverty are related.
system, contribute to anemia, and cause blindness. Iodine 10. Why does undernutrition occur even in the richer nations of the
deficiency leads to inadequate thyroid hormone, causing goiter and world?
hypothyroidism in adults and intellectual disability in children. 11. How should the problem of global undernutrition be tackled?
The vast majority of undernutrition globally occurs because people 12. Which best describes the relationship between undernutrition and
do not have enough nutritious food to eat. Although there is enough infectious disease?
food to meet the needs of the global human population, the food is A. Undernutrition can increase the risk of infectious disease.
unevenly distributed and for many people inaccessible because of
B. Infectious disease can increase the risk of undernutrition.
poverty. Caused by poverty, undernutrition also contributes to
poverty because of its effects on health, growth, development, and C. Undernutrition and infectious disease are independent of one
ultimately on the ability to work and earn income. another.
Undernutrition is less common in the richer nations than it is D. A and B
elsewhere, but it still occurs because of wealth inequalities and the 13. True or False. A diet that has enough energy but is deficient in
existence of food deserts, which are areas with limited access to protein can result in a type of undernutrition syndrome.
nutritious foods.
14. True or False. The distended belly seen in kwashiorkor is due
Treating and preventing undernutrition is a huge and complex
primarily to the stomach expanding in response to lack of food in it.
problem requiring multifaceted approaches. They include direct
nutritional interventions, generally provided through the health-care EXPLORE MORE
sector to people who are acutely malnourished, as well as public https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16737#Explore_More
health interventions that focus on improvements in agriculture,

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4.7: FOODBORNE DISEASES
PICNIC FUN
Picnics like this one can be a lot of fun. Food always seems to taste
better when eaten outdoors. Ants and other insects can be attracted
to picnic foods and be annoying. However, a greater potential
hazard may lurk within the picnic foods themselves:
microorganisms that cause foodborne disease.

Figure 4.7.2 : Salmonella bacteria, shown here in red, cause potentially

deadly foodborne disease. (Public domain; US gov via Wikimedia
Commons).

TOXINS
Toxins are another common cause of foodborne disease. Toxins may
Figure 4.7.1 : A picnic (CC BY 2.0; Andreas Duess via Wikimedia come from a variety of sources. Foods may be contaminated with
Commons).
toxins in the environment. Pesticides applied to farm fields are
common examples of environmental food toxins. Toxins may be
WHAT IS FOODBORNE DISEASE? produced by microorganisms in food. An example is botulism toxin
Foodborne disease, commonly called food poisoning, is any disease that is produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Some toxins
that is transmitted via food. Picnic foods create a heightened risk of occur naturally in certain plants and fungi. A common example is
foodborne disease mainly because of problems with temperature mushrooms. Dozens of species are poisonous and some are deadly, like
control. If hot foods are not kept hot enough or cold foods are not kept the aptly named death-cap mushroom pictured below. Many deadly
cold enough, foods may enter a temperature range in which mushrooms look similar to edible species, making them even more
microorganisms such as bacteria can thrive. dangerous. Food plants can also be infected with fungi that make
Many people do not think about food safety until a foodborne disease people sick when they eat the plants. Fungi in the genus Aspergillus are
affects them or a family member. While the food supply in the United frequently found in nuts, maize, and corn. They produce a toxin called
States is one of the safest in the world, the CDC estimates that 76 aflatoxin, which targets the liver, potentially causing cirrhosis of the
million Americans a year get a foodborne disease, of whom more than liver and liver cancer.
300,000 are hospitalized and 5,000 die. Preventing foodborne disease
remains a major public health challenge.

CAUSES OF FOODBORNE DISEASE

Most foodborne diseases are caused by microorganisms in food. Some
are caused by toxins in food or adulteration of food by foreign bodies.

MICROORGANISMS
Microorganisms that cause foodborne diseases include bacteria,
viruses, parasites, and prions. The four most common foodborne
pathogens in the United States are a virus called norovirus and three
genera of bacteria: Salmonella species (such as Salmonella
typhimurium, pictured below), Clostridium perfringens, and Figure 4.7.3 : The death-cap mushroom (Amanita phalloides) contains
toxins that are not affected by cooking. More than half of the people
Campylobacter jejune. Although norovirus causes many more cases of
who accidentally eat these mushrooms die from the poison. (Public
foodborne disease, Salmonella species are the pathogens in food that domain; George Chernilevsky via Wikimedia Commons).
are most likely to be deadly. Parasites that cause human foodborne
diseases are mostly zoonoses — animal infections that can be ADULTERATION BY FOREIGN BODIES
transmitted to humans. Parasites such as pork tapeworm (Taenia Another potential cause of the foodborne disease is the adulteration of
solium) are ingested when people eat inadequately cooked infected foods by foreign bodies. Foreign bodies refer to any substances or
animal tissue. The prions that cause mad-cow disease have been particles that are not meant to be foods. They can include pests such as
transmitted to people through the ingestion of contaminated beef. insects, animal feces such as mouse droppings, hairs (human or
nonhuman), cigarette butts, and wood chips, to name just a few. Some
foods are at risk of contamination with lead or other toxic chemicals
because they are stored or cooked in unsafe containers, such as ceramic
pots with lead-based glaze.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF FOODBORNE An example of a foodborne disease outbreak in the United States is the
DISEASES Salmonella outbreak of 2008. The CDC map below shows where most
Foodborne diseases differ in specific characteristics but they share of the cases occurred. Over the course of the outbreak, which lasted
some commonalities, often including similar symptoms. from April to August, more than a thousand cases were identified
across 43 U.S. states and the District of Columbia. The CDC
SYMPTOMS AND INCUBATION PERIOD investigated the outbreak and determined that it originated with
Foodborne diseases commonly cause gastrointestinal symptoms such jalapeño peppers imported from Mexico.
as vomiting and diarrhea. They also frequently cause fevers, aches, and
pains. The length of time between the consumption of contaminated
food and the first appearance of symptoms is called the incubation
period. This concept is illustrated in the figure below. The incubation
period for a foodborne disease can range from a few hours to several
days or even longer, depending on the cause of the disease. Toxins
generally cause symptoms sooner than microorganisms. When
symptoms do not appear for days, it is difficult to connect them with
the agent that caused them.

Figure 4.7.5 : This map shows the distribution of cases in the 2008
Salmonella outbreak in the United States. (Public domain; CDC via
Wikimedia Commons).

FACTORS THAT INCREASE THE RISK OF FOOD

CONTAMINATION
The foodborne disease usually arises from food contamination through
improper handling, preparation, or storage of food. Food can become
Figure 4.7.4 : This graph shows the incubation period of a disease, contaminated at any stage from the farmer’s field to the consumer’s
which is the time between infection and the first appearance of plate.
symptoms. It also shows the period of communicability, which is the
time during which infected individuals can spread the disease. This POOR HYGIENE
period may begin before symptoms appear and infected individuals
know they are sick (CC0; Patilsaurabhr via Wikimedia Commons). Many foods become contaminated by microorganisms because of poor
hygienic practices, such as handling or preparing foods with unwashed
During the incubation period, microbes generally pass through the
hands. Consider norovirus, the leading cause of foodborne disease in
stomach and into the small intestine. Once in the small intestine, they
the United States. The virus can easily contaminate food because it is
attach to cells lining the intestinal walls and begin to multiply. Some
very tiny and highly infective. People sick with the virus shed billions
types of microbes stay in place in the intestine, although they may
of virus particles. Unfortunately, It takes fewer than 20 virus particles
produce toxins that are absorbed into the bloodstream and carried to
to make someone else sick. Food can become contaminated with virus
cells throughout the body. Other types of microbes directly invade
particles when infected people get stool or vomit on their hands and
deeper body tissues.
then fail to wash their hands before handling food. People who
INFECTIOUS DOSE consume food can ingest the virus particles and get sick.
Whether a person becomes ill from a microbe or a toxin depends on
CROSS-CONTAMINATION
how much of the agent was consumed. The amount that must be
Another major way that foods become contaminated is through cross-
consumed to cause disease is called the infectious dose. It varies by
contamination. This occurs when microbes are transferred from one
disease agent and also by host factors, such as age and overall health.
food to another. Some raw foods commonly contain bacteria such as
SPORADIC CASES VS. OUTBREAKS Salmonella, including eggs, poultry, and meat. These foods should
The vast majority of reported cases of foodborne disease occur as never come into contact with ready-to-eat foods, such as raw fruits and
sporadic cases in individuals. The origin of most sporadic cases is vegetables or bread. If a cutting board, knife, or counter-top is used to
never determined. Only a small number of foodborne disease cases prepare contaminated foods, it should not be used to prepare other
happen as part of disease outbreaks. An outbreak of a foodborne foods without proper cleaning in between.
disease occurs when two or more people experience the same disease
FAILURE OF TEMPERATURE CONTROL
after consuming food from a common source. The majority of
Foods contaminated with bacteria or other microorganisms may
foodborne disease outbreaks originate in restaurants, but they also
become even more dangerous if failure of temperature control allows
originate in nursing homes, hospitals, schools, and summer camps.
the rapid multiplication of microorganisms. Bacteria generally multiply
most rapidly at temperatures between about 4 and 60 degrees C (40 and

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140 degrees F). Perishable foods that remain within that temperature thermometer like the one pictured below to ensure food gets hot
range for more than two hours may become dangerous to eat because enough to make it safe to eat.
of rapid bacterial growth. Foods meant to be eaten hot should be kept hot until served, and
foods meant to be eaten cold should be kept refrigerated until
PREVENTION OF FOODBORNE DISEASE served. Perishable leftovers should be refrigerated as soon as
Preventing foodborne disease is both a personal and a society-wide possible. Any perishable foods left at a temperature between 4 and
problem. Both governments and individuals must work to solve it. 60 degrees C (40 and 140 degrees F) for more than two hours
should be thrown out.
THE GOVERNMENT’S ROLE
In the United States, the prevention of foodborne disease is mainly the
role of government agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration
and local departments of health. Such government agencies are
responsible for setting and enforcing strict rules of hygiene in food
handling in stores and restaurants (see the sign below). Government
agencies are also responsible for enforcing safety regulations in food
production, from the way foods are grown and processed to the way
they are shipped and stored. Government regulations require that food
to be traceable to their point of origin and date of processing. This
helps epidemiologists identify the source of foodborne disease
outbreaks.

Figure 4.7.7 : To be on the safe side, use a thermometer to make sure

food reaches a high enough temperature to kill any bacteria it contains.
(Public domain; USDA via Wikimedia Commons).
Make sure the temperature in the refrigerator is kept at or below 4
degrees C (40 degrees F) to inhibit bacterial growth in refrigerated
foods. If your refrigerator does not have a built-in thermometer, you
can buy one to monitor the temperature. This is especially
important in a power outage. If the temperature stays below 40
degrees F until the power comes back on, the food is safe to eat. If
the temperature goes above 40 degrees F for two hours or more, the
food may no longer be safe and should not be consumed.
Keep the temperature of the freezer below 18 degrees C (0 degrees
F). Foods frozen at this temperature will keep indefinitely, although
Figure 4.7.6 : This historic sign was created by the Minnesota they may gradually deteriorate in quality.
Department of Health in the 1930s. It instructs food service workers to Do not thaw foods at room temperature. Freezing foods does not
wash their hands frequently. It was part of a campaign to reduce
foodborne diseases. (Public domain; CDC/ Minnesota Department of kill microbes; it preserves them. They will become active again as
Health, R.N. Barr Library; Librarians Melissa Rethlefsen and Marie soon as they thaw. Either thaw frozen foods slowly in the
Jones via Wikimedia Commons). refrigerator or thaw them quickly in the microwave, cool water, or
while cooking. Never refreeze food once it has thawed.
FOOD SAFETY AT HOME
At home, the prevention of foodborne disease depends mainly on good FEATURE: MYTHS VS. REALITY
food safety practices. Myths about foodborne diseases abound. Some of the most
common myths are debunked below.
Regular handwashing is one of the most effective defenses against
the spread of foodborne diseases. Always wash hands before and Myth: It must have been the mayonnaise.
after handling or preparing food and before eating. Reality: Mayonnaise is acidic enough that it does not provide a
Rotate food in your pantry so older items are used first. Make sure good medium for the growth of bacteria unless it becomes heavily
foods have not expired before you consume them. Be aware that contaminated by a dirty utensil or is mixed with other foods that
perishable foods such as unpreserved meats and dairy products decrease its acidity. Mayo may have gotten a bad rap because it is
have a relatively short storage life, usually just a few days in the often consumed at picnics, where temperature control may be poor
refrigerator. and lead to bacterial growth in other, non-acidic foods.
Rinse fresh produce before eating. This is especially important if Myth: Foodborne disease is caused by food that has “gone bad.”
the produce is to be eaten raw. Even if you do not plan to eat the
Reality: Eating spoiled or rotten food is seldom the cause of
outer skin or rind, wash it because microbes or toxins on the surface
foodborne disease. Most cases of foodborne disease are caused by
can contaminate the inside when the food is cut open or peeled.
contamination of food by unwashed hands or cross-contamination
Many bacteria in food can be killed by thorough cooking, but food
of food by unwashed utensils or cutting boards.
must reach an internal temperature of at least 74 degrees C (165
Myth: Foodborne disease is caused by eating restaurant foods.
degrees F) to kill any bacteria the food contains. Use a cooking

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 Reality: Foodborne disease is caused by contamination of foods in home depends mainly on following good food safety practices.
the home as well as in restaurants. Restaurant kitchens must be These range from regular handwashing to maintaining the correct
regularly inspected to ensure sanitary conditions for food refrigerator temperature.
preparation. There are no such inspections of home kitchens.
Myth: Foodborne disease is caused by the last food eaten. REVIEW
1. What is a foodborne disease?
Reality: Symptoms of the foodborne disease may not strike for
2. How common are foodborne diseases in the United States?
several hours to several days following infection, so the last meal
3. What are the main causes of foodborne disease? Give examples of
eaten may not be the culprit. This makes it very difficult to know
each cause.
which food caused the symptoms.
4. Define the incubation period and infectious dose.
5. Discuss similarities and differences among foodborne diseases.
SUMMARY
6. Compare and contrast sporadic cases and disease outbreaks of
Foodborne disease is any disease that is transmitted via food. As foodborne disease.
many as 76 million Americans a year get a foodborne disease, and 7. What are the three main ways that food becomes contaminated?
thousands of them die from it. 8. List three food safety practices that can help prevent transmission
Foodborne diseases are caused by microorganisms, toxins, or of foodborne disease in the home.
adulteration of food by foreign bodies. Norovirus and several 9. If you store cooked leftovers at room temperature (about 68 degrees
genera of bacteria cause most foodborne diseases. Toxins that cause F) for more than two hours, are they safe to eat if you heat them up
foodborne disease may come from the environment or from well first? Explain your answer.
microorganisms in food. Alternatively, they may be consumed in 10. True or False. There is no need to wash a melon before cutting it
toxic plants or fungi. Foreign bodies such as cigarette butts and because you will not be eating the rind.
insects can accidentally get into food at any stage. 11. True or False. Foodborne diseases can sometimes cause a form of
Many foodborne diseases share some of the same symptoms, such cancer.
as vomiting and diarrhea, but they are quite variable in other ways. 12. Explain why it can be hard to trace the source of a foodborne
The incubation period (time from infection to first symptoms) of a disease if it has a long incubation period.
foodborne disease can range from a few hours to many days. The 13. Which are a bacterial species that can cause foodborne disease?
infectious dose (the amount that must be consumed to cause
A. Clostridium perfringens
disease) can vary greatly depending on the agent of disease.
The vast majority of reported cases of foodborne disease occur as B. Norovirus
sporadic cases in individuals. Only a minority of cases occur as part C. Taenia solium
of a disease outbreak, in which two or more people get the same D. All of the above
foodborne disease from a common source, such as the same 14. Why do you think the incubation period for a foodborne disease is
restaurant. generally shorter when the agent is a toxin compared to a
Foodborne disease usually arises from food contamination through microorganism?
improper handling, preparation, or storage of food. The main ways
15. Why do you think it is often recommended to rapidly cool a large
food becomes contaminated are through poor hygiene, cross-
quantity of homemade soup by putting the pot in an ice water bath
contamination, and failure of temperature control.
before storing it in the refrigerator?
Government agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration
are responsible for keeping the food supply safe. Food safety at

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4.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: FAST FOOD AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
Table 4.8.1 : Nutritional Information for a Typical Fast Food Meal
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: WHAT’S WRONG Food Calories
Total Fat Saturated Fat Trans Carbohydrates
(%DV) (%DV) Fat (%DV)
WITH FAST FOOD?
Burger 540 43% 49% 1g 15%
What is wrong with fast food? That is the question that Carlos, who
Fries 510 37% 17% 0g 22%
you read about at the beginning of the chapter, asked after learning that
Soda 300 0% 0% 0g 27%
his friend Abdul eats it five or six times a week and thinks that this diet Total 1,350 80% 66% 1g 64%
is not necessarily that bad. In order to find some answers, Carlos went
to the website of Abdul’s favorite fast food restaurant and found Sodium Iron Vitamin A Vitamin C Calcium
Food
nutritional information for Abdul's typical meal of a cheeseburger, (%DV) (%DV) (%DV) (%DV) (%DV)
large fries, and a large soda. Some of the information that Carlos found Burger 40% 25% 10% 2% 15%
is shown in the tables below. Knowing what you now know about Fries 15% 6% 0% 30% 2%
nutrition, what aspects of this meal could potentially be harmful to Soda 1% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Total 56% 31% 10% 32% 17%
Abdul’s health if he eats like this frequently?
% DV = percentage of the adult recommended daily value (DV) for
each nutrient, based on a 2,000 Calorie a day diet.
Why do typical fast-food meals have so many calories even if they
don’t appear to be particularly large? For one, these foods are typically
high in fat. Notice that this meal contains 80% of the recommended
daily value (DV) of total fat — close to the limit for the entire day! As
you have learned, fat is energy-dense. One gram of fat has nine
Calories, while one gram of protein or carbohydrate has only four
Calories. This means that meals high in fat, like this one, will generally
have more calories than a lower fat meal of equivalent size. A large
amount of fat in the burger and fries contributes to the high energy
density of this meal.
But fat isn’t the only reason this meal is so high in calories. The soda
contains 300 Calories — about the same number of calories as three
apples! For most people, three apples would be more satiating than a
soda. This is in part because apples have fiber, which is filling. As you
Figure 4.8.1 : (CC BY 2.0; Nick Taylor via flic.kr)
have learned, sodas and other sugary beverages generally have no other
As Carlos already said to Abdul, fast food meals are often very high in
nutrients besides carbohydrates. You can see from the tables that the
calories. This meal has 1,350 Calories. A typical adult should consume
soda is the largest contributor of carbohydrates to this meal, with very
around 2,000 Calories a day, so this single meal has more than half the
few other nutrients. If Abdul is frequently drinking large sodas, he
calories typically needed by a person in one day. Some fast-food meals
is getting a significant percentage of his calories from a substance that
have even more calories. The cheeseburger in this meal has 540
is not giving him a feeling of fullness, which may cause him to
Calories, which is typical for a moderately-sized fast-food
consume more calories overall. In fact, many scientists think that the
cheeseburger. But some larger fast-food burgers, or burgers with more
increase in consumption of sugary beverages has been a major
toppings, can have over 1,000 Calories! As you can see, it can be quite
contributor to the obesity epidemic.
easy to exceed your calorie recommendation for the day if you eat a
Besides excess calories, what nutrients in this meal could cause health
typical fast food meal, considering that you will probably eat two other
problems? This meal has both a high percentage of saturated fat (66%
meals that day as well.
DV) as well as some trans fat. The American Heart Association
What is the problem with consuming excess calories? As you have
recommends that people limit their consumption of saturated fat since
learned, it is important to maintain energy homeostasis — that is, a
it has been shown to raise the risk of heart disease. Trans fats are
balance between the energy you consume and what your body uses. If
particularly dangerous and can increase the risk of heart disease,
you eat more calories than your body needs, you will store that extra
stroke, and type 2 diabetes. In fact, in 2015 the U.S. Food and Drug
food energy as fat, which can cause you to become obese. Obesity
Administration (FDA) ruled that trans fats have not been shown to be
raises the risk of many diseases and health problems, including
safe for human consumption, and ordered food producers to remove
cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, stroke, liver disease, cancer,
them from the food supply by 2018. While some fast-food restaurants
pancreatitis, osteoarthritis, sleep apnea, and asthma. Many of these
voluntarily removed trans fats from their food prior to this time, as of
medical conditions can be deadly, which is why obesity can shorten a
early 2017 some restaurants still had items containing trans fats on
person’s lifespan. Although Abdul is only slightly overweight at this
their menus —like the burger from Abdul’s favorite restaurant.
point, if he regularly consumes more calories than he uses (which is
Another nutrient that fast food meals tend to have too much of is
likely with a diet high in fast food) he will gain excess body fat, raising
sodium. This meal has over half the sodium you should eat in a day,
his risk of obesity and its associated diseases.
mostly from the burger. And this burger isn’t the worst one around —
some fast food burgers have double the recommended DV for sodium!

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Burgers with bacon are particularly high in sodium. Consumption of Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized by the human body, so
excess sodium can lead to high blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, they must be consumed in food. Nonessential nutrients can be
and stroke. synthesized by the human body, so they need not be obtained
Consumption of excess nutrients is not the only concern when a person directly from food.
frequently eats fast food. As you can see from the tables, this meal is Macronutrients are nutrients that are needed in relatively large
relatively low in some vitamins and minerals such as vitamin A (10% amounts. They include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and water.
DV) and calcium (17% DV). As you have learned, vitamin A is All macronutrients except water provide energy, which is measured
important for maintaining normal vision and, in young children, the in Calories. Micronutrients are nutrients that are needed in
development of the immune system, among other functions. Calcium is relatively small amounts. They do not provide energy. They include
a macromineral needed for bone strength, neutralizing acidity in the vitamins and minerals.
digestive tract, and nerve and cell membrane functions. Eating a diet Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of simple sugars.
low in specific nutrients can cause a form of malnutrition called Besides sugars, they include starches, glycogen, and cellulose.
unbalanced nutrition. If Abdul eats meals like this frequently, he would Dietary carbohydrates come mainly from grains, fruits, and
have to make sure to get plenty of essential nutrients from other vegetables. They are used for energy, and one gram of
sources in order to maintain his health, which may be difficult if fast carbohydrates provides 4 Calories of energy. Fiber consists of
food takes the place of healthier foods in his diet. Carlos was correct to nondigestible carbohydrates that help control blood glucose and
be concerned about the lack of fresh food in most fast food meals. cholesterol (soluble fiber) or that stimulate peristalsis and
Fresh fruits and vegetables contain fiber, phytochemicals, and many prevent constipation (insoluble fiber).
vitamins and minerals that are important for maintaining health. Proteins are organic compounds made of amino acids. Dietary
But as Abdul brought up, is fast food worse than other types of food? proteins come from sources such as meat, fish, and legumes.
While it tends to be particularly high in calories, fat, and sodium, it is Amino acids from foods that are not needed for synthesizing
not very nutrient-dense. The same is true for many other types of meals new proteins by the body may be used for energy. One gram of
eaten outside the home. Many chain restaurants have nutritional proteins provides 4 Calories of energy. Of the 20 amino acids
information listed on their website — you can look up some of your the human body needs, 9 amino acids are essential.
favorites. You might be surprised to learn that some restaurant entrees Lipids are organic compounds made of fatty acids. Fatty acids
contain more than 2,000 Calories for a single meal, combined with an are needed by the body for energy, cell membranes, and other
excessive amount of saturated fat and sodium. These items are just as functions. One gram of lipids provides 9 Calories of energy.
bad or worse for your health than some fast food meals. Only two fatty acids (omega-3 and omega-6) are essential in the
diet. Animal fats are mainly saturated fats, whereas plant fats
The keys to healthy eating are to know what you are consuming and to
are mainly unsaturated fats. Artificial trans fats are added to
make good choices. Preparing fresh food at home is usually healthier
many foods and are known to be harmful to human health.
than eating out, but most restaurants have some healthier options. After
Water is essential to life. It is continuously lost from the body in
Carlos tells Abdul what Carlos found out about Abdul’s favorite meal,
urine, sweat, and exhaled breath, so it must be replenished often.
Abdul decides to make some changes. Abdul does not want to face a
Too little or too much water consumption can be dangerous to
future of obesity and potentially life-threatening health conditions.
health.
He decides to pack a healthy lunch to take with him during the day and
Vitamins are organic compounds that generally function as
will eat more dinners at home. When he does occasionally eat fast
coenzymes. As such, they are needed for a wide range of normal
food, he will make better choices. Skipping the soda will easily save
body functions and necessary for good health. Most vitamins are
them 300 Calories. Abdul loves fries but he realizes that if he orders
essential. Exceptions include vitamins B7 and K, which are
small fries instead of large, he can save 280 Calories and 20% DV of
made by intestinal bacteria; and vitamin D, which is made in the
total fat. If he orders a smaller cheeseburger, he can save an additional
skin when it is exposed to UV light.
240 Calories and 25% DV total fat. Then if he is still hungry, he can
Minerals are inorganic chemical elements that are necessary for
add a piece of fruit from home for additional nutrients. He will also try
many body processes and needed for good health. Minerals are
other options at fast-food restaurants, such as salads or grilled chicken
not synthesized biologically, so they are essential nutrients.
sandwiches, which may be healthier. However, he should check the
Macrominerals, which are needed in relatively large quantities,
nutritional information first, since some seemingly healthy options can
include calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and sodium. Trace
still be high in calories, fat, and salt due to added dressings, sauces, and
minerals, which are needed in much smaller quantities, include
cheese. Healthy eating and good nutrition don’t have to be difficult if
cobalt, iodine, iron, and zinc.
you are armed with information and make good choices with your
long-term health in mind. Healthy eating is fundamentally important for good health. A
healthy diet reduces the risk of obesity, cardiovascular disease,
CHAPTER SUMMARY cancer, and many other diseases. It also extends life.
In this chapter, you learned how nutrition relates to the functioning of Nutrition refers to the process of taking in nutrients in food and
your body and your health. Specifically, you learned that: using them for growth, metabolism, and repair. Good nutrition
depends on meeting nutrient needs while maintaining energy
Nutrients are substances the body needs for energy, building
balance, called energy homeostasis.
materials, and control of body processes. There are six major
The opposite of good nutrition is malnutrition. Malnutrition
classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, vitamins,
includes undernutrition, in which there is inadequate energy intake;
and minerals.
overnutrition, in which there is excessive energy intake; and

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 unbalanced nutrition, in which there is too much or not enough of Treatment of an eating disorder depends on the type and severity of
specific nutrients, such as vitamin A or calcium. the disorder. Treatment options include mental health counseling,
Good nutrition requires healthy eating. This means eating a wide medications, nutritional counseling, and hospitalization. The
range of nutritious foods that provide the correct balance of majority of people with eating disorders recover with treatment.
nutrients. It also means taking in the correct amount of food energy Obesity is a disease in which excess body fat has accumulated to
to balance energy use. the extent that it is likely to have negative effects on health. Obesity
Nutrient density refers to how much of a given nutrient a particular is diagnosed in adults when their body mass index (BMI), which is
food provides, relative to the mass of the food or the number of an estimate of body fatness, is greater than 30 kg/m2. Obesity is
Calories it provides. Foods vary greatly in nutrient density — diagnosed in children when their BMI is greater than the 95th
making informed food choices is important for achieving nutrient percentile for children of that age.
balance. Obesity may be further categorized by the medical profession as
Energy homeostasis is regulated by the hypothalamus, which severe obesity, morbid obesity, and super obesity. Obese people
controls appetite and satiation, but it also depends on dietary who store most of their excess fat in the abdomen have central
choices and activity levels. Energy density refers to the amount of obesity, putting them at greater risk of adverse health
energy a food provides per unit of mass or volume. Choosing foods consequences of obesity.
with lower or higher energy density as needed to balance energy Dozens of genes that control appetite and metabolism may
expenditure can help maintain energy homeostasis. predispose people to develop obesity when sufficient food
Recommended daily values of nutrients can be used as a general energy is present. While rates of obesity have risen, diets have
guide to nutrient needs. At the level of individuals, requirements for increased in Calories, mainly from excess carbohydrates (often
many nutrients may vary based on age, gender, health status, in the form of sugary drinks), and activity levels have declined
activity level, and other factors. due to changes in work and technology.
Tools such as MyPlate and nutrition facts labels are invaluable for Leptin resistance has been proposed as a physiological
healthy eating. MyPlate is a visual guide to the relative proportions mechanism underlying obesity. A decreased sensitivity to leptin
of foods in five different food groups (vegetables, fruits, grains, results in an inability to detect satiety despite high-fat reserves.
protein, and dairy) that you should eat at each meal. Nutrition facts This causes people to never feel satiated and to overeat and gain
labels give the nutrient content and ingredients in packaged foods, weight.
which can help you choose the most nutritious options.
Obesity increases the risk of many other health problems and
Eating disorders are mental health disorders defined by abnormal
diseases, including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, certain
eating habits that adversely affect health. They generally begin by
types of cancer, osteoarthritis, and obstructive sleep apnea. The
young adulthood and are much more common in females than
health consequences of obesity are due to the effects of either
males. Eating disorders are mental disorders with the highest
increased fat mass or increased numbers of fat cells.
mortality rate.
Most cases of obesity are treatable or preventable through changes
Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder in which people in diet and physical activity that restore energy balance to the body.
consistently eat very little and become extremely thin. They All types of low-carbohydrate and low-fat diets appear equally
may also develop amenorrhea and other serious health beneficial in reducing obesity and its health risks. Other treatments
problems. People with anorexia nervosa often fail to appreciate may include medications to control appetite or reduce nutrient
how thin they are and how severe their illness is. absorption and bariatric surgery to modify the digestive tract in
Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder in which people ways that limit the intake of food and absorption of nutrients from
recurrently binge on large amounts of food, followed by purging food.
the food from the body through vomiting, using laxatives, Undernutrition is defined as an insufficient intake of nutritious
exercising excessively, or other methods. People with bulimia foods. People who are undernourished are usually underweight.
nervosa may have normal weight but often have serious health Adults are considered underweight if their BMI is less than 18.5
problems such as electrolyte imbalances and irregular heartbeat. kg/m2. Children are considered underweight if their BMI is less
Binge eating disorder is an eating disorder in which people than the 5thpercentile of the reference values for children of the
repeatedly binge on large amounts of food, followed by feelings same age.
of guilt but not by purging. This generally leads to excessive Undernutrition is a more significant problem in children who need
weight gain, obesity, and other serious disorders. nutrients for growth and development. They may become
Genes are likely to be involved in the development of eating dangerously thin (called wasting) or stop growing so they are too
disorders because eating disorders tend to “run in families.” At a short for their age (stunting). Growth deficits often begin in utero
biochemical level, eating disorders may be caused in part by due to maternal undernutrition, resulting in low birthweight and its
dysregulation of neurotransmitters or the hormones leptin and associated risks.
ghrelin, which normally help maintain the body’s energy Severe undernutrition may develop into life-threatening syndromes,
homeostasis. such as kwashiorkor or marasmus, both of which can be fatal
Environmental factors that increase the risk of eating disorders without treatment. Kwashiorkor occurs when the diet is especially
include being abused as a child, tight parental control over eating deficient in protein, causing edema and other characteristic signs of
habits, fragile sense of self-identity, and social isolation. Cultural the syndrome. Marasmus occurs when the diet is especially
idealization of thinness in females may be a major cause of deficient in food energy, causing extreme emaciation and other
anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa in particular. abnormalities.

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 Some of the most common micronutrient deficiencies worldwide 1. Imagine you are a nurse who is assessing the BMI of patients. For
are iron, vitamin A, and iodine deficiencies. Iron deficiency causes each of the patients below, identify whether they are underweight,
anemia, which in childhood can lead to permanent cognitive and normal weight, overweight, or obese (and the subcategories of
motor deficits. Vitamin A deficiency can weaken the immune severe obesity, morbid obesity, and super obesity). If you cannot
system, contribute to anemia, and cause blindness. Iodine determine BMI category based on the information given, explain
deficiency leads to inadequate thyroid hormone, causing goiter and why. Then discuss whether each patient may have a
hypothyroidism in adults and intellectual disability in children. health/nutritional concern, or whether this cannot be determined
The vast majority of undernutrition globally occurs because people from the information given. Finally, if they do have a
do not have enough nutritious food to eat. Although there is enough health/nutritional concern, list some ways they may be able to
food to meet the needs of the global human population, the food is improve their health. Patients:
unevenly distributed and for many people inaccessible because of A. An adult with a BMI of 41 kg/m2
poverty. Caused by poverty, undernutrition also contributes to B. An adult with a BMI of 24 kg/m2
poverty because of its effects on health, growth, development, and C. An adult with a BMI of 17 kg/m2
ultimately on the ability to work and earn income. D. A child with a BMI of 27 kg/m2
Undernutrition is less common in the richer nations than it is
2. Which nutrients provide energy for the body?
elsewhere, but it still occurs because of wealth inequalities and the
A. Vitamins
existence of food deserts, which are areas with limited access to
B. Minerals
nutritious foods.
C. Proteins
Treating and preventing undernutrition is a huge and complex
D. All of the above
problem requiring multifaceted approaches. They include direct
E. None of the above
nutritional interventions, generally provided through the health-care
sector to people who are acutely malnourished, as well as public 3. For each of the statements below, choose whether it applies to
health interventions that focus on improvements in agriculture, soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, both, or neither.
water, sanitation, education, or the like. The most successful A. Stimulates movement of food wastes through the large intestine
interventions have been those that address deficiencies of specific B. Slows movement of chyme through the small intestine
micronutrients such as iodine. C. Classified as a carbohydrate
Foodborne disease is any disease that is transmitted via food. As D. Nonessential nutrient
many as 76 million Americans a year get a foodborne disease, and 4. Sometimes one type of nutrient can be converted to another type of
thousands of them die from it. nutrient in the body. Give one example of this, and describe when it
Foodborne diseases are caused by microorganisms, toxins, or occurs.
adulteration of food by foreign bodies. Norovirus and several 5. True or False. Trans fat is a type of unsaturated fat.
genera of bacteria cause most foodborne diseases. Toxins that cause 6. True or False. Bulimia nervosa always involves vomiting to purge
foodborne disease may come from the environment or from food from the body.
microorganisms in food. Alternatively, they may be consumed in 7. Which is the best definition of essential nutrients?
toxic plants or fungi. Foreign bodies such as cigarette butts and A. Nutrients that are needed in large quantities by the body.
insects can accidentally get into food at any stage. B. Nutrients that must be obtained from food.
Many foodborne diseases share some of the same symptoms, such C. Nutrients that provide energy for the body.
as vomiting and diarrhea, but they are quite variable in other ways.
8. Which typically has the highest energy density?
The incubation period (time from infection to first symptoms) of
foodborne disease can range from a few hours to many days. The A. Proteins
infectious dose (an amount that must be consumed to cause disease) B. Carbohydrates
can vary greatly depending on the agent of disease. C. Sugars
The vast majority of reported cases of foodborne disease occur as D. Lipids
sporadic cases in individuals. Only a minority of cases occur as part 9. If you are reading the nutrition facts label on a food item and see
of a disease outbreak, in which two or more people get the same that “partially hydrogenated” oil is one of the ingredients, what type
foodborne disease from a common source, such as the same of fat is likely to be present? Is this fat a healthy choice? Why or
restaurant. why not?
The foodborne disease usually arises from food contamination 10. Identify two ways in which processed foods are typically less
through improper handling, preparation, or storage of food. The healthy than whole foods.
main ways food becomes contaminated are through poor hygiene, 11. The table below contains nutritional information listed on a bag of
cross-contamination, and failure of temperature control. tortilla chips. Read the table and then answer the following
Government agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration questions.
are responsible for keeping the food supply safe. Food safety at A. If you eat 16 of these tortilla chips, how many Calories have
home depends mainly on following good food safety practices. you consumed?
These range from regular handwashing to maintaining the correct B. A palm-sized (4 oz) serving of grilled, boneless, skinless
refrigerator temperature. chicken breast has about 190 Calories. How does this compare
to the Calories in 16 tortilla chips? Which is more energy-
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW dense? Explain your answer.

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 C. What is the percentage DV of fat, sodium, and dietary fiber in C. a body fat distribution where most of the excess body fat is
16 of these chips? If you wanted to maintain a healthy diet, stored in the abdomen as opposed to the hips.
following the DV recommendations, what percentage DV of fat, D. obesity that has resulted in type 2 diabetes.
sodium, and fiber would you have left for the rest of the day 16. Name the demographic group that is more likely to be obese and
after eating a snack of 16 of these chips? have eating disorders.
17. Match each of the statements below with the eating disorder that
Table 4.8.2 : nutritional information listed on a bag of tortilla chips best matches it. Eating disorder choices are anorexia nervosa,
Serving size 1 oz (28 g) About 8 chips bulima nervosa, or binge eating disorder. Each disorder is used only
Calories per serving 140 once.
Total fat per serving 7g 10% Daily Value (DV) A. People with this disorder often develop an electrolyte
Sodium per serving 115 mg 5% DV imbalance.
Dietary fiber per serving 1g 5% DV
B. People with this disorder typically eat very little.
C. People with this disorder are at risk of developing type 2
diabetes.
12. Can you eat too many calories but still be malnourished? Why or
18. If an undernourished child has a distended abdomen, are they more
why not?
likely to have kwashiorkor or marasmus? Explain your answer and
13. Explain why one person with a BMI of 35 kg/m2 could be
describe the nutritional deficits that likely caused this
considered severely obese, while another person with the same BMI
undernutrition syndrome.
could be considered morbidly obese.
19. Do you think foodborne disease can exacerbate or even cause
14. Explain how leptin normally regulates appetite, in the absence of
undernutrition? Explain your answer.
leptin resistance.
20. True or False. Micronutrient deficiencies in children can cause
15. Central obesity refers to:
long-term cognitive deficits.
A. obesity that is due to genetic causes. 21. True or False. The risk of getting a foodborne disease can be
B. obesity that occurs in the middle of the U.S. eliminated by adopting a vegetarian diet.

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
5: CELLS
This chapter outlines the discovery of cells and cell theory. It identifies ways in which all cells are
alike and ways in which they vary. The chapter describes in detail important cell structures and their
functions; and it explains how cells obtain energy, grow, and divide.

5.1: CASE STUDY: THE IMPORTANCE OF CELLS

We all get tired sometimes, especially if we have been doing a lot of physical activity like these
hikers. But for Jasmin, a 34 year old former high school track star who is now a recreational
runner, his tiredness was going far beyond what he thought should be normal for someone who is
generally in good physical shape.

5.2: DISCOVERY OF CELLS AND CELL THEORY

Cells are the basic units of the structure and function of living things. All organisms are made up of one or more cells, and all cells
have many of the same structures and carry out the same basic life processes.

5.3: VARIATION IN CELLS

Although all living cells have certain things in common, different types of cells, even within the same organism, may have their
unique structures and functions. Cells with different functions generally have different shapes that suit them for their particular job.

5.4: PLASMA MEMBRANE

The plasma membrane is a structure that forms a barrier between the cytoplasm inside the cell and the environment outside the cell.
The membrane protects and supports the cell and controls everything that enters and leaves it.

5.5: CYTOPLASM AND CYTOSKELETON

The cytoplasm is a thick, usually colorless solution that fills each cell and is enclosed by the cell membrane. Sometimes cytoplasm
acts like a watery solution, and sometimes it takes on a more gel-like consistency. A framework of protein scaffolds called the
cytoskeleton provides the cytoplasm and the cell with structure.

5.6: CELL ORGANELLES

An organelle is a structure within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell that is enclosed within a membrane and performs a specific job.
Organelles in animal cells include the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vesicles, and vacuoles.

5.7: CELL TRANSPORT

If a cell were a house, the plasma membrane would be walls with windows and doors. Moving things in and out of the cell is an
important role of the plasma membrane. It controls everything that enters and leaves the cell. There are two basic ways that
substances can cross the plasma membrane: passive transport, which requires no energy; and active transport, which requires energy.

5.8: ACTIVE TRANSPORT AND HOMEOSTASIS

When substances require energy to cross a plasma membrane often because they are moving from an area of a lower concentration to
an area of a higher concentration, the process is called active transport.

5.9: CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Energy is required to break down and build up molecules and to transport many molecules across plasma membranes. A lot of energy
is lost to the environment as heat. The story of life is a story of energy flow - its capture, its change of form, its use for work, and its
loss as heat. The cells of living things power their activities with the energy-carrying molecule ATP. The cells of most living things
make ATP from glucose in the process of cellular respiration. This process occurs in three sta

5.10: FERMENTATION
An important way of making ATP without oxygen is fermentation. Fermentation starts with glycolysis, which does not require
oxygen, but it does not involve the latter two stages of aerobic cellular respiration (the Krebs cycle and electron transport). There are
two types of fermentation, called alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation.

5.11: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: TIRED AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

Jasmin discovered that his extreme fatigue, muscle pain, vision problems, and vomiting were due to issues in his mitochondria, an
organelle. Mitochondria create energy for the cells of the body.

1 4/25/2021
5.1: CASE STUDY: THE IMPORTANCE OF CELLS
seizures and learning disabilities. How can Jasmin have the same
CASE STUDY: MORE THAN JUST TIRED disease but different symptoms? Why did she not have problems until
We all get tired sometimes, especially if we have been doing a lot of adulthood while her niece had symptoms at an early age? And what are
physical activity like these hikers. But for Jasmin, a 34-year-old former mitochondria anyway?
high school track star who is now a recreational runner, her tiredness
was going far beyond what she thought should be normal for someone CHAPTER OVERVIEW: CELLS
who is generally in good physical shape. She was experiencing extreme As you will learn in this chapter, mitochondria are important structures
fatigue after her runs, as well as muscle cramping, spasms, and an within our cells. This chapter will describe cells, which are the basic
unusual sense of heaviness in her legs. At first, she chalked it up to unit of structure and function in all living organisms. Specifically, you
getting older, but her exhaustion and pain worsened to the point where will learn:
this former athlete could no longer run for more than a few minutes at a How cells were discovered, their common structures, and the
time. She also began to experience other unusual symptoms, such as principles of cell theory.
blurry vision and vomiting for no apparent reason. The importance of size and shape in the functions of cells.
The differences between eukaryotic cells (such as those in humans
and other animals) and prokaryotic cells (such as bacteria).
The structures and functions of parts of cells including
mitochondria, the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton,
nucleus, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum,
vesicles, and vacuoles.
How the processes of passive and active transport move substances
into and out of cells and help maintain homeostasis.
How organisms obtain the energy needed for life, including how the
sugar glucose is broken down to produce ATP through the
processes of aerobic cellular respiration and anaerobic respiration.
As you read this chapter, think about the following questions related to
Jasmin’s disease:
1. What are mitochondria? What is their structure, function, and where
did they come from during evolution?
Figure 5.1.1 : (CC BY 2.0; Dace Kiršpile via flickr.com)
Concerned, she went to her doctor. Her doctor ran many tests and 2. Why are fatigue and “exercise intolerance,” such as Jasmin’s
consulted with several specialists. After several months, Jasmin is extreme exhaustion after running, common symptoms of mitochondrial
finally diagnosed with a mitochondrial disease. Jasmin is surprised. diseases?
She has an 8-year-old niece with a mitochondrial disease, but 3. Why do you think Jasmin has symptoms that affect so many
her niece’s symptoms started when she was very young, and included different parts of her body including her legs, eyes, and digestive
system?

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5.2: DISCOVERY OF CELLS AND CELL THEORY
A BIG BLUE CELL
What is this incredible object? Would it surprise you to learn that it
is a human cell? The cell is actually too small to see with the
unaided eye. It is visible here in such detail because it is being
viewed with a very powerful microscope. Cells may be small in
size, but they are extremely important for life. Like all other living
things, you are made of cells. Cells are the basis of life, and without
cells, life as we know it would not exist. You will learn more about
these amazing building blocks of life when you read this section.

Figure 5.2.2 : Robert Hooke sketched these cork cells as they appeared
under a simple light microscope. (Public domain; Robert Hooke via
Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 5.2.1 : (Public Domain; NIAID/NIH via Wikimedia
Commons) CELL THEORY
By the early 1800s, scientists had observed the cells of many different
If you look at a living matter with a microscope — even a simple light
organisms. These observations led two German scientists, named
microscope — you will see that it consists of cells. Cells are the basic
Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden, to propose that cells
units of the structure and function of living things. They are the
are the basic building blocks of all living things. Around 1850, a
smallest units that can carry out the processes of life. All organisms are
German doctor named Rudolf Virchow was studying cells under a
made up of one or more cells, and all cells have many of the same
microscope when he happened to see them dividing and forming new
structures and carry out the same basic life processes. Knowing the
cells. He realized that living cells produce new cells through division.
structure of cells and the processes they carry out is necessary to
Based on this realization, Virchow proposed that living cells arise only
understanding life itself.
from other living cells.
DISCOVERY OF CELLS The ideas of all three scientists — Schwann, Schleiden, and Virchow
The first time the word cell was used to refer to these tiny units of life — led to cell theory, which is one of the fundamental theories unifying
was in 1665 by a British scientist named Robert Hooke. Hooke was all of biology. Cell theory states that:
one of the earliest scientists to study living things under a microscope. All organisms are made of one or more cells.
The microscopes of his day were not very strong, but Hooke was still All the life functions of organisms occur within cells.
able to make an important discovery. When he looked at a thin slice of All cells come from already existing cells.
cork under his microscope, he was surprised to see what looked like a
honeycomb. Hooke made the drawing in the figure below to show what SEEING INSIDE CELLS
he saw. As you can see, the cork was made up of many tiny units, Starting with Robert Hooke in the 1600s, the microscope opened up an
which Hooke called cells. amazing new world — the world of life at the level of the cell. As
Soon after Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, Anton van microscopes continued to improve, more discoveries were made about
Leeuwenhoek in Holland made other important discoveries using a the cells of living things. However, by the late 1800s, light microscopes
microscope. Leeuwenhoek made his own microscope lenses, and he had reached their limit. Objects much smaller than cells, including the
was so good at it that his microscope was more powerful than other structures inside cells, were too small to be seen with even the
microscopes of his day. In fact, Leeuwenhoek’s microscope was almost strongest light microscope.
as strong as modern light microscopes. Using his microscope, Then, in the 1950s, a new type of microscope was invented. Called the
Leeuwenhoek was the first person to observe human cells and bacteria. electron microscope, it used a beam of electrons instead of light to
observe extremely small objects. With an electron microscope,
scientists could finally see the tiny structures inside cells. In fact, they
could even see individual molecules and atoms. The electron
microscope had a huge impact on biology. It allowed scientists to study
organisms at the level of their molecules and led to the emergence of
the field of cell biology. With the electron microscope, many more cell
discoveries were made. Figure 5.2.3 shows how the cell structures
called organelles appear when scanned by an electron microscope.

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 from other living cells. These ideas led to cell theory, which states
that all organisms are made of cells, all life functions occur in cells,
and all cells come from other cells.
It wasn't until the 1950s that scientists could see what was inside
the cell. The invention of the electron microscope allowed them to
see organelles and other structures smaller than cells.
There is variation in cells, but all cells have a plasma membrane,
cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA. These similarities show that all
life on Earth has a common ancestor in the distant past.

REVIEW
Figure 5.2.3 : An electron microscope produced this image of the 1. Describe cells.
structures inside a cell. (Public Domain; Dartmouth College via 2. Explain how cells were discovered.
Wikimedia.org) 3. Outline how cell theory developed.
4. Identify structures shared by all cells.
STRUCTURES SHARED BY ALL CELLS 5. True or False. Cork is not a living organism.
Although cells are diverse, all cells have certain parts in common. 6. True or False. Some organisms are made of only one cell.
These parts include a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and 7. True or False. Ribosomes are found outside of the cytoplasm of a
DNA. cell.
1. The plasma membrane (also called the cell membrane) is a thin 8. Proteins are made on _____________ .
coat of phospholipids that surrounds a cell. It forms the physical 9. What are the differences between a light microscope and an
boundary between the cell and its environment, so you can think of electron microscope?
it as the “skin” of the cell. 10. The first microscopes were made around
2. Cytoplasm refers to all of the cellular material inside the plasma A. 1965
membrane. The Cytoplasm is made up of a watery substance called B. 1665
cytosol and contains other cell structures such as ribosomes. C. 1950
3. Ribosomes are structures in the cytoplasm where proteins are
D. 1776
made.
4. DNA is a nucleic acid found in cells. It contains the genetic 11. Which of these scientists made each of the following discoveries?
instructions that cells need to make proteins. Anton van Leeuwenhoek; Robert Hooke; Rudolf Virchow
These parts are common to all cells, from organisms as different as a. Observed some of the first cells and first used the term “cell”
bacteria and human beings. How did all known organisms come to b. Observed the first human cells
have such similar cells? The similarities show that all life on Earth has c. Observed cells dividing
a common evolutionary history.
12. Robert Hooke sketched what looked like honeycombs, or repeated
circular or square units, when he observed plant cells under a
SUMMARY
microscope.
Cells are the basic units of structure and function of living things.
They are the smallest units that can carry out the processes of life. a. What is each unit?
The first cells from an organism (cork) were observed by Hooke in b. Of the shared parts of all cells, what makes up the outer surface
the 1600s. Soon after, microscopist van Leeuwenhoek observed of each unit?
many other living cells. c. Of the shared parts of all cells, what makes up the inside of each
In the early 1800s, Schwann and Schleiden theorized that cells are unit?
the basic building blocks of all living things. Around 1850,
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5.3: VARIATION IN CELLS
BACTERIA ATTACK!
Figure 5.3.1 shows a bacterial cell (colored green) attacking human
red blood cells. The bacterium causes a disease called relapsing
fever. The bacterial and human cells look very different in size and
shape. Although all living cells have certain things in common —
such as a plasma membrane and cytoplasm — different types of
cells, even within the same organism, may have their own unique
structures and functions. Cells with different functions generally
have different shapes that suit them for their particular job. Cells
vary not only in shape but also in size, as this example shows. In
most organisms, however, even the largest cells are no bigger than
the period at the end of this sentence. Why are cells so small?

Figure 5.3.2 : Surface Area to Volume Comparison. A larger cube has a

smaller surface area (SA) to volume (V) ratio than a smaller cube. This
also holds true for cells and limits how large they can be. (CC BY-NC
3.0; Hana Zavadska via CK-12 Foundation).

CELL FORM AND FUNCTION

Cells with different functions often have different shapes. The cells
Figure 5.3.1 : (Public Domain; NIAID via Wikimedia Commons). pictured below are just a few examples of the many different shapes
that human cells may have. Each type of cell in the figure has
EXPLAINING CELL SIZE characteristics that help it do its job. For example, the job of the nerve
Most organisms, even very large ones, have microscopic cells. Why cell is to carry messages to other cells. The nerve cell has many long
don't cells get bigger instead of remaining tiny and multiplying? What extensions that reach out in all directions, allowing it to pass messages
limits cell size? to many other cells at once. Do you see the tail of each tiny sperm cell?
The answers to these questions are clear once you know how a cell Its tail helps a sperm cell "swim" through fluids in the female
functions. To carry out life processes, a cell must be able to quickly reproductive tract in order to reach an egg cell. The white blood cell
pass substances into and out of the cell. For example, it must be able to has the job of destroying bacteria and other pathogens. It is a large cell
pass nutrients and oxygen into the cell and waste products out of the that can engulf foreign invaders.
cell. Anything that enters or leaves a cell must cross its outer surface. It
is this need to pass substances across the surface that limits how large a
cell can be.
Look at the two cubes in Figure 5.3.2. As this figure shows, a larger
cube has less surface area relative to its volume than a smaller cube.
This relationship also applies to cells; a larger cell has less surface area
relative to its volume than a smaller cell. A cell with a larger volume
also needs more nutrients and oxygen and produces more wastes.
Because all of these substances must pass through the surface of the
cell, a cell with a large volume will not have enough surface area to Figure 5.3.3 : Human nerve cell (CC BY 2.5; Wei-Chung Allen Lee,
allow it to meet its needs. The larger the cell is, the smaller its ratio of Hayden Huang, Guoping Feng, Joshua R. Sanes, Emery N. Brown,
Peter T. So, Elly Nedivi via Wikimedia Commons)
surface area to volume, and the harder it will be for the cell to get rid of
its wastes and take in necessary substances. This is what limits the size
of the cell.

Figure 5.3.4 : Human sperm cells (Public Domain; No specific author

via Wikimedia Commons).

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 larger than prokaryotic cells. They are found in some single-celled and
all multicellular organisms. Organisms with eukaryotic cells are called
eukaryotes, and they range from fungi to people.
Besides a nucleus, eukaryotic cells also contain other organelles. An
organelle is a structure within the cytoplasm that performs a specific
job in the cell. Organelles called mitochondria, for example, provide
energy to the cell, and organelles called vacuoles store substances in
the cell. Organelles allow eukaryotic cells to carry out more functions
than prokaryotic cells can.

Figure 5.3.5 : Human white blood cell engulfing and destroying

bacteria (orange) (CC BY 2.5; Volker Brinkmann via Wikimedia
Commons).

CELLS WITH AND WITHOUT A NUCLEUS

There is a basic cell structure that is present in many but not all living
cells: the nucleus. The nucleus of a cell is a structure in the cytoplasm
that is surrounded by a membrane (the nuclear membrane) and contains
DNA. Based on whether or not they have a nucleus, there are two basic
types of cells: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Prokaryotic cells are cells without a nucleus. The DNA in prokaryotic Figure 5.3.7 : Eukaryotic Cell. Compare and contrast the eukaryotic
cell shown here with the prokaryotic cell. What similarities and
cells is in the cytoplasm rather than enclosed within a nuclear differences do you see? (Public domain; LadyofHats via Wikimedia).
membrane. Prokaryotic cells are found in single-celled organisms, such
as the bacterium represented by the model below. Organisms with SUMMARY
prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes. They were the first type of Cells must be very small so they have a large enough surface area-
organisms to evolve and are still the most common organisms today. to-volume ratio to maintain normal cell processes.
Cells with different functions often have different shapes.
Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus. Eukaryotic cells do have a
nucleus as well as other organelles.

REVIEW
1. Explain why most cells are very small.
2. Discuss variations in the form and function of cells.
3. Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
4. True or False. Prokaryotic cells do not have mitochondria.
5. True or False. Prokaryotic cells do not have DNA.
6. True or False. All single-celled organisms are prokaryotes.
7. Which was the first type of organisms to evolve – eukaryotes or
prokaryotes? Based on their structures, does this make sense to
you? Explain your answer.
8. Do human cells have organelles? Explain your answer.
9. Which are usually larger – prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells? What do
Figure 5.3.6 : Prokaryotic Cell. This diagram shows the structure of a
typical prokaryotic cell, a bacterium. Like other prokaryotic cells, this you think this means for their relative ability to take in needed
bacterial cell lacks a nucleus but has other cell parts, including a substances and release wastes? Discuss your answer.
plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA. Identify each of 10. DNA in eukaryotes is enclosed within the _______ ________.
these parts in the diagram. (Public Domain; LadyofHats via
11. Name three different types of cells in humans.
Wikicommons).
12. Which organelle provides energy in eukaryotic cells?
EUKARYOTIC CELLS 13. What is the function of a vacuole in a cell?
Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus. A typical eukaryotic
cell is represented by the model below. Eukaryotic cells are usually EXPLORE MORE
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5.4: PLASMA MEMBRANE
A BAG FULL OF JELL-O
This simple, cut-away model of an animal cell (Figure 5.4.1) shows
that a cell resembles a plastic bag full of Jell-O. Its basic structure
is a plasma membrane filled with cytoplasm. Like Jell-O containing
mixed fruit, the cytoplasm of the cell also contains various
structures, such as a nucleus and other organelles. Your body is
made up of trillions of cells, but all of them perform the same basic
life functions. They all obtain and use energy, respond to the
environment, and reproduce. How do your cells carry out these
basic functions and keep themselves — and you — alive? To
answer these questions, you need to know more about the structures
that make up cells, starting with the plasma membrane.

Figure 5.4.2 : Phospholipid Bilayer. The phospholipid bilayer consists

of two layers of phospholipids, with a hydrophobic, or water-hating,
interior and a hydrophilic, or water-loving, exterior. The hydrophilic
(polar) head group and hydrophobic tails (fatty acid chains) are
depicted in the single phospholipid molecule. The polar head group and
fatty acid chains are attached by a 3-carbon glycerol unit. (CC BY-NC
3.0; LadyofHats via CK-12 Foundation)

OTHER MOLECULES IN THE PLASMA

Figure 5.4.1 : (CC0; Kelvin Sng via Wikimedia Commons) MEMBRANE
The plasma membrane also contains other molecules, primarily other
The plasma membrane is a structure that forms a barrier between the lipids and proteins. The green molecules in Figure 5.4.2, for example,
cytoplasm inside the cell and the environment outside the cell. Without are the lipid cholesterol. Molecules of the steroid lipid cholesterol help
the plasma membrane, there would be no cell. The membrane also the plasma membrane keep its shape. Many of the proteins in the
protects and supports the cell and controls everything that enters and plasma membrane are transport proteins that assist other substances in
leaves it. It allows only certain substances to pass through while crossing the cell membrane. Glycoproteins and glycolipids of the
keeping others in or out. To understand how the plasma membrane plasma membrane, in particular, have a carbohydrate chain that acts as
controls what passes into or out of the cell, you need to know its basic a label to identify the cell type (Figure 5.4.3).
structure.

PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER
The plasma membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids, which
consist of fatty acids and alcohol. The phospholipids in the plasma
membrane are arranged in two layers, called a phospholipid bilayer.
As shown in the diagram below, each phospholipid molecule has a
head and two tails. The head “loves” water (hydrophilic) and the tails
“fear” water (hydrophobic). The water-fearing tails are on the interior
of the membrane, whereas the water-loving heads point outwards,
toward either the cytoplasm or the fluid that surrounds the cell.
Molecules that are hydrophobic can easily pass through the plasma
membrane if they are small enough because they are water-hating like
the interior of the membrane. Molecules that are hydrophilic, on the Figure 5.4.3: The figure illustrates the major components of the
other hand, cannot pass through the plasma membrane — at least not phospholipid bilayer. The green balls represent sugar. (CC BY
without help — because they are water-loving like the exterior of the 4.0; CNX OpenStax
membrane. via Wikimedia.org)

ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONS OF THE PLASMA

MEMBRANE
The plasma membrane may have extensions, such as whip-like flagella
or brush-like cilia, that give it other functions. In single-celled
organisms, like those shown below, these membrane extensions may
help the organisms move. In multicellular organisms, the extensions

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have different functions. For example, the cilia on human lung cells allows only certain substances to pass in or out of the cell.
sweep foreign particles and mucus toward the mouth and nose. The plasma membrane is composed mainly of a bilayer of
phospholipid molecules. It also contains other molecules, such as
the steroid cholesterol, which helps the membrane keep its shape,
and transport proteins, which help substances pass through the
membrane.
The plasma membrane of some cells has extensions that have other
functions, such as flagella to help a single-celled organism move or
cilia to help keep our airways clear.

REVIEW
Figure 5.4.4 : Flagella of Giardia (left) and cilia of human respiratory 1. What are the general functions of the plasma membrane?
mucosa (right). Flagella and cilia are extensions of the plasma 2. Describe the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane.
membrane of many cells. (Flagella: Public domain; CDC/ Dr. Stan
Erlandsen via Wikimedia.org) (Cilia: Public domain; Charles 3. Identify other molecules in the plasma membrane, and state their
Daghlian via Wikimedia.org) functions.
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY 4. Why do some cells have plasma membrane extensions such as
If you smoke and need another reason to quit, here's a good one. flagella and cilia?
We usually think of lung cancer as a major disease caused by 5. a. Explain why hydrophilic molecules cannot easily pass through
smoking. But smoking can have devastating effects on the body's the cell membrane.
ability to protect itself from repeated, serious respiratory infections, b. What type of molecule in the cell membrane might help
such as bronchitis and pneumonia. hydrophilic molecules pass through it?
Cilia are microscopic, hair-like projects on cells that line the 6. Which part of a phospholipid molecule in the plasma membrane is
respiratory, reproductive, and digestive systems. Cilia in the made of fatty acid chains? Is this part hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
respiratory system line most of your airways where they have the 7. The two layers of phospholipids in the plasma membrane are called
job of trapping and removing dust, germs, and other foreign a phospholipid ____________.
particles before they can make you sick. Cilia secrete mucus that 8. True or False. The flagella on your lung cells sweep foreign
traps particles, and they move in a continuous wave-like motion particles and mucus toward your mouth and nose.
that sweeps the mucus and particles upward toward the throat,
9. True or False. Small hydrophobic molecules can easily pass
where they can be expelled from the body. When you are sick and
through the plasma membrane.
cough up phlegm, that's what you are doing.
10. True or False. The side of the cell membrane that faces the
Smoking prevents cilia from performing these important functions.
cytoplasm is hydrophilic.
Chemicals in tobacco smoke paralyze the cilia so they can't sweep
mucus out of the airways and they also inhibit the cilia from 11. Steroid hormones can pass directly through cell membranes. Why
producing mucus. Fortunately, these effects start to wear off soon do you think this is the case?
after the last exposure to tobacco smoke. If you stop smoking, your 12. Some antibiotics work by making holes in the plasma membrane of
cilia will return to normal. Even if prolonged smoking has bacterial cells. How do you think this kills the cells?
destroyed cilia, they will regrow and resume functioning in a matter 13. What is the name of the long, whip-like extensions of the plasma
of months after you stop smoking. membrane that helps some single-celled organisms move?

SUMMARY EXPLORE MORE

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The plasma membrane is a structure that forms a barrier between
the cytoplasm inside the cell and the environment outside the cell. It

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5.5: CYTOPLASM AND CYTOSKELETON
A PEEK INSIDE THE CELL Although cytoplasm may appear to have no form or structure, it is
Figure 5.5.1 may look like a colorful work of abstract art or maybe actually highly organized. A framework of protein scaffolds called the
an ultra-modern carpet design, but it's neither. It is actually a model cytoskeleton provides the cytoplasm and the cell with structure. The
of the interior of a cell. It's an artist's representation of what you cytoskeleton consists of thread-like filaments and tubules that criss-
might see if you could take a peek inside one of these basic cross the cytoplasm. You can see these filaments and tubules in the
building blocks of living things. A cell's interior is obviously a cells in Figure 5.5.2. As its name suggests, the cytoskeleton is like a
crowded and busy space. It contains cytoplasm, dissolved cellular “skeleton.” It helps the cell maintain its shape and also helps to
substances, and many structures; and it's a hive of countless hold cell structures such as organelles in place within the cytoplasm.
biochemical activities all going on at once.

Figure 5.5.2 : Cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton gives the cell an internal

structure, like the frame of a house. In this photograph, actin filaments
Figure 5.5.1 : Picture of cytosol, showing microtubules (light blue), and tubules of the cytoskeleton are green and red, respectively. The
actin filaments (dark blue), ribosomes (yellow and purple), soluble blue dots are cell nuclei. (Public Domain; National Institute of Health
proteins (light blue), kinesin (red), small molecules (white) and (NIH) via Wikicommons)
RNA (pink). (Public Domain; TimVickers via Wikimedia
Commons). The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is made up of a network of long, thin
protein fibers. These threadlike proteins continually rebuild to adapt to
CYTOPLASM the cell's constantly changing needs. Three main kinds of cytoskeleton
fibers are microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments
The cytoplasm is a thick, usually colorless solution that fills each cell
(Table 5.5.1).
and is enclosed by the cell membrane. Cytoplasm presses against the
cell membrane, filling out the cell and giving it its shape. Sometimes Microtubules are the thickest of the cytoskeleton structures. They
cytoplasm acts like a watery solution and sometimes it takes on a more are most commonly made of filaments which are polymers of alpha
gel-like consistency. In eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm includes all of and beta-tubulin and radiate outwards from an area near the nucleus
the material inside the cell but outside the nucleus, which contains its called the centrosome. Two forms of tubulin form dimers (pairs)
own watery substance called nucleoplasm. All of the organelles in which come together to form the hollow cylinders. The cylinders
eukaryotic cells, such as the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria, are twisted around each other to form the microtubules.
are located in the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm helps to keep them in Microtubules help the cell keep its shape. They hold organelles in
place. It is also the site of most metabolic activities in the cell, and it place and allow them to move around the cell, and they form the
allows materials to pass easily throughout the cell. mitotic spindle during cell division. Microtubules also make up
parts of cilia and flagella, the organelles that help a cell move.
The portion of the cytoplasm surrounding organelles is called cytosol,
Microfilaments are made of two thin actin chains that are twisted
which is the liquid part of the cytoplasm. It is composed of about 80
around one another. Microfilaments are mostly concentrated just
percent water and also contains dissolved salts, fatty acids, sugars,
beneath the cell membrane, where they support the cell and help the
amino acids, and proteins such as enzymes. These dissolved substances
cell keep its shape. Microfilaments form cytoplasmatic extensions,
are needed to keep the cell alive and carry out metabolic processes. For
such as microvilli and pseudopodia, which allow certain cells to
example, enzymes dissolved in cytosol break down larger molecules
move. The actin and myosin protein interact to cause a contraction
into smaller products that can then be used by organelles of the cell.
in muscle cells. Microfilaments are found in almost every cell and
Waste products are also dissolved in the cytosol before they are taken
are numerous in muscle cells and in cells that move by changing
in by vacuoles or expelled from the cell.
shape, such as phagocytes (white blood cells that search the body
Though prokaryotic cells do not have organelles (they do have for bacteria and other invaders).
ribosomes), they still have cytoplasm. It is within the cytoplasm that Intermediate filaments (IF) differ in make-up from one cell type
most cellular activities occur, including the many metabolic pathways to another. The IF may be composed of vimentin, keratin, desmin,
that occur within organelles, such as photosynthesis and aerobic or lamin. Each cell type can have a unique combination of IFs. For
respiration. example, intermediate filaments made of keratin are found in skin,
hair, and nail cells. IFs organize the inside structure of the cell by
CYTOSKELETON holding organelles and providing strength. They are also structural

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 components of the nuclear envelope. Intermediate filaments made SUMMARY
of the protein keratin are found in skin, hair, and nail cells. The cytoplasm is a thick solution that fills a cell and is enclosed by
Table 5.5.1 : Cytoskeleton Structure the cell membrane. It has many functions. It helps give the cell
Microtubules Intermediate Filaments Microfilaments shape, holds organelles, and provides a site for many of the
Fiber
About 25 nm 8 to 11 nm Around 7 nm biochemical reactions inside the cell.
Diameter The liquid part of the cytoplasm is called cytosol. It is mainly water
One of the different
Tubulin with two and contains many dissolved substances. The cytoplasm of a
Protein types of proteins such as
subunits, alpha, Actin eukaryotic cell also contains a membrane-enclosed nucleus and
Composition lamin, vimentin, desmin,
and beta-tubulin
and keratin other organelles.
Hollow cylinders The cytoskeleton is a cellular "skeleton" that crisscrosses the
made of two cytoplasm. Three main cytoskeleton fibers are microtubules,
Protein fiber coils Two actin chains twisted
Shape protein chains
twisted into each other around one another intermediate filaments, and microfilaments.
twisted around
each other Microtubules are the thickest of the cytoskeleton structures and are
Organelle and Organize cell shape; most commonly made of filaments which are polymers of alpha and
Keep cellular shape; allows
vesicle positions organelles in
movement of certain cells
beta-tubulin.
movement; form cytoplasm structural Microfilament is the thinnest of the cytoskeleton structures and is
by forming cytoplasmatic
Main mitotic spindles support of the nuclear
Functions during cell envelope and
extensions or contraction of made of two thin actin chains that are twisted around one another.
actin fibers; involved in
reproduction; sarcomeres; involved in
some cell-to-cell or cell-to-
cell motility (in cell-to-cell and cell-to-
matrix junctions
REVIEW
cilia and flagella) matrix junctions
1. Describe the composition of cytoplasm.
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS 2. What are some of the functions of cytoplasm?
3. Outline the structure and functions of the cytoskeleton.
News about an important study of the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells
4. Is the cytoplasm made of cells? Why or why not?
appeared early in 2016. Researchers in Dresden, Germany
5. Name two types of cytoskeletal structures.
discovered that when cells are deprived of adequate nutrients, they
6. True or False. The cytoplasm is usually green.
may essentially shut down and become dormant. Specifically, when
7. True or False. The nucleus of a cell is filled with cytoplasm.
cells do not get enough nutrients, they shut down their metabolism,
8. In Figure 5.5.2 of the different cytoskeletal structures above
their energy level drops, and the pH of their cytoplasm decreases.
(shown in red and green), what do you notice about these different
Their normally liquid cytoplasm also assumes a solid state. The
structures?
cells appear dead and as though a kind of rigor mortis has set in.
9. Describe one example of a metabolic process that occurs in the
The researchers think that these changes protect the sensitive
cytosol.
structures inside the cells and allow the cells to survive difficult
10. In eukaryotic cells, all of the material inside of the cell but outside
conditions. If nutrients are returned to the cells, they can emerge
of the nucleus is called the ___________.
from their dormant state unharmed. They will continue to grow and
11. What is the liquid part of the cytoplasm called?
multiply when conditions improve.
12. What chemical substance makes up most of the cytosol?
This important basic science research was carried out on a
13. When yeast cells deprived of nutrients go dormant, their cytoplasm
nonhuman organism: one-celled fungi called yeasts. Nonetheless, it
assumes a solid-state. What effect do you think a solid cytoplasm
may have important implications for humans because yeasts have
would have on normal cellular processes? Explain your answer.
eukaryotic cells with many of the same structures as human cells.
14. What is the difference between cytoplasm and cytosol?
Yeast cells appear to be able to "trick" death by shutting down all
15. Name the three main parts of the cytoskeleton.
life processes in a controlled way. Researchers hope to learn with
16. List two functions of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton
the continued research on whether human cells can be taught this
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5.6: CELL ORGANELLES
RIBOSOME REVIEW
This image represents an important structure in living cells. It is a
component of a ribosome, the cell structure where proteins are
synthesized. Large ribosomal subunit (50S) of Haloarcula
marismortui, facing the 30S subunit. The ribosomal proteins are
shown in blue, the rRNA in ochre (a shade of brown and yellow),
the active site in red. All living cells contain ribosomes, whether
they are prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells. However, only eukaryotic
cells also contain a nucleus and several other types of organelles.

Figure 5.6.2 : This closeup of a cell nucleus shows that it is surrounded

by a structure called the nuclear envelope, which contains tiny
perforations, or pores. The nucleus also contains a dense center called
the nucleolus. (CC BY 3.0; Blausen.com staff via Wikipedia)
As you can see from the model in Figure 5.6.2, the membrane
enclosing the nucleus is called the nuclear envelope. This is actually a
double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and isolates its
contents from the cellular cytoplasm. Tiny holes, called nuclear pores,
allow large molecules to pass through the nuclear envelope with the
help of special proteins. Large proteins and RNA molecules must be
able to pass through the nuclear envelope so proteins can be
Figure 5.6.1 : ( CC BY-SA 3.0; Yikrazuul via Wikimedia.org) synthesized in the cytoplasm and the genetic material can be
An organelle is a structure within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell maintained inside the nucleus. The nucleolus shown in the model
that is enclosed within a membrane and performs a specific job. below is mainly involved in the assembly of ribosomes. After being
Organelles are involved in many vital cell functions. Organelles in produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm
animal cells include the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, where they are involved in the synthesis of proteins.
Golgi apparatus, vesicles, and vacuoles. Ribosomes are not enclosed
within a membrane but are still commonly referred to as organelles in
MITOCHONDRIA
eukaryotic cells. The mitochondrion (plural, mitochondria) is an organelle that makes
energy available to the cell (Figure 5.6.3). This is why mitochondria
THE NUCLEUS are sometimes referred to as the power plants of the cell. They use
energy from organic compounds such as glucose to make molecules of
The nucleus is the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell and is
ATP (adenosine triphosphate), an energy-carrying molecule that is
considered to be the cell’s control center. It contains most of the cell’s
used almost universally inside cells for energy.
DNA, which makes up chromosomes and is encoded with the genetic
instructions for making proteins. The function of the nucleus is to Scientists think that mitochondria were once free-living organisms
regulate gene expression, including controlling which proteins the cell because they contain their own DNA. They theorize that ancient
makes. In addition to DNA, the nucleus contains a thick liquid called prokaryotes infected (or were engulfed by) larger prokaryotic cells, and
nucleoplasm that is similar in composition to the cytosol found in the the two organisms evolved a symbiotic relationship that benefited both
cytoplasm outside the nucleus (Figure 5.6.2). Most eukaryotic cells of them. The larger cells provided the smaller prokaryotes with a place
contain just a single nucleus, but some types of cells, such as red blood to live. In return, the larger cells got extra energy from the smaller
cells, contain no nucleus. A few other types of cells, such as muscle prokaryotes. Eventually, the smaller prokaryotes became permanent
cells, contain multiple nuclei. guests of the larger cells, as organelles inside them. This theory is
called the endosymbiotic theory, and it is widely accepted by
biologists today

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 different functions in each. The SER is made up of tubules and
vesicles that branch out to form a network. In some cells, there are
dilated areas like the sacs of RER. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
and RER form an interconnected network.

Figure 5.6.3 : Mitochondria, organelles specialized to carry out aerobic

respiration, contain an inner membrane folded into cristae, which form
two separate compartments: the inner membrane space and the matrix.
The Krebs Cycle takes place in the matrix. The electron transport chain
is embedded in the inner membrane and uses both compartments to
make ATP by chemiosmosis. Mitochondria have their own DNA and
ribosomes, resembling those of prokaryotic organisms. (Public domain;
Mariana Ruiz Villarreal LadyofHats via Wikimedia.org)

MITOCHONDRIAL COMPARTMENTS Figure 5.6.4 : The ER is a winding network of thin membranous sacs
found in close association with the cell nucleus. The smooth and rough
The double membrane nature of the mitochondria results in five endoplasmic reticula are very different in appearance and function
distinct compartments, each with an important role in cellular (source: mouse tissue). (b) Rough ER is studded with numerous
respiration. These compartments are: ribosomes, which are sites of protein synthesis (source: mouse tissue).
EM × 110,000. (c) Smooth ER synthesizes phospholipids, steroid
1. the outer mitochondrial membrane, hormones, regulates the concentration of cellular Ca2+, metabolizes
2. the intermembrane space (the space between the outer and inner some carbohydrates, and breaks down certain toxins. (CC BY 4.0;
membranes), OpenStax via Wikimedia.org)
3. the inner mitochondrial membrane,
4. the cristae (formed by infoldings of the inner membrane), and
GOLGI APPARATUS
5. the matrix (space within the inner membrane). The Golgi apparatus is a large organelle that processes proteins and
prepares them for use both inside and outside the cell (Figure 5.6.5). It
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM was identified in 1898 by the Italian physician Camillo Golgi. The
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (plural, reticuli) is a network of Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages different substances for
phospholipid membranes that form hollow tubes, flattened sheets, and secretion out of the cell, or for use within the cell. The Golgi apparatus
round sacs. These flattened, hollow folds and sacs are called cisternae. is found close to the nucleus of the cell where it modifies proteins that
The ER has two major functions: have been delivered in transport vesicles from the Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum. It is also involved in the transport of lipids around the cell.
Transport: Molecules, such as proteins, can move from place to
Pieces of the Golgi membrane pinch off to form vesicles that transport
place inside the ER, much like on an intracellular highway.
molecules around the cell. The Golgi apparatus can be thought of as
Synthesis: Ribosomes that are attached to the ER, similar to
similar to a post office; it packages and labels "items" and then sends
unattached ribosomes, make proteins. Lipids are also produced in
them to different parts of the cell. The Golgi apparatus tends to be
the ER.
larger and more numerous in cells that synthesize and secrete large
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum, rough endoplasmic quantities of materials; for example, the plasma B cells and the
reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER): antibody-secreting cells of the immune system have prominent Golgi
Rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with ribosomes, which complexes.
gives it a “rough” appearance. These ribosomes make proteins that
are then transported from the ER in small sacs called transport
vesicles. The transport vesicles pinch off the ends of the ER. The
rough endoplasmic reticulum works with the Golgi apparatus to
move new proteins to their proper destinations in the cell. The
membrane of the RER is continuous with the outer layer of the
nuclear envelope.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have any ribosomes
attached to it, and so it has a smooth appearance. SER has many
different functions, some of which include lipid synthesis, calcium
ion storage, and drug detoxification. The smooth endoplasmic
reticulum is found in both animal and plant cells and it serves

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 CENTRIOLES
Centrioles are organelles involved in cell division. The function of
centrioles is to help organize the chromosomes before cell division
occurs so that each daughter cell has the correct number of
chromosomes after the cell divides. Centrioles are found only in animal
cells and are located near the nucleus. Each centriole is made mainly of
a protein named tubulin. The centriole is cylindrical in shape and
consists of many microtubules, as shown in the model pictured below.

Figure 5.6.6 : Centrioles are tiny cylinders near the nucleus, enlarged
here to show their tubular structure. ( CC BY 3.0; BruceBlaus via
Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 5.6.5 : The Golgi apparatus manipulates products from the
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and also produces new organelles RIBOSOMES
called lysosomes. Proteins and other products of the ER are sent to the
Ribosomes are small structures where proteins are made. Although
Golgi apparatus, which organizes, modifies, packages, and tags them.
Some of these products are transported to other areas of the cell and they are not enclosed within a membrane, they are frequently
some are exported from the cell through exocytosis. Enzymatic considered organelles. Each ribosome is formed of two subunits, like
proteins are packaged as new lysosomes (CC BY 3.0; OpenStax via the one pictured at the top of this section. Both subunits consist of
Wikimedia.org) proteins and RNA. RNA from the nucleus carries the genetic code,
The stack of cisternae has four functional regions: the cis-Golgi copied from DNA, which remains in the nucleus. At the ribosome, the
network, medial-Golgi, endo-Golgi, and trans-Golgi network. Vesicles genetic code in RNA is used to assemble and join together amino acids
from the ER fuse with the network and subsequently progress through to make proteins. Ribosomes can be found alone or in groups within
the stack from the cis- to the trans-Golgi network, where they are the cytoplasm as well as on the RER.
packaged and sent to their destination. Each cisterna includes special
Golgi enzymes which modify or help to modify proteins that travel SUMMARY
through it. Proteins may be modified by the addition of a carbohydrate An organelle is a structure within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell
group (glycosylation) or phosphate group (phosphorylation). These that is enclosed within a membrane and performs a specific job.
modifications may form a signal sequence on the protein, which Although ribosomes are not enclosed within a membrane, they are
determines the final destination of the protein. For example, the still commonly referred to as organelles in eukaryotic cells.
addition of mannose-6-phosphate signals the protein for lysosomes.
The nucleus is the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell and is
considered to be the cell's control center. It controls gene
VESICLES AND VACUOLES
expression, including controlling which proteins the cell makes.
Both vesicles and vacuoles are sac-like organelles that store and
The mitochondrion (plural, mitochondria) is an organelle that
transport materials in the cell. Vesicles are much smaller than vacuoles
makes energy available to the cells. It is like the power plant of the
and have a variety of functions. The vesicles that pinch off from the
cell. According to the widely accepted endosymbiotic theory,
membranes of the ER and Golgi apparatus store and transport protein
mitochondria evolved from prokaryotic cells that were once free-
and lipid molecules. You can see an example of this type of transport
living organisms that infected or were engulfed by larger
vesicle in the figure above. Some vesicles are used as chambers for
prokaryotic cells.
biochemical reactions. Other vesicles include:
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle that helps make
Lysosomes, which use enzymes to break down foreign matter and and transport proteins and lipids. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
dead cells. (RER) is studded with ribosomes. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Peroxisomes, which use oxygen to break down poisons. (SER) has no ribosomes.
Transport vesicles, transport contents between organelle as well as The Golgi apparatus is a large organelle that processes proteins and
between cell exterior and interior. prepares them for use both inside and outside the cell. It is also

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 involved in the transport of lipids around the cell.The Golgi Explain how the nucleus, ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum,
apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages different substances for and Golgi apparatus work together to make and transport proteins.
secretion out of the cell, or for use within the cell. 4. Why are mitochondria referred to as the power plants of the cell?
Both vesicles and vacuoles are sac-like organelles that may be used 5. What roles are played by vesicles and vacuoles?
to store and transport materials in the cell or as chambers for 6. Why do all cells need ribosomes, even prokaryotic cells that lack a
biochemical reactions. Lysosomes and peroxisomes are vesicles nucleus and other cell organelles?
that break down foreign matter, dead cells, or poisons. 7. Explain endosymbiotic theory as it relates to mitochondria. What is
Centrioles are organelles located near the nucleus that help organize one piece of evidence that supports this theory?
the chromosomes before cell division so each daughter cell receives 8. Lysosomes and peroxisomes are types of:
the correct number of chromosomes. A. Organelles
Ribosomes are small structures where proteins are made. They are
B. Vesicles
found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. They may be found
alone or in groups within the cytoplasm or on the RER. C. Vacuoles
D. Both A and B
REVIEW 9. Which of the following organelles fits best with each description of
1. Define organelle. function? Choose only one organelle for each answer.
2. Describe the structure and function of the nucleus. Golgi apparatus, centrioles, nucleolus, nucleus, rough endoplasmic
3. reticulum
a. Contains the genetic instructions for the production of proteins
b. Organizes chromosomes before cell division
c. Provides a framework for ribosomes
d. Packages and labels proteins
e. Assembles ribosomes
10. True or False. All eukaryotic cells have a nucleus.
11. True or False. The outer surface of the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell
is not completely solid.

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5.7: CELL TRANSPORT
LETTING IN THE LIGHT
Look at the big windows and glass doors in this house. Imagine all
the light they must let in on a sunny day. Now imagine living in a
house that has walls without any windows or doors. Nothing could
enter or leave. Or imagine living in a house with holes in the walls
instead of windows and doors. Things could enter or leave, but you
couldn’t control what came in or went out. Only if a house has
walls with windows and doors that can be opened or closed you can
control what enters or leaves. For example, windows and doors
allow you to let in light and the family dog and keep out rain and
bugs.

Figure 5.7.2: The Cell Transport Concept Map illustrates various types
of cell transports that happen at the plasma membrane (CC BY-NC 3.0;
Mandeep Grewal; PowerPoint)

SIMPLE DIFFUSION
Diffusion Although you may not know what diffusion is, you have
Figure 5.7.1. (CC BY 2.0; Moyan Brenn via Wikimedia experienced the process. Can you remember walking into the front
Commons). door of your home and smelling a pleasant aroma coming from the
kitchen? It was the diffusion of particles from the kitchen to the front
TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANES door of the house that allowed you to detect the odors. Diffusion is
defined as the net movement of particles from an area of greater
If a cell were a house, the plasma membrane would be walls with
concentration to an area of lesser concentration.
windows and doors. Moving things in and out of the cell is an
important role of the plasma membrane. It controls everything that
enters and leaves the cell. There are two basic ways that substances can
cross the plasma membrane: passive transport, which requires no
energy; and active transport, which requires energy. Passive transport is
explained in this section and Active transport is explained in the next
section, Active Transport and Homeostasis. Various types of cell
transport are summarized in the concept map in Figure 5.7.2.

TRANSPORT WITHOUT ENERGY

Passive transport occurs when substances cross the plasma membrane
without any input of energy from the cell. No energy is needed because
the substances are moving from an area where they have a higher
concentration to an area where they have a lower concentration. Water
solutions are very important in biology. When water is mixed with
Figure 5.7.3 . Simple diffusion, the movement of particles from an area
other molecules this mixture is called a solution. Water is the solvent where their concentration is high to an area that has low concentration.
and the dissolved substance is the solute. A solution is characterized by one of the different ways in which molecules move in cells. (Public
the solute. For example, water and sugar would be characterized as a domain; LadyofHats Mariana Ruiz Villarreal via Wikipedia.org;)
sugar solution. More the particles of a solute in a given volume, the The molecules in a gas, a liquid, or a solid are in constant motion due
higher the concentration. The particles of solute always move from an to their kinetic energy. Molecules are in constant movement and collide
area where it is more concentrated to an area where it is less with each other. These collisions cause the molecules to move in
concentrated. It’s a little like a ball rolling down a hill. It goes by itself random directions. Over time, however, more molecules will be
without any input of extra energy. propelled into the less concentrated area. Thus, the net movement of
There are two types of passive transport, including simple molecules is always from more tightly packed areas to less tightly
diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion. Each type is described packed areas. Many things can diffuse. Odors diffuse through the air,
next. salt diffuses through water and nutrients diffuse from the blood to the

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body tissues. This spread of particles through the random motion from Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic
an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration is
known as diffusion. This unequal distribution of molecules is called a
concentration gradient. Once the molecules become uniformly
distributed, a dynamic equilibrium exists. The equilibrium is said to be
dynamic because molecules continue to move, but despite this change,
there is no net change in concentration over time. Both living and
nonliving systems experience the process of diffusion. In living
systems, diffusion is responsible for the movement of a large number H2O
of substances, such as gases and small uncharged molecules, into and H2O H2O
H2O
out of cells.
Figure 5.7.5 : Osmosis demonstration with Red Blood cells places in a
OSMOSIS hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic solution. (public domain;
Osmosis is a specific type of diffusion; it is the passage of water from LadyofHats via Wikimedia.org)
a region of high water concentration through a semi-permeable
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
membrane to a region of low water concentration. Water moves in or
Water and many other substances cannot simply diffuse across a
out of a cell until its concentration is the same on both sides of the
membrane. Hydrophilic molecules, charged ions, and relatively large
plasma membrane.
molecules such as glucose all need help with diffusion. The help comes
Semi-permeable membranes are very thin layers of material that
from special proteins in the membrane known as transport proteins.
allow some things to pass through them but prevent other things from
Diffusion with the help of transport proteins is called facilitated
passing through. Cell membranes are an example of semi-permeable
diffusion. There are several types of transport proteins, including
membranes. Cell membranes allow small molecules such as oxygen,
channel proteins and carrier proteins (Figure 5.7.6)
water carbon dioxide, and oxygen to pass through but do not allow
Channel proteins form pores, or tiny holes, in the membrane. This
larger molecules like glucose, sucrose, proteins, and starch to enter the
allows water molecules and small ions to pass through the
cell directly.
membrane without coming into contact with the hydrophobic tails
of the lipid molecules in the interior of the membrane.
Carrier proteins bind with specific ions or molecules, and in doing
so, they change shape. As carrier proteins change shape, they carry
the ions or molecules across the membrane.

Figure 5.7.4 : Osmosis through the semi-permeable membrane of the

cells. (CC BY 4.0; OpenStax via Wikimedia.org).
The classic example used to demonstrate osmosis and osmotic pressure
is to immerse red blood cells into sugar solutions of various Figure 5.7.6 : Facilitated Diffusion Across a Cell Membrane. Channel
concentrations. There are three possible relationships that cells can proteins and carrier proteins help substances diffuse across a cell
encounter when placed into a sugar solution. membrane. In this diagram, the channel and carrier proteins are helping
substances move into the cell (from the extracellular space to the
1. The concentration of solute in the solution can be equal to the intracellular space). (Public domain; LadyofHats via Wikimedia
concentration of solute in cells. In this situation, the cell is in an Commons)
isotonic solution (iso = equal or the same as normal). A red blood
cell will retain its normal shape in this environment as the amount SUMMARY
of water entering the cell is the same as the amount leaving the cell. Controlling the movement of things in and out of the cell is an
2. The concentration of solute in the solution can be greater than the important role of the plasma membrane. There are two basic ways
concentration of solute in the cells. This cell is described as being that substances can cross the plasma membrane: passive transport,
in a hypertonic solution (hyper = greater than normal). In this which requires no energy; and active transport, which requires
situation, the red blood cell will appear to shrink as the water flows energy.
out of the cell and into the surrounding environment. No energy is needed for passive transport because it occurs when
3. The concentration of solute in the solution can be less than the substances move naturally from an area of higher concentration to
concentration of solute in the cells. This cell is in a hypotonic an area of lower concentration.
solution (hypo = less than normal). A red blood cell in this Simple diffusion is the movement of a substance due to differences
environment will become visibly swollen and potentially rupture as in concentration without any help from other molecules. This is
water rushes into the cell. how very small, hydrophobic molecules, such as oxygen and
carbon dioxide, enter and leave the cell.

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 Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a membrane. b. Assuming that there are glucose transport proteins in the cell
Water moves in or out of a cell by osmosis until its concentration is membrane, which way would glucose flow – into or out of the cell?
the same on both sides of the plasma membrane. Explain your answer.
Facilitated diffusion is the movement of a substance across a c. If the concentration of glucose was equal inside and outside of
membrane due to differences in concentration but only occurs with the cell, do you think there would be a net flow of glucose across
the help of transport proteins, such as channel proteins or carrier the cell membrane in one direction or the other? Explain your
proteins, in the membrane. This is how large or hydrophilic answer.
molecules and charged ions enter and leave the cell.
7. What are the similarities and differences between channel proteins
and carrier proteins?
REVIEW
8. True or False. Only active transport, not passive transport, involves
1. What is the main difference between passive and active transport?
transport proteins.
2. Summarize three different ways that passive transport can occur,
and give an example of a substance that is transported in each way. 9. True or False. Oxygen and carbon dioxide can squeeze between the
3. Explain how transport across the plasma membrane is related to the lipid molecules in the plasma membrane.
homeostasis of the cell. 10. True or False. Ions easily diffuse across the cell membrane by
4. Why can generally only very small, hydrophobic molecules across simple diffusion.
the cell membrane by simple diffusion? 11. Controlling what enters and leaves the cell is an important function
5. Explain how facilitated diffusion assists in osmosis in cells. Be sure of the:
to define osmosis and facilitated diffusion in your answer.
A. nucleus
6. Imagine a hypothetical cell with a higher concentration of glucose
inside the cell than outside. Answer the following questions about B. vesicle
this cell, assuming all transport across the membrane is passive, not C. plasma membrane
active. D. Golgi apparatus
a. Can the glucose simply diffuse across the cell membrane? Why
or why not? EXPLORE MORE
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5.8: ACTIVE TRANSPORT AND HOMEOSTASIS
LIKE PUSHING A HUMVEE UPHILL shows in greater detail how the sodium-potassium pump works and the
You can tell by their faces that these airmen are expending a lot of specific roles played by carrier proteins in this process.
energy trying to push this Humvee up a slope. The men are
participating in a competition that tests their brute strength against
that of other teams. The Humvee weighs about 13,000 pounds, so it
takes every ounce of energy they can muster to move it uphill
against the force of gravity. Transport of some substances across a
plasma membrane is a little like pushing a Humvee uphill — it can't
be done without adding energy.

Figure 5.8.2 : The sodium-potassium pump. The sodium-potassium

pump moves sodium ions (Na ) out of the cell and potassium ions (K
+

+
) into the cell. First, three sodium ions bind with a carrier protein in
the cell membrane. Then, the carrier protein receives a phosphate group
from ATP. When ATP loses a phosphate group, energy is released. The
carrier protein changes shape, and as it does, it pumps the three sodium
ions out of the cell. At that point, two potassium ions bind to the carrier
protein. The process is reversed, and the potassium ions are pumped
into the cell. (Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (Public domain; LadyofHats via
Wikimedia Commons)
To appreciate the importance of the sodium-potassium pump, you need
to know more about the roles of sodium and potassium in the body.
Both are essential dietary minerals, meaning you have to obtain them
Figure 5.8.1 : (Public domain; Collin Schmidt via Wikimedia
Commons) in the foods you eat. Both sodium and potassium are also electrolytes,
meaning that they dissociate into ions (charged particles) in solution,
WHAT IS ACTIVE TRANSPORT? which allows them to conduct electricity. Normal body functions
require a very narrow range of concentrations of sodium and potassium
Some substances can pass into or out of a cell across the plasma
ions in body fluids, both inside and outside of cells.
membrane without any energy required because they are moving from
an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. This Sodium is the principal ion in the fluid outside of cells. Normal
type of transport is called passive transport as you learned in the last sodium concentrations are about 10 times higher outside than inside
section. Other substances require energy to cross a plasma membrane of cells.
often because they are moving from an area of lower concentration to Potassium is the principal ion in the fluid inside of cells. Normal
an area of higher concentration. This type of transport is called active potassium concentrations are about 30 times higher inside than
transport. The energy for active transport comes from the energy- outside of cells.
carrying molecule called ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Active These differences in concentration create an electrical gradient across
transport may also require transport proteins, such as carrier proteins, the cell membrane, called the membrane potential. the secondary
which are embedded in the plasma membrane. Two types of active active transport describes the movement of material using the energy
transport are pump and vesicle transport. of the electrochemical gradient established by the primary active
tansport. Using the energy of the electrochemical gradient created by
PUMP
the primary active transport system, other substances such as amino
Two pump mechanisms (primary and secondary active transports) exist acids and glucose can be brought into the cell through membrane
for the transport of small-molecular weight material and channels. ATP itself is formed through secondary active transport using
macromolecules. The primary active transport moves ions across a a hydrogen ion gradient in the mitochondrion. Tightly controlling the
membrane and creates a difference in charge across that membrane. membrane potential is critical for vital body functions, including the
The primary active transport system uses ATP to move a substance, transmission of nerve impulses and the contraction of muscles. A large
such as an ion, into the cell, and often at the same time, a second percentage of the body's energy goes to maintaining this potential
substance is moved out of the cell. The sodium-potassium pump is a across the membranes of its trillions of cells with the sodium-
mechanism of active transport that moves sodium ions out of the cell potassium pump.
and potassium ions into the cells — in all the trillions of cells in the
body! Both ions are moved from areas of lower to higher VESICLE TRANSPORT
concentration, so energy is needed for this "uphill" process. The energy Some molecules, such as proteins, are too large to pass through the
is provided by ATP. The sodium-potassium pump also requires carrier plasma membrane, regardless of their concentration inside and outside
proteins. Carrier proteins bind with specific ions or molecules, and in the cell. Very large molecules cross the plasma membrane with a
doing so, they change shape. As carrier proteins change shape, they different sort of help, called vesicle transport. Vesicle transport
carry the ions or molecules across the membrane. The figure below requires energy, so it is also a form of active transport. There are

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two types of vesicle transport: endocytosis and exocytosis. Both types
are shown in the figure below.
ENDOCYTOSIS

Figure 5.8.4 : Exocytosis is much like endocytosis in reverse. Material

Figure 5.8.3. The image illustrates three types of Endocytosis cell
destined for export is packaged into a vesicle inside the cell. The
transport: Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis, and Receptor-mediated membrane of the vesicle fuses with the cell membrane, and the
endocytosis. Endocytosis is a process whereby cells absorb material contents are released into the extracellular space. (CC BY 4.0;
(molecules such as proteins) from the outside by engulfing it with their OpenStax via Wikimedia.org )
cell membrane. It is used by all cells of the body because most Exocytosis is a type of vesicle transport that moves a substance out of
substances important to them are polar and consist of big molecules, the cell. A vesicle containing the substance moves through the
and thus cannot pass through the hydrophobic plasma membrane. cytoplasm to the cell membrane. Then, the vesicle membrane fuses
(Public domain; Mariana Ruiz Villarreal LadyofHats via with the cell membrane, and the substance is released outside the cell.
Wikimedia.org)
Endocytosis is a type of vesicle transport that moves a substance into
HOMEOSTASIS AND CELL FUNCTION
the cell. The plasma membrane completely engulfs the substance, a For a cell to function normally, a stable state must be maintained inside
vesicle pinches off from the membrane, and the vesicle carries the the cell. For example, the concentration of salts, nutrients, and other
substance into the cell. When an entire cell or other solid particle is substances must be kept within a certain range. The process of
engulfed, the process is called phagocytosis. When fluid is engulfed, maintaining stable conditions inside a cell (or an entire organism) is
the process is called pinocytosis. When the content is taken in homeostasis. Homeostasis requires constant adjustments because
specifically with the help of receptors on the plasma membrane, it is conditions are always changing both inside and outside the cell. The
called receptor-mediated endocytosis. processes described in this and previous lessons play important roles in
homeostasis. By moving substances into and out of cells, they keep
A targeted variation of endocytosis employs binding proteins in the
conditions within normal ranges inside the cells and the organism as a
plasma membrane that are specific for certain substances. The particles
whole.
bind to the proteins and the plasma membrane invaginates, bringing the
substance and the proteins into the cell. If passage across the FEATURE:FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY
membrane of the target of receptor-mediated endocytosis is Maintaining the proper balance of sodium and potassium in body
ineffective, it will not be removed from the tissue fluids or blood. fluids by active transport is necessary for life itself, so it's no
Instead, it will stay in those fluids and increase in concentration. Some surprise that getting the right balance of sodium and potassium in
human diseases are caused by a failure of receptor-mediated the diet is important for good health. Imbalances may increase the
endocytosis. For example, the form of cholesterol termed low-density risk of high blood pressure, heart disease, diabetes, and other
lipoprotein or LDL (also referred to as “bad” cholesterol) is removed disorders.
from the blood by receptor-mediated endocytosis. In the human genetic If you are like the majority of Americans, sodium and potassium
disease familial hypercholesterolemia, the LDL receptors are defective are out of balance in your diet. You are likely to consume too much
or missing entirely. People with this condition have life-threatening sodium and too little potassium. Follow these guidelines to help
levels of cholesterol in their blood, because their cells cannot clear the ensure that these minerals are in balance in the foods you eat:
chemical from their blood. Total sodium intake should be less than 2300 mg/day. Most salt
EXOCYTOSIS in the diet is found in processed foods or added with a salt
shaker. Stop adding salt and start checking food labels for
sodium content. Foods considered low in sodium have less than
140 mg/serving (or 5% daily value).
Total potassium intake should be 4700 mg/day. It's easy to add
potassium to the diet by choosing the right foods, and there are
plenty of choices. Most fruits and vegetables are high in
potassium, but especially potatoes, bananas, oranges, apricots,
plums, leafy greens, tomatoes, lima beans, and avocado. Other
foods with substantial amounts of potassium are fish, meat,
poultry, and whole grains.

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SUMMARY What do you think this does to the sodium and potassium balance in
Active transport requires energy to move substances across a cells? Explain your answer.
plasma membrane, often because the substances are moving from 8. True or False. The sodium-potassium pump uses one protein to
an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration or pump both sodium and potassium.
because of their large size. Two types of active transport are the 9. True or False. Vesicles are made of the nuclear membrane.
sodium-potassium pump and vesicle transport.
10. An electrical gradient across the cell membrane is called a
The sodium-potassium pump is a mechanism of active transport
_____________________.
that moves sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the
11. Chemical signaling molecules called neurotransmitters are released
cell, both against a concentration gradient, in order to maintain the
from nerve cells (neurons) through vesicles. This is an example of:
proper concentrations of both ions inside and outside the cell and to
thereby control membrane potential. A. Pinocytosis
Vesicle transport is a type of active transport that uses vesicles to B. Phagocytosis
move large molecules into or out of cells. C. Endocytosis
D. Exocytosis
REVIEW
1. Define active transport. 12. The energy for active transport comes from
2. What is the sodium-potassium pump? Why is it so important? A. ATP
3. Name two types of vesicle transport. Which type moves substances B. RNA
out of the cell? C. Carrier proteins
4. What are the similarities and differences between phagocytosis and
D. Sodium ions
pinocytosis?
5. The sodium-potassium pump is a: 13. Transport proteins that move substances into and out of a cell are
located in the ________________ .
A. Phospholipid
B. Protein ATTRIBUTIONS
C. Carbohydrate Some text is adapted from Concepts of Biology. Authored by: Open
D. Ion Stax. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/b3c1e1d2-839c-42b0-a314-
e119a8aafbdd@8.10:1/Concepts_of_Biology. License: CC BY:
6. What is the functional significance of the shape change of the carrier
Attribution
protein in the sodium-potassium pump after the sodium ions bind?
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5.9: CELLULAR RESPIRATION
BRING ON THE S'MORES! monophosphate and phosphate, releasing additional energy. As with
This inviting campfire can be used for both heat and light. Heat and ADT "recharged" to ATP, AMP can be recharged to ADP.
light are two forms of energy that are released when a fuel like How much energy does it cost to do your body’s work? A single cell
wood is burned. The cells of living things also get energy by uses about 10 million ATP molecules per second and recycles all of its
"burning." They "burn" glucose in the process called cellular ATP molecules about every 20-30 seconds.
respiration.

Figure 5.9.2 : Chemical structure of ATP. When the covalent bond

between the terminal phosphate group and the middle phosphate group
breaks, energy is released which is used by the cells to do work.
(Public domain; Mysid via Wikipedia)

WHAT IS CELLULAR RESPIRATION?

Figure 5.9.1 : Burning logs that convert carbon in wood into carbon Some organisms can make their own food, whereas others cannot. An
dioxide and a significant amount of thermal energy (Public domain;
autotroph is an organism that can produce its own food. The Greek
Jon Sullivan via Wikipedia)
roots of the word autotroph mean “self” (auto) “feeder” (troph). Plants
Inside every cell of all living things, energy is needed to carry out life are the best-known autotrophs, but others exist, including certain types
processes. Energy is required to break down and build up molecules of bacteria and algae. Oceanic algae contribute enormous quantities of
and to transport many molecules across plasma membranes. All of food and oxygen to global food chains. Plants are also
life’s work needs energy. A lot of energy is also simply lost to the photoautotrophs, a type of autotroph that uses sunlight and carbon
environment as heat. The story of life is a story of energy flow — its from carbon dioxide to synthesize chemical energy in the form of
capture, its change of form, its use for work, and its loss as heat. carbohydrates. Heterotrophs are organisms incapable of
Energy, unlike matter, cannot be recycled, so organisms require a photosynthesis that must therefore obtain energy and carbon from food
constant input of energy. Life runs on chemical energy. Where do by consuming other organisms. The Greek roots of the
living organisms get this chemical energy? word heterotroph mean “other” (hetero) “feeder” (troph), meaning that
their food comes from other organisms. Even if the food organism is
WHERE DO ORGANISMS GET ENERGY FROM? another animal, this food traces its origins back to autotrophs and the
The chemical energy that organisms need comes from food. Food process of photosynthesis. Humans are heterotrophs, as are all animals.
consists of organic molecules that store energy in their chemical bonds. Heterotrophs depend on autotrophs, either directly or indirectly.
Glucose is a simple carbohydrate with the chemical formula C H O . 6
Cellular respiration is the process by which individual cells break
12 6

It stores chemical energy in a concentrated, stable form. In your body, down food molecules, such as glucose and release energy. The process
glucose is the form of energy that is carried in your blood and taken upis similar to burning, although it doesn’t produce light or intense heat
by each of your trillions of cells. Cells do cellular respiration to extract
as a campfire does. This is because cellular respiration releases the
energy from the bonds of glucose and other food molecules. Cells can energy in glucose slowly, in many small steps. It uses the energy that is
store the extracted energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). released to form molecules of ATP, the energy-carrying molecules that
cells use to power biochemical processes. Cellular respiration involves
WHAT IS ATP? many chemical reactions, but they can all be summed up with this
Let’s take a closer look at a molecule of ATP. Although it carries less chemical equation:
energy than glucose, its structure is more complex. “A” in ATP refers
to the majority of the molecule – adenosine – a combination of a C H O + 6 O ⟶ 6 CO + 6 H O + Energy
6 12 6 2 2 2

nitrogenous base and a five-carbon sugar. “T” and “P” indicate the where the energy that is released is in chemical energy in ATP (vs.
three phosphates, linked by bonds which hold the energy actually used thermal energy as heat). The equation above shows that glucose (
by cells. Usually, only the outermost bond breaks to release or spend C H O ) and oxygen (O ) react to form carbon dioxide (CO ) and
6 12 6 2 2
energy for cellular work. water H O , releasing energy in the process. Because oxygen is
2

An ATP molecule, shown in the figure below, is like a rechargeable required for cellular respiration, it is an aerobic process.
battery: its energy can be used by the cell when it breaks apart into Cellular respiration occurs in the cells of all living things, both
ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and phosphate, and then the “worn-out autotrophs and heterotrophs. All of them catabolize glucose to form
battery” ADP can be recharged using new energy to attach a new ATP. The reactions of cellular respiration can be grouped into three
phosphate and rebuild ATP. The materials are recyclable, but recall that main stages and an intermediate stage: glycolysis, Transformation of
energy is not! ADP can be further reduced to AMP (adenosine

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pyruvate, the Krebs cycle (also called the citric acid cycle), and molecules of pyruvate (also known as pyruvic acid). This occurs in
Oxidative Phosphorylation. Figure 5.9.3 gives an overview of these several steps, as shown in the following diagram.
three stages, which are also described in detail below.
RESULTS OF GLYCOLYSIS
Energy is needed at the start of glycolysis to split the glucose molecule
into two pyruvate molecules. These two molecules go on to stage II of
cellular respiration. The energy to split glucose is provided by two
molecules of ATP. As glycolysis proceeds, energy is released, and the
energy is used to make four molecules of ATP. As a result, there is a
net gain of two ATP molecules during glycolysis. high-energy
electrons are also transferred to energy-carrying molecules called
electron carriers through the process
known as reduction. The electron carrier of glycolysis is NAD+
(nicotinamide adenine diphosphate). Electrons are transferred to
2 NAD+ to produce two molecules of NADH. The energy stored in
NADH is used in stage III of cellular respiration to make more ATP. At
the end of glycolysis, the following has been produced:
• 2 molecules of NADH
• 2 molecules of ATP

KREBS CYCLE
In eukaryotic cells, the pyruvate molecules produced at the end of
glycolysis are transported into mitochondria, which are sites of cellular
respiration. If oxygen is available, aerobic respiration will go forward.
In mitochondria, pyruvate will be transformed into a two-carbon acetyl
group (by removing a molecule of carbon dioxide) that will be picked
up by a carrier compound called coenzyme A (CoA), which is made
Figure 5.9.3 : Cellular respiration takes place in the stages shown here. from vitamin B5. The resulting compound is called acetyl CoA and its
The process begins with a molecule of glucose, which has six carbon production is frequently called the oxidation or the Transformation of
atoms. What happens to each of these atoms of carbon? (CC BY 3.0;
OpenStax College via Wikimedia.org) Pyruvate (see Figure 5.9.5. Acetyl CoA can be used in a variety of
ways by the cell, but its major function is to deliver the acetyl group
GLYCOLYSIS derived from pyruvate to the next pathway step, the Krebs cycle.
The first stage of cellular respiration is glycolysis. It takes place in the
cytosol of the cytoplasm.

Figure 5.9.5 : Pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA before entering the

Krebs Cycle (citric acid cycle). (CC BY 3.0 via lumenlearning)
Before you read about the last two stages of cellular respiration, you
need to review the structure of the mitochondrion, where these two
stages take place. As you can see from Figure 5.9.6, a mitochondrion
has an inner and outer membrane. The space between the inner and
outer membrane is called the intermembrane space. The space enclosed
by the inner membrane is called the matrix. The second stage of
cellular respiration, the Krebs cycle, takes place in the matrix. The
third stage, electron transport, takes place on the inner membrane.

Figure 5.9.4 : In glycolysis, a glucose molecule is converted into two

pyruvate molecules. (CC BY 3.0 via lumenlearning )

SPLITTING GLUCOSE
The word glycolysis means “glucose splitting,” which is exactly what
happens in this stage. Enzymes split a molecule of glucose into two

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 with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, which is released as a waste
product. High-energy electrons are also released and captured in
NADH.

STEPS OF THE KREBS CYCLE

The Krebs cycle itself actually begins when acetyl-CoA combines with
a four-carbon molecule called OAA (oxaloacetate). This produces
citric acid, which has six carbon atoms. This is why the Krebs cycle is
also called the citric acid cycle. After citric acid forms, it goes through
a series of reactions that release energy. This energy is captured in
molecules of ATP and electron carriers. The Krebs cycle has two types
of energy-carrying electron carriers: NAD+ and FAD. The transfer of
electrons to FAD during the Kreb’s Cycle produces a molecule of
Figure 5.9.6 : The structure of a mitochondrion is defined by an inner
and outer membrane. (Public Domain; Mariana Ruiz Villarreal via FADH2. Carbon dioxide is also released as a waste product of these
Wikipedia) reactions. The final step of the Krebs cycle regenerates OAA, the
Recall that glycolysis produces two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic molecule that began the Krebs cycle. This molecule is needed for the
acid). These molecules enter the matrix of a mitochondrion, where they next turn through the cycle. Two turns are needed because glycolysis
start the Krebs cycle. The reactions that occur next are shown in the produces two pyruvate molecules when it splits glucose.
following figure.
RESULTS OF THE KREBS CYCLE
After the second turn through the Krebs cycle, the original glucose
molecule has been broken down completely. All six of its carbon atoms
have combined with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The energy from
its chemical bonds has been stored in a total of 16 energy-carrier
molecules. These molecules are:
2 ATP
8 NADH
2 FADH 2

6 CO : 2 CO from Transformation of Acetyl CoA and 4 CO

2 2 2

from Krebs cycle.

OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
Oxidative phosphorylation is the final stage of aerobic cellular
respiration. There are two substages of oxidative phosphorylation,
Electron transport chain and Chemiosmosis. In these stages, energy
from NADH and FADH2, which result from the previous stages of
cellular respiration, is used to create ATP.

Outer membrane

ATP
Synthase
NADH

ATP Citric
Figure 5.9.7: In the citric acid cycle, the acetyl group from acetyl CoA acid
is attached to a four-carbon oxaloacetate molecule to form a six-carbon Matrix cycle

citrate molecule. Through a series of steps, citrate is oxidized, releasing

Succinate
two carbon dioxide molecules for each acetyl group fed into the cycle. Fumarate

In the process, three NAD+ molecules are reduced to NADH, one FAD Inner membrane

molecule is reduced to FADH2, and one ATP or GTP (depending on the

cell type) is produced (by substrate-level phosphorylation). Because the
final product of the citric acid cycle is also the first reactant, the cycle Intermembrane space
runs continuously in the presence of sufficient reactants. (CC BY 3.0;
Openstax college via Wikimedia.org)
Figure 5.9.8 : Oxidative Phosphorylation: Electron Transport chain and
Before the Krebs cycle begins, pyruvate, which has three carbon atoms, Chemiosmosis. (Public domain; Fvasconcellos via Wikimedia)
is split apart and combined with an enzyme known as CoA, which
stands for coenzyme A. The product of this reaction is a two-carbon ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
molecule called acetyl-CoA. The third carbon from pyruvate combines During this stage, high-energy electrons are released from NADH and
FADH2, and they move along electron-transport chains found in the

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inner membrane of the mitochondrion. An electron-transport chain is a acetyl-coA and one molecule of carbon dioxide. A molecule of
series of molecules that transfer electrons from molecule to molecule NADH is also produced for every pyruvate.
by chemical reactions. These molecules are found making up the three The second major stage of cellular respiration, known as the Krebs
complexes of the electron transport chain (complexes, I, III, and IV) cycle, also occurs in the mitochondrial matrix. During this stage,
and an accessory complex (complex II). As electrons flow through two turns of the cycle produce 4 molecules of carbon dioxide (from
these molecules, some of the energy from the electrons is used to pump the carbon atoms of the two acetyl Co-A molecules). A total of 2
hydrogen ions (H+) across the inner membrane, from the matrix into ATP and 8 energy-carrying electron carriers (6 NADH and 2
the intermembrane space. This ion transfer creates an electrochemical FADH2) are also produced.
gradient that drives the synthesis of ATP. The third and final stage of cellular respiration, called oxidative
phosphorylation, takes place on the inner membrane of the
CHEMIOSMOSIS mitochondrion. Electrons from the electron carriers (NADH and
The pumping of hydrogen ions across the inner membrane creates a FADH2) are transported from molecule to molecule down the
greater concentration of these ions in the intermembrane space than in complex of proteins called the electron-transport chain. Some of the
the matrix – producing an electrochemical gradient. This gradient energy from the electrons is used to pump hydrogen ions across the
causes the ions to flow back across the membrane into the matrix, membrane, creating an electrochemical gradient that drives the
where their concentration is lower. The flow of these ions occurs synthesis of many more molecules of ATP.
through a protein complex, known as the ATP synthase complex. The In all three stages of cellular respiration combined, as many as 36
ATP synthase acts as a channel protein, helping the hydrogen ions molecules of ATP are produced from just one molecule of glucose.
across the membrane. It also acts as an enzyme, forming ATP from
ADP and inorganic phosphate. It is the flow of hydrogen ions through REVIEW
ATP synthase that gives the energy for ATP synthesis. After passing 1. What is the purpose of cellular respiration? Provide a concise
through the electron-transport chain, the low-energy electrons combine summary of the process.
with oxygen to form water. 2. Draw and explain the structure of ATP (Adenosine Tri-Phosphate).
3. State what happens during glycolysis.
HOW MUCH ATP? 4. Describe the structure of a mitochondrion.
You have seen how the three stages of aerobic respiration use the 5. Outline the steps of the Krebs cycle.
energy in glucose to make ATP. How much ATP is produced in all 6. What happens during the electron transport stage of cellular
three stages combined? Glycolysis produces 2 ATP molecules, and the respiration?
Krebs cycle produces 2 more. Electron transport from the molecules of 7. How many molecules of ATP can be produced from one molecule
NADH and FADH2 made from glycolysis, the transformation of of glucose during all three stages of cellular respiration combined?
pyruvate, and the Krebs cycle creates as many as 32 more ATP 8. Do plants undergo cellular respiration? Why or why not?
molecules. Therefore, a total of up to 36 molecules of ATP can 9. Explain why the process of cellular respiration described in this
be made from just one molecule of glucose in the process of cellular section is considered aerobic.
respiration. 10. Name three energy-carrying molecules involved in cellular
respiration.
SUMMARY 11. Energy is stored within chemical _________ within a glucose
Cellular respiration is the aerobic process by which living cells molecule.
break down glucose molecules, release energy, and form molecules 12. True or False. During cellular respiration, NADH and ATP are used
of ATP. Overall, this three-stage process involves glucose and to make glucose.
oxygen reacting to form carbon dioxide and water. 13. True or False. ATP synthase acts as both an enzyme and a channel
The first stage of cellular respiration, called glycolysis, takes place protein.
in the cytoplasm. In this step, enzymes split a molecule of glucose 14. True or False. The carbons from glucose end up in ATP molecules
into two molecules of pyruvate. The energy released from these at the end of cellular respiration.
reactions produces 2 molecules of ATP and 2 molecules of NADH. 15. Which stage of aerobic cellular respiration produces the most ATP?
The organelle called a mitochondrion is the site of the other two
stages of cellular respiration. The mitochondrion has an inner and ATTRIBUTIONS
outer membrane separated by an intermembrane space, and the Some text is adapted from Concepts of Biology. Authored by: Open
inner membrane encloses a space called the matrix. Stax. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/b3c1e1d2-839c-42b0-a314-
The intermediate stage of cellular respiration, called the e119a8aafbdd@8.10:1/Concepts_of_Biology. License: CC BY:
transformation of pyruvate, takes place in the matrix of a Attribution
mitochondrion. During this stage, each pyruvate is converted into
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5.10: FERMENTATION
FAST AND FURIOUS oxidative phosphorylation). During glycolysis, two NAD+ electron
The muscles of this sprinter will need a lot of energy to complete carriers are reduced to two NADH molecules and 2 net ATPs are
their short race because they will be running at top speed. The produced. The NADH must be oxidized back so that glycolysis can
action won't last long, but it will be very intense. The energy the continue and cells can continue making 2 ATPs. The cells cannot make
sprinter needs can't be provided quickly enough by aerobic cellular more than 2 ATP in fermentation because oxidative
respiration. Instead, a different process must be used by phosphorylation does not happen due to a lack of oxygen. There are
their muscle cells to power their activity. two types of fermentation, called alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid
fermentation. While our cells can only perform lactic acid
fermentation, we make use of both types of fermentation using other
organisms, but only lactic acid fermentation actually takes place inside
the human body.

ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION
Alcoholic fermentation The process by which this happens is
summarized in Figure 5.10.2. The two pyruvate molecules are shown
in this diagram come from the splitting of glucose through glycolysis.
This process also produces 2 molecules of ATP. Continued breakdown
of pyruvate produces acetaldehyde, carbon dioxide, and eventually
ethanol. Alcoholic fermentation requires the electrons from NADH and
results in the generation of NAD+.

Figure 5.10.1 (CC BY 2.0; tableatny via Wikimedia Commons) Yeasts in bread dough also use alcoholic fermentation for energy and
produce carbon dioxide gas as a waste product. The carbon dioxide that
is released causes bubbles in the dough and explains why the dough
MAKING ATP WITHOUT OXYGEN
rises. Do you see the small holes in the bread pictured below? The
The cells of living things power their activities with the energy-
holes were formed by bubbles of carbon dioxide gas.
carrying molecule ATP (adenosine triphosphate). The cells of most
living things make ATP from glucose in the process of cellular
respiration. This process occurs in three major stages one intermediate
stage: glycolysis, oxidation of pyruvate, the Krebs cycle, and electron
transport. The latter two stages require oxygen, making cellular
respiration an anaerobic process. There are also other ways of making
ATP from glucose without oxygen, such as anaerobic respiration
and fermentation, of making ATP from glucose without oxygen. Our
cells do not perform anaerobic respiration. Therefore, will only focus
on fermentation in this section.

Figure 5.10.3 : Holes from carbon dioxide gas in bread dough are left
behind after the bread bakes. (Public domain; Daniel Sone via
Wikimedia Commons)

LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION

Lactic acid fermentation is carried out by certain bacteria, including
the bacteria in yogurt. It is also carried out by your muscle cells when
you work them hard and fast. This is how the muscles of the sprinter
pictured above get energy for their short-duration but intense activity.
The process by which this happens is summarized in Figure 5.10.2.
Again, two pyruvate and two ATP molecules result from glycolysis.
Figure 5.10.2 . The picture shows Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration. Reduction of pyruvate using the electrons carried by NADH produces
There are two types of Anaerobic respiration, Alcoholic and lactic acid.
Alcoholic fermentation produces ethanol and NAD+. The NAD+ allows lactate (i.e. lactic acid). While this is similar to alcoholic fermentation,
glycolysis to continue making ATP. Lactic acid fermentation produces note that there is no carbon dioxide produced in this process.
lactic acid and NAD+. The NAD+ cycles back to allow glycolysis to
Did you ever run a race, lift heavy weights, or participate in some other
continue so more ATP is made. Each circle represents a carbon atom.
(CC BY-SA 3.0; Vtvu via Wikimedia.org) intense activity and notice that your muscles start to feel a burning
sensation? This may occur when your muscle cells use lactic acid
FERMENTATION fermentation to provide ATP for energy. The buildup of lactic acid in
Fermentation starts with glycolysis, but it does not involve the latter the muscles causes the feeling of burning. The painful sensation is
two stages of aerobic cellular respiration (the Krebs cycle and useful if it gets you to stop overworking your muscles and allow them
a recovery period during which cells can eliminate the lactic acid.

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PROS AND CONS OF ANAEROBIC allows muscles, for example, to get the energy they need for short
RESPIRATION bursts of intense activity.
With oxygen, organisms can use aerobic cellular respiration to produce
REVIEW
up to 36 molecules of ATP from just one molecule of glucose. Without
oxygen, organisms must use anaerobic respiration to produce ATP, and 1. State the main difference between aerobic cellular respiration and
this process produces only two molecules of ATP per molecule of anaerobic respiration.
glucose. Although anaerobic respiration produces less ATP, it has the 2. What is fermentation?
advantage of doing so very quickly. It allows your muscles, for 3. Compare and contrast alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation.
example, to get the energy they need for short bursts of intense activity. 4. Identify the major pro and the major con of anaerobic respiration
Aerobic cellular respiration, in contrast, produces ATP more slowly. relative to aerobic cellular respiration.
5. a. What process is shared between aerobic cellular respiration and
FEATURE: MYTH VS. REALITY
anaerobic respiration? Describe the process briefly.
Myth: lactic acid build-up can cause muscle fatigue and a burning
b. Why is this process able to occur in anaerobic respiration as well
sensation in muscles. The soreness is thought to be due to
as aerobic respiration?
microscopic damage to the muscle fibers.
6. Which type of respiration occurs in the human body?
Reality: The statement about lactic acid causing the burn in the
muscle has no solid experimental proof. Alternate hypotheses A. Aerobic cellular respiration
suggest that through the production of lactic acid, the internal pH of B. Alcoholic fermentation
the muscle decreases, triggering contraction in muscle due to the C. Lactic acid fermentation
activation of motor neurons.
D. Both A and C
7. True or False. Lactic acid fermentation produces carbon dioxide.
SUMMARY
8. True or False. Types of bacteria can carry out alcoholic
The cells of most living things produce ATP from glucose by
fermentation and lactic acid fermentation.
aerobic cellular respiration, which uses oxygen. Some organisms
can also or instead produce ATP from glucose by anaerobic 9. True or False. No ATP is produced by fermentation.
respiration, which does not require oxygen. 10. Both lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation use
One way of making ATP without oxygen is fermentation. There are _________ acid molecules to make their final products.
two types of fermentation: alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid 11. Which type of respiration is used in the making of bread and wine?
fermentation. Both start with glycolysis, the first and anaerobic
A. Alcoholic fermentation
stage of cellular respiration, in which two molecules of ATP are
produced from one molecule of glucose. B. Lactic acid fermentation
Alcoholic fermentation is carried out by single-celled organisms C. Aerobic cellular respiration
including yeasts and some bacteria. We use alcoholic fermentation D. Prokaryotic respiration
in these organisms to make biofuels, bread, and wine. 12. Fermentation is a form of ___________ respiration.
Lactic acid fermentation is undertaken by certain bacteria,
13. What is the reactant, or starting material, shared by aerobic
including the bacteria in yogurt, and also by our muscle cells when
respiration and both types of fermentation?
they are worked hard and fast.
Anaerobic respiration produces far less ATP than does aerobic
EXPLORE MORE
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5.11: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: TIRED AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
prokaryotic organisms that were once free-living, but then infected or
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: MORE THAN JUST were engulfed by larger cells. One of the pieces of evidence that
TIRED supports this endosymbiotic theory is that mitochondria have their
Jasmin discovered that her extreme fatigue, muscle pain, vision own, separate DNA. When the mitochondrial DNA is damaged or
problems, and vomiting were due to problems in her mitochondria. mutated, it can result in some types of mitochondrial diseases.
Mitochondria are small membrane-bound organelles found in However, these mutations do not typically affect all of the
eukaryotic cells that provide energy for the cells of the body. They do mitochondria in a cell. During cell division, organelles such as
this by carrying out the final two steps of aerobic cellular respiration, mitochondria are replicated and passed down to the new daughter cells.
the Krebs cycle, and electron transport, which is the major way that the If some of the mitochondria are damaged, and others are not, the
human body breaks down the sugar glucose from food into a form of daughter cells can have different amounts of damaged mitochondria.
energy cells can use, namely the molecule ATP. This helps explain the wide range of symptoms in people with
mitochondrial diseases, even ones in the same family because different
cells in their bodies are affected to different extents. Jasmin’s niece was
affected strongly and her symptoms were noticed early, while Jasmin’s
symptoms were milder and did not become apparent until adulthood.
There is still much more that needs to be discovered about the different
types of mitochondrial diseases. But by learning about cells, their
organelles, how they obtain energy, and how they divide, you should
now have a better understanding of the biology behind these diseases.
Apply your understanding of cells to your own life — can you think of
other diseases that affect cellular structures or functions, maybe that
even affect people you know? Since your entire body is made of cells,
when they are damaged or not functioning properly it can cause a wide
variety of health problems.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this chapter, you learned many facts about cells. Specifically, you
learned that:
Figure 5.11.1: (CC0; Kelvinsong via Wikimedia.org)
Cells are the basic units of structure and function of living things.
Because mitochondria provide energy for cells, you can probably The first cells, from cork, were observed by Hooke in the 1600s.
easily see why Jasmin was experiencing extreme fatigue, particularly Soon after, van Leeuwenhoek observed other living cells.
after running. Her damaged mitochondria could not keep up with In the early 1800s, Schwann and Schleiden theorized that cells are
her need for energy, particularly after intense exercise which requires a the basic building blocks of all living things. Around 1850,
lot of additional energy. What is perhaps not so obvious are the reasons Virchow saw cells dividing and added that living cells arise only
for her other symptoms, such as blurry vision, muscle spasms, and from other living cells. These ideas led to cell theory, which states
vomiting. But all the cells in the body require energy in order to that all organisms are made of cells, all life functions occur in cells,
function properly. Mitochondrial diseases can cause problems in and all cells come from other cells.
mitochondria in any cell of the body, including muscle cells and cells The invention of the electron microscope in the 1950s allowed
of the nervous system, which includes the brain and nerves. The scientists to see organelles and other structures inside cells for the
nervous system and muscles work together to control vision and first time.
digestive system functions, such as vomiting, so when they are not There is variation in cells, but all cells have a plasma membrane,
functioning properly, a variety of symptoms can emerge. This also cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA.
explains why Jasmin’s niece, who also has mitochondrial disease, has
The plasma membrane is composed mainly of a bilayer of
symptoms related to brain function, such as seizures and learning
phospholipid molecules and forms a barrier between the
disabilities. Our cells are microscopic and mitochondria are even tinier,
cytoplasm inside the cell and the environment outside the cell. It
but they are essential for the proper functioning of our bodies and when
allows only certain substances to pass in or out of the cell. Some
they are damaged, serious health effects can occur.
cells have extensions of their plasma membrane with other
A seemingly confusing aspect of mitochondrial diseases is that the type functions, such as flagella or cilia.
of symptoms, severity of symptoms, and age of onset can vary wildly The cytoplasm is a thick solution that fills a cell and is enclosed
between people — even within the same family! In Jasmin’s case, she by the cell membrane. It helps give the cell shape, holds
did not notice symptoms until adulthood, while her niece had more organelles, and provides a site for many of the biochemical
severe symptoms starting at a much younger age. However, this makes reactions inside the cell. The liquid part of the cytoplasm is
sense when you know more about how mitochondrial diseases work. called cytosol.
Inherited mitochondrial diseases can be due to damage in either the Ribosomes are small structures where proteins are made.
DNA in the nucleus of cells or the DNA in the mitochondria
themselves. Recall that mitochondria are thought to have evolved from

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 Cells are usually very small so they have a large enough surface- gradient, in order to maintain the proper concentrations of both
area-to-volume ratio to maintain normal cell processes. Cells with ions inside and outside the cell and to thereby control membrane
different functions often have different shapes. potential.
Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus. Eukaryotic cells have a Vesicle transport uses vesicles to move large molecules into or
nucleus as well as other organelles. An organelle is a structure out of cells.
within the cytoplasm of a cell that is enclosed within a membrane Energy is the ability to do work and is needed by every living cell
and performs a specific job. to carry out life processes.
The cytoskeleton is a highly organized framework of protein The form of energy that living things need is chemical energy, and
filaments and tubules that criss-cross the cytoplasm of a cell. It it comes from food. Food consists of organic molecules that store
gives the cell structure and helps to hold cell structures such as energy in their chemical bonds.
organelles in place. Organisms mainly use glucose and ATP for energy. Glucose is the
The nucleus is the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell and is compact, stable form of energy that is carried in the blood and taken
considered to be the cell's control center. It contains DNA and up by cells. ATP contains less energy and is used to power cellular
controls gene expression, including which proteins the cell makes. processes.
The mitochondrion is an organelle that makes energy available to Cellular respiration is the aerobic process by which living cells
cells. According to the widely accepted endosymbiotic theory, break down glucose molecules, release energy, and form molecules
mitochondria evolved from prokaryotic cells that were once free- of ATP. This process involves Glycolysis, Transformation of
living organisms that infected or were engulfed by larger Pyruvate, Krebs Cycle, and Oxidative phosphorylation. Overall, in
prokaryotic cells. this process, glucose and oxygen react to form carbon dioxide and
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle that helps make water.
and transport proteins and lipids. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
The first stage of cellular respiration, called glycolysis, takes
(RER) is studded with ribosomes. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
place in the cytoplasm. In this step, enzymes split a molecule of
(SER) has no ribosomes.
glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, which releases energy
The Golgi apparatus is a large organelle that processes proteins and
that is transferred to ATP.
prepares them for use both inside and outside the cell. It is also
Pyruvate is transformed to Acetyl CoA in the intermediate
involved in the transport of lipids around the cell.
stage
Vesicles and vacuoles are sac-like organelles that may be used to
The second major stage of cellular respiration, called the Krebs
store and transport materials in the cell or as chambers for
cycle, takes place in the matrix of a mitochondrion. During this
biochemical reactions. Lysosomes and peroxisomes are vesicles
stage, two turns through the cycle result in all of the carbon
that break down foreign matter, dead cells, or poisons.
atoms from the two pyruvate molecules forming carbon dioxide
Centrioles are organelles located near the nucleus that help organize
and the energy from their chemical bonds being stored in a total
the chromosomes before cell division so each daughter cell receives
of 16 energy-carrying molecules (including 4 from glycolysis).
the correct number of chromosomes.
The third stage of cellular respiration, Oxidative
There are two basic ways that substances can cross the cell’s
Phosphorylation, takes place on the inner membrane of the
plasma membrane: passive transport, which requires no energy; and
mitochondrion. Electrons are transported from molecule to
active transport, which requires energy.
molecule down an electron-transport chain. Some of the energy
No energy is needed for passive transport because it occurs when
from the electrons is used to pump hydrogen ions across the
substances move naturally from an area of higher concentration to
membrane, creating an electrochemical gradient that drives the
an area of lower concentration. Types of passive transport in cells
synthesis of many more molecules of ATP.
include:
In all three stages of aerobic cellular respiration combined, as
Simple diffusion, which is the movement of a substance due to many as 36 molecules of ATP are produced from just one
differences in concentration without any help from other molecule of glucose.
molecules. This is how very small, hydrophobic molecules, such Some organisms can produce ATP from glucose by anaerobic
as oxygen and carbon dioxide, enter and leave the cell. respiration, which does not require oxygen. Many human cells
Osmosis, which is the diffusion of water molecules across the perform fermentation that also does not require oxygen. It is
membrane. performed to recycle NADH back into NAD+. There are two types:
Facilitated diffusion, which is the movement of a substance alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation. Both start with
across a membrane due to differences in concentration but only glycolysis.
with the help of transport proteins in the membrane, such as
Alcoholic fermentation is carried out by single-celled organisms
channel proteins or carrier proteins. This is how large or
including yeasts and some bacteria. We use alcoholic
hydrophilic molecules and charged ions enter and leave the cell.
fermentation in these organisms to make biofuels, bread, and
Active transport requires energy to move substances across the wine.
plasma membrane, often because the substances are moving from Lactic acid fermentation is undertaken by certain bacteria,
an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration or including the bacteria in yogurt, and also by our muscle cells
because of their large size. Two examples of active transport are the when they are worked hard and fast.
sodium-potassium pump and vesicle transport. Anaerobic respiration produces far less ATP than does aerobic
The sodium-potassium pump moves sodium ions out of the cell cellular respiration, but it has the advantage of being much
and potassium ions into the cell, both against a concentration faster.

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CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW 5. True or False. Anaerobic and aerobic cellular respiration both
1. For the following questions, choose whether the description applies produce ATP.
to eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cells, or both. 6. True or False. The cell membrane can also be called the plasma
membrane.
A. Has a nuclear membrane
7. True or False. Each phospholipid molecule in the cell membrane
B. Has a plasma membrane made of a phospholipid bilayer
has two heads and a tail.
C. Can be in a multicellular organism
8. True or False. For cells, a smaller size is generally more efficient.
D. Has ribosomes
9. True or False. DNA is located in the nucleus of prokaryotic cells.
E. Has an endoplasmic reticulum
10. True or False. Cilia and flagella stick out of the cell membrane but
F. Its DNA replicates before cell division
are not made of cell membrane themselves.
G. Has a single circular chromosome
11. Which statement about the cell membrane is false?
H. Has cytoplasm that splits into two daughter cells during cell
division A. It encloses the cytoplasm
I. Has a cell cycle that includes interphase and mitosis B. It protects and supports the cell
J. The type of cell that most likely evolved to become C. It keeps all external substances out of the cell
mitochondria D. None of the above
2. Name one example of a prokaryotic organism and one example of a 12. During diffusion, substances move from an area of X?
eukaryotic organism. concentration to an area of Y? concentration.
3. Neurons are cells in the nervous system that transmit messages. A. higher, lower
They use energy to maintain the balance of sodium and potassium B. lower, higher
ions inside and outside of them, which is critical for their ability to C. higher, equal
send messages. D. lower, equal
A. What kind of transport is this maintenance of sodium and 13. Which process produces glucose?
potassium ion concentrations – active or passive? Explain your A. Anaerobic respiration
reasoning. B. Aerobic cellular respiration
B. What creates the barrier between the inside and the outside of C. Photosynthesis
these cells? D. Fermentation
C. What molecule uses energy to maintain the balance of sodium 14. Which type of respiration involves electron transport?
and potassium ions inside and outside of neurons? Describe two
A. Where does this electron transport occur within the cell?
reasons why such a molecule is required.
B. Energy from electron transport is used to pump hydrogen ions
D. What form of energy is used in this process?
across a membrane. Is this active or passive transport of
E. Briefly explain how the energy in the food you eat gets there
hydrogen ions? Explain your answer.
and provides energy for your neurons in the form necessary to
C. After the process described in part B, hydrogen ions then flow
power this process.
from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
4. Explain why the inside of the plasma membrane, the side that faces concentration. Is this active or passive transport of hydrogen
the cytoplasm of the cell, must be hydrophilic. ions? Explain your answer.

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
6: DNA AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
This chapter contains information on DNA discovery, the central dogma of biology, DNA
replication, transcription, and how proteins are synthesized through the process of translation.
Additionally, the chapter highlights gene regulation. This chapter also discusses the types of
mutations and their causes. The other topics of this chapter include biotechnology and the Human
Genome Project.

6.1: CASE STUDY: WHY DO WE NEED TO SEQUENCE EVERYBODY'S GENOME?

Pharmacogenomics is based on a special kind of genetic testing. It looks for small genetic
variations that influence a person's ability to activate and deactivate drugs. Results of the tests can
help doctors choose the best drug and most effective dose for a given patient. Many drugs need to
be activated by the patient's own enzymes, and inherited variations in enzymes may affect how quickly or efficiently this happens.

6.2: DNA AND RNA

This young person has naturally red hair. Why is this hair red instead of some other color? And, in general, what causes specific traits
to occur? There is a molecule in human beings and most other living things that is largely responsible for their traits. The molecule is
large and has a spiral structure in eukaryotes. What molecule is it? With these hints, you probably know that the molecule is DNA.

6.3: CHROMOSOMES AND GENES

Chromosomes are coiled structures made of DNA and proteins. Chromosomes are encoded with genetic instructions for making
proteins. These instructions are organized into units called genes. Most genes contain the instructions for a single protein. There may
be hundreds or even thousands of genes on a single chromosome.

6.4: PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Your DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, contains the genes that determine who you are. How can this organic molecule control your
characteristics? DNA contains instructions for all the proteins your body makes. Proteins, in turn, determine the structure and function
of all your cells. What determines a protein's structure? It begins with the sequence of amino acids that make up the protein.
Instructions for making proteins with the correct sequence of amino acids are encoded in DNA.

6.5: GENETIC CODE

The genetic code consists of the sequence of nitrogen bases in a polynucleotide chain of DNA or RNA. The bases are adenine (A),
cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T) (or uracil, U, in RNA). The four bases make up the "letters" of the genetic code. The
letters are combined in groups of three to form code "words," called codons. Each codon stands for (encodes) one amino acid, unless
it codes for a start or stop signal. There are 20 common amino acids in proteins.

6.6: MUTATIONS
Mutations are random changes in the sequence of bases in DNA or RNA. The word mutation may make you think of Ninja Turtles,
but that's a misrepresentation of how most mutations work. First of all, everyone has mutations. In fact, most people have dozens or
even hundreds of mutations in their DNA. Secondly, from an evolutionary perspective, mutations are essential. They are needed for
evolution to occur because they are the ultimate source of all new genetic variation in any species.

6.7: REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION

Using a gene to make a protein is called gene expression. It includes the synthesis of the protein by the processes of transcription of
DNA and translation of mRNA. It may also include further processing of the protein after synthesis. Gene expression is regulated to
ensure that the correct proteins are made when and where they are needed. Regulation may occur at any point in the expression of a
gene.

6.8: BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology is the use of technology to change the genetic makeup of living things for human purposes. Generally, the goal of
biotechnology is to modify organisms so they are more useful to humans. For example, biotechnology may be used to create crops
that yield more food or resist insect pests or viruses, such as the virus-resistant potatoes pictured above. Research is also underway to
use biotechnology to cure human genetic disorders with gene therapy.

6.9: THE HUMAN GENOME

The human genome refers to all the DNA of the human species. Human DNA consists of 3.3 billion base pairs and is divided into
more than 20,000 genes on 23 pairs of chromosomes. The human genome also includes noncoding sequences (e.g. intergenic region)
of DNA.

1 4/25/2021
6.10: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: PARMACOGENOMICS AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
Arya asked their doctor about Pharmacogenomics. The doctor explains to Arya that Pharmacogenomics is the tailoring of drug
treatments to people's genetic makeup, a form of 'personalized medicine'.

2 4/25/2021
6.1: CASE STUDY: WHY DO WE NEED TO SEQUENCE EVERYBODY'S
GENOME?
activate and deactivate drugs. Results of the tests can help doctors
CASE STUDY: PHARMACOGENOMICS, A choose the best drug and most effective dose for a given patient. Many
PERSONALIZED MEDICINE drugs need to be activated by the patient’s own enzymes, and inherited
Arya is 50-year-old and morbidly obese. Arya uses gender-neutral variations in enzymes may affect how quickly or efficiently this
pronouns, such as they, them, and their's. They have high blood happens. For example, if a patient’s enzymes break down a particular
pressure and cardiovascular disease. Recently, they lost 10 pounds of drug too slowly, then standard doses of the drug may not work very
weight in a month without trying. They also get thirsty very easily and well for that patient. Drugs also must be deactivated to reduce their
make frequent visits to the restroom. Their doctor diagnosed them with effects on healthy cells. If a patient’s enzymes deactivate a drug too
insulin-dependent type 2 diabetes after some physical and blood tests. slowly, then the drug may remain at high levels and cause side effects.
Type 2 diabetes, also called diabetes mellitus, is a condition in which Arya experienced a high release of insulin due to the variations in
either the beta cells of a person’s pancreas stop secreting insulin due to their genotype.
the high demand of insulin by an overweight person, or the body cells The doctor recommended that Arya goes through genetic testing for a
become insensitive to insulin. Insulin is a hormone that activates all the better treatment plan. One of the main benefits of pharmacogenomics is
cells of the body to uptake glucose from the bloodstream. Cells need greater patient safety. Pharmacogenomic testing may help identify
glucose to acquire energy (ATP) through cellular respiration to perform patients who are likely to experience adverse reactions to drugs so that
various metabolic activities. High levels of blood glucose in the different, safer drugs can be prescribed. Another benefit of
absence of insulin may lead to high blood glucose and eventually may pharmacogenomics is eliminating the trial-and-error approach that is
lead to the symptoms that Arya is experiencing. often used to find appropriate medications and doses for a given
patient. This saves time and money as well as improving patient
outcomes. This is more like a personalized medicine as demonstrated
in the picture above.
Because pharmacogenomics is a new field, some insurance companies
do not cover it, and it can be very expensive. Also, not all of the
genetic tests are yet widely available. In addition, there may be ethical
and legal issues associated with genetic testing, including concerns
about privacy issues. Because Arya is concerned, they have many
questions for their doctor.
In order to understand personalized medicine, we need to know what
genes do, how they interact, and learn all the differences in DNA
between people. As you read this chapter, think about how an
Figure 6.1.1 : Personalized Medicine is the long tail of Health Care (CC
understanding of the human genome and genetics is essential for
BY 2.0; Mark Scrimshire via Flickr).
discovering how medicines may affect each of us individually.
Arya’s doctor prescribed gliclazide. Gliclazide belongs to the
sulfonylurea category of drugs. Sulfonylureas stimulate the beta cells AS YOU READ THIS CHAPTER, TRY TO
of the pancreas to secrete insulin. Arya started this treatment and ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
experienced an adverse reaction after taking their second dose. They
What is a gene?
experienced feelings of hunger, sweating, shakiness, and weakness a
Enzymes are proteins. How are enzymes synthesized?
few minutes after taking the medication. They called 911. When
What is the relationship between an enzyme and DNA?
they recovered, they went back to their doctor. Their doctor told
Why do people differ genetically?
them that they had experienced hypoglycemia, which is one of the
How are the genes sequenced?
major side effects of sulfonylurea-based medicines. The doctor noted
that due to the other complications that Arya has, such as
CHAPTER OVERVIEW: IN THIS CHAPTER, YOU
cardiovascular disease, gliclazide was the best choice. The doctor
WILL LEARN THE FOLLOWING:
explained that not everyone responds to medications in the same way.
How genes, and their different alleles, are located on chromosomes.
A drug that works well for one person may not be effective for another.
The 23 pairs of human chromosomes, which include autosomal and
The dose of a drug that cures a disease in one individual may be
sex chromosomes.
inadequate for someone else. Some people may experience side effects
How DNA was discovered to be the inherited genetic material.
from a given medication, whereas other people do not. This variation in
The structure of DNA and how DNA replication occurs.
responses to medications can be due to differences in our genes. That’s
The central dogma of molecular biology, which describes how
where the field of pharmacogenetics comes in. News media have hailed
DNA is transcribed into RNA, and then translated into proteins.
it as the "new frontier in medicine." It certainly seems to hold promise
The structure, functions, and possible evolutionary history of RNA.
for improving the pharmaceutical treatment of patients.
How genes code for proteins using codons made of the sequence of
Pharmacogenomics is based on a special kind of genetic testing. It
nitrogen bases within RNA and DNA.
looks for small genetic variations that influence a person’s ability to

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 How proteins are synthesized through the transcription of RNA human health.
from DNA and the translation of protein from RNA, including how How the expression of genes into proteins is regulated and why
RNA and proteins can be modified, and the roles of the different problems in this process can cause diseases such as cancer.
types of RNA. What is Biotechnology and how it is applied?
What mutations are, what causes them, different specific types of What is Pharmacogenomics?
mutations, and the importance of mutations in evolution and to

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6.2: DNA AND RNA
WHAT MAKES YOU...YOU? rough strain
(nonvirulent)
smooth strain
(virulent)
heat-killed
smooth strain
rough strain &
heat-killed
smooth strain
This young person has naturally red hair. Why is this hair red
instead of some other color? And, in general, what causes specific
traits to occur? There is a molecule in human beings and most other
living things that is largely responsible for their traits. The molecule
is large and has a spiral structure in eukaryotes. What molecule is
it? With these hints, you probably know that the molecule is DNA.

mouse lives mouse dies mouse lives mouse dies

Figure 6.2.2 : Griffith's experiment discovering a "transforming

principle" in heat-killed virulent smooth pneumococcus that enables
the transformation of rough non-virulent rough pneumococcal. (CC0;
Madprime via Wikimedia.org)
Figure 6.2.1 : (Public domain; Zoë Cleeren via Wikimedia Based on his observations, Griffith deduced that something in the dead
Commons)
S-strain was transferred to the previously harmless R-strain, making
the R-strain deadly. What was this "something?" What type of
INTRODUCING DNA
substance could change the characteristics of the organism that
Today, it is commonly known that DNA is the genetic material that is received it?
passed from parents to offspring and determines our traits. For a long
time, scientists knew such molecules existed, that is, they were aware AVERY AND HIS COLLEAGUES MAKE A MAJOR
that genetic information is contained within biochemical molecules. CONTRIBUTION
However, they didn’t know which molecules play this role. In fact, for In the early 1940s, a team of scientists led by Oswald Avery tried to
many decades, scientists thought that proteins were the molecules that answer the question raised by Griffith’s research results. First, they
contain genetic information. inactivated various substances in the S-strain bacteria. Then they killed
the S-strain bacteria and mixed the remains with live R-strain bacteria.
DISCOVERY THAT DNA IS THE GENETIC (Keep in mind that the R-strain bacteria normally did not harm the
MATERIAL mice.) When they inactivated proteins, the R-strain was deadly to the
Determining that DNA is the genetic material was an important injected mice. This ruled out proteins as genetic material. Why? Even
milestone in biology. It took many scientists undertaking creative without the S-strain proteins, the R-strain was changed or transformed
experiments over several decades to show with certainty that DNA is into the deadly strain. However, when the researchers inactivated DNA
the molecule that determines the traits of organisms. This research in the S-strain, the R-strain remained harmless. This led to the
began in the early part of the 20th century. conclusion that DNA — and not protein — is the substance that
controls the characteristics of organisms. In other words, DNA is the
GRIFFITH'S EXPERIMENTS WITH MICE genetic material.
The first important discovery was made in the 1920s. An American
scientist named Frederick Griffith was studying mice and two different HERSHEY AND CHASE CONFIRM THE RESULTS
strains of a bacterium called R (rough) strain and S (smooth) strain. He The conclusion that DNA is the genetic material was not widely
injected the two bacterial strains into mice. The S strain was virulent accepted until it was confirmed by additional research. In the 1950s,
and killed the mice, whereas the R strain was not virulent and did not Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase did experiments with viruses and
kill the mice. You can see these details in the diagram below. Griffith bacteria. Viruses are not cells. Instead, they are basically DNA (or
also injected mice with S-strain bacteria that had been killed by heat. RNA) inside a protein coat. To reproduce, a virus must insert its own
As expected, the dead bacteria did not harm the mice. However, when genetic material into a cell (such as a bacterium). Then it uses the cell’s
the dead S-strain bacteria were mixed with live R-strain bacteria and machinery to make more viruses. The researchers used different
injected, the mice died. radioactive elements to label the DNA and proteins in DNA viruses.
This allowed them to identify which molecule the viruses inserted into
bacterial cells. DNA was the molecule they identified. This confirmed
that DNA is the genetic material.

CHARGAFF FOCUSES ON DNA BASES

Erwin Chargaff (1905-2002), an Austrian-American biochemist from
Columbia University, analyzed the base composition of the DNA of

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various species. This led him to propose two main rules that have been
appropriately named Chargaff's rules.

RULE 1
Chargaff determined that in DNA, the amount of one base, a purine,
always approximately equals the amount of a particular second base, a
pyrimidine. Specifically, that in any double-stranded DNA the number
of guanine units equals approximately the number of cytosine units and
the number of adenine units equals approximately the number of
thymine units.
Human DNA is 30.9% A and 29.4% T, 19.9% G and 19.8% C. The
rule constitutes the basis of base pairs in the DNA double helix: A
always pairs with T, and G always pairs with C. He also demonstrated
that the number of purines (A+G) always approximates the number of
pyrimidines (T+C), an obvious consequence of the base-pairing nature
of the DNA double helix.

RULE 2 Figure 6.2.4 : Double helix structure of DNA resembles a twisted

staircase. In this image A. Adenine B. Thymine C. Guanine D.
In 1947 Chargaff showed that the composition of DNA, in terms of the Cytosine 1. Sugar, Phosphate, Backbone 2. Base pair 3. Nitrogenous
relative amounts of the A, C, G, and T bases, varied from one species base. this image also shows the application of 2 rules of Chargaff. (CC
to another. This molecular diversity added to the evidence that DNA BY SA 3.0; MesserWoland via Wikimedia Commons)
could be the genetic material.
The double-helix shape of DNA, together with Chargaff’s rules, led to
a better understanding of DNA. As a nucleic acid, DNA is made from
nucleotide monomers. Long chains of nucleotides form
polynucleotides, and the DNA double helix consists of two
polynucleotide chains. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar
(deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases (adenine,
cytosine, guanine, or thymine). The sugar and phosphate molecules in
adjacent nucleotides bond together and form the "backbone" of each
polynucleotide chain.
Scientists concluded that bonds between the bases hold together the
two polynucleotide chains of DNA. Moreover, adenine always bonds
with thymine, and cytosine always bonds with guanine. That's why
these pairs of bases are called complementary base pairs. If you look
at the nitrogen bases in the figure below, you will see why the bases
bond together only in these pairings. Adenine and guanine have a two-
ring structure, whereas cytosine and thymine have just one ring. If
Figure 6.2.3 : Chemical structure of the four nitrogenous bases in DNA. adenine were to bond with guanine as well as thymine, for example,
Notice how the purines (A and G) are composed of two ring structures, the distance between the two DNA chains would be variable. However,
whereas the pyrimidines (T and C) are composed of one ring structure.
when a one-ring molecule (such as thymine) always bonds with a two-
The DNA of all species has the same four nitrogen bases. The figure
also illustrates that Adenine pairs with Thymine and Guanine pairs ring molecule (such as adenine), the distance between the two chains
with cytosine. (CC BY 3.0; OpenStax College via Wikimedia remains constant. This maintains the uniform shape of the DNA double
Commons) helix. The bonded base pairs (A-T and G-C) stick into the middle of
the double helix, forming, in essence, the steps of the spiral staircase.
DISCOVERY OF THE DOUBLE HELIX
After DNA was shown to be the genetic material, scientists wanted to DNA REPLICATION
learn more about it, including its structure. James Watson and Francis Knowledge of DNA’s structure helped scientists understand how DNA
Crick are usually given credit for discovering that DNA has a double- replicates. DNA replication is the process in which DNA is copied. It
helix shape like a spiral staircase, as shown in the illustrations below. occurs during the synthesis (S) phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle. DNA
In fact, Watson and Crick's discovery of the double helix depended must be copied so that, after cell division occurs, each daughter cell
heavily on the prior work of Rosalind Franklin and other scientists, will have a complete set of chromosomes.
who had used X rays to learn more about DNA’s structure.
DNA replication begins when an enzyme breaks the bonds between
Unfortunately, Franklin and these other scientists have not usually been
complementary bases in the molecule, as shown in the figure below.
given credit for their important contributions to the discovery of the
This exposes the bases inside the molecule so they can be “read” by
double helix.
another enzyme and used to build two new DNA strands with
complementary bases. The two daughter molecules that result each
contain one strand from the parent molecule and one new strand that is

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complementary to it. As a result, the two daughter molecules are both DNA primase
RNA primer
identical to the parent molecule. DNA-ligase
DNA-Polymerase (Polα)

3’
GC
Lagging
C G strand 3’
C G
A T 5’
Okazaki fragment
5’ 5’
GC Leading
T A strand
Topoisomerase
T A
C G 3’
DNA Polymerase (Polδ)
Helicase
A T
G C Single strand,
Binding proteins
A T
GC C
T A T A Figure 6.2.6 : DNA replication. The two DNA strands are opened by
T A T A
C C G
helicase. The strands are held open by a single strand of binding
C proteins, preventing premature reannealing. Topoisomerase solves the
G
A
C G problem caused by the tension generated by the winding/unwinding of
T A
A T
A T DNA. This enzyme wraps around DNA and makes a cut permitting the
A T A T helix to spin and relax. Once DNA is relaxed, topoisomerase
GC reconnects broken strands. DNA primase synthesizes a short RNA
GC
A T
A T primer that initiates the Okazaki fragment and leading strand. Okazaki
T A
G
T A
GC
fragments are attached by DNA ligase. (Public domain; LadyofHats
Mariana Ruiz via Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 6.2.5 : DNA Replication. DNA replication is a semi-
conservative process. Half of the parent DNA molecule is conserved in WHAT IS RNA?
each of the two daughter DNA molecules. THE green DNA strand
represents a brand new DNA strand. (CC0; Madprime via Wikimedia RNA structure differs from the DNA structure in three specific ways.
Commons) Both are nucleic acids and made out of nucleotides; however, RNA is
single-stranded while DNA is double-stranded. RNA nucleotides, like
HELICASE AND POLYMERASE those from DNA, have three parts: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate
DNA replication begins as an enzyme, DNA helicase, breaks the group, and a base. RNA contains the 5-carbon sugar ribose, whereas,
hydrogen bonds holding the two strands together and forms a in DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose. The difference between ribose and
replication fork. The resulting structure has two branching strands of deoxyribose is the lack of a hydroxyl group attached to the pentose ring
DNA backbone with exposed bases. These exposed bases allow the in the 2' position of deoxyribose.
DNA to be “read” by another enzyme, DNA polymerase, which then Table 6.2.1 : comparison of RNA and DNA
builds the complementary DNA strand. As DNA helicase continues to RNA DNA
open the double helix, the replication fork grows. single stranded double stranded
Specific Base contains uracil contains thymine
5'-> 3 Sugar ribose deoxyribose
Two DNA polymerase enzymes work at a Replication fork. This Size relatively small big (chromosomes)
enzyme can only build new DNA in the 3' → 5' direction. It also needs Location moves to cytoplasm stays in nucleus
a primer built by primase to start building DNA. Therefore, the two Types 3 types: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA generally 1 type
new strands, Leading strand and lagging strand, of DNA are “built”
in opposite directions. The leading strand is the DNA strand that DNA Though both RNA and DNA contain the nitrogenous bases adenine,
polymerase constructs in the 5' → 3' direction. This strand of DNA is guanine, and cytosine, RNA contains the nitrogenous base uracil
made in a continuous manner, moving as the replication fork grows. instead of thymine. Uracil pairs with adenine in RNA, just as thymine
The "lagging” strand is synthesized in short segments known as pairs with adenine in DNA. Uracil and thymine have very similar
Okazaki fragments. On the lagging strand, primase builds a short structures; uracil is an unmethylated form of thymine.
RNA primer. DNA polymerase is then able to use the free 3'-OH group The nucleotide sequence of RNA, which is complementary to the DNA
on the RNA primer to make DNA in the 5' → 3' direction till it reaches sequence, allows RNA to encode genetic information. RNA though
to end of the template strand. DNA polymerase of the lagging strand carries the genetic information of just one gene. Hence, compared to
then jumps to go further into the replication fork to make another DNA, RNA molecules are relatively small.
Okazaki fragment. The RNA fragments are then degraded and new
DNA nucleotides are added to fill the gaps where the RNA was
present. Another enzyme, DNA ligase, is then able to attach (ligate) the
DNA nucleotides together, completing the synthesis of the lagging
strand (Figure 6.2.6).

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 Cytosine Cytosine
Nucleobases
REVIEW
1. Outline the discoveries that led to the determination that DNA, and
Guanine Guanine
not protein, is the biochemical molecule that contains genetic
information.
Base pair
2. State Chargaff's rules. Explain how the rules are related to the
Adenine Adenine
structure of the DNA molecule.
3. Explain how the structure of a DNA molecule is like a spiral
Uracil Thymine
staircase. Which parts of the staircase represent the various parts of
the molecule?
helix of
sugar-phosphates 4. Describe the process of DNA replication.
5. When does DNA replication occur, and why is the process said to
Nucleobases Nucleobases
of RNA of DNA
be semi-conservative?
RNA DNA
Ribonucleic acid Deoxyribonucleic acid 6. Why do you think dead S strain bacteria injected into mice does not
Figure 6.2.7 . Comparison of a single-stranded RNA and a double- harm the mice but kills them when mixed with living (and normally
stranded DNA with their corresponding nucleobases (CC BY-SA 3.0; harmless) R strain bacteria?
spank, Leyo; via Wikimedia Commons)
7. In Griffith’s experiment, do you think the heat treatment that killed
SUMMARY the bacteria also inactivated the bacterial DNA? Why or why not?
Determining that DNA is the genetic material was an important 8. Give one example of a specific piece of evidence that helped rule
milestone in biology. The first important discovery was made in the out proteins as the genetic material.
1920s when Griffith showed that something in virulent bacteria 9. True or False. Two-ring bases always bind to each other.
could be transferred to nonvirulent bacteria and make them virulent 10. True or False. DNA replication involves the breaking of one of the
as well. polynucleotide chains into individual nucleotides.
In the early 1940s, Avery and colleagues showed that the
11. True or False. In DNA, each nucleotide has a sugar.
"something" Griffith found in his research was DNA and not
protein. This result was confirmed by Hershey and Chase, who 12. What would the complementary strand of this stretch of DNA bases
demonstrated that viruses insert DNA into bacterial cells so the be?
cells will make copies of the viruses. GTTAC
In the mid-1950s, Chargaff showed that, within the DNA of any 13. Which scientists detected labeled DNA that was transferred from
given species, the concentration of adenine is always the same as one organism to another?
the concentration of thymine, and the concentration of guanine is
A. Hershey and Chase B. Chargaff
always the same as the concentration of cytosine. These
C. Avery D. Griffith
observations came to be known as Chargaff's rules.
Around the same time, James Watson and Francis Crick, building 14. ________ break the bonds between complementary bases and add
on the prior X-ray research of Rosalind Franklin and others, new complementary nucleotides to the parental strands during DNA
discovered the double-helix structure of the DNA molecule. Along replication.
with Chargaff's rules, this led to a better understanding of DNA's A. Phosphates B. Enzymes
structure and function. C. Viruses D. RNA molecules
Knowledge of DNA's structure helped scientists understand how
15. Describe the differences between DNA and RNA.
DNA replicates, which must occur before cell division occurs so
each daughter cell will have a complete set of chromosomes. DNA 16. How is DNA replicated? Why is DNA replication called a "semi-
replication is semi-conservative because each daughter molecule conservative" process?
contains one strand from the parent molecule and one new strand 17. What are the roles of the following enzymes?
that is complementary to it. 1. DNA polymerase
DNA replication is the semi-conservative process by which a cell’s 2. DNA helicase
entire DNA is copied, or replicated. 3. DNA ligase
During DNA replication, the two new strands of DNA are “built” in 4. primase
opposite directions, starting at replication forks.
RNA is a single-stranded nucleic acid. RNA contains the EXPLORE MORE
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6.3: CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
IDENTICAL TWINS, IDENTICAL GENES
You probably can tell by their close resemblance that these two
individuals are identical twins. Identical twins develop from the
same fertilized egg, so they inherit copies of the same
chromosomes and have all the same genes. Unless you have an
identical twin, no one else in the world has exactly the same genes
as you. What are genes? How are they related to chromosomes?
And how do genes make you the person you are?

Figure 6.3.2 : All human cells (except gametes, which are sperm and
egg cells) have the 23 pairs of chromosomes shown here. There are two
types of chromosomes, autosomal (pairs 1-22) and sex (23rd pair). The
Figure 6.3.1 : (CC BY 2.0; Christopher Michel via Wikimedia stripes on the chromosomes represent genes. (Public domain; National
Commons) Human Genome Research Institute via Wikimedia.org)
Chromosomes are coiled structures made of DNA and
proteins. Chromosomes are encoded with genetic instructions for
HUMAN GENES
making proteins. These instructions are organized into units called Humans have an estimated 20,000 to 22,000 genes. This may sound
genes. Most genes contain the instructions for a single protein. There like a lot, but it really isn’t. Far simpler species have almost as many
may be hundreds or even thousands of genes on a single chromosome. genes as humans. However, human cells use splicing and other
processes to make multiple proteins from the instructions encoded in a
HUMAN CHROMOSOMES single gene. Only about 25 percent of the nitrogen base pairs of DNA
Each species is characterized by a set number of chromosomes. The in human chromosomes make up genes and their regulatory elements.
human number is 23. Human cells normally have two sets of Out of this 25 percent, only two percent code for genes. The functions
chromosomes in each of their cells, one set inherited from each parent. of many of the other base pairs are still unclear.
There are 23 chromosomes in each set, for a total of 46 chromosomes The majority of human genes have two or more possible versions,
per cell. Each chromosome in one set is matched by a chromosome of called alleles. Differences in alleles account for the considerable
the same type in the other set, so there are actually 23 pairs of genetic variation among people. In fact, most human genetic variation
chromosomes per cell. Each pair consists of chromosomes of the same is the result of differences in individual DNA base pairs within alleles.
size and shape, and they also contain the same genes. The
chromosomes in a pair are known as homologous chromosomes. As LINKAGE
see in the figure below, there are two types of chromosomes, autosomal Genes that are located on the same chromosome are called linked
and sex chromosomes. Read more about this in the genetics chapter. genes. Linkage explains why certain characteristics are frequently
inherited together. For example, genes for hair color and eye color are
linked, so certain hair and eye colors tend to be inherited together, such
as blonde hair with blue eyes and brown hair with brown eyes. Can you
think of other human traits that seem to occur together? Do you think
they might be controlled by linked genes?
Genes located on the sex chromosomes are called sex-linked genes.
Most sex-linked genes are on the X chromosome because the Y
chromosome has relatively few genes. Strictly speaking, genes on the
X chromosome are X-linked genes, but the term sex-linked is often
used to refer to them. The diagram below is called a linkage map. A
linkage map shows the locations of specific genes on a chromosome.

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The linkage map below shows the locations of a few of the genes on Chromosomes are coiled structures made of DNA and proteins. The
the human X chromosome. instructions are organized into units called genes, most of which
contain instructions for a single protein.
Each species is characterized by a set number of chromosomes. The
normal chromosome complement of a human cell is 23 pairs of
chromosomes. Of these, 22 pairs are autosomes, which contain
genes for characteristics unrelated to sex. The other pair consists of
sex chromosomes (XX in females, XY in males). Only the Y
chromosome contains genes that determine sex.
Humans have an estimated 20,000 to 22,000 genes. The majority of
human genes have two or more possible versions, called alleles.
Genes that are located on the same chromosome are called linked
genes. Linkage explains why certain characteristics are frequently
inherited together. A linkage map shows the locations of specific
genes on a chromosome.

REVIEW
1. What are chromosomes and genes, and how are the two related?
2. Describe human chromosomes and genes.
Figure 6.3.3 : Linkage Map for the Human X Chromosome. This 3. Explain the difference between autosomes and sex chromosomes.
linkage map shows the locations of several genes on the X 4. What are linked genes, and what does a linkage map show?
chromosome. Some of the genes code for normal proteins. Others code 5. Explain why females are considered the default sex in humans.
for abnormal proteins that lead to genetic disorders. (CC BY 3.0; Sam
McCabe via CK-12 Foundation) 6. True or False. Humans have 46 pairs of chromosomes.
7. True or False. Autosomes refer to any chromosome other than sex
SUMMARY chromosomes.
8. True or False. The majority of human DNA does not encode for
proteins.
9. Explain the relationship between genes and alleles.
10. Put the following in order of size, from smallest to largest:
chromosome; gene; base pair
11. Sex-linked genes are usually found on which chromosome? Explain
why these genes are called sex-linked.
12. Which of the following are considered homologous chromosomes?
A. Chromosome 22 and the X chromosome
B. The two copies of chromosome 22 that make up a pair
C. All of the chromosomes in a skin cell and all of the
chromosomes in a muscle cell
D. Chromosomes 21 and 22
13. What is the one chromosome that is different between genetic
males and females? Explain your answer.
14. Most males and females have two sex chromosomes. Explain why
then, do only females have Barr bodies.

Figure 6.3.4 : Graphic decomposition of a chromosome (found in the EXPLORE MORE

cell nucleus), to the bases pair of the DNA. (CC BY 3.0; via https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16748#Explore_More
Wikimedia Commons)

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6.4: PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
THE CENTRAL DOGMA OF BIOLOGY
TRANSCRIPTION
Your DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, contains the genes that
determine who you are. How can this organic molecule control Transcription is the first part of the central dogma of molecular
your characteristics? DNA contains instructions for all the proteins biology: DNA → RNA. It is the transfer of genetic instructions in
your body makes. Proteins, in turn, determine the structure and DNA to mRNA. Transcription happens in the nucleus of the cell.
function of all your cells. What determines a protein’s structure? It During transcription, a strand of mRNA is made that is complementary
begins with the sequence of amino acids that make up the protein. to a strand of DNA called gene. A gene can easily be identified from
Instructions for making proteins with the correct sequence of amino the DNA sequence. A gene contains the basic three regions, promoter,
acids are encoded in DNA. coding sequence, and terminator. There are more parts of a gene which
are illustrated in Figure 6.4.3.

Figure 6.4.1 : (Public Domain; Nicolle Rager @ National Science

Foundation via Wikimedia Commons) Figure 6.4.3 : The major components of a gene are illustrated in this
figure. (CC BY-NC 3.0; Mandeep Grewal; own work)
DNA is found in chromosomes. In eukaryotic cells, chromosomes
always remain in the nucleus, but proteins are made at ribosomes in STEPS OF TRANSCRIPTION
the cytoplasm or on the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). How Transcription takes place in three steps, called initiation, elongation,
do the instructions in DNA get to the site of protein synthesis and termination. The steps are illustrated in the figure below.
outside the nucleus? Another type of nucleic acid is responsible.
1. Initiation is the beginning of transcription. It occurs when the
This nucleic acid is RNA or ribonucleic acid. RNA is a small
enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a region of a gene called the
molecule that can squeeze through pores in the nuclear membrane.
promoter. This signals the DNA to unwind so the enzyme can
It carries the information from DNA in the nucleus to a ribosome in
“read” the bases in one of the DNA strands. The enzyme is ready to
the cytoplasm and then helps assemble the protein. In short:
make a strand of mRNA with a complementary sequence of bases.
DNA → RNA → Protein The promoter is not part of the resulting mRNA
Discovering this sequence of events was a major milestone in 2. Elongation is the addition of nucleotides to the mRNA strand.
molecular biology. It is called the central dogma of biology. The 3. Termination is the ending of transcription. As RNA polymerase
two processes involved in the central dogma are transcription and transcribes terminator, it detaches from DNA. The mRNA strand is
translation. complete after this step.

Figure 6.4.2 : An overview of transcription and translation (CC BY

4.0; Thomas Shafee via Wikimedia Commons)

Figure 6.4.4 : Transcription occurs in the three steps - initiation,

elongation, and termination - shown here. (Public domain; Calibuon
via Wikimedia.org)

PROCESSING MRNA
In eukaryotes, the new mRNA is not yet ready for translation. At this
stage, it is called pre-mRNA, and it must go through more processing
before it leaves the nucleus as mature mRNA. The processing may

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include the addition of a 5' cap, splicing, editing, and 3' process of translation, such as tRNAs (see below) and various
polyadenylation tail. These processes modify the mRNA in various enzymatic factors
ways. Such modifications allow a single gene to be used to make more To understand the role of tRNA, you need to know more about its
than one protein. structure. Each tRNA molecule has an anticodon for the amino acid it
5' cap protects mRNA in the cytoplasm and helps in attachment of carries. An anticodon is complementary to the codon for an amino
mRNA with ribosome for translation. acid. For example, the amino acid lysine has the codon AAG, so the
Splicing removes introns from the protein coding sequence of anticodon is UUC. Therefore, lysine would be carried by a tRNA
mRNA, as shown in the diagram below. Introns are regions that do molecule with the anticodon UUC. Wherever the codon AAG appears
not code for the protein. The remaining mRNA consists only of in mRNA, a UUC anticodon of tRNA temporarily binds. While bound
regions called exons that do code for the protein. The to mRNA, tRNA gives up its amino acid. With the help of rRNA,
ribonucleoproteins in the diagram are small proteins in the nucleus bonds form between the amino acids as they are brought one by one to
that contain RNA and are needed for the splicing process. the ribosome, creating a polypeptide chain. The chain of amino acids
Editing changes some of the nucleotides in mRNA. For example, a keeps growing until a stop codon is reached.
human protein called APOB, which helps transport lipids in the Ribosomes (see above), which are just made out of rRNA (ribosomal
blood, has two different forms because of editing. One form is RNA) and protein, have been classified as ribozymes because the
smaller than the other because editing adds an earlier stop signal in rRNA has enzymatic activity. The rRNA is important for the peptidyl
mRNA. transferase activity that bonds amino acids. Ribosomes have two
Polyadenylation adds a “tail” to the mRNA. The tail consists of a subunits of rRNA and protein. The large subunit has three active sites
string of As (adenine bases). It signals the end of mRNA. It is also called E, P, and A sites. These sites are important in the catalytic
involved in exporting mRNA from the nucleus, and it protects activity of ribosomes.
mRNA from enzymes that might break it down.
Just as with mRNA synthesis, protein synthesis can be divided into
three phases: initiation, elongation, and termination. In addition to the
mRNA template, many other molecules contribute to the process of
translation, such as ribosomes, tRNAs, and various enzymatic factors
Translation Initiation: The small subunit binds to a site upstream (on
the 5' side) of the start of the mRNA. It proceeds to scan the mRNA in
the 5'-->3' direction until it encounters the START codon (AUG). The
large subunit attaches and the initiator tRNA, which carries methionine
(Met), binds to the P site on the ribosome.
Translation Elongation: The ribosome shifts one codon at a time,
catalyzing each process that occurs in the three sites. With each step, a
charged tRNA enters the complex, the polypeptide becomes one amino
acid longer, and an uncharged tRNA departs. The energy for each bond
between amino acids is derived from GTP, a molecule similar to ATP
(Figure). Briefly, the ribosomes interact with other RNA molecules to
Figure 6.4.5 : Splicing removes introns from mRNA. (CC BY-SA 4.0;
Ganeshmanohar via Wikimedia.org) make chains of amino acids called polypeptide chains, due to the
peptide bond that forms between individual amino acids. Inside the
TRANSLATION ribosome, three sites participate in the translation process, the A, P, and
The translation is the second part of the central dogma of molecular E sites. Amazingly, the E. coli translation apparatus takes only 0.05
biology: RNA --> Protein. It is the process in which the genetic code seconds to add each amino acid, meaning that a 200-amino acid
in mRNA is read to make a protein. The translation is illustrated in the polypeptide could be translated in just 10 seconds.
diagrams below. After mRNA leaves the nucleus, it moves to a Translation Termination: Termination of translation occurs when a
ribosome ( see below), which consists of rRNA and proteins. stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) is encountered. When the ribosome
Translation happens on the ribosomes floating in the cytosol, or on the encounters the stop codon, the growing polypeptide is released with the
ribosomes attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The ribosome help of various releasing factors (see figure below) and the ribosome
reads the sequence of codons in mRNA, and molecules of tRNA bring subunits dissociate and leave the mRNA. After many ribosomes have
amino acids to the ribosome in the correct sequence. Just as with completed translation, the mRNA is degraded so the nucleotides can be
mRNA synthesis, protein synthesis can be divided into three phases: reused in another transcription reaction.
initiation, elongation, and termination. In addition to the mRNA
template and ribosomes, many other molecules contribute to the

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 Figure 6.4.6 : At the initiation phase, the initiator tRNA carrying methionine with its anticodon encounters the AUG start codon at the P-site of
the ribosome. During elongation, the ribosome translocates in the 5' to 3' direction, at which point the amino acids attached by peptide bonds to
the tRNA in the P-site can bond to the tRNA in the A-site, creating a long amino acid chain based on the codons in the RNA. As the ribosome
translocates, the tRNA leaves the ribosome through the E-site, while new tRNA enters the A-site in order to continue elongating the amino acid
chain. (CC BY-SA 4.0; Jordan Nguyen via wikimedia.org)

Figure 6.4.7 . Summary of protein translation. (CC BY 4.0 via Openstax).

polypeptides or with different types of molecules, such as lipids or
WHAT HAPPENS NEXT? carbohydrates. Many proteins travel to the Golgi apparatus within the
After a polypeptide chain is synthesized, it may undergo additional cytoplasm to be modified for the specific job they will do.
processes. For example, it may assume a folded tertiary shape due to
interactions among its amino acids. It may also bind with other SUMMARY

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 Translation occurs at the ribosome, which consists of rRNA and
proteins. In translation, the instructions in mRNA are read, and
tRNA brings the correct sequence of amino acids to the ribosome.
Then rRNA helps bonds form between the amino acids, producing
a polypeptide chain.
After a polypeptide chain is synthesized, it may undergo additional
processing to form the finished protein.

REVIEW
1. Relate protein synthesis and its two major phases to the central
dogma of molecular biology.
2. Identify the steps of transcription, and summarize what happens
during each step.
3. Explain how mRNA is processed before it leaves the nucleus.
4. Describe what happens during the translation phase of protein
synthesis.
5. What additional processes may a polypeptide chain undergo after it
is synthesized?
6. Where does transcription take place in eukaryotes?
7. Where does translation take place?
8. Which type of RNA (mRNA, rRNA, or tRNA) best fits each of the
statements below? Choose only one type for each.
a. Contains the codons
b. Contains the anticodons
c. Makes up the ribosome, along with proteins
9. If the DNA has a triplet code of CAG in one strand (the strand used
as a template for transcription),
a. what is the complementary sequence on the other DNA strand?
b. what is the complementary sequence in the mRNA? What is this
sequence called?
c. what is the resulting sequence in the tRNA? What is this
sequence called? What do you notice about this sequence compared
to the original DNA triplet on the template strand?
Figure 6.4.8 : The central dogma: Instructions on DNA are transcribed
10. The promoter is a region located in the:
onto messenger RNA. Ribosomes are able to read the genetic
information inscribed on a strand of messenger RNA and use this A. DNA
information to string amino acids together into a protein. (CC BY 4.0
via Openstax) B. mRNA
C. tRNA
Protein synthesis is the process in which cells make proteins. It
D. Both A and B
occurs in two stages: transcription and translation.
Transcription is the transfer of genetic instructions in DNA to 11. True or False. Introns in mRNA bind to tRNA at the ribosome.
mRNA in the nucleus. It includes the steps of initiation, elongation, 12. True or False. tRNAs can be thought of as the link between amino
and termination. After the mRNA is processed, it carries the acids and codons in the mRNA.
instructions to a ribosome in the cytoplasm.
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6.5: GENETIC CODE
CAN YOU CODE?
If someone asks you whether you can code, you probably assume
they are referring to computer code. The image above represents an
important code that you use all the time but not with a computer.
It's the genetic code, and it is used by your cells to store
information and make proteins.

Figure 6.5.3 : Reading the Genetic Code. The genetic code is read three
Figure 6.5.1 : (CC BY 2.5; Bas E. Dutilh et. al via Wikimedia bases at a time. Codons are the code words of the genetic code. (CC0;
Commons) Madprime via Wikimedia Commons)

WHAT IS THE GENETIC CODE? CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GENETIC CODE

The genetic code consists of the sequence of nitrogen bases in a The genetic code has a number of important characteristics:
polynucleotide chain of DNA or RNA. The bases are adenine (A), The genetic code is universal. All known living things have the
cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T) (or uracil, U, in RNA). The same genetic code. This shows that all organisms share a common
four bases make up the “letters” of the genetic code. The letters are evolutionary history.
combined in groups of three to form code “words,” called codons. The genetic code is unambiguous. This means that each codon
Each codon stands for (encodes) one amino acid unless it codes for a codes for just one amino acid (or start or stop). This is necessary so
start or stop signal. There are 20 common amino acids in proteins. With there is no question about which amino acid is the correct one.
four bases forming three-base codons, there are 64 possible codons. 61 The genetic code is redundant. This means that each amino acid is
codons are more than enough to code for the 20 amino acids, thus more encoded by more than one codon. For example, in the table above,
than one codon codes for a single amino acid. The genetic code is four codons code for the amino acid threonine. Redundancy in the
shown in the table below. code helps prevent errors in protein synthesis. If a base in codon
changes by accident, there is a good chance that it will still code for
the same amino acid.

CRACKING THE CODE

The double-helix structure of DNA was discovered in 1953. It took just
8 more years to crack the genetic code. The scientist who was mainly
responsible for deciphering the code was American biochemist
Marshall Nirenberg, who worked at the National Institutes of Health.
When Nirenberg began the research in 1959, the manner in which
proteins are synthesized in cells was not well understood, and
messenger RNA had not yet been discovered. At that time, scientists
didn't even know whether DNA or RNA was the molecule that was
used as a template for protein synthesis. Nirenberg, along with a
collaborator named Heinrich Matthaei, devised an ingenious
experiment to determine which molecule, DNA or RNA, has this
Figure 6.5.2 : The Genetic Code. To find the amino acid for a particular important role and also to begin deciphering the genetic code.
codon, find the cell in the table for the first and second bases of the
Nirenberg and Matthaei added the contents of bacterial cells to each of
codon. Then, within that cell, find the codon with the correct third base.
20 test tubes. The cell contents provided the necessary "machinery" for
For example CUG codes for leucine, AAG codes for lysine, and GGG
codes for glycine. (Public domain; NIH via Wikimedia Commons) the synthesis of a polypeptide molecule. The researchers also added all
20 amino acids to the test tubes, with a different amino acid "tagged"
READING THE GENETIC CODE by a radioactive element in each test tube. That way, if a polypeptide
If you find the codon AUG in the table above, you will see that it codes formed in a test tube, they would be able to tell which amino acid it
for the amino acid methionine. This codon is also the start codon that contained. Then they added synthetic RNA containing just one
establishes the reading frame of the code. The reading frame is the nitrogen base to all 20 test tubes. They used the base uracil in their first
way the bases are divided into codons. It is illustrated in the figure experiment. They discovered that an RNA chain consisting only of
below. After the AUG start codon, the next three bases are read as the uracil bases produces a polypeptide chain of the amino acid
second codon. The next three bases after that are read as the third phenylalanine. This experiment showed not only that RNA (rather than
codon, and so on. The sequence of bases is read, codon by codon, until DNA) is the template for proteins synthesis. It also showed that a
a stop codon is reached. UAG, UGA, and UAA are all the stop codons. sequence of uracil bases codes for the amino acid phenylalanine. The
They do not code for any amino acids. year was 1961, and it was a momentous occasion. When Nirenberg
presented the discovery at a scientific conference later that year, he

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received a standing ovation. As Nirenberg puts it, "...for the next five c. Does UGA code for an amino acid? Why or why not? If so,
years I became like a scientific rock star." which one?
After Nirenberg and Matthaei cracked the first word of the genetic d. Look at the codons that code for the amino acid glycine. How
code, they used similar experiments to show that each codon consists many of them are there? What are their similarities and differences
of three bases. Before long, they had discovered the codons for all 20 from each other?
amino acids. In 1968, in recognition for this important achievement, e. Imagine that you are doing an experiment similar to the one
Nirenberg was named a co-winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or performed by Nirenberg and Matthaei with 20 test tubes, each
Medicine. containing bacterial cell contents and all 20 amino acids, with one
type of amino acid labeled in each tube. If you added synthetic
SUMMARY RNA containing only the base cytosine, a polypeptide chain
The genetic code consists of the sequence of nitrogen bases in a consisting of which amino acid would be produced? Explain your
polynucleotide chain of DNA or RNA. The four bases make up the answer.
"letters" of the code. The letters are combined in groups of three to
6. True or False. One codon can encode for more than one amino
form code "words," or codons, each of which encodes for one
acid.
amino acid or a start or stop signal.
7. True or False. The codons for tyrosine in plants are the same as
AUG is the start codon, and it establishes the reading frame of the
ones that encode for tyrosine humans.
code. After the start codon, the next three bases are read as the
second codon, the three bases after that as the third codon, and so 8. True or False. The start codon encodes for an amino acid, in
on until a stop codon is reached. addition to its function establishing where the reading frame starts.
The genetic code is universal, unambiguous, and redundant. 9. How many possible codons are there?
The genetic code was cracked in the 1960s mainly by a series of A. 64
ingenious experiments carried out by Marshall Nirenberg, who won
B. 20
a Nobel Prize for this achievement.
C. 3
REVIEW D. It depends on the species
1. Describe the genetic code. 10. How many common amino acids are there in proteins?
2. Explain how the genetic code is read.
A. 64
3. Identify three important characteristics of the genetic code.
B. 20
4. Summarize how the genetic code was deciphered.
5. Use the table entitled The Genetic Code, shown above, to answer C. 3
the following questions. D. 4
a. Is the code depicted in the table from DNA or RNA? Explain
your reasoning. EXPLORE MORE
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b. Which amino acid does the codon CAA code for?

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6.6: MUTATIONS
MUTANT COSPLAY
You probably recognize these costumed comic fans as two of the
four Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. Can a mutation really turn a
reptile into an anthropomorphic superhero? Of course not, but
mutations can sometimes result in drastic changes in living things.

Figure 6.6.1 : (CC B 2.0; Pat Loika via Wikimedia Commons) Figure 6.6.2 : Ultraviolet (UV) photons harm the DNA molecules of
living organisms in different ways. In one common damage event,
WHAT ARE MUTATIONS? adjacent bases bond with each other, instead of across the “ladder.”
This makes a bulge, and the distorted DNA molecule does not function
Mutations are random changes in the sequence of bases in DNA. The properly. (Public domain; NASA/David Herring via Wikimedia
word mutation may make you think of Ninja Turtles, but that's a Commons)
misrepresentation of how most mutations work. First of all, everyone
has mutations. In fact, most people have dozens or even hundreds of TYPES OF MUTATIONS
mutations in their DNA. Secondly, from an evolutionary perspective,
There are a variety of types of mutations. Two major categories of
mutations are essential. They are needed for evolution to occur because
mutations are germline mutations and somatic mutations.
they are the ultimate source of all new genetic variation in any species.
Germline mutations occur in gametes, the sex cells, such as eggs
CAUSES OF MUTATIONS and sperm. These mutations are especially significant because they
Is it possible for mutations to occur spontaneously, or does there have can be transmitted to offspring and every cell in the offspring will
to be a cause of the mutation? Well, the answer is that both are have the mutations.
possible. Mutagenesis is a process by which the genetic information of Somatic mutations occur in other cells of the body. These
an organism is changed in a stable manner, resulting in a mutation. In mutations may have little effect on the organism because they are
nature, mutagenesis can lead to changes that are beneficial or harmful confined to just one cell and its daughter cells. Somatic mutations
or have no effect. Harmful mutations can lead to cancer and various also cannot be passed on to offspring.
heritable diseases, but beneficial mutations are the driving force of Mutations also differ in the way that the genetic material is changed.
evolution. In 1927, Hermann Muller first demonstrated the effects of Mutations may change an entire chromosome or just one or a few
mutations with observable changes in chromosomes. He induced nucleotides.
mutagenesis by irradiating fruit flies with X-rays,
CHROMOSOMAL ALTERATIONS
Mutagenesis may occur spontaneously or be induced. A spontaneous
Chromosomal alterations are mutations that change chromosome
mutation can just happen. These mutations are not caused by an
structure or number. They occur when a section of a chromosome
environmental factor but occur during normal cellular processes. A
breaks off and rejoins incorrectly or does not rejoin at all. Possible
spontaneous mutation may be due to a mistake during DNA
ways these mutations can occur are illustrated in the figure below.
replication. Mutations may also occur during mitosis and meiosis. A
Chromosomal alterations are very serious. They often result in the
mutation caused by an environmental factor, or mutagen, is known as
death of the organism in which they occur. If the organism survives, it
an induced mutation. Typical mutagens include chemicals, like those
may be affected in multiple ways. An example of a human
inhaled while smoking, and radiation, such as X-rays, ultraviolet light,
chromosomal alteration is the mutation that causes Down Syndrome. It
and nuclear radiation. Different mutagens have a different mode of
is a duplication mutation that leads to developmental delays and other
damaging DNA. For example, UV radiation may cause bonding
abnormalities. It occurs when the individual inherits an extra copy of
between the adjacent nucleotides on one strand of DNA molecule. This
chromosome 21. It is also called trisomy ("three-chromosome") 21.
prohibits normal bonding between complementary nucleotides of the
opposing strand. This causes a bulge in the DNA double helix. If this
damage is not repaired, it leads to mutation. Thus, DNA does not
replicate, transcribe, and translate properly.

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 Now assume that an insertion occurs in this sequence. Let’s say an A
nucleotide is inserted after the start codon AUG. Then the sequence of
bases becomes:
AUG-AAA-UAC-GGC-U = start-lysine-tyrosine-glycine
Even though the rest of the sequence is unchanged, this insertion
changes the reading frame and thus all of the codons that follow it. As
this example shows, a frameshift mutation can dramatically change
how the codons in mRNA are read. This can have a drastic effect on
the protein product. Another example of the frameshift mutation due to
the deletion of a nucleotide is illustrated in the figure below. In this
example, a premature stop codon is created by the mutation.

Figure 6.6.3 : Chromosomal Alterations. Chromosomal alterations are

major changes in the genetic material. (Public domain; Dietzel65 via
Wikimedia Commons)
A point mutation is a change in a single nucleotide in DNA. This type
of mutation is usually less serious than a chromosomal alteration. An
example of a point mutation is a mutation that changes the codon UUU
to the codon UCU. Point mutations can be silent, missense, or Figure 6.6.5 : The image shows how the frame of the coding sequence
nonsense mutations, as shown in the following table. The effects of of a gene changes when a nucleotide gets deleted due to mutation. (CC
BY 2.0; Genomics Education Programme via Wikimedia Commons)
point mutations depend on how they change the genetic code.
Table 6.6.1 : Point Mutation Types EFFECTS OF MUTATIONS
Type Description Example Effect
The majority of mutations have neither negative nor positive effects on
mutated codon codes for the same CAA (glutamine) → CAG
Silent none the organism in which they occur. These mutations are called neutral
amino acid (glutamine)
mutated codon codes for a different CAA (glutamine) → CCA
mutations. Examples include silent point mutations, which are neutral
Missense variable because they do not change the amino acids in the proteins they
amino acid (proline)
a mutated codon is a premature CAA (glutamine) → UAA encode.
Nonsense serious
stop codon (stop) usually
Many other DNA damages or errors have no effects on the organism
because they are repaired before protein synthesis occurs. Cells have
multiple repair mechanisms to fix errors in DNA. One way DNA can
be repaired is illustrated in the figure below. If a cell’s DNA is
permanently damaged and cannot be repaired, the cell is likely to be
prevented from dividing.

BENEFICIAL MUTATIONS
Some mutations have a positive effect on the organism in which they
occur. They are referred to as beneficial mutations. They generally
code for new versions of proteins that help organisms adapt to their
environment. If they increase an organism’s chances of surviving or
reproducing, the mutations are likely to become more common over
Figure 6.6.4 : The image shows various types of point mutations which time. There are several well-known examples of beneficial mutations.
may lead to change in the protein structure. (CC BY-SA 4.0; Here are just two:
Jonsta247 via Wikimedia Commons)
1. Mutations have occurred in bacteria that allow the bacteria to
FRAMESHIFT MUTATIONS survive in the presence of antibiotic drugs. The mutations have led
A frameshift mutation is a deletion or insertion of one or more to the evolution of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria.
nucleotides that changes the reading frame of the base sequence. 2. A unique mutation is found in people in a small town in Italy. The
Deletions remove nucleotides, and insertions add nucleotides. Consider mutation protects them from developing atherosclerosis, which is
the following sequence of bases in RNA: the dangerous buildup of fatty materials in blood vessels. The
AUG-AAU-ACG-GCU = start-asparagine-threonine-alanine

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 individual in which the mutation first appeared has even been 1. The test can determine definitively whether a specific gene is
identified. mutation is present. This is the case with the BRCA1 and
BRCA2 gene mutations, for example.
2. The test results would be useful to help guide future medical
care. For example, if you found out you had a mutation in the
BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene, you might get more frequent breast
and ovarian cancer screenings than are generally recommended.
3. You have a personal or family history that suggests you are at
risk of inherited cancer.
Criterion number 3 is based, in turn, on such factors as:
diagnosis of cancer at an unusually young age.
several different cancers occurring independently in the same
individual.
several close genetic relatives having the same type of cancer
Figure 6.6.6 : The image shows how most mutations are repaired by the
(such as a maternal grandmother, mother, and sister all having
enzyme DNA polymerize during DNA replication (CC BY-SA 3.0;
Boumphreyfr via Wikimedia Commons) breast cancer).
cancer occurring in both organs in a set of paired organs (such
HARMFUL MUTATIONS as both kidneys or both breasts).
Imagine making a random change in a complicated machine such as a If you meet the criteria for genetic testing and are advised to
car engine. The chance that the random change would improve the undergo it, genetic counseling is highly recommended. A genetic
functioning of the car is very small. The change is far more likely to counselor can help you understand what the results mean and how
result in a car that does not run well or perhaps does not run at all. By to make use of them to reduce your risk of developing cancer. For
the same token, any random change in a gene's DNA is likely to result example, a positive test result that shows the presence of a mutation
in the production of a protein that does not function normally or may may not necessarily mean that you will develop cancer. It may
not function at all. Such mutations are likely to be harmful. Harmful depend on whether the gene is located on an autosome or sex
mutations may cause genetic disorders or cancer. chromosome and whether the mutation is dominant or recessive.
A genetic disorder is a disease, syndrome, or other abnormal Lifestyle factors may also play a role in cancer risk even for
condition caused by a mutation in one or more genes or by a hereditary cancers, and early detection can often be life-saving if
chromosomal alteration. An example of a genetic disorder is cystic cancer does develop. Genetic counseling can also help you assess
fibrosis. A mutation in a single gene causes the body to produce the chances that any children you may have will inherit the
thick, sticky mucus that clogs the lungs and blocks ducts in mutation.
digestive organs.
Cancer is a disease in which cells grow out of control and form SUMMARY
abnormal masses of cells called tumors. It is generally caused by Mutations are random changes in the sequence of bases in DNA.
mutations in genes that regulate the cell cycle. Because of the Most people have multiple mutations in their DNA without ill
mutations, cells with damaged DNA are allowed to divide without effects. Mutations are the ultimate source of all new genetic
restrictions. variation in any species.
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY Mutations may happen spontaneously during DNA replication.
Inherited mutations are thought to play a role in about 5 to 10 Other mutations are caused by environmental factors called
percent of all cancers. Specific mutations that cause many of the mutagens. Mutagens include radiation, certain chemicals, and some
known hereditary cancers have been identified. Most of the infectious agents.
mutations occur in genes that control the growth of cells or the Germline mutations occur in gametes and may be passed on to
repair of damaged DNA. offspring. Every cell in the offspring will then have the mutation.
Genetic testing can be done to determine whether individuals have Somatic mutations occur in other cells than gametes and are
inherited specific cancer-causing mutations. Some of the most confined to just one cell and its daughter cells. These mutations
common inherited cancers for which genetic testing is available cannot be passed on to offspring.
hereditary, breast, and ovarian cancer, caused by mutations in genes Chromosomal alterations are mutations that change chromosome
named BRCA1 and BRCA2. Besides breast and ovarian cancers, structure or number and usually affect the organism in multiple
mutations in these genes may also cause pancreatic and prostate ways. Down syndrome (trisomy 21) is an example of a
cancers. Genetic testing is generally done on a small sample of chromosomal alteration.
body fluid or tissue, such as blood, saliva, or skin cells. The sample Point mutations are changes in a single nucleotide. The effects of
is analyzed by a lab that specializes in genetic testing, and it usually point mutations depend on how they change the genetic code and
takes at least a few weeks to get the test results. may range from no effects to very serious effects.
Frameshift mutations change the reading frame of the genetic code
Should you get genetic testing to find out whether you have
and are likely to have a drastic effect on the encoded protein.
inherited a cancer-causing mutation? Such testing is not done
Many mutations are neutral and have no effects on the organism in
routinely just to screen patients for risk of cancer. Instead, the tests
which they occur. Some mutations are beneficial and improve
are generally done only when the following three criteria are met:

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 fitness. An example is a mutation that confers antibiotic resistance 8. True or False. Mutations are always caused by exposure to toxic
in bacteria. Other mutations are harmful and decrease fitness. substances.
Examples include mutations that cause genetic disorders or cancers. 9. True or False. Some mutations can make chromosomes longer or
shorter.
REVIEW 10. Explain why the insertion or deletion of a single nucleotide can
1. Define mutation. cause a frameshift mutation.
2. Identify the causes of mutation. 11. Compare and contrast missense and nonsense mutations.
3. Compare and contrast germline and somatic mutations. 12. A mutation that substitutes one nucleotide for another is called a
4. Describe chromosomal alterations, point mutations, and frameshift ___________ mutation.
mutations. Identify the potential effects of each type of mutation. 13. Which type of mutation is trisomy 21, or Down Syndrome?
5. Why are many mutations neutral in their effects? 14. Explain why mutations are important for evolution.
6. Give an example of a beneficial mutation and an example of a
harmful mutation. EXPLORE MORE
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smoke, can cause cancer?

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6.7: REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
EXPRESS YOURSELF As shown in Figure 6.7.2, transcription is controlled by regulatory
This sketch illustrates some of the variability in human cells. The proteins or transcription factors. These proteins bind to regions of
shape and other traits that make each type of cell unique depend DNA, called regulatory element or promoter, which are located near
mainly on the particular proteins that cell type makes. Proteins are promoters. The promoter is the region of a gene where RNA
encoded in genes. All the cells in an organism have the same genes, polymerase binds to initiate transcription of the DNA to mRNA. After
so they all have the genetic instructions for the same proteins. regulatory proteins bind to regulatory elements, the proteins can
Obviously, different types of cells must use, or express, different interact with RNA polymerase. Regulatory proteins are typically either
genes to make different proteins. activators or repressors. Activators are regulatory proteins that promote
transcription by enhancing the interaction of RNA polymerase with the
promoter. Repressors are regulatory proteins that prevent transcription
by impeding the progress of RNA polymerase along the DNA strand so
the DNA cannot be transcribed to mRNA.

ENHANCERS
Although regulatory proteins and elements are typically the key players
in the regulation of transcription, other factors may also be involved.
For example, regulation of transcription may also involve enhancers.
Enhancers are distant regions of DNA that can loop back to interact
with a gene's promoter and enhance transcription.
Figure 6.7.1 : (CC BY 3.0; Sunshineconnelly at en.wikibooks
via Wikimedia Commons)
REGULATION DURING DEVELOPMENT
The regulation of gene expression is extremely important during the
WHAT IS GENE EXPRESSION?
early development of an organism. Regulatory proteins must turn on
Using a gene to make a protein is called gene expression. It includes
certain genes in particular cells at just the right time so the individual
the synthesis of the protein by the processes of transcription of DNA
develops normal organs and organ systems. Homeobox genes are a
and translation of mRNA. It may also include further processing of the
large group of genes that regulate development during the embryonic
protein after synthesis.
stage. In humans, there are an estimated 235 functional homeobox
Gene expression is regulated to ensure that the correct proteins are genes. They are present on every chromosome and generally grouped
made when and where they are needed. Regulation may occur at any in clusters. Homeobox genes contain instructions for making chains of
point in the expression of a gene, from the start of the transcription 60 amino acids called homeodomains. Proteins containing
phase of protein synthesis to the processing of a protein after synthesis homeodomains are transcription factors that bind to and control the
occurs. The regulation of transcription is one of the most complicated activities of other genes. The homeodomain is the part of the protein
parts of gene regulation in eukaryotic cells and is the focus of this that binds to the target gene and controls its expression.
concept.
GENE EXPRESSION AND CANCER
REGULATION OF TRANSCRIPTION Some types of cancer occur because of mutations in genes that control
the cell cycle. Cancer-causing mutations most often occur in two types
of regulatory genes, called proto-oncogenes and tumor-suppressor
genes.
Proto-oncogenes are genes that normally help cells divide. When a
proto-oncogene mutates to become an oncogene, it is continuously
active, even when it is not supposed to be. This is like a car's
accelerator pedal being stuck at full throttle. The car keeps racing at
top speed. In the case of a cell, the cell keeps dividing out of
control, which can lead to cancer.
Tumor suppressor genes are genes that normally slow down or stop
cell division. When a mutation occurs in a tumor suppressor gene, it
can no longer control cell division. This is like a car without brakes.
The car can't be slowed or stopped. In the case of a cell, the cell
Figure 6.7.2 : An enhancer is a DNA sequence that promotes keeps dividing out of control, which can lead to cancer.
transcription. Each enhancer is made up of short DNA sequences called
distal control elements. Activators bound to the distal control elements
interact with mediator proteins and transcription factors. Two different
genes may have the same promoter but different distal control
elements, enabling differential gene expression. (CC BY-NC 3.0
via umenlearning.com)

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 Using a gene to make a protein is called gene expression. Gene
expression is regulated to ensure that the correct proteins are made
when and where they are needed. Regulation may occur at any
stage of protein synthesis or processing.
The regulation of transcription is controlled by regulatory proteins
that bind to regions of DNA called regulatory elements, which are
usually located near promoters. Most regulatory proteins are either
activators that promote transcription or repressors that impede
transcription.
The regulation of gene expression is extremely important during the
early development of an organism. Homeobox genes, which encode
for chains of amino acids called homeodomains, are important
genes that regulate development.
Some types of cancer occur because of mutations in genes that
control the cell cycle. Cancer-causing mutations most often occur in
two types of regulatory genes, called tumor-suppressor genes and
proto-oncogenes.

REVIEW
1. Define gene expression.
Figure 6.7.3 : How Cancer Develops. This flow chart shows how a 2. Why must gene expression be regulated?
series of mutations in tumor-suppressor genes and proto-oncogenes 3. Explain how regulatory proteins may activate or repress
leads to cancer. (Public domain; Jpbrody; National Cancer Institute via
Wikimedia.org) transcription.
4. Describe homeobox genes and their role in the development of an
organism.
5. Discuss the role of regulatory gene mutations in cancer.
6. Explain the relationship between proto-oncogenes and oncogenes.
7. If a newly fertilized egg contained a mutation in a homeobox gene,
what effect do you think this might have on the developing
embryo? Explain your answer.
8. Which of the following are proteins?
A. Repressors B. Promoters C. Regulatory elements D. All of the
above
9. Which of the following is a region of DNA?
A. Homeodomain B. Activator C. TATA box D. Both A and C
10. Compare and contrast enhancers and activators.
11. True or False. Mutations in genes that normally either promote or
suppress cell division can both cause cancer.
12. True or False. Gene expression is only regulated at the
Figure 6.7.4 : Examples of ways proto-oncogenes convert into cancer-
causing genes (oncogenes). ( CC BY-SA 3.0; Haywardlc via transcriptional stage.
Wikimedia Commons) 13. True or False. If RNA polymerase cannot bind to the promoter of a
gene, it cannot transcribe that gene into mRNA.
SUMMARY
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6.8: BIOTECHNOLOGY
PLEASE PASS THE POTATOES Biotechnology is the use of technology to change the genetic makeup
You might want to pass on the potato plants pictured below on the of living things for human purposes. Generally, the goal of
right. They are infected with a virus, which is quickly killing them. biotechnology is to modify organisms so they are more useful to
The potato plants on the left are healthy and productive. Why aren't humans. For example, biotechnology may be used to create crops that
they infected with the same virus? The plants on the left have been yield more food or resist insect pests or viruses, such as the virus-
engineered genetically, using methods of biotechnology, to make resistant potatoes pictured above. Research is also underway to use
them resistant to the virus. biotechnology to cure human genetic disorders with gene therapy.

BIOTECHNOLOGY METHODS
Biotechnology uses a variety of techniques to achieve its aims. Two
commonly used techniques are gene cloning and the polymerase chain
reaction.

GENE CLONING
Gene cloning is the process of isolating and making copies of a gene.
This is useful for many purposes. For example, gene cloning might be
used to isolate and make copies of a normal gene for gene therapy.
Gene cloning involves four steps: isolation, ligation, transformation,
and selection.
Figure 6.8.1 : ( CC BY 3.0; SIRO via Wikimedia Commons)

WHAT IS BIOTECHNOLOGY?

Figure 6.8.2 : The image illustrates the steps of gene cloning. First, DNA of interest is inserted into a plasmid and then the recombinant plasmid is
inserted into bacteria. The successfully transformed bacteria are selected and grown to produce the protein of interest. (CC BY 4.0; CNX
OpenStax via Wikimedia Commons)

1. In the isolation step, a restriction enzyme is used to break DNA at at a specific sequence in the DNA. That particular site is called the
a specific base sequence. This is done to isolate a gene. Restriction restriction site of that particular enzyme.
enzymes are mostly isolated from bacteria and they only cut DNA 2. During ligation, the enzyme DNA Ligase combines the isolated
gene with plasmid DNA from bacteria. (Plasmid DNA is circular

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 DNA that is not part of a chromosome and can replicate DNA, such as ethidium bromide. The resulting stained gel shows bands
independently.) Ligation is illustrated in the figure below. The DNA correspond to DNA molecules of different lengths, which also
that results is called recombinant DNA. correspond to different molecular weights. Band size is usually
3. In transformation, the recombinant DNA is inserted into a living determined by comparison to DNA ladders containing DNA fragments
cell, usually a bacterial cell. Changing an organism in this way is of known length. Gel electrophoresis can also be used to separate RNA
called genetic engineering. molecules and proteins.
4. Selection involves growing transformed bacteria to make sure they
have the recombinant DNA. This is a necessary step because
transformation is not always successful. Only bacteria that contain
the recombinant DNA are selected for further use.

POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) makes many copies of a gene
or other DNA segment. This might be done in order to make large
quantities of a gene for genetic testing. PCR involves three steps:
denaturing, annealing, and extension. The three steps are illustrated in
the figure below. They are repeated many times in a cycle to make
large quantities of the gene.
1. Denaturing involves heating DNA to break the bonds holding
together the two DNA strands. This yields two single strands of
DNA.
2. Annealing involves cooling the single strands of DNA and mixing
them with short DNA segments called primers. Primers have base
sequences that are complementary to segments of the single DNA Figure 6.8.4. This is a diagram that illustrates the process of Gel
strands. As a result, bonds form between the DNA strands and Electrophoresis. Gel electrophoresis is used for DNA fingerprinting
primers. and is very useful in crime investigation since every individual has
3. Extension occurs when an enzyme (Taq polymerase or Taq DNA different DNA patterns. DNA can be extracted from any sample of
polymerase) adds nucleotides to the primers. This produces new body fluid(i.e. blood, semen, or saliva). DNA is mixed with restriction
DNA molecules, each incorporating one of the original DNA enzymes and amplified with PCR. The mixture of DNA fragment plus
strands. restriction enzyme is added into the wells of the agarose gel, which
leads to a physical change instead of a chemical one. An electric
current is applied to the gel from a power source. Negatively charged
DNA moves toward the positive side. Larger fragments move slower
and are located near the top whereas smaller fragments move faster and
are near the bottom. Bands are stained but different shades indicate the
amount of DNA each band contains (CC BY-SA 4.0; Jennifer0328 via
Wikimedia Commons)

USES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
Methods of biotechnology can be used for many practical purposes.
They are used widely in both medicine and agriculture.

APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE
Figure 6.8.3 : The Polymerase Chain Reaction. The polymerase chain
reaction involves three steps. High temperatures are needed for the In addition to gene therapy for genetic disorders, biotechnology can be
process to work. The enzyme Taq polymerase is used in step 3 because used to transform bacteria so they are able to make human proteins.
it can withstand high temperatures. (CC BY-SA 3.0; Enzoklop via The figure above shows how this is done. Proteins made by the bacteria
Wikimedia Commons)
are injected into people who cannot produce them because of
GEL ELECTROPHORESIS mutations.
Gel electrophoresis is an analytical technique used to separate DNA Insulin was the first human protein to be produced in this way. Insulin
fragments by size and due to the negative charge on DNA. Notice in helps cells take up glucose from the blood. People with type 1 diabetes
Figure above that the "gels" are rectangular in shape. The gels are have a mutation in the gene that normally codes for insulin. Without
made of a gelatin-like material of either agarose or polyacrylamide. An insulin, their blood glucose rises to harmfully high levels. At present,
electric field, with a positive charge applied at one end of the gel, and a the only treatment for type 1 diabetes is the injection of insulin from
negative charge at the other end, forces the fragments to migrate outside sources. Until recently, there was no known way to make
through the gel. DNA molecules migrate from negative to positive human insulin outside the human body. The problem was solved by
charges due to the net negative charge of the phosphate groups in the gene cloning. The human insulin gene was cloned and used to
DNA backbone. Longer molecules migrate more slowly through the transform bacterial cells, which could then produce large quantities of
gel matrix. After the separation is completed, DNA fragments of human insulin.
different lengths can be visualized using a fluorescent dye specific for
APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE

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Biotechnology has been used to create transgenic crops. Transgenic How do we educate the public so they can make well-informed
crops are genetically modified with new genes that code for traits decisions about new technologies?
useful to humans. The diagram below shows how a transgenic crop is
As a society, we will need to balance the benefits and concerns of new
created.
technologies.
FEATURE: RELIABLE SOURCES
Genetically modified foods, or GM foods, are foods produced from
genetically modified organisms. These are organisms that have had
changes introduced into their DNA using methods of
biotechnology. Commercial sale of GM foods began in 1994, with a
tomato that had delayed ripening. By 2015, three major crops
grown in the U.S. were raised mainly from GM seeds, including
field corn, soybeans, and cotton. Many other crops were also raised
from GM seeds, ranging from a variety of vegetables to sugar beets.
Other sources of GM foods in our diet include meats, eggs, and
dairy products from animals that have eaten GM feed, as well as a
Figure 6.8.5 : Creating a Transgenic Crop. A transgenic crop is plethora of food products that contain some form of soy or corn
genetically modified to be more useful to humans. The bacterium products, such as soybean oil, soybean flour, corn oil, corn starch,
transfers the T-DNA (from the Ti plasmid) fragment with the desired
and corn syrup. A quick glance at the ingredients list of most
gene into the host plant's nuclear genome. A full transgenic plant is
grown from a single transformed cell. (CC BY 3.0; Hilarya processed foods shows that these products are added to many of the
via 2010.igem.org) items in a typical American diet.
Transgenic crops have been created with a variety of different traits, Most scientists think that GM foods are not any riskier to human
such as yielding more food, tasting better, surviving drought, tolerating health than conventional foods. Nonetheless, in many countries,
salty soil, and resisting insect pests. Scientists have even created a including the U.S., GM foods are given more rigorous evaluations
transgenic purple tomato (pictured below) that contains high levels of than conventional foods. For example, GM foods are assessed for
cancer-fighting compounds called antioxidants. toxicity, the ability to cause allergic reactions, and the stability of
inserted genes. GM crops are also evaluated for possible
environmental effects, such as outcrossing, which is the migration
of genes from GM plants to conventional crops or wild plant
species.
Despite the extra measures used to evaluate GM foods, there is a lot
of public concern about them, including whether they are safe to
human health, how they are labeled, and their environmental
impacts. These concerns are based on a number of factors, such as
the worrying belief that scientists are creating entirely new species
and a perceived lack of benefits to the consumer of GM foods.
People may also doubt the validity of risk assessments, especially
Figure 6.8.6 : Transgenic Purple Tomatoes: Purple tomatoes are with regard to long-term effects. Also, since all the research on
genetically modified to contain high levels of antioxidants. A gene for
the compound was transferred into a normal red tomato plant. (Public safety and usefulness is presented in scientific journals, it can be
domain; I'm the author via Wikimedia Commons) difficult for the public to be fully informed about the work being
done.
ETHICAL, LEGAL, AND SOCIAL ISSUES Over the past 50 years, there have been many hundreds of studies
The use of biotechnology has raised a number of ethical, legal, and looking at how these crops affect the environment, the economy,
social issues. Here are just a few: and the health of humans and animals. The results of most of these
Who owns genetically modified organisms such as bacteria? Can studies are fairly clear. But, most people don't read the original
such organisms be patented like inventions? findings because there are too many and because they can be
Are genetically modified foods safe to eat? Might they have difficult to understand. The National Academy of Sciences has
unknown harmful effects on the people who consume them? written a report summarizing the research findings as well as public
Are genetically engineered crops safe for the environment? Might comments.
they harm other organisms or even entire ecosystems? They explain the reason for writing the report: "Consumers in the
Who controls a person’s genetic information? What safeguards United States and abroad get conflicting information about GE
ensure that the information is kept private? crops. Proponents tout the benefits while opponents emphasize the
How far should we go to ensure that children are free of mutations? risks. There was a need for an independent, objective study to
Should a pregnancy be ended if the fetus has a mutation for a examine what had been learned about GE crops, assesses whether
serious genetic disorder? initial concerns and promises were realized since their introduction,
Can we develop crop species that provide more nutrients and grow and investigates new concerns and recent claims."
in harsher climates? If so, how do we ensure that farmers in
impoverished areas have access to these?
SUMMARY

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 Biotechnology is the use of technology to change the genetic 11. True or False. Gene cloning is defined as the creation of an
makeup of living things for human purposes. identical copy of an entire organism.
Biotechnology methods include gene cloning and the polymerase 12. The enzyme Taq polymerase was originally identified from bacteria
chain reaction. Gene cloning is the process of isolating and making that live in very hot environments, such as hot springs. Why does
copies of a DNA segment such as a gene. The polymerase chain this fact make Taq polymerase particularly useful in PCR reactions?
reaction makes many copies of a gene or other DNA segment. 13. A circular piece of DNA from bacteria that is often used to create
Gel electrophoresis is a technique that is used to separate DNA of recombinant DNA is called a ________ _.
various lengths in a sample. This technique is used in the DNA 14. In what ways are crops modified genetically? What traits are
fingerprinting process of forensic science. introduced, and what methods are used to introduce them?
Biotechnology can be used to transform bacteria so they are able to 15. What are the main human safety questions about GM foods? How
make human proteins, such as insulin. It can also be used to create is the human safety of GM foods assessed?
transgenic crops, such as crops that yield more food or resist insect 16. What are the main environmental concerns about GM crops? How
pests. is a risk assessment for the environment performed?
Biotechnology has raised a number of ethical, legal, and social 17. What are the major pros and cons of GM crops and foods? Who is
issues. For example, are genetically modified foods safe to eat, and most affected by these pros and cons? For example, for pros, do
who controls a person’s genetic information? growers and marketers receive most of the benefits, or do
consumers also reap rewards?
REVIEW 18. Which of the following is a possible use of biotechnology, now or
1. Define biotechnology. in the future?
2. What is recombinant DNA? A. Curing genetic disorders
3. Identify the steps of gene cloning.
B. Creating transgenic crops that are resistant to pests
4. What is the purpose of the polymerase chain reaction?
C. Producing human proteins in non-human cells
5. Make a flow chart outlining the steps involved in creating a
transgenic crop. D. All of the above
6. Explain how bacteria can be genetically engineered to produce a 19. Bacteria that contain a recombinant plasmid are said to be:
human protein. A. Transformed
7. Identify an ethical, legal, or social issue raised by biotechnology.
B. Translated
State your view on the issue, and develop a logical argument to
support your view. C. Transcripted
8. Explain what primers are and what they do in PCR. D. A transgenic crop
9. What is gel electrophoresis?
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6.9: THE HUMAN GENOME
VITRUVIAN MAN
The drawing in Figure 6.9.2, named Vitruvian Man, was created by
Leonardo da Vinci in 1490. It was meant to show normal human
body proportions. Vitruvian Man is used today to represent a
different approach to the human body. It symbolizes a scientific
research project that began in 1990, exactly 500 years after da Vinci
created the drawing. That project, named the Human Genome
Project, is the largest collaborative biological research project ever
undertaken.

Figure 6.9.2 : Human Genome, Chromosomes, and Genes. Each

chromosome of the human genome contains many genes as well as
noncoding intergenic (between genes) regions. Each pair of
chromosomes is shown here in a different color. (CC BY 3.0; original
author by LoStrangolatore and modified by Mandeep Grewal via
Wikimedia Commons).

A COLLABORATIVE EFFORT
Funding for the HGP came from the U.S. Department of Energy and
the National Institutes of Health as well as from foreign institutions.
The actual research was undertaken by scientists in 20 universities in
the U.S., United Kingdom, Australia, France, Germany, Japan, and
Figure 6.9.1 : (Public Domain; Lanbond; government via China. A private U.S. company named Celera also contributed to the
Wikimedia Commons).
effort. Although Celera had hoped to patent some of the genes it
discovered, this was later denied.
WHAT IS THE HUMAN GENOME?
The human genome refers to all the DNA of the human species. REFERENCE GENOME OF THE HUMAN GENOME
Human DNA consists of 3.3 billion base pairs and is divided into more PROJECT
than 20,000 genes onto 23 pairs of chromosomes. The human genome In 2003, the HGP published the results of its sequencing of DNA as a
also includes noncoding sequences (e.g. intergenic region) of DNA, as human reference genome. Figure 6.9.4 illustrates the process of DNA
shown in Figure 6.9.2. sequencing. The sequence of the human DNA is stored in databases
available to anyone on the Internet. The U.S. National Center for
DISCOVERING THE HUMAN GENOME Biotechnology Information (NCBI), part of the NIH, as well as
Scientists now know the sequence of all the DNA base pairs in the comparable organizations in Europe and Japan, maintain the genomic
entire human genome. This knowledge was attained by the Human sequences in a database known as Genbank. Protein sequences are also
Genome Project (HGP), a $3 billion, an international scientific maintained in this database. The sequences in these databases are the
research project that was formally launched in 1990. The project was combined sequences of anonymous donors, and as such do not yet
completed in 2003, two years ahead of its 15-year projected deadline. address the individual differences that make us unique. However, the
Determining the sequence of the billions of base pairs that make up known sequence does lay the foundation to identify the unique
human DNA was the main goal of the HGP. Another goal was mapping differences among all of us. Most of the currently identified variations
the location and determining the function of all the genes in the human among individuals will be single nucleotide polymorphisms or SNPs.
genome. A somewhat surprising finding of the HGP is the relatively An SNP (pronounced "snip") is a DNA sequence variation occurring at
small number of human genes. There are only about 20,500 genes in a single nucleotide in the genome. For example, two sequenced DNA
human beings. This may sound like a lot, but it's about the same fragments from different individuals, GGATCTA to GGATTTA,
number as in mice. Another surprising finding of the HGP is a large contain a difference in a single nucleotide. If this, base change occurs
number of nearly identical, repeated DNA segments in the human in a gene, the base change then results in two alleles: the C allele and
genome. This number was previously suspected to be much smaller. the T allele. Remember an allele is an alternative form of a gene.
Almost all common SNPs have only two alleles. The effect of these
SNPs on protein structure and function and any effect on the resulting
phenotype are an extensive field of study.

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 Figure 6.9.3 : Timeline of the human genome project. Full Version is visible at the NIH site. (CC BY 2.0; National Human Genome Research
Institute (NHGRI) via Wikimedia Commons).

Figure 6.9.4: The Sanger (chain-termination) method for DNA sequencing. (1) A primer is annealed to a sequence, (2) Reagents are added to the
primer and template, including DNA polymerase, dNTPs, and a small amount of all four dideoxynucleotides (ddNTPs) labeled with fluorophores.
During primer elongation, the random insertion of a ddNTP instead of a dNTP terminates synthesis of the chain because DNA polymerase cannot
react with the missing hydroxyl. This produces all possible lengths of chains. (3) The products are separated on a single lane capillary gel, where
the resulting bands are read by an imaging system. (4) This produces several hundred thousand nucleotides a day, data that require storage, and
subsequent computational analysis (CC BY-SA 3.0; Estevezj via Wikimedia Commons).

Knowing the human DNA sequence can help us understand many

BENEFITS OF THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT human diseases. For example, it is helping researchers identify
The sequencing of the human genome holds benefits for many fields, mutations linked to different forms of cancer. It is also yielding
including molecular medicine and human evolution. insights into the genetic basis of cystic fibrosis, liver diseases,
blood-clotting disorders, and Alzheimer's disease, among others.

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 The human DNA sequence can also help researchers tailor The sequencing of the human genome is helping researchers better
medications to individual genotypes. This is called personalized understand cancer and genetic diseases. It is also helping them
medicine, and it has led to an entirely new field called tailor medications to individual patients, which is the focus of the
pharmacogenomics. Pharmacogenomics, also called new field of pharmacogenomics. In addition, it is helping
pharmacogenetics, is the study of how our genes affect the way we researchers better understand human evolution.
respond to drugs. You can read more about pharmacogenomics in From its launch in 1990, the HGP established and funded a separate
the Feature below. committee to oversee potential ethical, legal, and social issues
The analysis of similarities between DNA sequences from different associated with the project.
organisms is opening new avenues in the study of evolution. For
example, analyses are expected to shed light on many questions REVIEW
about the similarities and differences between humans and our 1. Describe the human genome.
closest relatives the nonhuman primates. 2. What is the Human Genome Project?
3. Identify two main goals of the Human Genome Project.
ETHICAL, LEGAL, AND SOCIAL ISSUES OF THE 4. What is the reference genome of the Human Genome Project? What
HUMAN GENOME PROJECT
is it based on?
From its launch in 1990, the HGP proactively established and funded a 5. Explain how knowing the sequence of DNA bases in the human
separate committee to oversee potential ethical, legal, and social issues genome is beneficial for molecular medicine.
associated with the project. A major concern was the possible use of 6. What was one surprising finding of the Human Genome Project?
the knowledge generated by the project to discriminate against people. 7. Why do you think scientists didn’t just sequence the DNA from a
One issue was the fear that employers and health insurance companies single person for the Human Genome Project? Along those lines,
would refuse to hire or insure people based on their genetic makeup, why do you think it is important to include samples from different
for instance, if they had genes that increased their risk of getting certain ethnic groups and genders in genome sequencing efforts?
diseases. In response, in 1996, the U.S. passed the Health Insurance 8. True or False. The sequenced human genome does not include
Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). It protects against noncoding regions — it only includes actual genes.
unauthorized, nonconsensual release of individually identifiable health 9. True or False. Knowing the sequence of the human genome can
information to any entity not actively engaged in providing healthcare give insight into human evolution.
to a patient. This was followed in 2008 by the Genetic Information 10. a. What is pharmacogenomics?
Nondiscrimination Act (GINA), which specifically prohibits genetic
b. If a patient were to have pharmacogenomics done to optimize
discrimination by health insurance companies and workplaces.
their medication, what do you think the first step would be?
SUMMARY c. List one advantage and one disadvantage of pharmacogenomics.
The human genome refers to all of the DNA of the human species. 11. There are approximately 20,000 human ________ .
It consists of more than 3.3 billion base pairs divided into 20,500 A. base pairs
genes on 23 pairs of chromosomes.
B. nucleotides
The Human Genome Project (HGP) was a multi-billion dollar
international research project that began in 1990. By 2003, it had C. alleles
sequenced all of the DNA base pairs in the human genome. It also D. genes
mapped the location and determined the function of all the genes in 12. Explain how the sequencing of the human genome relates to ethical
the human genome. concerns about genetic discrimination.
In 2003, the HGP published the results of its sequence of DNA as a
human reference genome. The entire DNA sequence is stored in EXPLORE MORE
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6.10: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: PARMACOGENOMICS AND CHAPTER
SUMMARY
affecting chunks of DNA that can consequently alter the structure of
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: the entire chromosome. Structural variation can happen in a number of
PHARMACOGENOMICS ways, for example, Copy number variation (CNV): when there is an
Arya asked their doctor about Pharmacogenomics. The doctor explains increase or decrease in the amount of DNA. This can be due to:
to Arya that Pharmacogenomics is the tailoring of drug treatments to deletion, where an entire block of DNA is missing; insertion, where a
people’s genetic makeup, a form of ‘personalized medicine’. block of DNA is added in duplication; or where there are additional
copies of a section of DNA. Inversion: when chromosome breaks in
two places and the resulting piece of DNA is reversed and reinserted
back into the chromosome (the opposite way round). Translocation:
when genetic material is exchanged between two different
chromosomes. SNPs are like changing a single letter in the
metaphorical 'recipe book of life', while structural variation is the
equivalent of whole paragraphs or pages being lost or repeated.
Scientists have been aware of SNPs for a long time, but the extent of
structural variation was only revealed when it was possible to sequence
and compare many genomes. The structural variation appears to be
quite common, affecting around 12 percent of the genome. It has been
found to cause a variety of genetic conditions.

Figure 6.10.1 : (CC BY-SA 4.0 International; Fred the Oyster via FINDING DISEASE VARIANTS
Wikimedia Commons). Humans share around 99.5 percent of their genomes. The 0.5 percent
The picture above shows a beta cell of the pancreas. As the blood that differs between each of us affects our susceptibility to disease and
glucose rises, it enters into the cell via GLUT 2 channel. After entering response to drugs. Although this doesn’t sound like a lot, it still means
into the cell, it causes the production of ATP that closes the potassium that there are millions of differences between the DNA of two
pump. As potassium stops exiting the cell, it causes calcium channel to individuals. For example, because SNPs are common in the genome, it
open and, finally, that causes insulin release from the cells. This is difficult to work out which single letter changes cause disease and
process is even more complicated as many enzymes and proteins are which are passengers that have just come along for the ride and have
skipped in this brief description of the pathway. The sulfonylurea- no effect on health.
based drugs force the closing of a potassium pump by attaching to it.
This causes the release of insulin by skipping many steps. Because
SO HOW IS IT POSSIBLE TO KNOW WHICH GENETIC
VARIANTS CAUSE DISEASE AND WHICH ARE
many enzymes and other proteins are involved in this complicated
PASSENGERS?
process, people respond differently to medicines. Most respond well
The way scientists look at disease variants is to compare the genetic
and their health improves. Some do not gain any benefits from the
makeup of a large number of people who have a specific disease with
treatment, and a minority suffer from side effects. After you take a
those who do not. This allows scientists to look for genetic variants
drug, it is processed (metabolized) by your body. How the drug is
that are more common in people with a disease compared to people
processed and how you respond to it is determined, in part, by your
without the disease. For example, if a particular genetic variant is
genes. Understanding how different genetics affect and how a drug is
present in 80 percent of patients with the disease but only 20 percent of
processed can help doctors to more accurately determine which drug
the healthy population it suggests that this variant is increasing the risk
and which dose is best for individual patients. In this chapter, you
of that disease. However, looking for a disease that is caused by
learned what genome is and how to recognize genes in the genome. In
variants in a single gene is the simplest example. There are many
pharmacogenomics, scientists look at the genome of an individual to
complex diseases where variants in many different genes might be
identify the genetic factors that influence his or her response to a drug.
involved. As well as the transcriptional and translational regulation of
By finding these genes, medical researchers hope to develop genetic
some enzyme production may vary due to the genetic variation in the
tests that will predict how patients will respond to a drug. This is
enhancer and repressors of a gene. So, for this type of comparison to be
personalized medicine.
effective very large groups of people need to be studied, usually in the
The reason people vary in their responses to drug treatments lies in the tens of thousands, to find the variants that have subtle effects on
genetic differences, or variation, between them. Following the Human disease risk. Researchers also try to pick individuals with similar
Genome Project, research has focused on comparing human genomes phenotypes, in both the diseased and healthy groups, so that the disease
to understand genetic variation and work out which genetic variants are genes are easier to identify and study.
important in health and in the way we respond to drugs. We also
learned in this chapter that two types of variation are common in the CHALLENGES OF PHARMACOGENOMICS
human genome: 1) Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs): changes
Although pharmacogenomics is likely to be an important part of future
in single nucleotide bases (A, C, G, and T). This was the case in Arya’s
medical care, there are many obstacles to overcome before it becomes
physical response to the sulfonylurea. 2) Structural variation: changes
routine. It is relatively rare for a particular drug response to be affected

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by a single genetic variant. A particular genetic variant may increase According to the RNA world hypothesis, RNA was the first type of
the likelihood of an adverse reaction but it will not guarantee it. biochemical molecule to evolve, predating both DNA and proteins.
As a result, some people with the variant may not experience an The genetic code was cracked in the 1960s by Marshall Nirenberg.
adverse reaction to a drug. Similarly, if an individual doesn’t have the It consists of the sequence of nitrogen bases in a polynucleotide
gene variant, it doesn’t guarantee they won’t experience an adverse chain of DNA or RNA. The four bases make up the "letters" of the
reaction. Often, a large number of interacting genetic and code. The letters are combined in groups of three to form code
environmental factors may influence the response to a drug. "words," or codons, each of which encodes for one amino acid or a
start or stop signal.
Even when associations between a genetic variant and a drug response
have been clearly demonstrated, suitable tests still have to be AUG is the start codon, and it establishes the reading frame of
developed and proven to be effective in clinical trials. A test that has the code. After the start codon, the next three bases are read as
succeeded in a clinical trial still has to be shown to be useful and cost- the second codon, and so on until a stop codon is reached.
effective in a healthcare setting. Regulatory agencies will have to The genetic code is universal, unambiguous, and redundant.
consider how they assess and license pharmacogenetic products. Health Protein synthesis is the process in which cells make proteins. It
services will have to adjust to new ways of deciding the best drug to occurs in two stages: transcription and translation
give to an individual. Transcription is the transfer of genetic instructions in DNA to
The behavior of individual doctors will need to change. A lot of side mRNA in the nucleus. It includes the steps of initiation,
effects are due to patients not taking their drugs as prescribed or to elongation, and termination. After the mRNA is processed, it
doctors prescribing the wrong dose. Some examples of carries the instructions to a ribosome in the cytoplasm.
pharmacogenomics that work effectively, for example, abacavir for Translation occurs at the ribosome, which consists of rRNA and
HIV, show that these challenges can be overcome. However, in most proteins. In translation, the instructions in mRNA are read, and
cases, implementing the findings from pharmacogenomics is likely to tRNA brings the correct sequence of amino acids to the
be a complicated process. ribosome. Then rRNA helps bonds form between the amino
acids, producing a polypeptide chain.
CHAPTER SUMMARY After a polypeptide chain is synthesized, it may undergo
Determining that DNA is the genetic material was an important additional processing to form the finished protein.
milestone in biology. Mutations are random changes in the sequence of bases in
In the 1920s, Griffith showed that something in virulent bacteria DNA. They are the ultimate source of all new genetic variation in
could be transferred to nonvirulent bacteria and make them any species
virulent as well. Mutations may happen spontaneously during DNA replication
In the 1940s, Avery and colleagues showed that the "something" or transcription. Other mutations are caused by environmental
Griffith found was DNA and not protein. This result was factors called mutagens.
confirmed by Hershey and Chase, who demonstrated that Germline mutations occur in gametes and may be passed on to
viruses insert DNA into bacterial cells. offspring. Somatic mutations occur in other cells than gametes
In the 1950s, Chargaff showed that in DNA, the concentration of and cannot be passed on to offspring.
adenine is always the same as the concentration of thymine, and the Chromosomal alterations are mutations that change
concentration of guanine is always the same as the concentration of chromosome structure or number and usually affect the
cytosine. These observations came to be known as Chargaff's rules. organism in multiple ways. Down syndrome (trisomy 21) is an
In the 1950s, James Watson and Francis Crick, building on the prior example of a chromosomal alteration.
X-ray research of Rosalind Franklin and others, discovered the Point mutations are changes in a single nucleotide. The effects
double-helix structure of the DNA molecule. of point mutations depend on how they change the genetic code
Knowledge of DNA's structure helped scientists understand how and may range from no effects to very serious effects.
DNA replicates, which must occur before cell division. DNA Frameshift mutations change the reading frame of the genetic
replication is semi-conservative because each daughter molecule code and are likely to have a drastic effect on the encoded
contains one strand from the parent molecule and one new strand protein.
that is complementary to it. Many mutations are neutral and have no effects on the organism
Genes that are located on the same chromosome are called linked in which they occur. Some mutations are beneficial and improve
genes. Linkage explains why certain characteristics are frequently fitness, while others are harmful and decrease fitness.
inherited together. Using a gene to make a protein is called gene expression. Gene
The central dogma of molecular biology can be summed up as expression is regulated to ensure that the correct proteins are made
DNA → RNA → Protein. This means that the genetic instructions when and where they are needed. Regulation may occur at any
encoded in DNA are transcribed to RNA, and then from RNA, they stage of protein synthesis or processing.
are translated into a protein. The regulation of transcription is controlled by regulatory proteins
RNA is a nucleic acid. Unlike DNA, RNA consists of just one that bind to regions of DNA called regulatory elements, which are
polynucleotide chain instead of two, contains the base uracil instead usually located near promoters. Most regulatory proteins are either
of thymine, and contains the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose. activators that promote transcription or repressors that impede
The main function of RNA is to help make proteins. There are three transcription.
main types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA The regulation of gene expression is extremely important during the
(rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). early development of an organism. Homeobox genes, which encode

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 for chains of amino acids called homeodomains, are important 1. Put the following units in order from the smallest to the largest:
genes that regulate development. A. chromosome
Some types of cancer occur because of mutations in genes that B. gene
control the cell cycle. Cancer-causing mutations most often occur in C. nitrogen base
two types of regulatory genes, called tumor-suppressor genes and D. nucleotide
proto-oncogenes. E. codon
Biotechnology is the use of technology to change the genetic
2. Put the following processes in the correct order of how a protein is
makeup of living things for human purposes.
produced, from earliest to latest:
Biotechnology methods include gene cloning and the A. tRNA binding to mRNA
polymerase chain reaction. Gene cloning is the process of B. transcription
isolating and making copies of a DNA segment such as a gene. C. traveling of mRNA out of the nucleus
The polymerase chain reaction makes many copies of a gene or D. folding of the polypeptide
other DNA segment.
3. What are the differences between a sequence of DNA and the
Biotechnology can be used to transform bacteria so they are able
sequence of mature mRNA that it produces?
to make human proteins, such as insulin. It can also be used to
4. Scientists sometimes sequence DNA that they “reverse transcribe”
create transgenic crops, such as crops that yield more food or
from the mRNA in an organism’s cells, which is called
resist insect pests.
complementary DNA (cDNA). Why do you think this technique
Biotechnology has raised a number of ethical, legal, and social
might be particularly useful for understanding an organism’s
issues including health, environmental, and privacy concerns.
proteins versus sequencing the whole genome (i.e. nuclear DNA) of
The human genome refers to all of the DNA of the human species. the organism?
It consists of more than 3.3 billion base pairs divided into 20,500 5. What are proteins are made in the cytoplasm on small organelles
genes on 23 pairs of chromosomes. called?
The Human Genome Project (HGP) was a multi-billion dollar 6. What might happen if codons encoded for more than one amino
international research project that began in 1990. By 2003, it had acid?
sequenced and mapped the location of all of the DNA base pairs in 7. Explain why a human gene can be inserted into bacteria and can
the human genome. It published the results as a human reference still produce the correct human protein, despite being in a very
genome that is available to anyone on the Internet. different organism.
The sequencing of the human genome is helping researchers better 8. True or False. All of your genes are expressed by all the cells of
understand cancer and genetic diseases. It is also helping them your body.
tailor medications to individual patients, which is the focus of the 9. What does The central dogma of molecular biology describe?
new field of pharmacogenomics. In addition, it is helping
researchers better understand human evolution. EXPLORE MORE
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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
7: CELL REPRODUCTION
This chapter introduces two types of cell divisions. First, it explains mitosis and then meiosis. This
chapter also explains why cells divide and how the divisions are regulated. The errors in the division
may lead to diseases, such as leukemia.

7.1: CASE STUDY: GENETIC SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

This introduces the concept of mitosis and meiosis in the form of a Leukemia case study.

7.2: CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

Cell division is the process in which one cell, called the parent cell, divides to form two new cells,
referred to as daughter cells. How this happens depends on whether the cell is prokaryotic or
eukaryotic. Cell division is simpler in prokaryotes than eukaryotes because prokaryotic cells
themselves are simpler. Prokaryotic cells have a single circular chromosome, no nucleus, and few other organelles. Eukaryotic cells,
in contrast, have multiple chromosomes contained within a nucleus.

7.3: MITOTIC PHASE - MITOSIS AND CYTOKINESIS

The process in which the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell divides is called mitosis. During mitosis, the two sister chromatids that make up
each chromosome separate from each other and move to opposite poles of the cell. This is shown in the figure below. Mitosis actually
occurs in four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

7.4: MUTATIONS AND CANCER

Your cells may grow and divide without performing their necessary functions, or without fully replicating their DNA, or without
copying their organelles. Probably not much good could come of that. So the cell cycle needs to be highly regulated and tightly
controlled. And it is.

7.5: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: MEIOSIS AND GAMETOGENESIS

Whereas asexual reproduction produces genetically identical clones, sexual reproduction produces genetically diverse individuals.
Sexual reproduction is the creation of a new organism by combining the genetic material of two organisms. As both parents contribute
half of the new organism's genetic material, the offspring will have traits of both parents, but will not be exactly like either parent.

7.6: GENETIC VARIATION

Genetic variation. It is this variation that is the essence of evolution. Without genetic differences among individuals, "survival of the
fittest" would not be likely. Either all survive, or all perish.

7.7: MITOSIS VS. MEIOSIS AND DISORDERS

Both mitosis and meiosis result in eukaryotic cells dividing. So what is the difference between mitosis and meiosis? The primary
difference is the differing goals of each process. The goal of mitosis is to produce two daughter cells that are genetically identical to
the parent cell, meaning the new cells have exactly the same DNA as the parent cell. Mitosis happens when you want to grow, for
example. You want all your new cells to have the same DNA as the previous cells.

7.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: GENES AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

Humans are much more genetically similar to each other than they are different.

1 4/25/2021
7.1: CASE STUDY: GENETIC SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
CASE STUDY: ABNORMAL CELL DIVISION
Like the little children shown below, seven-year-old Kim is battling
leukemia, a type of cancer that affects blood cells. Leukemia usually
starts in the bone marrow, where blood cells are produced. It causes the
production of abnormal blood cells, most commonly white blood cells,
but it can affect other types of blood cells depending on the type of
leukemia. The abnormal blood cells replace the patient’s normal blood
cells over time. This can lead to symptoms such as fatigue, frequent
infections, and easy bruising or bleeding. Leukemia can be fatal, but Figure 7.1.2 : An illustration of a human leukocyte antigen protein,
fortunately, there are some treatment options available that can prolong HLA-DQ, attached to the surface of a cell, showing its α (pink) and β
(blue) chains. (Public domain; Pdeitiker via Wikimedia.org)
life and even may cure the disease.
If the match is not good, the patient’s body could reject the bone
marrow transplant, or, conversely, the transplanted bone marrow could
produce immune cells that attack the patient’s body. A good match
between donor and recipient is critical for bone marrow donation to be
safe and effective.
A full sibling frequently provides the best match for bone marrow
donation because they share many of the same genes from their
parents. Kim’s sister is tested, but unfortunately, she is not a match for
him. This is not all that surprising since there is only about a 25%
chance that a sibling will be an identical HLA match. His parents and
other family members are also tested, but none of them is a match
either. Kim must join the 70% of patients that need to look outside of
their families for a bone marrow donor.
Read the rest of this chapter to learn more about how cells originate
Figure 7.1.1: (Public domain; Bill Branson via Wikimedia.org) from cells. Why one damaged cell gives rise to more damaged cells
Kim has undergone chemotherapy to kill the cancerous cells, but his which can lead to diseases like cancer. You will also learn why not
doctors have told his parents that it is not enough. Kim needs a bone every cell becomes cancerous and why cancerous cells divide
marrow transplant in order to replace his abnormal bone marrow with uncontrollably. You will also learn why two siblings are not exact
healthy bone marrow. His family members are eager to donate bone copies of each other.
marrow to him, but first, they must be tested to see if they are a
compatible match.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW: CELL REPRODUCTION
In this chapter, you will learn about:
Unlike blood transfusions where it is relatively easy to find a
compatible blood donor, bone marrow transplants require much more The phases of the cell cycle and how cells divide through mitosis.
specific matching between donor and recipient. They must share How cancer can result from an unregulated cell division due to a
several of the same types of proteins, called human leukocyte antigens mutation.
(HLAs), on the surface of their cells. One type of HLA protein is Sexual reproduction.
illustrated below Different people have different types of HLA Differences and similarities between sexual and asexual
proteins, or markers, depending on their specific genes. Typically, eight reproduction.
to ten HLA markers are tested and compared in the potential bone As you read the chapter, think about the following questions:
marrow donor and recipient. At least six or seven of these HLA How cancer originates?
markers need to be identical between them in order for a match to be Why every person doesn't have cancer?
made. How chemotherapy kills cancerous cells?
Why Kim's sister and other family members do not have exactly the
same HLA markers?

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7.2: CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
SO MANY CELLS!
The baby in Figure 7.2.1 has a lot of growing to do before they are
as big as their mom. Most of their growth will be the result of cell
division. By the time the baby is an adult, their body will consist of
trillions of cells. Cell division is just one of the stages that all cells
go through during their life. This includes cells that are harmful,
such as cancer cells. Cancer cells divide more often than normal
cells and grow out of control. In fact, this is how cancer cells cause
illness. In this concept, you will read about how cells divide, what
other stages cells go through, and what causes cancer cells to divide
out of control and harm the body.

Figure 7.2.2 : Eukaryotic Cell Cycle. This diagram represents the cell
cycle in eukaryotes. The First Gap (G1), Synthesis, and Second Gap
(G2) phases make up interphase (I). The mitotic phase includes mitosis
and cytokinesis. After the mitotic phase, two cells result. The
eukaryotic cell cycle is governed by the expression of cyclin proteins
along with their activity. (CC-BY-NC-SA 40; Jeremy Seto via
Figure 7.2.1 : (CC BY 2.0; Robert Whitehead via Wikimedia.com).
OpenLab CUNY)

THE CELL CYCLE INTERPHASE

Cell division is the process in which one cell, called the parent cell, The Interphase of the eukaryotic cell cycle can be subdivided into the
divides to form two new cells, referred to as daughter cells. How this following three phases (Figure 7.2.2).
happens depends on whether the cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Cell Growth Phase 1 (G1): The cell spends most of its life in the first
division is simpler in prokaryotes than eukaryotes because prokaryotic gap (sometimes referred to as growth) phase, G1. During this phase,
cells themselves are simpler. Prokaryotic cells have a single circular a cell undergoes rapid growth and performs its routine functions.
chromosome, no nucleus, and few other organelles. Eukaryotic cells, in During this phase, the biosynthetic and metabolic activities of the
contrast, have multiple chromosomes contained within a nucleus and cell occur at a high rate. The synthesis of amino acids and hundreds
many other organelles. All of these cell parts must be duplicated and of thousands or millions of proteins that are required by the cell
then separated when the cell divides. Cell division is just one of several occurs during this phase. Proteins produced include those needed
stages that a cell goes through during its lifetime. The cell cycle is a for DNA replication. If a cell is not dividing, the cell enters the G0
repeating series of events that include growth, DNA synthesis, and cell phase from this phase.
division. The cell cycle in prokaryotes is quite simple: the cell grows, G0 phase: The G0 phase is a resting phase where the cell has left
its DNA replicates, and the cell divides. This form of division in the cycle and has stopped dividing. Non-dividing cells in
prokaryotes is called asexual reproduction. In eukaryotes, the cell cycle multicellular eukaryotic organisms enter G0 from G1. These cells
is more complicated. may remain in G0 for long periods of time, even indefinitely, such
as with neurons. Cells that are completely differentiated may also
EUKARYOTIC CELL CYCLE enter G0. Some cells stop dividing when issues of sustainability or
The diagram below represents the cell cycle of an eukaryotic cell. As viability of their daughter cells arise, such as with DNA damage or
you can see, the eukaryotic cell cycle has several phases. The mitotic degradation, a process called cellular senescence. Cellular
phase (M) actually includes both mitosis and cytokinesis. This is when senescence occurs when normal diploid cells lose the ability to
the nucleus and then the cytoplasm divide. The other three phases (G1, divide, normally after about 50 cell divisions.
S, and G2) are generally grouped together as interphase. During Synthesis Phase (S): Dividing cells enter the Synthesis (S) phase
interphase, the cell grows, performs routine life processes, and prepares from G1. For two genetically identical daughter cells to be formed,
to divide. These phases are discussed below. the cell’s DNA must be copied through DNA replication. When the
DNA is replicated, both strands of the double helix are used as
templates to produce two new complementary strands. These new
strands then hydrogen bond to the template strands and two double
helices form. During this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has
effectively doubled, though the cell remains in a diploid state.

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 Growth Phase 2 (G2): The second gap (growth) (G2) phase is a The first step in the mitotic phase of a eukaryotic cell is mitosis, a
shortened growth period in which many organelles are reproduced multi-phase process in which the nucleus of the cell divides. During
or manufactured. Parts necessary for mitosis and cell division are mitosis, the nuclear envelope (membrane) breaks down and later
made during G2, including microtubules used in the mitotic reforms. The chromosomes are also sorted and separated to ensure
spindle. that each daughter cell receives a complete set of chromosomes.
Table 7.2.2 : Cell Cycle Summary The second major step is cytokinesis. This step, which occurs in
State Name Description prokaryotic cells as well, is when the cytoplasm divides and two
Resting daughter cells form.
Quiescent A resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped
phase
Senescent dividing.
(G0) CONTROL OF THE CELL CYCLE
1st growth
If the cell cycle occurred without regulation, cells might go from one
phase
Cells increase in size in G1. Cells perform their normal phase to the next before they were ready. What controls the cell cycle?
(G1)
activities.
Synthesis How does the cell know when to grow, synthesize DNA, and divide?
Interphase DNA replication occurs during this phase.
phase (S) The cell cycle is controlled mainly by regulatory proteins. These
The cell will continue to grow and many organelles will divide
2ndgrowth
during their phase. proteins control the cycle by signaling the cell to either start or delay
phase
(G2) the next phase of the cycle. They ensure that the cell completes the
Cell growth stops at this stage. Mitosis divides the nucleus into previous phase before moving on. Regulatory proteins control the cell
Cell Mitosis
division (M)
two nuclei, followed by cytokinesis which divides the cycle at key checkpoints, which are shown in Figure 7.2.3. There are a
cytoplasm. Two genetically identical daughter cells result. number of main checkpoints:
MITOTIC PHASE 1. The G1 checkpoint, just before entry into S phase, makes the key
decision of whether the cell should divide.
Before a eukaryotic cell divides, all the DNA in the cell’s multiple
2. The S checkpoint determines if the DNA has been replicated
chromosomes is replicated. Its organelles are also duplicated. This
properly.
happens in interphase. Then, when the cell divides (mitotic phase), it
3. The mitosis checkpoint ensures that all the chromosomes are
occurs in two major steps, called mitosis and cytokinesis, both of
properly aligned before the cell is allowed to divide.
which are described in greater detail in the concept Mitotic Phase:
Mitosis and Cytokinesis.

Figure 7.2.3: Checkpoints in the eukaryotic cell cycle ensure that the cell is ready to proceed before it moves on to the next phase of the cycle.
(CC BY-NC 4.0 via lumenLearning)

CANCER AND THE CELL CYCLE

Cancer is a disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer
regulated. This happens because a cell’s DNA becomes damaged. This
results in mutations in the genes that regulate the cell cycle. Damage
can occur due to exposure to hazards such as radiation or toxic

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chemicals. Cancerous cells generally divide much faster than normal research. Since then, HeLa cells have been used in thousands of
cells. They may form a mass of abnormal cells called a tumor (see the studies and have made possible hundreds of medical advances. For
image below). The rapidly dividing cells take up nutrients and space example, Jonas Salk used the cells in the early 1950s to test his
that normal cells need. This can damage tissues and organs and polio vaccine. Over the decades since then, HeLa cells have been
eventually lead to death. When uncontrolled cell division happens in used to make important discoveries in the study of cancer, AIDS,
the bone marrow, abnormal and nonfunctional blood cells are produced and many other diseases. The cells were even sent to space on early
because the division is happening before the cell is ready for division. space missions to learn how human cells respond to zero gravity.
In these types of cancer, there is not any evident tumor. HeLa cells were also the first human cells ever cloned, and their
genes were some of the first ever mapped. It is almost impossible to
overestimate the profound importance of HeLa cells to human
biology and medicine.
You would think that Henrietta Lacks' name would be well known
in medical history for her unparalleled contributions to biomedical
research. However, until 2010, her story was virtually unknown.
That year, a science writer named Rebecca Skloot published a
nonfiction book about Henrietta Lacks, named The Immortal Life of
Henrietta Lacks. Based on a decade of research, the book is
riveting, and it became an almost instantaneous best seller. As of
Figure 2016, Oprah Winfrey and collaborators planned to make a movie
7.2.4: Gross appearance of an opened large intestine based on the book, and in recent years, numerous articles about
specimen containing an invasive colorectal carcinoma and Henrietta Lacks have appeared in the press.
two adenomatous polyps. The cancer cells have grown out of control
Ironically, Henrietta herself never knew her cells had been taken,
and forming a tumor. (CC BY 3.0; Emmanuelm via Wikimedia.org)
and neither did her family. While her cells were making a lot of
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS money and building scientific careers, her children were living in
Henrietta Lacks sought treatment for her cancer at Johns Hopkins poverty, too poor to afford medical insurance. The story of
University Hospital at a time when researchers were trying to grow Henrietta Lacks and her immortal cells raises ethical issues about
human cells in the lab for medical testing. Despite many attempts, human tissues and who controls them in biomedical research.
the cells always died before they had undergone many cell However, there is no question that Henrietta Lacks deserves far
divisions. Mrs. Lacks's doctor took a small sample of cells from her more recognition for her contribution to the advancement of science
tumor without her knowledge and gave them to a Johns Hopkins and medicine.
researcher, who tried to grow them on a culture plate. For the first
time in history, human cells grown on a culture plate kept SUMMARY
dividing...and dividing and dividing and dividing. Copies of The cell cycle is a repeating series of events that include growth,
Henrietta's Lacks cells — called HeLa cells for her name — are DNA synthesis, and cell division. The cycle is more complicated in
still alive today. In fact, there are currently many billions of HeLa eukaryotic than prokaryotic cells.
cells in laboratories around the world! In a eukaryotic cell, the cell cycle has two major phases: interphase
and mitotic phase. During interphase, the cell grows, performs
routine life processes, and prepares to divide. The mitotic phase of
the cell cycle in an eukaryotic cell occurs in two major steps:
mitosis, when the nucleus divides; and cytokinesis, when the
cytoplasm divides and two daughter cells form.
The cell cycle is controlled mainly by regulatory proteins that
signal the cell to either start or delay the next phase of the cycle.
They ensure that the cell completes the previous phase before
moving on. There are a number of main checkpoints in the
regulation of the cell cycle.
Cancer is a disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer
Figure 7.2.5: Fluorescently dyed HeLa Cells. The woman named regulated, for example, because the cell's DNA has become
Henrietta Lacks died in 1951 of an unusual form of cervical cancer, damaged. Cancerous cells grow out of control and may form a mass
she was just 31 years old. A poor, African-American tobacco of abnormal cells called a tumor.
farmer and mother of five, she (or at least her cells) would
eventually be called immortal. (Public domain; NIH via REVIEW
Wikimedia.org)
1. What are the two main phases of the cell cycle in a eukaryotic cell?
Why Henrietta Lacks' cells lived on when other human cells did not 2. Describe the three phases of interphase in a eukaryotic cell.
is still something of a mystery, but they are clearly extremely hardy 3. Explain how the cell cycle is controlled.
and resilient cells. By 1953, when researchers learned of their 4. How is cancer-related to the cell cycle?
ability to keep dividing indefinitely, factories were set up to start 5. What are the two major steps of cell division in a eukaryotic cell?
producing the cells commercially on a large scale for medical

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6. In which phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle do cells typically spend 10. In which phase within interphase does the cell make final
most of their lives? preparations to divide?
7. Which phases of the cell cycle will have cells with twice the A. Mitosis B. Cytokinesis C. G2 D. S
amount of DNA? Explain your answer.
11. What were scientists trying to do when they took tumor cells from
8. If there is damage to a gene that encodes for a cell cycle regulatory
Henrietta Lacks? Why did they specifically use tumor cells to try to
protein, what do you think might happen? Explain your answer.
achieve their goal?
9. True or False. Cells go into G0 if they do not pass the G1
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7.3: MITOTIC PHASE - MITOSIS AND CYTOKINESIS
DIVIDE AND SPLIT familiar X-shaped form of a chromosome, like the one shown below.
Can you guess what this colorful image represents? It shows a Because DNA has already replicated (during S phase of interphase)
eukaryotic cell during the process of cell division. In particular, the when it coils into a chromosome, each chromosome actually consists of
image shows the nucleus of the cell dividing. In eukaryotic cells, two identical copies. The two copies of a chromosome are called sister
the nucleus divides before the cell itself splits in two; and before chromatids. Sister chromatids are joined together at a region called a
the nucleus divides, the cell’s DNA is replicated, or copied. There centromere.
must be two copies of the DNA so that each daughter cell will have
a complete copy of the genetic material from the parent cell. How is
the replicated DNA sorted and separated so that each daughter cell
gets a complete set of genetic material? To answer that question,
you first need to know more about DNA and the forms it takes.

Figure 7.3.2 : Chromosome. After DNA replicates, it forms

chromosomes like the one shown here. 1. Chromatid, 2. Centromere, 3.
short arm, 4. long arm (CC BY-SA 3.0; Dietzel65 via Wikimedia.org)
The process in which the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell divides is called
mitosis. During mitosis, the two sister chromatids that make up each
Figure 7.3.1 : (Public domain; US Government via Wikimedia.org)
chromosome separate from each other and move to opposite poles of
the cell. This is shown in the figure below. Mitosis actually occurs in
THE FORMS OF DNA four phases. The phases are called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
Except when a eukaryotic cell divides, its nuclear DNA exists as a telophase. They are shown in Figure 7.3.3 and described in detail
grainy material called chromatin. Only when a cell is about to divide below.
and its DNA has replicated does DNA condense and coil into the
Interphase Prophase
DNA is replicated, Chromatin condenses making
cell prepares for the chromosomes visible.
mitosis.
Nucleus
Nucleolus

Chromatin
Mikrotubule
Prometaphase
Pole
Centrioles Nuclear envelope
Chromosomes
breaks down.
Nuclear envelope

Spindle
Telophase
Daughter
chromosomes
reach the poles
and form two
new nuclei.
Metaphase
Daughter chromosomes The chromosomes
become aligned at
Anaphase the equatorial
Sister chromatids plane.
separate and the
resultant daughter
chromosomes move
toward the poles.
Figure 7.3.3 : Mitosis is the phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle that occurs between DNA replication and the formation of two daughter cells.
Mitosis has four substages, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. (CC BY-SA 3.0; Jpablo cad and Juliana Osorio translation:
MattDerivative work: M3.dahl via Wikipedia.org)

PROPHASE

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 Figure 7.3.5: Anaphase: Sister chromatids break apart and move to the
Figure 7.3.4 : Spindle. The spindle starts to form during the prophase of opposite pole with the help of spindles. The newly separated sister
mitosis. Kinetochores on the spindle attach to the centromeres of sister
chromatids during metaphase. (CC BY-NC 3.0 via CK12.org) chromatids are called chromosomes now. ( Public domain; LadyofHats
via Wikipedia.org)
The first and longest phase of mitosis is prophase. During prophase,
chromatin condenses into chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope (the TELOPHASE
membrane surrounding the nucleus) breaks down. In animal cells, the the chromosomes reach the opposite poles and begin to decondense
centrioles near the nucleus begin to separate and move to opposite (unravel), relaxing once again into a stretched-out chromatin
poles of the cell. Centrioles are small organelles found only in configuration. The mitotic spindles are depolymerized into tubulin
eukaryotic cells that help ensure the new cells that form after cell monomers that will be used to assemble cytoskeletal components for
division each contain a complete set of chromosomes. As the centrioles each daughter cell. Nuclear envelopes form around the chromosomes,
move apart, a spindle starts to form between them. The spindle, shown and nucleosomes appear within the nuclear area.
in the diagram below, consists of fibers made of microtubules.

METAPHASE
During metaphase, spindle fibers attach to the centromere of each pair
of sister chromatids. As you can see in the figure below, the sister
chromatids line up at the equator, or center, of the cell. The spindle
fibers ensure that sister chromatids will separate and go to different
daughter cells when the cell divides. Some spindles do not attach with
the centromeres of chromosomes, rather, they attach with each other
and grow longer. The elongation of spindles not attached to the
centromeres. They elongate the whole cell. This is visible in the figure Figure 7.3.6: Telophase: The chromosomes decondense, spindles start
below: to disappear, two nuclei form in a cell. (Public domain; LadyofHats via
Wikipedia.org)

CYTOKINESIS

Figure 7.3.5 : Chromosomes, consisting of sister chromatids, line up at

the equator or middle of the cell during metaphase. The blue lines are
spindles, and the orange rectangles at the cell poles are centrioles.
(Public domain; LadyofHats via Wikipedia.org)

ANAPHASE
During anaphase, sister chromatids separate and the centromeres
divide. The sister chromatids are pulled apart by the shortening of the
spindle fibers. This is a little like reeling in a fish by shortening the
fishing line. One sister chromatid moves to one pole of the cell, and the
other sister chromatid moves to the opposite pole (see figure below). Figure 7.3.7 : Cytokinesis is the final stage of eukaryotic cell division.
At the end of anaphase, each pole of the cell has a complete set of It occurs differently in animal (left) and plant (right) cells. (CC BY-NC
3.0; LadyofHats; CK-12 Foundation)
chromosomes
Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division in eukaryotes as well as
prokaryotes. During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm splits in two and the
cell divides. The process is different in plant and animal cells, as you

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can see in Figure 7.3.7. In animal cells, the plasma membrane of the form of a chromosome. Each chromosome actually consists of two
parent cell pinches inward along the cell’s equator until two daughter sister chromatids, which are joined together at a centromere.
cells form. In plant cells, a cell plate forms along the equator of the Mitosis is the process in which the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell
parent cell. Then, a new plasma membrane and cell wall form along divides. During this process, sister chromatids separate from each
each side of the cell plate. other and move to opposite poles of the cell. This happens in four
phases, called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
SUMMARY Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division, during which the
Except when a eukaryotic cell divides, its nuclear DNA exists as a cytoplasm splits into two and two daughter cells form.
grainy material called chromatin. After DNA replicates and the cell
is about to divide, the DNA condenses and coils into the X-shaped

Figure 7.3.8. Karyokinesis (or mitosis) is divided into five stages—prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. We should note
that this is a continuous process and that the divisions between the stages are not discrete. The pictures at the bottom were taken by fluorescence
microscopy (hence, the black background) of cells artificially stained by fluorescent dyes: blue fluorescence indicates DNA (chromosomes) and
green fluorescence indicates microtubules (spindle apparatus). (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0; Mariana Ruiz Villareal; modified by Roy van Heesbeen;
Wadsworth Center/New York State Department of Health; scale-bar data from Matt Russell via OER Commons)
B. How DNA in eukaryotic cells looks once it is replicated and the
REVIEW cell is about to divide
1. Describe the different forms that DNA takes before and during cell C. Female sex chromosomes only
division in a eukaryotic cell.
D. How DNA appears immediately after cytokinesis
2. Identify the four phases of mitosis in an animal cell, and summarize
6. Which of the following is not part of a chromosome in eukaryotic
what happens during each phase.
cells?
3. Explain what happens during cytokinesis in an animal cell.
4. What are the main differences between mitosis and cytokinesis? A. Centriole
5. The familiar X-shaped chromosome represents: B. Centromere
A. How DNA always looks in eukaryotic cells C. Chromatid
D. DNA

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7. What do you think would happen if the sister chromatids of one of 10. The fibers made of microtubules that attach to the centromeres
the chromosomes did not separate during mitosis? during mitosis are called ____________.
8. Put the following processes in order of when they occur during cell 11. True or False. Chromosomes begin to uncoil during anaphase.
division, from first to last: 12. True or False. During cytokinesis in animal cells, sister chromatids
A) separation of sister chromatids; B) DNA replication; C) line up along the equator of the cell.
cytokinesis; D) lining up of chromosomes in the center of the cell; 13. True or False. After mitosis, the result is typically two daughter
E) condensation and coiling of DNA into a chromosome cells with identical DNA to each other.
9. Why do you think the nuclear envelope breaks down at the start of
mitosis? EXPLORE MORE
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7.4: MUTATIONS AND CANCER
WHAT WOULD HAPPEN IF THIS CYCLE PROCEEDS AT WILL? cancer cells is known as carcinogenesis. This process is also known as
Your cells may grow and divide without performing their necessary oncogenesis or tumorigenesis.
functions, or without fully replicating their DNA, or without Nearly all cancers are caused by mutations in the DNA of the abnormal
copying their organelles. Probably not much good could come of
cells. These mutations may be due to the effects of carcinogens,
that. So the cell cycle needs to be highly regulated and tightly
controlled. And it is. cancer-causing agents such as tobacco smoke, radiation, chemicals, or
infectious agents. These carcinogens may act as an environmental
“trigger,” stimulating the onset of cancer in certain individuals and not
others. Do all people who smoke get cancer? No. Can secondhand
smoke increase a nonsmoking person's chance of developing lung
cancer? Yes. It also increases a nonsmoking person's chance of
developing heart disease.
Complex interactions between carcinogens and an individual’s genome
may explain why only some people develop cancer after exposure to an
environmental trigger and others do not. Do all cancers need an
environmental trigger to develop? No. Cancer-causing mutations may
also result from errors incorporated into the DNA during replication, or
they may be inherited. Inherited mutations are present in all cells of the
organism.

ONCOGENES AND TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENES

Figure 7.4.1 : (CC BY-SA 4.0 WassermanLab via Wikimedia).
Mutations found in the DNA of cancer cells typically affect two
general classes of genes: oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. In
CONTROL OF THE CELL CYCLE “normal,” non-cancerous cells, the products of proto-oncogenes
How does the cell know when to divide? How does the cell know when promote cell growth and mitosis prior to cell division; thus, proto-
to replicate its DNA? How does the cell know when to proceed into oncogenes encode proteins needed for normal cellular functions.
mitosis or cytokinesis? The answers to these questions have to do with Mutations in proto-oncogenes can modify their expression and the
the control of the cell cycle. But how is the cell cycle controlled or function of the gene product, increasing the amount of activity of the
regulated? Regulation of the cell cycle involves processes crucial to the product protein. When this happens, they become oncogenes; thus, the
survival of a cell. These include the detection and repair of damage to cells have a higher chance of dividing excessively and uncontrollably.
DNA, as well as the prevention of uncontrolled cell division. Cancer-promoting oncogenes are often activated in cancer cells, giving
Uncontrolled cell division can be deadly to an organism; its prevention those cells abnormal properties. The products of these genes result in
is critical for survival. uncontrolled cell growth and division, protection against programmed
cell death, loss of respect for normal tissue boundaries, and the ability
CYCLINS AND KINASES
to become established in diverse tissue environments. Proto-oncogenes
The cell cycle is controlled by a number of protein-controlled feedback
cannot be removed from the genome, as they are critical for growth,
processes. Two types of proteins involved in the control of the cell
repair, and homeostasis. It is only when they become mutated that the
cycle are kinases and cyclins. Cyclins activate kinases by binding to
signals for growth become excessive.
them, specifically they activate cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK).
Kinases are enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group In “normal” cells, the products of tumor suppressor genes
from ATP to another molecule in a cell. They function as a control temporarily discourage cell growth and division to allow cells to finish
switch in many cellular functions, turning a function on or off, and routine functions, especially DNA repair. Tumor suppressors are
regulating other cellular processes. Many times they are involved in generally transcription factors, activated by cellular stress or DNA
activating a cascade of reactions. Cyclins comprise a group of proteins damage. The function of such genes is to stop the cell cycle in order to
that are rapidly produced at key stages in the cell cycle. Once activated carry out DNA repair, preventing mutations from being passed on to
by a cyclin, CDK enzymes activate or inactivate other target molecules daughter cells. However, if the tumor suppressor genes are inactivated,
through phosphorylation. It is this precise regulation of proteins that DNA repair cannot occur. Tumor suppressor genes can be inactivated
triggers advancement through the cell cycle. Leland H. Hartwell, R. by a mutation that either affects the gene directly or that affects the
Timothy Hunt, and Paul M. Nurse won the 2001 Nobel Prize in pathway that activates the gene. The consequence of the lack of DNA
Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of these critical proteins. repair is that DNA damage accumulates, is not repaired, and inevitably
leads to detrimental phenotypes, such as cancer.
WHAT MAKES A CELL CANCEROUS?
Cancer is a disease characterized by a population of cells that grow
and divide without respect to normal limits. These cancerous cells
invade and destroy adjacent tissues, and they may spread throughout
the body. The process by which normal cells are transformed into

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 Table 7.4.1 : over or underactivation of the normal cellular functioning may by the normal control of the cell cycle and the actions of tumor
cause cancer. suppressor genes. Similarly, a mutation in one tumor suppressor gene
Category Examples Description
would not cause cancer either, due to the presence of many "backup"
Usually secreted by specialized cells to induce cell
proliferation in the cell, nearby cells, or distant cells.
genes that duplicate its functions. It is only when enough proto-
An oncogene may cause a cell to secrete growth oncogenes have mutated into oncogenes and enough tumor suppressor
Growth factors,
c-Sis
factors that would normally not be secreted. The genes have been deactivated that the cancerous transformation can
or mitogens oncogene will thereby induce its own uncontrolled begin. Signals for cell growth overwhelm the signals for growth
proliferation, as well as the proliferation of
neighboring cells. It may also cause the production
regulation, and the cell quickly spirals out of control. Often, because
of growth hormones in other parts of the body. many of these genes regulate the processes that prevent most damage
epidermal to the genes themselves, DNA damage accumulates as one ages.
growth factor
Receptor tyrosine kinases add phosphate groups to
receptor
other proteins to activate or inactivate them.
(EGFR),
Receptor kinases add phosphate groups to receptor
platelet-derived
proteins at the surface of the cell. These receptor
growth factor
proteins receive signals from outside the cell and
Receptor receptor
initiate a signal transduction process inside the cell.
tyrosine kinases (PDGFR),
Tyrosine kinases add phosphate groups to tyrosine
vascular
residues in the target protein. They can cause cancer
endothelial
by turning the receptor permanently on
growth factor
(constitutively), even without signals from outside
receptor
the cell.
(VEGFR),
HER2/neu
Src-family,
Syk-ZAP-70
family, and Cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases are similar to receptor
BTK family of tyrosine kinases, except that they are located within
Cytoplasmic
tyrosine the cell. They, in turn, phosphorylate tyrosine
tyrosine kinases
kinases, the Abl residues of target proteins, initiating a cascade of
gene in CML - intracellular processes.
Philadelphia
chromosome
Cytoplasmic
Raf kinase, and
serine/threonine Cytoplasmic serine/threonine kinases are similar to
cyclin-
kinases and cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases, except that serene or
dependent
their regulatory throne residues are phosphorylated. Figure 7.4.2 : Cancers are caused by a series of mutations. (public
kinases.
subunits domain; National Cancer Institute via Wikimedia.org).
Ras is a small GTPase that hydrolyzes GTP into Usually, oncogenes are dominant alleles, as they contain gain-of-
GDP and phosphate. Ras is activated by growth
factor signaling and activates or inactivates growth
function mutations. The actions of the mutant allele gene product,
Regulatory many times resulting in a constitutively activated protein, are dominant
Ras protein signaling pathways. Downstream effectors of Ras
GTPases
include Raf, MEK, MEKK, MAPK, ERK, most of to the gene product produced by the "normal" allele. Meanwhile,
which in turn regulate genes that mediate cell mutated tumor suppressors are generally recessive alleles, as they
proliferation.
contain loss-of-function mutations. A proto-oncogene needs only a
myc gene products regulate the transcription of
Transcription genes that induce cell proliferation. c-fos gene mutation in one copy of the gene to generate an oncogene; a tumor
myc, fos
factors products interact with c-jun and form the AP-1 early suppressor gene needs a mutation in both copies of the gene to render
response transcription factor. both products defective. There are instances when, however, one
mutated allele of a tumor suppressor gene can render the other copy
ONCOGENES
non-functional. These instances result in what is known as a dominant
Categories of oncogenes are described in the Table above. Oncogenes negative effect.
may be growth factors, protein kinases, GTPases or transcription
factors. Growth factors are naturally occurring substances, usually a SUMMARY
protein or steroid hormone, capable of stimulating cellular growth, The cell cycle is controlled through feedback mechanisms
proliferation, and differentiation. They are important for regulating a involving cyclin and CDK proteins.
variety of cellular processes. Usually, they must bind to an extracellular Nearly all cancers are caused by mutations in the DNA of the
or intracellular receptor to initiate a cellular reaction. abnormal cells.
SEVERAL MUTATIONS TO CAUSE CANCER In non-cancerous cells, proto-oncogenes promote cell growth and
mitosis prior to cell division; thus, proto-oncogenes encode proteins
Typically, a series of several mutations that constitutively activate
needed for normal cellular functions.
oncogenes and inactivate tumor suppressor genes is required to
In non-cancerous cells, tumor suppressor genes temporarily
transform a normal cell into a cancer cell (Figure 7.4.2). Cells have
discourage cell growth and division to allow cells to finish routine
developed a number of control mechanisms to overcome mutations in
functions, especially DNA repair.
proto-oncogenes. Therefore, a cell needs multiple mutations to
Mutations in proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes may lead
transform into a cancerous cell. A mutation in one proto-oncogene
to cancer.
would not cause cancer, as the effects of the mutation would be masked

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 Usually, mutations in multiple genes are necessary to develop 3. Discuss the role of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in
cancer. carcinogenesis.
4. Why are multiple mutations required for transformation into a
REVIEW cancerous cell?
1. Define cancer. 5. Identify all the categories of oncogenes and describe two
2. What are cyclin-dependent kinases? What is their role? categories.

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7.5: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: MEIOSIS AND GAMETOGENESIS
ALL IN THE FAMILY organisms, including almost all animals and plants. Fertilization joins
The self-portrait of an 18th-century artist and his family in Figure two haploid gametes into a diploid zygote, the first cell of a new
7.5.1 clearly illustrates an important point. Children in a family
organism. The zygote enters G1 of the first cell cycle, and the organism
resemble their parents and each other, but the children are never begins to grow and develop through mitosis and cell division.
exactly the same unless they are identical twins. Each of the
daughters in the painting inherited a unique combination of traits
from the parents. In this concept, you will learn how this happens.
It all begins with sex — sexual reproduction, that is.

Figure 7.5.2: Crossing over occurs during meiosis I, and is the process
where homologous chromosomes pair up with each other and exchange
different segments of their genetic material to form recombinant
chromosomes. In some species crossing over is essential for the normal
segregation of chromosomes during meiosis. Crossing over also
increases genetic variation, because due to the swapping of genetic
material during crossing over, the chromatids held together by the
Figure 7.5.1 : (Public Domain; Hendrik Spilman via Wikimedia centromere are no longer identical. So, when the chromosomes go on
Commons).
to meiosis II and separate, some of the daughter cells receive daughter
chromosomes with recombined alleles. Due to this genetic
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION recombination, the offspring have a different set of alleles and genes
Why do you look similar to your parents, but not identical? First, it is than their parents do. In the diagram, genes B and b are crossed over
because you have two parents. Second, it is because of sexual with each other, making the resulting recombinants after meiosis Ab,
reproduction. Whereas asexual reproduction produces genetically AB, ab, and aB.l. (CC BY-SA 3.0 Abbyprovenzano; via
identical clones, sexual reproduction produces genetically diverse Wikimedia.org).
individuals. Sexual reproduction is the creation of a new organism by
combining the genetic material of two organisms. As both parents MEIOSIS
contribute half of the new organism’s genetic material, the offspring
will have traits of both parents, but will not be exactly like either
parent.
Organisms that reproduce sexually by joining gametes, a process
known as fertilization, must have a mechanism to produce haploid
gametes. This mechanism is meiosis, a type of cell division that halves
the number of chromosomes. During meiosis, the pairs of
chromosomes separate and segregate randomly to produce gametes
with one chromosome from each pair. Meiosis involves two nuclear
and cell divisions without interphase in between, starting with one
diploid cell and generating four haploid cells. Each division, named
meiosis I and meiosis II, has four stages: prophase, metaphase,
Figure 7.5.3 : Overview of Meiosis. During meiosis, homologous
anaphase, and telophase. These stages are similar to those of mitosis, chromosomes separate and go to different daughter cells. This diagram
but there are distinct and important differences. shows just the nuclei of the cells. Notice the exchange of genetic
material that occurs prior to the first cell division. (public domain;
Prior to meiosis, the cell’s DNA is replicated, generating chromosomes National Center for Biotechnology Information, part of the National
with two sister chromatids. A human cell prior to meiosis will have 46 Institutes of Health via Wikimedia.org).
chromosomes, 22 pairs of homologous autosomes, and 1 pair of sex The process that produces haploid gametes is called meiosis. Meiosis is
chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes (Figure 7.5.2), or a type of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is reduced
homologs, are similar in size, shape, and genetic content; they contain by half. It occurs only in certain special cells of an organism. In
the same genes, though they may have different alleles of those genes. mammals, Meiosis occurs only in gamete producing cells within the
The genes/alleles are at the same loci on homologous chromosomes. gonads. During meiosis, homologous (paired) chromosomes separate,
You inherit one chromosome of each pair of homologs from your and haploid cells form that have only one chromosome from each pair.
mother and the other one from your father. Sexual reproduction is the Figure 7.5.3 gives an overview of meiosis.
primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of multicellular

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As you can see from the meiosis diagram, two cell divisions occur occur in four phases, called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
during the overall process, so a total of four haploid cells are produced. telophase. You may recognize these four phases from mitosis, the
The two cell divisions are called meiosis I and meiosis II. Meiosis I division of the nucleus that takes place during routine cell division of
begins after DNA replicates during interphase. Meiosis II follows eukaryotic cells.
meiosis I without DNA replicating again. Both meiosis I and meiosis II

Figure 7.5.4 : Complete Stages of Meiosis: An animal cell with a diploid number of four (2n = 4) proceeds through the stages of meiosis to form
four haploid daughter cells. (CC BY 4.0 via OpenStax College)
1. Prophase I: The nuclear envelope begins to break down, and the
MEIOSIS I chromosomes condense. Centrioles start moving to opposite poles

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 of the cell, and a spindle begins to form. Importantly, homologous produced from the four haploid cells that result from meiosis. The
chromosomes pair up, which is unique to prophase I. In prophase of single egg is a very large cell, as you can see from the human egg
mitosis and meiosis II, homologous chromosomes do not form pairs also shown in Figure 7.5.5.
in this way. During prophase I, crossing-over occurs. The
SPERMATOGENESIS
significance of crossing-over is discussed in the next section called
Spermatogenesis occurs in the wall of the seminiferous tubules, with
variations.
stem cells at the periphery of the tube and the spermatozoa at the
2. Metaphase I: Spindle fibers attach to the paired homologous
lumen of the tube. Immediately under the capsule of the tubule are
chromosomes. The paired chromosomes line up along the equator
diploid, undifferentiated cells. These stem cells, called spermatogonia
of the cell. This occurs only in metaphase I. In metaphase of mitosis
(singular: spermatagonium), go through mitosis with one offspring
and meiosis II, it is sister chromatids that line up along the equator
going on to differentiate into a sperm cell, while the other gives rise to
of the cell.
the next generation of sperm.
3. Anaphase I: Spindle fibers shorten, and the chromosomes of each
homologous pair start to separate from each other. One
chromosome of each pair moves toward one pole of the cell, and
the other chromosome moves toward the opposite pole.
4. Telophase I and Cytokinesis: The spindle breaks down, and new
nuclear membranes form. The cytoplasm of the cell divides, and
two haploid daughter cells result. The daughter cells each have a
random assortment of chromosomes, with one from each
homologous pair. Both daughter cells go on to meiosis II.

MEIOSIS II
1. Prophase II: The nuclear envelope breaks down and the spindle
begins to form in each haploid daughter cell from meiosis I. The
centrioles also start to separate.
2. Metaphase II: Spindle fibers line up the sister chromatids of each
chromosome along the equator of the cell.
3. Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite
poles.
4. Telophase II and Cytokinesis: The spindle breaks down, and new
nuclear membranes form. The cytoplasm of each cell divides, and
four haploid cells result. Each cell has a unique combination of
chromosomes.

GAMETOGENESIS

Figure 7.5.6 : Spermatogenesis During spermatogenesis, four sperm

result from each primary spermatocyte, which divides into two haploid
secondary spermatocytes; these cells will go through a second meiotic
division to produce four spermatids. (CC BY 4.0 via OpenStax
College).
Meiosis begins with a cell called a primary spermatocyte. At the end of
the first meiotic division, a haploid cell is produced called a secondary
spermatocyte. This haploid cell must go through another meiotic cell
Figure 7.5.5 : A human sperm is a tiny cell with a tail. A human egg is division. The cell produced at the end of meiosis is called a spermatid.
much larger. Both cells are mature haploid gametes that are capable of
fertilization. What process is shown in this photograph? (public domain When it reaches the lumen of the tubule and grows a flagellum (or
via Wikicommons). "tail"), it is called a sperm cell. Four sperm result from each primary
At the end of meiosis, four haploid cells have been produced, but the spermatocyte that goes through meiosis.
cells are not yet gametes. The cells need to develop before they become Stem cells are deposited during gestation and are present at birth
mature gametes capable of fertilization. The development of through the beginning of adolescence but in an inactive state. During
diploid cells into gametes is called gametogenesis. It differs between adolescence, gonadotropic hormones from the anterior pituitary cause
males and females. the activation of these cells and the production of viable sperm. This
A gamete produced by a male is called a sperm, and the process continues into old age.
that produces a mature sperm is called spermatogenesis. During OOGENESIS
this process, a sperm cell grows a tail and gains the ability to Oogenesis occurs in the outermost layers of the ovaries. As with sperm
“swim,” like the human sperm cell shown in the figure below. production, oogenesis starts with a germ cell, called an oogonium
A gamete produced by a female is called an egg, and the process (plural: oogonia), but this cell undergoes mitosis to increase in number,
that produces a mature egg is called oogenesis. Just one egg is eventually resulting in up to one to two million cells in the embryo.

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 In sexual reproduction, two parents produce gametes that unite in
the process of fertilization to form a single-celled zygote. Gametes
are haploid cells with only one of each pair of homologous
chromosomes, and the zygote is a diploid cell with two of each pair
of chromosomes.
Meiosis is the type of cell division that produces four haploid
daughter cells that may become gametes. Meiosis occurs in two
stages, called meiosis I and meiosis II, each of which occurs in four
phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase).
Gametogenesis is the process in which the diploid cells change into
mature gametes. Males produce gametes called sperm in a process
known as spermatogenesis, and females produce gametes called
eggs in the process known as oogenesis.
Sexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically unique.
Crossing-over, independent assortment and the random union of
gametes work together to result in an amazing amount of potential
genetic variation.

REVIEW
1. Explain how sexual reproduction occurs at the cellular level.
2. Summarize what happens during meiosis.
3. Compare and contrast gametogenesis in males and females.
4. Explain mechanisms that increase genetic variation in offspring
Figure 7.5.7 : Oogenesis The process of oogenesis occurs in the ovary's produced by sexual reproduction.
outermost layer. A primary oocyte begins the first meiotic division but 5. Why do gametes need to be haploid? What would happen to the
then arrests until later in life when it will finish this division in a chromosome number after fertilization if they were diploid?
developing follicle. This results in a secondary oocyte, which will 6. Describe one difference between prophase I of meiosis and
complete meiosis if it is fertilized. (CC BY 4.0 via OpenStax College).
prophase of mitosis.
7. Do all of the chromosomes that you got from your mother go into
The cell starting meiosis is called a primary oocyte. This cell will begin
one of your gametes? Why or why not?
the first meiotic division, but be arrested in its progress in the first
8. True or False. Crossing-over is the exchange of genetic material
prophase stage. At the time of birth, all future eggs are in the prophase
between sister chromatids.
stage. At adolescence, anterior pituitary hormones cause the
9. True or False. Human sperms are haploid.
development of a number of follicles in an ovary. This results in the
10. True or False. Sister chromatids separate from each other during
primary oocyte finishing the first meiotic division. The cell divides
meiosis I.
unequally, with most of the cellular material and organelles going to
11. How many cells are produced after a single cell goes through
one cell, called a secondary oocyte, and only one set of chromosomes
meiosis?
and a small amount of cytoplasm going to the other cell. This second
12. Which stage of meiosis (prophase I or II; metaphase I or II;
cell is called a polar body and usually dies. A secondary meiotic arrest
anaphase I or II; telophase I or II) best fits the descriptions below?
occurs, this time at the metaphase II stage. At ovulation, this secondary
Choose only one for each description.
oocyte will be released and travel toward the uterus through the
oviduct. If the secondary oocyte is fertilized, the cell continues through a. Pairs of homologous chromosomes line up along the equator of
the meiosis II, completing meiosis, producing a second polar body and the cell
a fertilized egg containing all 46 chromosomes of a human being, half b. Sister chromatids separate
of them coming from the sperm. c. Homologous chromosomes separate from each other

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7.6: GENETIC VARIATION
WHAT HELPS ENSURE THE SURVIVAL OF A SPECIES? unique combinations of genes. This process is also known as
Genetic variation. It is this variation that is the essence of evolution. recombination.
Without genetic differences among individuals, "survival of the
fittest" would not be likely. Either all survive, or all perish.

Figure 7.6.2 : Crossing-over. A maternal strand of DNA is shown in

red. A paternal strand of DNA is shown in blue. Crossing over
produces two chromosomes that have not previously existed. The
Figure 7.6.1: (CC BY 3.0; Profiles in Diversity Journal via process of recombination involves the breakage and rejoining of
wikimedia.org) parental chromosomes (M, F). This results in the generation of novel
chromosomes (C1, C2) that share DNA from both parents. (CC BY
2.5; David Eccles (Gringer) via Wikimedia).
GENETIC VARIATION
Sexual reproduction results in infinite possibilities of genetic
variation. In other words, sexual reproduction results in offspring that
are genetically unique. They differ from both parents and also from
each other. This occurs for a number of reasons.
When homologous chromosomes form pairs during prophase I of
meiosis I, crossing-over can occur. Crossing-over is the exchange
of genetic material between homologous chromosomes. It results in
new combinations of genes on each chromosome.
When cells divide during meiosis, homologous chromosomes are
randomly distributed to daughter cells, and different chromosomes
segregate independently of each other. This called is called
independent assortment. It results in gametes that have unique
combinations of chromosomes.
In sexual reproduction, two gametes unite to produce an offspring.
But which two of the millions of possible gametes will it be? This
is likely to be a matter of chance. It is obviously another source of
genetic variation in offspring. This is known as random
fertilization.
All of these mechanisms working together result in an amazing amount
of potential variation. Each human couple, for example, has the
potential to produce more than 64 trillion genetically unique children.
No wonder we are all different!

CROSSING-OVER
Crossing-over occurs during prophase I, and it is the exchange of
genetic material between non-sister chromatids of homologous Figure 7.6.3 : Crossover between homologous chromosomes Crossover
chromosomes. Recall during prophase I, homologous chromosomes occurs between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
The result is an exchange of genetic material between homologous
line up in pairs, gene-for-gene down their entire length, forming a chromosomes. (CC BY 4.0 via OpenStax College).
configuration with four chromatids, known as a tetrad. At this point,
During prophase I, chromosomes condense and become visible inside
the chromatids are very close to each other and some material from two
the nucleus. As the nuclear envelope begins to break down,
chromatids switch chromosomes, that is, the material breaks off and
homologous chromosomes move closer together. The synaptonemal
reattaches at the same position on the homologous chromosome
complex, a lattice of proteins between the homologous chromosomes,
(Figure 7.6.2). This exchange of genetic material can happen many
forms at specific locations, spreading to cover the entire length of the
times within the same pair of homologous chromosomes, creating
chromosomes. The tight pairing of the homologous chromosomes is
called synapsis. In synapsis, the genes on the chromatids of the

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homologous chromosomes are aligned with each other. The INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT AND RANDOM
synaptonemal complex also supports the exchange of chromosomal FERTILIZATION
segments between non-sister homologous chromatids in a process During metaphase I, the tetrads move to the metaphase plate with
called crossing over. The crossover events are the first source of kinetochores facing opposite poles. The homologous pairs orient
genetic variation produced by meiosis. A single crossover event themselves randomly at the equator. This event is the second
between homologous non-sister chromatids leads to an exchange of mechanism that introduces variation into the gametes or spores. In each
DNA between chromosomes. Following crossover, the synaptonemal cell that undergoes meiosis, the arrangement of the tetrads is different.
complex breaks down and the cohesin connection between homologous The number of variations is dependent on the number of chromosomes
pairs is also removed. At the end of prophase I, the pairs are held making up a set. There are two possibilities for orientation at the
together only at the chiasmata; they are called tetrads because the four metaphase plate. The possible number of alignments, therefore, equals
sister chromatids of each pair of homologous chromosomes are now 2n, where n is the number of chromosomes per set. Given these two
visible. mechanisms, it is highly unlikely that any two haploid cells resulting
from meiosis will have the same genetic composition.

Figure 7.6.4 : Meiosis I ensures unique gametes Random, independent assortment during metaphase I can be demonstrated by considering a cell
with a set of two chromosomes (n = 2). In this case, there are two possible arrangements at the equatorial plane in metaphase I. The total possible
number of different gametes is 2n, where n equals the number of chromosomes in a set. In this example, there are four possible genetic
combinations for the gametes. With n = 23 in human cells, there are over 8 million possible combinations of paternal and maternal chromosomes.
(CC BY 4.0 via OpenStax College).

In humans, there are over 8 million configurations in which the over 8 million (223) chromosome combinations exist in the production
chromosomes can line up during metaphase I of meiosis. It is the of gametes in both the male and female. A sperm cell, with over 8
specific process of meiosis, resulting in four unique haploid cells, that million chromosome combinations, fertilizes an egg cell, which also
results in these many combinations. This independent assortment, in has over 8 million chromosome combinations. That is over 64 trillion
which the chromosome inherited from either the father or mother can unique combinations, not counting the unique combinations produced
sort into any gamete, produces the potential for tremendous genetic by crossing-over. In other words, each human couple could produce a
variation. Together with random fertilization, more possibilities for child with over 64 trillion unique chromosome combinations!
genetic variation exist between any two people than the number of
individuals alive today. Sexual reproduction is the random fertilization SUMMARY
of a gamete from the female using a gamete from the male. In humans,

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 Sexual reproduction has the potential to produce tremendous 1. What is crossing-over and when does it occur?
genetic variation in offspring. 2. Describe how crossing-over, independent assortment, and random
During prophase I, the homologous chromosomes condense and fertilization lead to genetic variation.
become visible as the x shape we know, pair up to form a tetrad, 3. How many combinations of chromosomes are possible from sexual
and exchange genetic material by crossing over. reproduction in humans?
In metaphase I, the tetrads line themselves up at the metaphase 4. Create a diagram to show how crossing-over occurs and how it
plate and homologous pairs orient themselves randomly. creates new gene combinations on each chromosome.
This variation is due to independent assortment and crossing-over
during meiosis, and random union of gametes during fertilization. EXPLORE MORE
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7.7: MITOSIS VS. MEIOSIS AND DISORDERS
Table 7.7.1 : comparison of mitosis and meiosis
MITOSIS VS. MEIOSIS Mitosis Meiosis

Both mitosis and meiosis result in eukaryotic cell division. The Purpose To produce new cells To produce gametes

primary difference between these divisions is the differing goals of Number of Cells Produced 2 4
Rounds of Cell Division 1 2
each process. The goal of mitosis is to produce two daughter cells that
Haploid or Diploid Diploid Haploid
are genetically identical to the parent cell. Mitosis happens when you
Are daughter cells identical to parent cells? Yes No
grow. You want all your new cells to have the same DNA as the
Are daughter cells identical to each other? Yes No
previous cells. The goal of meiosis is to produce sperm or eggs, also
known as gametes. The resulting gametes are not genetically identical
CHROMOSOME DISORDERS
to the parent cell. Gametes are haploid cells, with only half the DNA
present in the diploid parent cell. This is necessary so that when a
sperm and an egg combine at fertilization, the resulting zygote has the
correct amount of DNA—not twice as much as the parents. The zygote
then begins to divide through mitosis.

Figure 7.7.1 : This represents a tiny embryo just beginning to form.

Once an egg is fertilized, the resulting single cell must divide many
times to develop a fetus.

Figure 7.7.3 : Nondisjunction in Meiosis: Nondisjunction occurs when

homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate during
meiosis, resulting in an abnormal chromosome number. Nondisjunction
may occur during meiosis I or meiosis II. (CC BY 4.0 via OpenStax
College).
Changes in Chromosome Number
What would happen if an entire chromosome were missing or
duplicated? What if a human had only 45 chromosomes? Or 47? This
real possibility is usually due to mistakes during meiosis; the
chromosomes do not fully separate from each other during sperm or
egg formation. Specifically, nondisjunction occurs when homologous
chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis,
resulting in an abnormal chromosome number. Nondisjunction may
occur during meiosis I or meiosis II Most human atypical chromosome
numbers result in the death of the developing embryo, often before a
Figure 7.7.2: A comparison between binary fission, mitosis, and
woman even realizes she is pregnant. Occasionally, a zygote with an
meiosis. (CC BY-SA 4.0; domdomegg via Wikimedia.org).
extra chromosome can become a viable embryo and develop.
Trisomy is a state where humans have an extra autosome. That is, they
have three of a particular chromosome instead of two. For example,
trisomy 18 results from an extra chromosome 18, resulting in 47 total
chromosomes. To identify the chromosome number (including an
abnormal number), a sample of cells is removed from an individual or

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developing fetus. Metaphase chromosomes are photographed and a
karyotype is produced. A karyotype will display any abnormalities in
chromosome number or large chromosomal rearrangements. Trisomy
8, 9, 12, 13, 16, 18, and 21 have been identified in humans. Trisomy 16
is the most common trisomy in humans, occurring in more than 1% of
pregnancies. This condition, however, usually results in spontaneous
miscarriage in the first trimester. The most common trisomy in viable
births is Trisomy 21.
TRISOMY 21: DOWN SYNDROME
One of the most common chromosome abnormalities is Down Figure 7.7.5 : Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome) Karyotype. A
syndrome, due to nondisjunction of chromosome 21 resulting in an karyotype is a picture of a cell's chromosomes. Note the extra
chromosome 21. A child with Down syndrome, exhibiting
extra complete chromosome 21, or part of chromosome 21 (Figure characteristic facial appearance. (Public domain; Erin Ryan via
7.7.4). Down syndrome is the only autosomal trisomy where an Wikimedia Commons)
affected individual may survive to adulthood. Individuals with
Down syndrome often have some degree of mental retardation, SUMMARY
some impairment of physical growth, and a specific facial
The goal of mitosis is to produce a new cell that is identical to the
appearance. With proper assistance, individuals with Down
parent cell.
syndrome can become successful, contributing members of society.
The goal of meiosis is to produce gametes that have half the DNA
The incidence of Down syndrome increases with maternal age. The
of the parent cell.
risk of having a child with Down syndrome is significantly higher
When chromosomes do not divide equally among gametes, the
among women age 35 and older.
damaged gametes produce. This process is called nondisjunction.
Trisomy is a state where humans have an extra autosome; they have
three of a particular chromosome instead of two.
The most common trisomy in viable births is Trisomy 21 (Down
Syndrome) due to nondisjunction.

REVIEW
1. Define genetic disorder.
2. What is nondisjunction? Why may it cause genetic disorders?
3. Explain why genetic disorders caused by abnormal numbers of
chromosomes most often involve the X chromosome.
4. How is Down syndrome detected in utero?
5. Compare and contrast genetic disorders and congenital disorders.
6. Explain why parents that do not have Down syndrome can have a
child with Down syndrome.
7. What is the goal of mitosis? Or meiosis?
8. How many cells are created from cytokinesis following mitosis?
Following meiosis?
9. Which process, mitosis or meiosis, creates genetically identical
cells?
10. "Gametes are haploid cells." What does this sentence mean?
Figure 7.7.4 : Scheme of a genetic mutation, in this case Trisomy
21. (Public Domain; National Human Genome Research Institute
via Wikimedia Commons). EXPLORE MORE
ATTRIBUTIONS
1. 4 cell embryo by Nina Sesina, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia
Commons
2.
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7.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: GENES AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this chapter, you learned about human sexual and asexual
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: GENETIC reproduction.
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES The cell cycle is a repeating series of events that include growth,
Humans are much more genetically similar to each other than they are DNA synthesis, and cell division. It is more complicated in
different. Any two people on Earth are 99.9% genetically identical to eukaryotic than prokaryotic cells.
each other. But the mere 0.1% that is different can be very important, In a eukaryotic cell, the cell cycle has two major phases: interphase
as in the case of bone marrow donation to treat diseases such as and mitotic phase. During interphase, the cell grows, performs
leukemia. These variations are passed on in a family with sexual routine life processes, and prepares to divide. During the mitotic
reproduction. A good match must exist between a bone marrow donor phase, first, the nucleus divides (mitosis) and then the cytoplasm
and recipient in genes that encode for human leukocyte antigen (HLA) divides (cytokinesis), which produces two daughter cells.
proteins. If a patient receives a bone marrow transplant from a donor Except when a eukaryotic cell divides, its nuclear DNA exists as
that has different types of HLAs than the patient does, antibodies in a grainy material called chromatin. After DNA replicates and
their immune system will identify the antigens as “nonself” and will the cell is about to divide, the DNA condenses and coils into the
launch an attack on the transplanted cells. Also, since bone marrow X-shaped form of a chromosome. Each replicated chromosome
produces immune cells, antibodies in the transplanted tissue can consists of two sister chromatids, which are joined together at a
actually attack the patient’s own cells through the same mechanism. centromere.
During mitosis, sister chromatids separate from each other and
move to opposite poles of the cell. This happens in four phases,
called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
The cell cycle is controlled mainly by regulatory proteins that
signal the cell to either start or delay the next phase of the cycle at
key checkpoints.
Cancer is a disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer
regulated, for example, because the cell's DNA has become
damaged. Cancerous cells grow out of control and may form a mass
of abnormal cells called a tumor.
In sexual reproduction, two parents produce gametes that unite in
the process of fertilization to form a single-celled zygote. Gametes
Figure 7.8.1 : Swabbing for DNA match
are haploid cells with only one of each pair of homologous
As you have also learned, a good HLA match is often difficult to find, chromosomes, and the zygote is a diploid cell with two of each pair
even between full siblings. This is due to the genetic variations within of chromosomes.
gametes of a single person due to crossing over and random Meiosis is the type of cell division that produces four haploid
assortment. The variations are multiplied when two unique gametes daughter cells that may become gametes. Meiosis occurs in two
fertilize. Kim has to find his match outside of his family. Every year, stages, called meiosis I and meiosis II, each of which occurs in four
about 14,000 people in the United States must try to find a compatible phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase).
donor from a bone marrow registry. These registries store information Meiosis is followed by gametogenesis, the process in which the
on HLA type from potential donors, like the woman shown above. She haploid daughter cells change into mature gametes. Males produce
is swabbing her cheeks for a DNA match. It can take months to years gametes called sperm in a process known as spermatogenesis, and
to find a compatible match — if one is found at all. females produce gametes called eggs in the process known as
In the meantime, Kim has to stop the production of abnormal WBCs oogenesis.
with chemotherapy. Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with Sexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically unique.
drugs ("anticancer drugs") that can destroy cancer cells. In current Crossing-over, independent assortment, and the random union of
usage, the term "chemotherapy" usually refers to cytotoxic drugs which gametes work together to result in an amazing amount of potential
affect rapidly dividing cells in general, in contrast with targeted therapy genetic variation.
(see below). Chemotherapy drugs interfere with cell division in various Sexual reproduction has the potential to produce tremendous
possible ways, e.g. with the duplication of DNA or the separation of genetic variation in offspring.
newly formed chromosomes. Chemotherapy has the potential to harm During prophase I, the homologous chromosomes condense and
healthy tissue, especially those tissues that have a high replacement become visible as the x shape we know, pair up to form a tetrad,
rate (e.g. intestinal lining). Due to these side effects, patients may lose and exchange genetic material by crossing over.
their hair follicles, Digestive system lining, and taste buds. These cells In metaphase I, the tetrads line themselves up at the metaphase
usually repair themselves after chemotherapy. Because some drugs plate and homologous pairs orient themselves randomly.
work better together than alone, two or more drugs are often given at This variation is due to independent assortment and crossing-over
the same time. This is called "combination chemotherapy"; most during meiosis, and random union of gametes during fertilization.
chemotherapy regimens are given in a combination. The goal of mitosis is to produce a new cell that is identical to the
parent cell.
CHAPTER SUMMARY

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 The goal of meiosis is to produce gametes that have half the DNA 12. Why is DNA replication essential to the cell cycle?
of the parent cell. 13. True or False. When a eukaryotic cell divides, the nucleus divides
When chromosomes do not divide equally among gametes, the first in the process of mitosis.
damaged gametes produce. This process is called nondisjunction. 14. What happens during mitosis?
Trisomy is a state where humans have an extra autosome; they have 15. What is meiosis?
three of a particular chromosome instead of two. 16. What is diploid? How many chromosomes are in a diploid human
The most common trisomy in viable births is Trisomy 21 (Down cell?
Syndrome) due to nondisjunction. 17. What is a zygote? How does the zygote form the organism?
18. What is the result of crossing-over?
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW 19. How many cell divisions occur during meiosis?
1. What are cyclin-dependent kinases? What is their role? 20. Why are you genetically distinct?
2. What are cell cycle checkpoints? 21. Describe the steps of Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
3. What is interphase? 22. Describe nondisjunction. List and explain some of the chromosome
4. Summarize each phase of the cell cycle. disorders.
5. Describe the structure of a chromosome in the prophase of mitosis. 23. Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.
6. What is cytokinesis and when does it occur?
7. What is centromere? EXPLORE MORE
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9. Cells go through a series of events that include growth, DNA
ATTRIBUTIONS
synthesis, and cell division. Why are these events best represented
by a cycle diagram? 1. USARC officer by Timothy Hale, public domain via Wikimedia
10. Explain how the cell cycle is regulated. Commons
11. Define and explain random assortment and random fertilization. 2. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
8: INHERITANCE
This chapter provides the molecular background for understanding heredity; explains Mendelian and
non-Mendelian inheritance in humans; some genetic disorders and their treatment, and explores
recent advances in genetics.

8.1: CASE STUDY: GENES AND INHERITANCE

People tend to look similar to their biological parents, but, you can also inherit traits from your
parents that you can't see.

8.2: LAWS OF INHERITANCE

Mendel experimented with the inheritance of traits in pea plants at a time when the blending
theory of inheritance was popular. This is the theory that offspring have a blend of the
characteristics of their parents.

8.3: GENETICS OF INHERITANCE

Mendel did experiments with pea plants to show how traits such as seed shape and flower color are inherited. Based on his research,
he developed his two well-known laws of inheritance: the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment.

8.4: SIMPLE INHERITANCE

Mendelian inheritance refers to the inheritance of traits controlled by a single gene with two alleles, one of which may be completely
dominant to the other. The pattern of inheritance of Mendelian traits depends on whether the traits are controlled by genes on
autosomes or by genes on sex chromosomes.

8.5: COMPLEX INHERITANCE

Many human traits have more complicated modes of inheritance than Mendelian traits. Such modes of inheritance are called non-
Mendelian inheritance, and they include inheritance of multiple allele traits, traits with codominance or incomplete dominance, and
polygenic traits, among others.

8.6: GENETIC DISORDERS

Genetic disorders are diseases, syndromes, or other abnormal conditions that are caused by mutations in one or more genes or by
chromosomal alterations. Genetic disorders are typically present at birth, but they should not be confused with congenital disorders,
which are any disorders, regardless of cause, that are present at birth. Some congenital disorders are not caused by genetic mutations
or chromosomal alterations and are caused by problems during embryonic or fetal development.

8.7: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: CANCER AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

Rebecca's family tree, as illustrated in the pedigree above, shows a high incidence of cancer among close relatives. But are genes the
cause of cancer in this family? Only genetic testing, which is the sequencing of specific genes in an individual, can reveal whether a
cancer-causing gene is being inherited in this family.

1 4/25/2021
8.1: CASE STUDY: GENES AND INHERITANCE
greatly increase the risk of getting cancer. About 1 in 40 Ashkenazi
CASE STUDY: CANCER IN THE FAMILY Jewish people have one of these mutations, compared to about 1 in 800
People tend to look similar to their biological parents, as illustrated by in the general population. Her ethnicity, along with the types of cancer,
the family tree in Figure 8.1.1. But, you can also inherit traits from age of onset, and the specific relationships between her family
your parents that you can’t see. Rebecca becomes very aware of this members who had cancer indicate to the counselor that she is a good
fact when she visits her new doctor for a physical exam. Her doctor candidate for genetic testing for the presence of these mutations.
asks several questions about her family's medical history, including Rebecca says that her 72-year-old mother never had cancer, and nor
whether Rebecca has or had relatives with cancer. Rebecca tells her had many other relatives on that side of the family, so how could the
that her grandmother, aunt, and uncle, who have all passed away, all cancers be genetic? The genetic counselor explains that the mutations
had cancer. They all had breast cancer, including her uncle, and her in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, although dominant, are not inherited
aunt additionally had ovarian cancer. Her doctor asks how old they by everyone in a family. Also, even people with mutations in these
were when they were diagnosed with cancer. Rebecca is not sure genes do not necessarily get cancer — the mutations simply increase
exactly, but she knows that her grandmother was fairly young at the their risk of getting cancer. For instance, 55 to 65% of women with a
time, probably in her forties. harmful mutation in the BRCA1 gene will get breast cancer before age
70, compared to 12% of women in the general population who will get
breast cancer sometime over the course of their lives.
Rebecca is not sure she wants to know whether she has a higher risk of
cancer. The genetic counselor understands her apprehension but
explains that if she knows that she has harmful mutations in either of
these genes, her doctor will screen her for cancer more often and at
earlier ages. Therefore, any cancers she may develop are likely to be
caught earlier when they are often much more treatable. Rebecca
decides to go through with the testing, which involves taking a blood
sample, and nervously waits for her results.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW: GENETICS

Figure 8.1.1 : Two family trees. Each shows children that have features At the end of this chapter, you will find out Rebecca ’s test results. By
similar to their parents. then, you will have learned how mutations in genes such as BRCA1
Rebecca’s doctor explains that while the vast majority of cancers are and BRCA2 can be passed down and cause disease. Especially, you
not due to inherited factors, a cluster of cancers within a family may will learn about:
indicate that there are mutations in certain genes that increase the risk
How Gregor Mendel discovered the laws of inheritance for certain
of getting certain types of cancer, particularly breast and ovarian
types of traits.
cancer. Some signs that cancers may be due to these genetic factors are
The science of heredity, known as genetics, and the relationship
present in Rebecca’s family, such as cancer with an early age of onset
between genes and traits.
(e.g. breast cancer before age 50), breast cancer in men, and breast
Simple and more complex inheritance of some human traits.
cancer and ovarian cancer within the same person or family.
Genetic Disorders.
Based on her family medical history, Rebecca’s doctor recommends
As you read this chapter, keep Rebecca’s situation in mind and think
that she see a genetic counselor because these professionals can help
about the following questions:
determine whether the high incidence of cancers in her family could be
due to inherited mutations in their genes. If so, they can test Rebecca to 1. What do the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes normally do? How can
find out whether she has the particular variations of these genes that they cause cancer?
would increase her risk of getting cancer. 2. Are BRCA1 and BRCA2 considered linked genes? And are they on
autosomes or sex chromosomes?
When Rebecca sees the genetic counselor, he asks how her
3. After learning more about pedigrees, draw the pedigree for cancer
grandmother, aunt, and uncle with cancer are related to her. She says
in Rebecca’s family. Use the pedigree to help you think about why
that these relatives are all on her mother’s side — they are her mother’s
it is possible that her mother does not have one of the BRCA gene
mother and siblings. The genetic counselor records this information in
mutations, even if her grandmother, aunt, and uncle did have it.
the form of a specific type of family tree, called a pedigree, indicating
4. Why do you think certain gene mutations are prevalent in certain
which relatives had which type of cancer and how they are related to
ethnic groups?
each other and to Rebecca. He also asks her ethnicity. Rebecca says
that her family, on both sides, are Ashkenazi Jews, meaning Jews
ATTRIBUTIONS
whose ancestors came from central and eastern Europe. “But what does
1. Caelius and Valerius family tree by Ann Martin, licensed CC BY
that have to do with anything?” she asks. The counselor tells Rebecca
2.0 via Flickr
that mutations in two tumor-suppressor genes called BRCA1 and
2. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
BRCA2, located on chromosome 17 and 13, respectively, are
3.0
particularly prevalent in people of Ashkenazi Jewish descent and

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8.2: LAWS OF INHERITANCE
OF PEAS AND PEOPLE Why did Mendel choose common, garden-variety pea plants for his
These purplish-flowered plants are not just pretty to look at. Plants experiments? Pea plants are a good choice because they are fast
like these led to a huge leap forward in biology. The plants are growing and easy to raise. They also have several visible
common garden peas, and they were studied in the mid-1800s by an characteristics that vary. These characteristics, some of which are
Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel. With his careful illustrated in Figure 8.2.3. Each of these characteristics has two
experiments, Mendel uncovered the secrets of heredity, or how common traits ( values).
parents pass characteristics to their offspring. You may not care 1. Seeds can be round or wrinkled
much about heredity in pea plants, but you probably care about 2. Seeds can have yellow or green cotyledons. Cotyledons refer to the
your own heredity. Mendel's discoveries apply to people as well as tiny leaves inside the seeds.
to peas — and to all other living things that reproduce sexually. In 3. Flowers can be white or violet
this concept, you will read about Mendel's experiments and the 4. The seed pod can be full or constricted
secrets of heredity that he discovered. 5. The seed pod can be yellow or green
6. The flowers can occur along the stem (in axial pods) or at the end
of a stem (in terminal pods)
7. Stems can be long (6-7 feet) or short (less than 1 foot).
Seed Flower Pod Stem
Form Cotyledons Color Form Color Place Size

Figure 8.2.1 : Sweet Pea flower Grey & Axial pods,

Yellow White Full Yellow Long (6-7ft)
Round Flowers along

MENDEL AND HIS PEA PLANTS

Gregor Mendel, shown below, was born in 1822 and grew up on his
White & Terminal pods,
parents’ farm in Austria. He did well in school and became a monk. He Green Violet Constricted Green Short ( -1ft) 3
4
Wrinkled Flowers top

also went to the University of Vienna, where he studied science and 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

math. His professors encouraged him to learn science through Figure 8.2.3 : Mendel investigated seven different characteristics in pea
plants.
experimentation and to use math to make sense of his results. Mendel
is best known for his experiments with pea plants like the one pictured CONTROLLING POLLINATION
above. To research how characteristics are passed from parents to offspring,
Mendel needed to control pollination. Pollination is the fertilization
step in the sexual reproduction of plants. Pollen consists of tiny grains
that are the male sex cells, or gametes, of plants. They are produced by
a male flower part called the anther (shown in the figure below).
Pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from the anther to the
stigma of the same or another flower. The stigma is a female part of a
flower. It passes the pollen grains to female gametes in the ovary.
Pea plants are naturally self-pollinating. In self-pollination, pollen
grains from anthers on one plant are transferred to stigmas of flowers
on the same plant. Mendel was interested in the offspring of two
Figure 8.2.2 : Gregor Mendel. The Austrian monk Gregor Mendel different parent plants, so he had to prevent self-pollination. He
experimented with pea plants. He did all of his research in the garden
of the monastery where he lived. removed the anthers from the flowers of some of the plants in his
experiments. Then he pollinated them by hand with pollen from other
BLENDING THEORY OF INHERITANCE parent plants of his choice. When pollen from one plant fertilizes
During Mendel's time, the blending theory of inheritance was popular. another plant of the same species, it is called cross-pollination. The
This is the theory that offspring have a blend, or mix, of the offspring that result from such a cross are called hybrids. When the
characteristics of their parents. Mendel noticed plants in his own term hybrid is used in this context, it refers to any offspring resulting
garden that weren’t a blend of the parents. For example, a tall plant and from the breeding of two genetically distinct individuals.
a short plant had offspring that were either tall or short but not medium
in height. Observations such as these led Mendel to question the
blending theory. He wondered if there was a different underlying
principle that could explain how characteristics are inherited. He
decided to experiment with pea plants to find out. In fact, Mendel
experimented with almost 30,000 pea plants over the next several
years!

WHY STUDY PEA PLANTS?

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 Figure 8.2.1 : Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants. Each pea
plant flower has both male and female parts. The anther is part of the
stamen, the male structure that produces male gametes (pollen). The
stigma is part of the pistil, the female structure that produces female
gametes and guides the pollen grains to them. The stigma receives the
pollen grains and passes them to the ovary, which contains female
gametes.

MENDEL'S FIRST SET OF EXPERIMENTS

At first, Mendel experimented with just one characteristic at a time. He
began with flower color. As shown in Figure 8.2.5, Mendel cross-
pollinated violet-flowered and white-flowered parent plants. The parent
plants in the experiments are referred to as the P (for parent)
generation.

F1 AND F2 GENERATIONS Figure 8.2.5 : In one of his experiments on inheritance patterns, Mendel
The offspring of the P generation are called the F1 (for filial, or crossed plants that were true-breeding for violet flower color with
“offspring”) generation. As shown in Figure 8.2.5, all of the plants in plants true-breeding for white flower color (the P generation). The
resulting hybrids in the F1 generation all had violet flowers. In the F2
the F1 generation had violet flowers. None of them had white flowers. generation, approximately three-quarters of the plants had violet
Mendel wondered what had happened to the white-flower flowers, while one-quarter had white flowers.
characteristic. He assumed some type of inherited factor produces
white flowers and some other inherited factor produces violet flowers. LAW OF SEGREGATION
Did the white-flower factor just disappear in the F1 generation? If so, Mendel did the same experiment for all seven characteristics. In each
then the offspring of the F1 generation — called the F2 generation — case, one value of the characteristic disappeared in the F1 plants and
should all have violet flowers like their parents. then showed up again in the F2 plants. And in each case, 75 percent of
F2 plants had one value of the characteristic and 25 percent had the
To test this prediction, Mendel allowed the F1 generation plants to self-
other value. Based on these observations, Mendel formulated his first
pollinate. He was surprised by the results. Some of the F2 generation
law of inheritance. This law is called the law of segregation. It states
plants had white flowers. He studied hundreds of F2 generation plants,
that there are two factors controlling a given characteristic, one of
and for every three violet-flowered plants, there was an average of one
which dominates the other, and these factors separate and go to
white-flowered plant
different gametes when a parent reproduces.

MENDEL'S SECOND SET OF EXPERIMENTS

Mendel wondered whether different characteristics are inherited
together. For example, are purple flowers and tall stems always
inherited together? Or do these two characteristics show up in different
combinations in offspring? To answer these questions, Mendel next
investigated two characteristics at a time. For example, he crossed
plants with yellow round seeds and plants with green wrinkled seeds.
The results of this cross are shown in Figure 8.2.5.

F1 AND F2 GENERATIONS
In this set of experiments, Mendel observed that plants in the F1
generation were all alike. All of them had yellow round seeds like one
of the two parents. When the F1 generation plants were self-pollinated,
however, their offspring—the F2 generation—showed all possible

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combinations of the two characteristics. Some had green round seeds, REVIEW
for example, and some had yellow wrinkled seeds. These combinations 1. What is the blending theory of inheritance? What observations led
of characteristics were not present in the F1 or P generations. Mendel to question this theory?
2. Why were pea plants a good choice for Mendel's experiments?
3. Describe Mendel's first set of experiments, including the results.
4. State Mendel's two laws of inheritance.
5. How did the outcome of Mendel's second set of experiments lead to
his second law?
6. Discuss Mendel's legacy.
7. In Mendel’s first set of experiments:
A. Why did he use pea plants with different characteristics for the
parental generation?
B. Why do you think he only tested one characteristic at a time?
C. Why did he allow the plants in the F1 generation to self-
Figure 8.2.6 : The parent generation consisted of smooth yellow peas
and green wrinkled peas. The first offspring generation all had smooth pollinate?
yellow seeds. When these F1 plants were crossed, the offspring had D. If he observed 200 F2 plants, approximately how many would
Smooth yellow, smooth green, wrinkled yellow and wrinkled green have purple flowers? Approximately how many would have
seeds in a ratio of 9:3:3:1.
white flowers? Explain your answers.
LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT E. Which flower color seemed to dominate over the other? Explain
Mendel repeated this experiment with other combinations of your answer.
characteristics, such as flower color and stem length. Each time, the 8. If Mendel’s law of independent assortment was not correct, and
results were the same as those shown in the figure above. The results of characteristics were always inherited together, what types of
Mendel's second set of experiments led to his second law. This is the offspring do you think would have been produced by crossing
law of independent assortment. It states that factors controlling plants with yellow round seeds and green wrinkled seeds? Explain
different characteristics are inherited independently of each other. your answer.
9. True or False. In Mendel’s experiments, the F1 generations are
MENDEL'S LEGACY hybrids.
You might think that Mendel's discoveries would have made a big 10. True or False. A single gamete of a pea plant contains factors that
impact on science as soon as he made them, but you would be wrong. result in both a purple flower and a white flower.
Why? Because Mendel's work was largely ignored. Mendel was far
ahead of his time and working from a remote monastery. He had no EXPLORE MORE
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reputation among the scientific community and limited previously
published work. He also published his research in an obscure scientific ATTRIBUTIONS
journal. As a result, when Charles Darwin published his landmark book
1. Sweet pea flower by Giligone licensed CC BY-SA 3.0 via
on evolution in 1869, although Mendel's work had been published just
Wikimedia Commons
a few years earlier, Darwin was unaware of it. Consequently, Darwin
2. Gregor Mendel by William Bateson, public domain via Wikimedia
knew nothing about Mendel's laws and didn’t understand heredity. This
Commons
made Darwin's arguments about evolution less convincing to many
3. Mendel seven characteristics by Mariana Ruiz LadyofHats, released
people.
into the public domain via Wikimedia Commons
Then, in 1900, three different European scientists — named DeVries, 4. Flower structure by OpenStax, CC BY 4.0
Correns, and Tschermak — independently arrived at Mendel's laws. All 5. Mendel's experiments by CNX, CC BY 4.0
three had done experiments similar to Mendel's and come to the same 6. Pea cross by Suzanne Wakim, licensed CC BY 4.0 adapted from on
conclusions that he had drawn several decades earlier. Only then was Dihybrid Cross by CNX OpenStax, licensed CC BY 4.0 via
Mendel's work rediscovered and Mendel himself given the credit he Wikimedia Commons
was due. Although Mendel knew nothing about genes, which were 7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
discovered after his death, he is now considered the father of genetics. 3.0

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8.3: GENETICS OF INHERITANCE
LIKE FATHER, LIKE SON
This father-son duo are serving in the army together. The shape of
their faces and their facial features look very similar. If you saw
them together, you might well guess that they are father and son.
People have long known that the characteristics of living things are
similar in parents and their offspring. However, it wasn’t until the
experiments of Gregor Mendel that scientists understood how traits
are inherited by offspring.

Figure 8.3.2 : The human genome has 23 pairs of chromosomes located

Figure 8.3.1 : Father and son in the nucleus of somatic cells. Chromosomes are strands of DNA
wrapped around proteins called histones. Chromosomes contain small
segments of DNA called genes, which code for proteins. DNA is made
THE FATHER OF GENETICS of nucleotides. Nucleotides are the DNA "code" and determine what
proteins are made by a given gene.
Mendel did experiments with pea plants to show how traits such as
seed shape and flower color are inherited. Based on his research, he A gene is a short segment of DNA that contains information to encode
developed his two well-known laws of inheritance: the law of an RNA molecule or a protein strand. DNA in the nucleus is organized
segregation and the law of independent assortment. When Mendel died in long linear strands that are attached to different proteins. These
in 1884, his work was still virtually unknown. In 1900, three other proteins help the DNA coil up for better storage in the nucleus. Think
researchers working independently came to the same conclusions that about how a string gets tightly coiled up if you twist one end while
Mendel had drawn almost half a century earlier. Only then was holding the other end. These long strands of coiled-up DNA and
Mendel's work rediscovered. proteins are called chromosomes.
Mendel knew nothing about genes. They were discovered after his Each chromosome contains many genes. The function of the nucleus is
death. However, he did think that some type of "factors" controlled to maintain the integrity of these genes and to control the activities of
traits and were passed from parents to offspring. We now call these the cell by regulating gene expression. Gene expression is the process
"factors" genes. Mendel's laws of inheritance, now expressed in terms by which the information in a gene is "decoded" by various cell
of genes, form the basis of genetics, the science of heredity. For this molecules to produce a functional gene product, such as a protein
reason, Mendel is often called the father of genetics. molecule or an RNA molecule. The human species is characterized by
23 pairs of chromosomes (Figure 8.3.3).
THE LANGUAGE OF GENETICS
Today, we know that traits of organisms are controlled by genes on
chromosomes. To talk about inheritance in terms of genes and
chromosomes, you need to know the language of genetics. Figure 8.3.2
shows the location of genes in an eukaryotic cell. The nucleus is a
membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. The
nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell and contains chromosomes
which make up most of the cell's genetic information. Mitochondria
also contain DNA, called mitochondrial DNA, but it makes up just a
small percentage of the cell’s overall DNA content. The genetic
information, which contains the information for the structure and
function of the organism, is found encoded in DNA in the form of
genes.

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 Figure 8.3.3 : Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Pairs 1-22 are
autosomes. Females have two X chromosomes, and males have an X
and a Y chromosome.

AUTOSOMES
Of the 23 pairs of human chromosomes, 22 pairs are autosomes (the Figure 8.3.4 : Chromosome, Gene (for height and pea gene), Locus,
lines numbered 1–22 in Figure 8.3.3). Autosomes are chromosomes and Allele (tall, wrinkled, or smooth). This diagram shows how the
that contain genes for characteristics that are unrelated to sex. These concepts of the chromosome, gene, locus, and allele are related. These
chromosomes are the same in males and females. The great majority of terms are defined below
human genes are located on autosomes. The genes located on these The following terms are a good starting point. They are illustrated in
chromosomes are called autosomal genes. Figure 8.3.4 that follows.
A gene is the part of a chromosome that contains the genetic code
SEX CHROMOSOMES
for a given protein. For example, in pea plants, a given gene might
The remaining pair of human chromosomes consists of the sex code for flower color.
chromosomes, X and Y. Females have two X chromosomes, and males The position of a given gene on a chromosome is called its locus
have one X and one Y chromosome. In females, one of the X (plural, loci). For example, a gene might be located near the center
chromosomes in each cell is inactivated and known as a Barr body. or at one end or the other of a chromosome.
This ensures that females, like males, have only one functioning copy A given gene may have different normal versions called alleles. For
of the X chromosome in each cell. example, in pea plants, there is a smooth seed allele (S) and a
As you can see from Figure 8.3.3, the X chromosome is much larger wrinkled seed allele (s) for the seed shape gene. Different alleles
than the Y chromosome. The X chromosome has about 2,000 genes, account for much of the variation in the traits of organisms
whereas the Y chromosome has fewer than 100, none of which are including people.
essential to survival. (For comparison, the smallest autosome, In sexually reproducing organisms, each individual has two copies
chromosome 22, has over 500 genes.) Virtually all of the X of each type of chromosome. Paired chromosomes of the same type
chromosome genes are unrelated to sex. The genes located on the X are called homologous chromosomes. They are about the same
chromosomes are called X-linked genes. Only the Y chromosome size and shape, and they have all the same genes at the same loci.
contains genes that determine sex. A single Y chromosome gene,
called SRY (which stands for sex-determining region Y gene), triggers GENOTYPE
an embryo to develop into a male. Without a Y chromosome, an When sexual reproduction occurs, sex cells called gametes unite during
individual develops into a female, so you can think of female as the fertilization to form a single cell called a zygote. The zygote inherits
default sex of the human species. Can you think of a reason why the Y two of each type of chromosome, with one chromosome of each type
chromosome is so much smaller than the X chromosome? coming from the sperm donor and the other coming from the egg
donor. Because homologous chromosomes have the same genes at the
same loci, each individual also inherits two copies of each gene. The
two copies may be the same allele or different alleles. The alleles an
individual inherits for a given gene make up the individual’s genotype.
As shown in the table below, an organism with two of the same allele
(for example, BB or bb) is called a homozygote. An organism with two
different alleles (in this example, Bb) is called a heterozygote.

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 Table 8.3.1 : Alleles and genotypes B. Which genotype or genotypes express the dominant R
Alleles Genotypes Phenotypes phenotype? Explain your answer.
BB (homozygous dominant) purple flowers C. Are R and r on different loci? Why or why not?
B (purple) Bb (heterozygous) purple flowers D. Can R and r be on the same exact chromosome? Why or why
b (white) bb (homozygous recessive) white flowers
not? If not, where are they located?
PHENOTYPE 6. If a child has the genotype Dd and inherited the D from their
The expression of an organism’s genotype is referred to as its mother, where did the d likely come from?
phenotype. The phenotype refers to the organism’s traits, such as A. Either their mother or their father
purple or white flowers in pea plants. As you can see from Table 8.3.1, B. Their father
different genotypes may produce the same phenotype. In this example, C. Their maternal grandmother
both BB and Bb genotypes produce plants with the same phenotype, D. Their maternal grandfather
purple flowers. Why does this happen? In a Bb heterozygote, both 7. True or False. Each phenotype has only one genotype.
alleles are expressed but only the B allele is seen in phenotype because 8. True or False. Recessive genes are never expressed in a phenotype.
it masks the expression of b, so the b allele doesn’t influence the 9. True or False. An observable physical trait is a phenotype.
phenotype. The allele B is called dominant, and the allele that doesn't 10. A gene for flower color and a gene for seed shape could be on the
show in the phenotype is called recessive. same:
The terms dominant and recessive may also be used to refer to A. chromosome
phenotypic traits. For example, purple flower color in pea plants is a B. locus
dominant trait. It shows up in the phenotype whenever a plant inherits C. allele
even one dominant allele for the trait. Similarly, white flower color is a D. Both A and B
recessive trait. Like other recessive traits, it shows up in the phenotype 11. What does a gene usually codes for?
only when a plant inherits two recessive alleles for the trait.
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1. Define genetics.
2. Why is Gregor Mendel sometimes called the father of genetics if ATTRIBUTIONS
genes were not discovered until after his death? 1. Father and son by Sgt. Tracy Ellingsen, public domain
3. Correctly use the terms gene, allele, locus, and chromosome in one 2. DNA terminology by Wa-Su Biology, dedicated CC0 via
or more sentences. Wikimedia Commons
4. Compare and contrast genotype and phenotype. 3. Chromosomes by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats), CC BY-
5. Imagine that there are two alleles, R and r, for a given gene. R is NC 3.0, for CK-12
dominant to r. Answer the following questions about this gene. 4. Gene loci and allele by Keith Chan, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia
A. What are the possible homozygous and heterozygous Commons
genotypes? 5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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8.4: SIMPLE INHERITANCE
DIMPLES males are shown as squares, females are shown as circles
This person is exhibiting a genetic trait — the dimples in The top row of a pedigree is the original couple. Two individuals
their cheeks when they smiles. Genetic traits are characteristics who are connected by a horizontal line are a breeding pair. The
that are encoded in DNA. Some genetic traits, like dimples, have a children of the couple are connected to them by vertical lines.
simple inheritance pattern like the traits that Gregor Mendel studied The next row of the pedigree shows the couple's children, as well as
in pea plants. The way these traits are inherited by offspring from the partners of the children. And, the third row of the pedigree
their parents is called simple inheritance. shows the next generation (the grandchildren of the couple at the
top of the pedigree). Larger pedigrees can have more rows showing
additional generations.
Figure 8.4.2 is an example of a pedigree of an autosomal dominant
trait. This pedigree begins with an affected male and an unaffected
female. The couple's first child (on the left) is an affected male whose
partner is an unaffected female. They produce two children: an affected
female and an unaffected male. The next child is an unaffected male
partnered with an unaffected female. Their children are two unaffected
females and an unaffected male. The next child is an unpartnered
affected female. The fourth child is an unpartnered unaffected female.
The youngest child is an affected female partnered with an unaffected
male. Their children are an affected male, followed by an unaffected
Figure male, followed by an affected female, followed by an unaffected
8.4.1 : Dimples female.

WHAT IS SIMPLE INHERITANCE?

Simple (or Mendelian) inheritance refers to the inheritance of traits
controlled by a single gene with two alleles, one of which may be
completely dominant to the other. The pattern of inheritance of simple
traits depends on whether the traits are controlled by genes on
autosomes or by genes on sex chromosomes.
Autosomal traits are controlled by genes on one of the 22 pairs of
human autosomes. Autosomes are all the chromosomes except the
X or Y chromosome, and they do not differ between males and
females, so autosomal traits are inherited in the same way
regardless of the sex of the parent or offspring.
Traits controlled by genes on the sex chromosomes are called sex-
linked traits. Because of the small size of the Y chromosome, most
sex-linked traits are controlled by genes on the X chromosome. Figure 8.4.2: Pedigree of an autosomal dominant trait.
These traits are called X-linked traits. Single-gene X-linked traits In an autosomal dominant trait, a child that has the trait will always
have a different pattern of inheritance than single-gene autosomal have at least one parent with the trait. In an autosomal recessive trait,
traits because males have just one X chromosome. Males always two individuals without the trait can have a child with the trait.
inherit their X chromosome from their mother, and they pass on
Figure 8.4.3 is a pedigree of an autosomal recessive trait. In this
their X chromosome to all of their daughters but none of their sons.
pedigree, individuals that are half-shaded are heterozygous (and
therefore do not show the trait). In this example, two heterozygous
STUDYING INHERITANCE PATTERNS
individuals have four children. Their youngest child is an affected
There are two very useful tools for studying how traits are passed from
male. This individual mates with an unaffected female to produce two
one generation to the next. One tool is a pedigree, the other is a Punnett
heterozygous children and two unaffected children. The original
square.
couple's next youngest is a heterozygous female. The original couple's
PEDIGREE second child is an unaffected male, who partners with an unaffected
The charts below are called pedigrees. A pedigree shows how a trait is female to produce two unaffected children. The original couple's oldest
passed from generation to generation within a family. A pedigree can child is an unaffected female whose partner is a heterozygous male.
show, for example, whether a trait is an autosomal dominant, Their children are an unaffected female, an unaffected male, and a
autosomal recessive, or X-linked trait. Pedigrees show relationships heterozygous male.
and identify individuals with a given trait. In the pedigrees below:
affected individuals are shown in red, unaffected individuals are
shown in blue

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 flowers. If the gamete from one parent contains the dominant allele and
the gamete from the other parent contains the recessive allele, the
resulting plant will be heterozygous and have purple flowers. The
probability of any single offspring showing the dominant trait is 3:1, or
75%.

Figure 8.4.3 : Pedigree of an autosomal recessive trait.

PUNNETT SQUARE
A Punnett square is a chart that allows you to easily determine the Figure 8.4.5 : This Punnett square shows a cross between two
heterozygotes, Bb. To develop a Punnett square, possible combinations
expected ratios of possible genotypes in the offspring of two parents.
of alleles in a gamete are placed on the top and left side of a square.
The mating between two parents is called a cross. The Punnett square
is named after its developer, British geneticist Reginald C. Punnett. DIHYBRID CROSS
You can see a hypothetical example in Figure 8.4.4. In this case, the For a monohybrid cross, we are only looking at a single gene.
gene is autosomal, and both parents are heterozygotes (Aa) for the Therefore, the outside of the Punnett square will only have single
gene. Half the gametes produced by each parent will have the A allele letters (single alleles). For a dihybrid cross, pairs of alleles are used.
and half will have the a allele. That's because the two alleles are on This means the outside of the square will have pairs of letters. A
homologous chromosomes, which always separate and go to separate Punnett square for a monohybrid cross is divided into four squares,
gametes during meiosis. According to Mendel's law of segregation, the whereas a Punnett square for a dihybrid cross is divided into 16
alleles in the gametes from each parent are written down the side and squares. How many boxes would a Punnett square need if three traits
across the top of the Punnett square. Filling in the cells of the Punnett were examined? The squares are filled in with the possible
square gives the possible genotypes of their children. It also shows the combinations of alleles formed when gametes combine, such as in a
most likely ratios of the genotypes, which in this case is 25 percent AA, zygote.
50 percent Aa, and 25 percent aa. These types of crosses can be challenging to set up, and the square you
create will be 4x4. This simple guide will walk you through the steps
of solving a typical dihybrid cross common in genetics. The method
can also work for any cross that involves two traits.
CONSIDER THIS CROSS
This cross focuses on two traits in peas.
The trait for yellow peas (Y) is dominant to the trait for green peas
(y).
The trait for round peas (R) is dominant to the trait for wrinkled
peas (r).
Figure 8.4.6 outlines two generations of crosses. In the Parental (P)
Figure 8.4.4 : A Punnett square shows the most likely proportions of generation two homozygous plants are crossed: a plant that produces
offspring by genotype for a particular mating type. yellow round peas (YYRR) is crossed with a plant that produces green
Predicting Genotypes and phenotype with Punnett Squares wrinkled peas (yyrr). The Punnett square for this cross is not shown,
Mendel developed the law of segregation by following only a single but all of the offspring would be heterozygous (have the YyRr
characteristic, such as pod color, in his pea plants. In a monohybrid genotype) and produce yellow round peas. To arrive at this:
cross, such as the one in Figure 8.4.5, the Punnett square shows every The parent with the YYRR genotype produces gametes that are all
possible combination when combining one maternal (biological YR
mother) allele with one paternal (biological father) allele. In this The parent with the yr genotype produces gametes that are all yr
example, both organisms are heterozygous for flower color Bb The YR and yr gametes produce YyRr offspring
(purple). Both plants produce gametes that contain either the B and b
alleles. If the gametes from both parents contain the dominant alleles,
the resulting plant will be homozygous dominant and have purple
flowers. If the gametes from both parents contain the recessive alleles,
the resulting plant will be homozygous recessive and have white

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 hairline at the center of the forehead. Assume that the dominant and
recessive alleles for the widow's peak gene are represented by Wand w,
respectively. Because this is a dominant trait, people with the genotype
WW and the genotype Ww will have a widow's peak, and only people
with the genotype ww will not have the trait.

Figure 8.4.7 : Widow's peak is a dominant trait that is controlled by a

gene located on an autosomal chromosome.
Assume that the dominant and recessive alleles for freckles are
represented by F and f, respectively. Because it is a dominant trait,
people with the genotype FF and the genotype Ff will have freckles,
and only people with the genotype ff will not have the trait.

Figure 8.4.6 : A Punnett square showing genotypes and phenotypes of

parents and offspring of a dihybrid cross
Two heterozygous plants (YyRr) are crossed. What gametes do each of
these plants produce? When gametes are produced, they can either
have the dominant R or the recessive r. And, they can either have the
dominant Y or the recessive y. Combine the R's and Ys of each parent
to represent sperm and egg.
A gamete that gets the Y allele: Figure 8.4.8 :
can either get the R allele and be YR Having freckles is a single-gene autosomal dominant trait
or it can get the r allele and be Yr
A gamete that gets the y allele: SEX INHERITANCE
can either get the R allele and be yR What determines if a baby is a male or female? Recall that you have 23
or it can get the r allele and be yr pairs of chromosomes—and one of those pairs is the sex chromosomes.
Everyone normally has two sex chromosomes. Later, you will learn
A plant that is YyRr will produce 4 different gametes: YR, Yr, yR, yr.
that due to nondisjunction, males and females may have one less or
These gametes are written on the outside of the Punnett square in
one extra X chromosome. Your sex chromosomes can be X or Y.
Figure 8.4.6. Next the gametes are combined to form the offspring's
Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X
genotypes (written in the center of the Punnet square). The resulting
chromosome and one Y chromosome (XY). If a baby inherits an X
offspring will have the following ratios:
chromosome from the father and an X chromosome from the mother,
9/16 round, yellow peas; having the genotypes what will be the child’s sex? The baby will have two X chromosomes,
YYRR (1) so it will be female. If the father’s sperm carries the Y chromosome,
YyRR (2) the child will be male. Notice that a mother can only pass on an X
YYRr (2) chromosome, so the sex of the baby is determined by the father. The
YyRr (4) father has a 50 percent chance of passing on the Y or X chromosome,
3/16 round, green peas; having the genotypes yyRR (1) and yyRr so there is a 50 percent chance that a child will be male, and there is a
(2) 50 percent chance a child will be female. This 50:50 chance occurs for
3/16 wrinkled, yellow peas; having the genotypes YYrr (3) each baby. A couple's first five children could all be boys. The sixth
1/16 wrinkled green peas; having the genotype yyrr child still has a 50:50 chance of being a girl. A Punnett square can also
be used to show how the X and Y chromosomes are passed from
AUTOSOMAL SINGLE-GENE TRAITS IN parents to their children. This is illustrated in the Punnett square below.
HUMANS It may help you understand the inheritance pattern of sex-linked traits.
Single-gene autosomal traits include widow's peak and freckles, both
of which are illustrated below. Widow's peak refers to a point in the

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 Figure 8.4.9 . The X and Y chromosomes determine male or female
sexual development Males produce haploid gametes (sperm) that are
either 23,X or 23,Y. Females produce haploid gametes (eggs) that are
23,X. Daughters inherit an X chromosome from their mother and an X
chromosome from their father. Sons inherit an X chromosome from Figure 8.4.10 : Pedigree for Color Blindness. Color blindness is an X-
their mother and a Y chromosome from their father (paternal linked recessive trait. A carrier mother and unaffected father can
chromosomes indicated in blue, maternal chromosomes indicated in produce unaffected sons and daughters, carrier daughters, and
green) colorblind sons.
Another example of a recessive X-linked Mendelian trait is
X-LINKED MENDELIAN TRAITS IN HUMANS hemophilia. This is a disorder characterized by the inability of blood to
One example of a sex-linked trait is red-green colorblindness. People clot normally. England's Queen Victoria, pictured below, was a carrier
with this type of colorblindness cannot tell the difference between red of the disorder. Two of Queen Victoria's five daughters inherited the
and green. They often see these colors as shades of brown (Figure hemophilia allele from their mother and were carriers. When they
8.4.11). married royalty in other European countries, they spread the allele
Males are much more likely to be colorblind than females because across Europe, including the royal families of Spain, Germany, and
colorblindness is a sex-linked, recessive trait. Because males have just Russia. Victoria's son Prince Leopold also inherited the hemophilia
one X chromosome, they have only one allele for any X-linked trait. allele from his mother and actually suffered from the disease. For these
Therefore, a recessive X-linked allele is always expressed in males. reasons, hemophilia was once popularly called "the royal disease."
Because females have two X chromosomes, they have two alleles for
any X-linked trait. Females can have one X chromosome with the FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY
colorblind gene and one X chromosome with a normal gene for color Are you color blind or think you might be? If you inherited this X-
vision. Since colorblindness is recessive, the dominant normal gene linked recessive disorder, a world without clear differences between
will mask the recessive colorblind gene. Females with one certain colors seems normal to you. It's all you have ever known. That's
colorblindness allele and one normal allele are referred to as carriers. why some people who are color blind are not even aware of it. Simple
They carry the allele but do not express it. Females must inherit two tests have been devised to determine whether a person is color blind
copies of the recessive allele to express an X-linked recessive trait. and the degree of this visual deficit. An example of such a test is
This explains why X-linked recessive traits are less common in females pictured below. What do you see when you look at this circle? Can you
than males and why they show a different pattern of inheritance than clearly perceive the number 74? If so, you probably have normal red-
autosomal traits. green color vision. If you cannot see the number, you may have red-
According to this Punnett square (Table 8.4.1), the son of a woman green color blindness.
who carries the colorblindness trait and a male with normal vision has Being color blind may cause a number of problems. These may range
a 50% chance of being colorblind. Figure 8.4.10 shows a simple from minor frustrations to outright dangers. For example:
pedigree for this trait. If you are color blind, it may be difficult to color-coordinate
Table 8.4.1 : Punnet Square for color blindness clothing and furnishings. You may end up wearing color
Xb XB combinations that people with normal color vision think are odd or
XbX XBXB clashing.
XB
(carrier female) (normal female) Many LED indicator lights are red or green. For example, power
XbY XBY
Y strips and electronic devices may have indicator lights to show
(colorblind male) (normal male)
whether they are on (green) or off (red).
Test strips for pH, hard water, swimming pool chemicals, and other
common tests are also often color coded. Litmus paper for testing
pH, for example, turns red in the presence of an acid, but if you are
color blind, you may not be able to read the test result.
Do you like your steak well done? If you are color blind, you may

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 proportion of their gametes will have each allele.
B. What are the likely proportions of their offspring being QQ, Qq,
or qq?
C. Is this an autosomal trait or an X-linked trait? How do you
know?
D. What are the chances of their offspring exhibiting the dominant
Q trait? Explain your answer.
7. Explain why fathers always pass their X chromosome down to their
daughters.
8. True or False. Women are more likely to have X-linked diseases
than men.
9. True or False. Most human autosomal traits are controlled by a
single gene with two alleles, similar to Mendel’s pea plants.
10. For each of the scenarios below, choose whether you would use a
Punnett square or a pedigree. Choose only the one that best fits the
scenario.
A. A man and a woman have known genotypes and you want to
Figure 8.4.11 : This circle of colors containing the number 74 is part of predict the possible genotypes of their offspring.
the Ishihara color blindness test.
B. You want to document which members of your family had or
not be able to tell if the meat is still undercooked (red) or grilled have breast cancer.
just right. You also may not be able to distinguish ripe (red) from
unripe (green) fruits and vegetables such as tomatoes. And some EXPLORE MORE
foods, such as dark green spinach, may look more like mud than https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16763#Explore_More
food and be totally unappetizing.
Weather maps often are color coded. Is that rain (green) in your ATTRIBUTIONS
forecast or a wintry mix of sleet and freezing rain (pink or red)? If 1. Young woman with dimples by I'm so bored, CC BY-SA 3.0 via
you can't tell the difference, you may go out on the roads when you Wikimedia Commons
shouldn't and put yourself in danger. 2. Autosomal dominant pedigree by Jerome Walker, CC BY-SA 3.0
Being able to distinguish red from green traffic lights may be a via Wikimedia Commons
matter of life or death. This can be very difficult for someone with 3. Autosomal recessive pedigree by Jerome Walker, CC BY-SA 3.0
red-green color blindness. That's why in some countries, people via Wikimedia Commons
with this vision defect are not allowed to drive. 4. Punnett by miguelferig dedicated CC0 via Wikimedia Commons
5. Punnett square by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats), CC BY-
Being aware of conditions such as colorblindness is also important for
NC 3.0 via CK-12
anyone creating content online. Developing webpages that are legible
6. Dihybrid Cross by CNX OpenStax, licensed CC BY 4.0 via
to all users is an important skill for a variety of jobs. You can use
Wikimedia Commons
online tools (such as the Toptal Color Blind Filter) to ensure that the
7. Widow's peak created by Mandeep Grewal licensed CC BY-SA
content you create is usable by all of your customers.
4.0, from the pictures
REVIEW 1. Male Widows Peak by Jmblock2 licensed CC BY-SA 4.0 via
1. Define genetic traits and simple inheritance. Wikimedia Commons
2. Explain why autosomal and X-linked traits have different patterns 2. Omer Mor by Omer Mor licensed CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia
of inheritance. Commons
3. What is a pedigree, and why is it useful for studying how traits are 8. Freckles by Ayo Ogunseinde, via Unsplash license
passed from one generation to the next? 9. X and Y chromosomes by Maria Jackson, Leah Marks, Gerhard
4. What is a Punnett square, and what does it show? May, and Joanna Wilson licensed CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 via Research
5. Identify examples of human autosomal and X-linked traits. Gate
6. Imagine a hypothetical human gene that has two alleles, Q and q. Q 10. Colorblindness pedigree by Jodi So, CC BY-NC 3.0 via CK-12
is dominant to q and the inheritance of this gene is simple. Answer 11. Ishara public domain via Wikimedia Commons
the following questions about this gene. 12. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
A. If a woman has the genotype Qq and her partner has the 3.0
genotype QQ, list each of their possible gametes and what

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8.5: COMPLEX INHERITANCE
FAMILY PORTRAIT occurs when two alleles for a gene are expressed equally in the
This photo of a South African family shows some of the variations phenotype of heterozygotes. In the case of ABO blood type, IAIB
that exist in human skin color. The color of human skin can range heterozygotes have a unique phenotype, with both A and B antigens in
from very light to very dark with every possible gradation in their blood (type AB blood).
between. As you might expect, the skin color trait has a more
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
complex genetic basis than just one gene with two alleles, which is
the type of simple trait that Mendel studied in pea plants. Like skin Another relationship that may occur between alleles for the same gene
color, many other human traits have more complicated modes of is incomplete dominance. This occurs when the dominant allele is not
inheritance than Mendelian traits. Such modes of inheritance are completely dominant, so an intermediate phenotype results in
called non-Mendelian inheritance, and they include inheritance of heterozygotes who inherit both alleles. Generally, this happens when
multiple allele traits, traits with codominance or incomplete the two alleles for a given gene both produce proteins but one protein is
dominance, and polygenic traits, among others, all of which are not functional. As a result, the heterozygote individual produces only
described below. half the amount of normal protein as is produced by an individual who
is homozygous for the normal allele.
An example of incomplete dominance in humans is Tay Sachs disease.
The normal allele for the gene, in this case, produces an enzyme that is
responsible for breaking down lipids. A defective allele for the gene
results in the production of a nonfunctional enzyme. Heterozygotes
who have one normal and one defective allele produce half as much
functional enzyme as the normal homozygote, and this is enough for
normal development. However, homozygotes who have only defective
alleles produce only the nonfunctional enzyme. This leads to the
accumulation of lipids in the brain beginning in utero, which causes
significant brain damage. Most individuals with Tay Sachs disease die
Figure 8.5.1 : Family at a young age, typically by the age of five years.

MULTIPLE ALLELE TRAITS POLYGENIC TRAITS

The majority of human genes are thought to have more than two Many human traits are controlled by more than one gene. These traits
normal versions or alleles. Traits controlled by a single gene with more are called polygenic traits. The alleles of each gene have a minor
than two alleles are called multiple allele traits. An example is ABO additive effect on the phenotype. There are many possible
blood type. Your blood type refers to which of certain proteins called combinations of alleles, especially if each gene has multiple alleles.
antigens are found on your red blood cells. There are three common Therefore, a whole continuum of phenotypes is possible.
alleles for this trait, which are represented by the letters IA, IB, and i.
Table 8.5.1 : ABO Blood Group
Genotype Phenotype (blood type)
IAIA A
IAi A
IBIB B
IBi B
ii O
IAIB AB

As shown in the table below, there are six possible ABO genotypes
because the three alleles, taken two at a time, result in six possible
combinations. The IA and IB alleles are dominant to the i allele. As a
result, both IAIA and IAi genotypes have the same phenotype, with the
A antigen in their blood (type A blood). Similarly, both IBIB and IBi Figure 8.5.2 . Human Adult Height. Like many other polygenic traits,
genotypes have the same phenotype, with the B antigen in their blood adult height has a bell-shaped distribution.
(type B blood). No antigen is associated with the i allele, so people An example of a human polygenic trait is adult height. Several genes,
with the ii genotype have no antigens for ABO blood type in their each with more than one allele, contribute to this trait, so there are
blood (type O blood). many possible adult heights. For example, one adult’s height might be
1.655 m (5.430 feet), and another adult’s height might be 1.656 m
CODOMINANCE (5.433 feet). Adult height ranges from less than 5 feet to more than 6
Look at the genotype IAIB in the ABO blood group table. Alleles IA feet, with males being somewhat taller than females on average. The
and IB for ABO blood type are neither dominant nor recessive to one majority of people fall near the middle of the range of heights for their
another. Instead, they are codominant to each other. Codominance sex, as shown in the graph in Figure 8.5.2.

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ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON PHENOTYPE Some genes affect the expression of other genes. This is called
Many traits are affected by the environment as well as by genes. This epistasis. Epistasis is similar to dominance, except that it occurs
may be especially true for polygenic traits. For example, adult height between different genes rather than between different alleles for the
might be negatively impacted by poor diet or illness during childhood. same gene.
Skin color is another polygenic trait. There is a wide range of skin Albinism is an example of epistasis. A person with albinism has
colors in people worldwide. In addition to differences in skin color virtually no pigment in the skin. The condition occurs due to an
genes, differences in exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light cause some of entirely different gene than the genes that encode skin color. Albinism
the variations. As shown in Figure 8.5.3, exposure to UV light darkens occurs because a protein called tyrosinase, which is needed for the
the skin. production of normal skin pigment, is not produced due to a gene
mutation. If an individual has albinism mutation, he or she will not
have any skin pigment, regardless of the skin color genes that were
inherited.
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY
Do you know your ABO blood type? In an emergency, knowing
this valuable piece of information could possibly save your life. If
you ever need a blood transfusion, it is vital that you receive blood
that matches your own blood type. Why? If the blood transfused
into your body contains an antigen that your own blood does not
contain, antibodies in your blood plasma (the liquid part of your
blood) will recognize the antigen as foreign to your body and cause
Figure 8.5.3 : Skin on the lower part of the arm is much darker in color a reaction called agglutination. In this reaction, the transfused red
than protected skin near the top due to the effects of UV radiation.
blood cells will clump together, as shown in the image below. The
agglutination reaction is serious and potentially fatal.
PLEIOTROPY
Some genes affect more than one phenotypic trait. This is called
pleiotropy. There are numerous examples of pleiotropy in humans.
They generally involve important proteins that are needed for the
normal development or functioning of more than one organ system. An
example of pleiotropy in humans occurs with the gene that codes for
the main protein in collagen, a substance that helps form bones. This
protein is also important in the ears and eyes. Mutations in the gene Figure 8.5.5 : Two samples of the same blood are shown here. The
result in problems not only in bones but also in these sensory organs, sample on the left is mixed with anti-B antibodies; the sample on
which is how the gene's pleiotropic effects were discovered. the right is mixed with anti-A antibodies. Agglutination by the anti-
A antibodies on the right shows that the sample is type A blood.
Another example of pleiotropy occurs with sickle cell anemia. This
Knowing the antigens and antibodies present in each of the ABO
recessive genetic disorder occurs when there is a mutation in the gene
blood types will help you understand which type(s) of blood you
that normally encodes the red blood cell protein called hemoglobin.
can safely receive if you ever need a transfusion. This information
People with the disorder have two alleles for sickle-cell hemoglobin, so
is shown in the table below for all of the ABO blood types. For
named for the sickle shape (Figure 8.5.4) that their red blood cells take
example, if you have blood type A, this means that your red blood
on under certain conditions such as physical exertion. The sickle-
cells have the A antigen and that your blood plasma contains anti-B
shaped red blood cells clog small blood vessels, causing multiple
antibodies. If you were to receive a transfusion of type B or type
phenotypic effects, including stunting of physical growth, certain bone
AB blood, both of which have the B antigen, your anti-B antibodies
deformities, kidney failure, and strokes.
would attack the transfused red blood cells, causing agglutination.
Table 8.5.2 : Antigens and antibodies in ABO blood types
Characteristics Type A Type B Type AB Type O

Characteristics Red Blood Cell

Characteristics Antibodies in
None
Plasma
Anti-A and Anti-
Anti-B Anti-A B

Characteristics
Figure 8.5.4 : The sickle-shaped red blood cell on the left is shown next Antigens in
to several normal red blood cells for comparison. Red Blood None
Cells A antigen A and B
B antigens
antigens
EPISTASIS

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 You may have heard that people with blood type O are called C. A trait controlled by a single gene that has three different
universal donors and that people with blood type AB are called versions.
universal recipients. People with type O blood have neither A nor B D. A trait controlled by a single gene where one allele is fully
antigens in their blood, so if their blood is transfused into someone dominant to the only other allele.
with a different ABO blood type, it causes no immune reaction. In 9. People with type AB blood have:
other words, they can donate blood to anyone. On the other hand,
A. anti-O antibodies
people with type AB blood have no anti-A or anti-B antibodies in
B. anti-A and anti-B antibodies
their blood, so they can receive a transfusion of blood from anyone.
C. A and B antigens
Which blood type(s) can safely receive a transfusion of type AB
10. True or False. People with type O blood cannot receive a blood
blood, and which blood type(s) can be safely received by those with
transfusion from anyone besides others with type O blood.
type O blood?
11. True or False. People with type O blood can be heterozygous for
this trait.
REVIEW
1. What is non-Mendelian inheritance? EXPLORE MORE
2. Explain why the human ABO blood group is an example of a https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16764#Explore_More
multiple allele trait with codominance.
ATTRIBUTIONS
3. What is incomplete dominance? Give an example of this type of
non-Mendelian inheritance in humans. 1. Family by Henry M. Trotter, released into the public domain via
4. Explain the genetic basis of human skin color. Wikimedia Commons
5. How may the human trait of adult height be influenced by the 2. Adult height graph by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats), CC
environment? BY-NC 3.0 for CK-12 Foundation
6. Define pleiotropy, and give a human example. 3. Skin tanning by Onetwo1, licensed CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
7. What is the difference between pleiotropy and epistasis? Commons
8. Which of the following terms best matches each trait description? 4. Sickle cells by OpenStax College, licensed CC BY 3.0 via
Choose only the one term that best fits each trait. (codominance; Wikimedia Commons
multiple allele trait; Mendelian trait; polygenic trait) 5. Type A Blood, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
6. Blood type table based on image of ABO Blood type, public
A. A trait controlled by four genes.
domain via Wikimedia Commons
B. A trait where each allele of a heterozygote makes an equal
7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
contribution to the phenotype.
3.0

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8.6: GENETIC DISORDERS
Table 8.6.1 : Autosomal and X-linked genetic disorders
POLLY WHO?
Genetic Direct Effect of Signs and Symptoms of the Mode of
Each hand in Figure 8.6.1 has an extra pinky finger. This is a Disorder Mutation Disorder Inheritance
condition called polydactyly, which literally means "many
Geneticdigits."
Disorder Marfan defective protein in heart and bone defects and unusually autosomal
People with polydactyly may have extra fingers and/or toes, and the syndrome connective tissue long, slender limbs and fingers dominant
condition may affect just one hand or foot or both hands and feet.
Genetic Disorder Sickle cell
atypical hemoglobin sickle-shaped red blood cells that
autosomal
Polydactyly is often genetic in origin and may be part of a genetic protein in red blood clog tiny blood vessels, causing pain
anemia recessive
cells and damaging organs and joints
disorder that is associated with other conditions.
Genetic Disorder Vitamin D- lack of a substance soft bones that easily become
X-linked
resistant needed for bones to deformed, leading to bowed legs and
dominant
rickets absorb minerals other skeletal deformities
reduced activity of a internal and external bleeding that
Genetic Disorder Hemophilia X-linked
protein needed for occurs easily and is difficult to
A recessive
blood clotting control

GENETIC DISORDERS CAUSED BY

CHROMOSOMAL ALTERATIONS
As we learned in the Cell Reproduction chapter, mistakes may occur
during meiosis that results in nondisjunction. This is the failure of
replicated chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis. Some of
the resulting gametes will be missing all or part of a chromosome,
Figure 8.6.1 : Polydactyly while others will have an extra copy of all or part of the chromosome.
If such gametes are fertilized and form zygotes, they usually do not
WHAT ARE GENETIC DISORDERS? survive. If they do survive, the individuals are likely to have serious
Genetic disorders are diseases, syndromes, or other conditions that are genetic disorders.
caused by mutations in one or more genes or by chromosomal Table 8.6.2 lists several genetic disorders that are caused by
alterations. Genetic disorders are typically present at birth, but they atypical numbers of chromosomes. Most chromosomal disorders
should not be confused with congenital disorders, which are any involve the X chromosome. The X and Y chromosomes are the only
disorders, regardless of cause, that are present at birth. Some congenital chromosome pair in which the two chromosomes are very different in
disorders are not caused by genetic mutations or chromosomal size. This explains why nondisjunction of the sex chromosomes tends
alterations. Instead, they are caused by problems that arise during to occur more frequently than nondisjunction of autosomes.
embryonic or fetal development or during the process of birth. An
Table 8.6.2 : Genetic Disorders Caused by Atypical Numbers of Chromosomes
example of a nongenetic congenital disorder is fetal alcohol syndrome.
Genetic
This is a collection of birth defects, including facial anomalies and Genotype Phenotypic Effects
Disorder
intellectual disability, caused by maternal alcohol consumption during extra copy (complete or developmental delays, distinctive facial
Genetic Disorder Down
pregnancy. syndrome
partial) of chromosome appearance, and other physical and
21 (see figure below) developmental conditions (see figure below)
GENETIC DISORDERS CAUSED BY MUTATIONS
Genetic Disorder Turner’s
one X chromosome but
Chromosomally female with short height and
no other sex chromosome
Table 8.6.1 lists several genetic disorders caused by mutations in just syndrome infertility (inability to reproduce)
(XO)
one gene. Some of the disorders are caused by mutations in autosomal Chromosomally female with mild
Genetic Disorder Triple X three X chromosomes
genes, others by mutations in X-linked genes. Which disorders would syndrome
developmental delays and menstrual
(XXX)
you expect to be more common in males than females? irregularities
one Y chromosome and
Very few genetic disorders are controlled by dominant mutant alleles.
Genetic Disorder Klinefelter’s two or more X
Chromosomally male with problems in sexual
A dominant allele is expressed in every individual who inherits even development and reduced levels of the male
syndrome chromosomes (XXY,
hormone testosterone
one copy of it. If it causes a serious disorder, affected people may die XXXY)
young and fail to reproduce. Therefore, the mutant dominant allele is
likely to die out of the population. DIAGNOSING AND TREATING GENETIC
A recessive mutant allele, such as the allele that causes sickle cell DISORDERS
anemia or cystic fibrosis, is not expressed in people who inherit just A genetic disorder that is caused by a mutation can be inherited.
one copy of it. These people are called carriers. They do not have the Therefore, people with a genetic disorder in their family may be
disorder themselves, but they carry the mutant allele and their offspring concerned about having children with the disorder. A genetic counselor
can inherit it. Thus, the allele is likely to pass on to the next generation can help them understand the risks of their children being affected. If
rather than die out. they decide to have children, they may be advised to have prenatal
(“before birth”) testing to see if the fetus has any genetic disorders.
One method of prenatal testing is amniocentesis. In this procedure, a
few fetal cells are extracted from the fluid surrounding the fetus in
utero, and the fetal chromosomes are examined. Down syndrome and
other chromosomal alterations can be detected in this way.

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 Figure 8.6.2 : Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome) Karyotype. A karyotype
is a picture of a cell's chromosomes. Note the extra chromosome 21. A
child with Down syndrome, exhibiting characteristic facial appearance.
The symptoms of genetic disorders can sometimes be treated or
Figure 8.6.3 : Gene therapy is an experimental technique for curing a
prevented. For example, in the genetic disorder called genetic disorder by changing the patient's genetic makeup. Typically,
phenylketonuria (PKU), the amino acid phenylalanine builds up in gene therapy involves introducing a normal copy of a mutant gene into
the body to harmful levels. PKU is caused by a mutation in a gene that the patient's cells.
normally codes for an enzyme needed to break down phenylalanine. FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS
When a person with PKU consumes foods high in phenylalanine Down syndrome is the most common genetic cause of intellectual
(which includes many high-protein foods), the buildup of PKU can disability. It occurs in about 1 in every 700 live births, and it
lead to serious health problems. In infants and young children, the currently affects nearly half a million Americans. Until recently,
buildup of phenylalanine can cause intellectual disability and delayed scientists thought that the changes leading to intellectual disability
development, among other serious problems. Babies in the United in people with Down syndrome all happen before birth.
States and many other countries are screened for PKU soon after birth.
Researchers recently discovered a genetic disorder that affects brain
If PKU is diagnosed, the infant can be fed a low-phenylalanine diet.
development in people with Down Syndrome throughout childhood
This prevents the buildup of phenylalanine and the health problems
and into adulthood. The newly discovered genetic disorder changes
associated with it, including intellectual disability. As long as a low-
communication between nerve cells in the brain, resulting in the
phenylalanine diet is followed throughout life, most symptoms of the
slower transmission of nerve impulses. This finding may eventually
disorder can be prevented.
allow the development of strategies to promote brain functioning in
Down syndrome patients and may also be applicable to other
CURING GENETIC DISORDERS
developmental disabilities such as autism. The results of this
Cures for genetic disorders are still in the early stages of development.
promising study were published in the March 16, 2016 issue of the
One potential cure is gene therapy. Gene therapy is an experimental
scientific journal Neuron.
technique that uses genes to treat or prevent disease. In gene therapy,
normal genes are introduced into cells to compensate for mutated
genes. If a mutated gene causes a necessary protein to be nonfunctional
SUMMARY
or missing, gene therapy may be able to introduce a normal copy of the Genetic disorders are diseases, syndromes, or other atypical
gene to produce the needed functional protein. conditions that are caused by mutations in one or more genes or by
chromosomal alterations.
A gene that is inserted directly into a cell usually does not function, so
Examples of genetic disorders caused by single-gene mutations
a carrier called a vector is genetically engineered to deliver the gene
include Marfan syndrome (autosomal dominant), sickle cell anemia
(Figure 8.6.3). Certain viruses, such as adenoviruses, are often used as
(autosomal recessive), vitamin D-resistant rickets (X-linked
vectors. They can deliver the new gene by infecting cells. The viruses
dominant), and hemophilia A (X-linked recessive). Very few
are modified so they do not cause disease when used in people. If the
genetic disorders are caused by dominant mutations because these
treatment is successful, the new gene delivered by the vector will allow
alleles are less likely to be passed on to successive generations.
the synthesis of a functioning protein. Researchers still must overcome
Nondisjunction is the failure of replicated chromosomes to separate
many technical challenges before gene therapy will be a practical
properly during meiosis. This may result in genetic disorders
approach to curing genetic disorders.
caused by atypical numbers of chromosomes. An example is Down
syndrome, in which the individual inherits an extra copy of
chromosome 21. Most chromosomal disorders involve the X
chromosome. An example is Klinefelter's syndrome (XXY,
XXXY).
Prenatal genetic testing, for example, by amniocentesis, can detect
chromosomal alterations in utero. The symptoms of some genetic
disorders can be treated or prevented. For example, symptoms of

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 phenylketonuria (PKU) can be prevented by following a low- types of disorders in terms of how the X chromosome is affected?
phenylalanine diet throughout life. 12. Can you be a carrier of Marfan syndrome and not have the
Cures for genetic disorders are still in the early stages of disorder? Explain your answer.
development. One potential cure is gene therapy, in which normal 13. True or False. It is impossible for people to have more than three
genes are introduced into cells by a vector such as a virus to copies of one chromosome.
compensate for mutated genes. 14. True or False. The gene for sickle cell anemia is on a sex
chromosome.
REVIEW
1. Define genetic disorder. EXPLORE MORE
2. Identify three genetic disorders caused by mutations in a single https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16765#Explore_More
gene.
ATTRIBUTIONS
3. Why are single-gene genetic disorders more commonly controlled
by recessive than dominant mutant alleles? 1. Polydactyly by Baujat G, Le Merrer M. CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
4. What is nondisjunction? Why may it cause genetic disorders? Commons
5. Explain why genetic disorders caused by at numbers of 2. Down syndrome by CK-12, public domain based on
chromosomes most often involve the X chromosome. 1. Down Syndrome Karyotype by National Human Genome
6. How is Down syndrome detected in utero? Research Institute, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
7. Use the example of PKU to illustrate how the symptoms of a 2. Brushfield eyes by Erin Ryan, public domain via Wikimedia
genetic disorder can sometimes be prevented. Commons
8. Explain how gene therapy works. 3. Virus by Darryl Leja at NHGRI public domain via Wikimedia
9. Compare and contrast genetic disorders and congenital disorders. Commons
10. Explain why parents that do not have Down syndrome can have a 4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
child with Down syndrome. 3.0
11. Hemophilia A and Turner’s syndrome both involve problems with
the X chromosome. What is the major difference between these two

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8.7: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: CANCER AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
have had a 50% chance of inheriting this gene. Even though
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: CANCER IN THE Rebecca does not have the most common BRCA mutations that
FAMILY increase the risk of cancer, it does not mean that her also mother does
Rebecca’s family tree, as illustrated in Figure 8.7.1, shows a high not, because there would also only be a 50% chance that she would
incidence of cancer among close relatives. But are genes the cause of pass it on to Rebecca. Therefore, Rebecca’s mother should consider
cancer in this family? Only genetic testing, which is the sequencing of getting tested for mutations in the BRCA genes as well. Ideally, the
specific genes in an individual, can reveal whether a cancer-causing individuals with cancer in a family should be tested first when a
gene is being inherited in this family. genetic cause is suspected so that if there is a specific mutation being
inherited, it can be identified and the other family members can be
tested for that same mutation.
Mutations in both BRCA1 and BRCA2 are often found in Ashkenazi
Jewish families. However, these genes are not linked in the
chromosomal sense, because they are on different chromosomes and
are therefore inherited independently, in accordance with Mendel’s law
of independent assortment. Why would certain gene mutations be
prevalent in particular ethnic groups? If people within an ethnic group
tend to produce offspring with each other, their genes will remain
prevalent within the group. These may be genes for harmless variations
such as skin, hair, or eye color, or harmful variations such as the
mutations in the BRCA genes. Other genetically based diseases and
disorders are sometimes more commonly found in particular ethnic
groups, such as cystic fibrosis in people of European descent and
Figure 8.7.1 : Pedigree for Rebecca's family, as described at the sickle-cell anemia in people of African descent. You will learn more
beginning of this chapter, showing individuals with cancer (red) and about the prevalence of certain genes and traits in particular ethnic
those that do not have cancer (blue). Circles represent women, squares
represent men. groups and populations in the chapter on Human Variation.
As you learned in this chapter, genetics is not the sole determinant of
Fortunately for Rebecca, the results of her genetic testing show that she
does not have the mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes that phenotype. The environment can also influence many traits, such as
most commonly increase a person’s risk of getting cancer. However, it adult height and skin color. The environment also plays a major role in
does not mean that she doesn’t have other mutations in these genes that the development of cancer. 90 to 95% of all cancers do not have an
could increase her risk of getting cancer. There are many other identified genetic cause and are often caused by mutagens in the
mutations in BRCA genes whose effect on cancer risk is not known, environment such as UV radiation from the sun or toxic chemicals in
and there may be many more yet to be discovered. It is important to cigarette smoke. But for families like Rebecca’s, knowing their family
continue to study the variations in genes such as BRCA in different health history and genetic makeup may help them better prevent or
treat diseases that are caused by their genetic inheritance. If a person
people to better assess their possible contribution to the development of
the disease. As you now know from this chapter, many mutations are knows they have a gene that can increase their risk of cancer, they can
harmless, while others can cause significant health effects, depending make lifestyle changes, have early and more frequent cancer
on the specific mutation and the gene involved. screenings, and may even choose to have preventative surgeries that
may help reduce their risk of getting cancer and increase their odds of
Mutations in BRCA genes are particularly likely to cause cancer
long-term survival if cancer does occur. The next time you go to the
because these genes encode for tumor-suppressor proteins that
doctor and they ask whether any members of your family have had
normally repair damaged DNA and control cell division. If these genes
cancer, you will have a deeper understanding of why this information is
are mutated in a way that causes the proteins to not function properly,
so important to your health.
other mutations can accumulate and cell division can run out of
control, which can cause cancer.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
BRCA1 and BRCA2 are on chromosomes 17 and 13, respectively,
In this chapter, you learned about genetics — the science of heredity.
which are autosomes. As Rebecca’s genetic counselor mentioned,
Specifically, you learned that:
mutations in these genes have a dominant inheritance pattern. Now that
Chromosomes are structures made of DNA and proteins that are
you know the pattern of inheritance of autosomal dominant genes if
encoded with genetic instructions for making proteins. The
Rebecca’s grandmother did have one copy of a mutated BRCA gene,
instructions are organized into units called genes, most of which
what are the chances that Rebecca’s mother also has this mutation?
contain instructions for a single protein.
Because it is dominant, only one copy of the gene is needed to increase
Humans normally have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Of these, 22 pairs
the risk of cancer, and because it is on autosomes instead of sex
are autosomes, which contain genes for characteristics unrelated to
chromosomes, the sex of the parent or offspring does not matter in the
sex. The other pair consists of sex chromosomes (XX in females,
inheritance pattern. In this situation, Rebecca’s grandmother’s eggs
XY in males). Only the Y chromosome contains genes that
would have had a 50% chance of having a BRCA gene mutation, due
determine sex.
to Mendel’s law of segregation. Therefore, Rebecca’s mother would

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 Humans have an estimated 20,000 to 22,000 genes. The majority of codominance occurs in the AB blood type, in which the IA and
human genes have two or more possible versions, called alleles. IB alleles are codominant.
Mendel experimented with the inheritance of traits in pea plants, Incomplete dominance is the case in which the dominant allele
which have two different forms of several visible characteristics. for a gene is not completely dominant to a recessive allele, so an
Mendel crossed pea plants with different forms of traits. intermediate phenotype occurs in heterozygotes who inherit
In Mendel's first set of experiments, he crossed plants that only both alleles. A human example of incomplete dominance is Tay
differed in one characteristic. The results led to Mendel's first Sachs disease, in which heterozygotes produce half as much
law of inheritance, called the law of segregation. This law states functional enzyme as normal homozygotes.
that there are two factors controlling a given characteristic, one Polygenic traits are controlled by more than one gene, each of
of which dominates the other, and these factors separate and go which has a minor additive effect on the phenotype. This results
to different gametes when a parent reproduces. in a continuum of phenotypes. Examples of human polygenic
In Mendel's second set of experiments, he experimented with traits include skin color and adult height. Many of these types of
two characteristics at a time. The results led to Mendel's second traits, as well as others, are affected by the environment as well
law of inheritance, called the law of independent assortment. as by genes.
This law states that the factors controlling different Pleiotropy refers to the situation in which a gene affects more
characteristics are inherited independently of each other. than one phenotypic trait. A human example of pleiotropy
occurs with sickle cell anemia, which has multiple effects on the
Mendel's laws of inheritance, now expressed in terms of genes,
body.
form the basis of genetics, the science of heredity. Mendel is often
Epistasis is when one gene affects the expression of other genes.
called the father of genetics.
An example of epistasis is albinism, in which the albinism
The position of a gene on a chromosome is its locus. A given gene
mutation negates the expression of skin color genes.
may have different versions called alleles. Paired chromosomes of
the same type are called homologous chromosomes and they have Genetic disorders are diseases, syndromes, or other abnormal
the same genes at the same loci. conditions that are caused by mutations in one or more genes or by
The alleles an individual inherits for a given gene make up the chromosomal alterations.
individual's genotype. An organism with two of the same allele is Examples of genetic disorders caused by single-gene mutations
called a homozygote, and an individual with two different alleles is include Marfan syndrome (autosomal dominant), sickle cell
called a heterozygote. anemia (autosomal recessive), vitamin D-resistant rickets (X-
The expression of an organism's genotype is referred to as its linked dominant), and hemophilia A (X-linked recessive). Very
phenotype. A dominant allele is always expressed in the phenotype, few genetic disorders are caused by dominant mutations because
even when just one dominant allele has been inherited. A recessive these alleles are less likely to be passed on to successive
allele is expressed in the phenotype only when two recessive alleles generations.
have been inherited. Nondisjunction is the failure of replicated chromosomes to
In sexual reproduction, two parents produce gametes that unite in separate properly during meiosis. This may result in genetic
the process of fertilization to form a single-celled zygote. Gametes disorders caused by abnormal numbers of chromosomes. An
are haploid cells with only one of each pair of homologous example is Down syndrome, in which the individual inherits an
chromosomes, and the zygote is a diploid cell with two of each pair extra copy of chromosome 21. Most chromosomal disorders
of chromosomes. involve the X chromosome. An example is Klinefelter's
Mendelian inheritance refers to the inheritance of traits controlled syndrome (XXY, XXXY).
by a single gene with two alleles, one of which may be completely Prenatal genetic testing, for example, by amniocentesis, can
dominant to the other. The pattern of inheritance of Mendelian traits detect chromosomal alterations in utero. The symptoms of some
depends on whether the traits are controlled by genes on autosomes genetic disorders can be treated or prevented. For example,
or by genes on sex chromosomes. symptoms of phenylketonuria (PKU) can be prevented by
Examples of human autosomal Mendelian traits include dimples following a low-phenylalanine diet throughout life.
and earlobe attachment. Examples of human X-linked traits Cures for genetic disorders are still in the early stages of
include red-green color blindness and hemophilia. development. One potential cure is gene therapy, in which
Two tools for studying inheritance are pedigrees and Punnett normal genes are introduced into cells by a vector such as a
squares. A pedigree is a chart that shows how a trait is passed from virus to compensate for mutated genes.
generation to generation. A Punnett square is a chart that shows the
expected ratios of possible genotypes in the offspring of two
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW
parents. 1. Which sentence is correct?
Non-Mendelian inheritance refers to the inheritance of traits that A. Different alleles of the same gene are located at the same locus
have a more complex genetic basis than one gene with two alleles on homologous chromosomes.
and complete dominance. B. Different alleles of the same gene are located at different loci on
Multiple allele traits are controlled by a single gene with more homologous chromosomes.
than two alleles. An example of a human multiple allele trait is C. Different genes of the same alleles are located at the same locus
ABO blood type. on homologous chromosomes.
Codominance occurs when two alleles for a gene are expressed D. Different alleles of the same gene are located at different loci on
equally in the phenotype of heterozygotes. A human example of the same chromosome.

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 2. A person has a hypothetical Aa genotype. Answer the following D. there are two factors that control inheritance.
questions about this genotype. 11. Linked genes:
A. What do A and a represent? A. are on homologous chromosomes.
B. If the person expresses only the phenotype associated with A, is B. are on the same chromosome.
this an example of complete dominance, codominance, or C. are on adjacent chromosomes.
incomplete dominance? Explain your answer. Also, describe D. are on non-homologous chromosomes.
what the observed phenotypes would be if it were either of the 12. A woman has red-green color blindness, which is an X-linked
two incorrect answers. recessive trait. Her husband does not have red-green color
3. Explain how a mutation that occurs in a parent can result in a blindness. Which of the following is correct?
genetic disorder in their child. Be sure to include which type of cell A. Half of their daughters will have red-green color blindness.
or cells in the parent must be affected in order for this to happen. B. All of their daughters will have red-green color blindness.
4. What is an allele that is not expressed in a heterozygote called? C. All of their sons will have red-green color blindness.
5. True or False. Sex is determined by a gene on an autosome. D. All of their children will have red-green color blindness.
6. True or False. In sexual reproduction, parents and offspring are
13. Which of the following is an example of Mendelian inheritance?
never identical.
7. True or False. In humans, a gamete will have 23 chromosomes. A. A trait that has three alleles
8. True or False. The expression of an organism’s phenotype produces B. A trait that is controlled by two genes
its genotype. C. A trait that is controlled by a single gene with one dominant and
9. True or False. It is entirely likely for a gene to have more than two one recessive allele
alleles. D. A trait that has two alleles, both of which are expressed equally
10. Mendel’s law of independent assortment states that in the phenotype
A. two factors of the same characteristic separate into different
ATTRIBUTIONS
gametes.
1. Pedigree by Rachel Henderson by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
B. there are dominant and recessive factors.
2. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
C. factors controlling different characteristics are inherited
3.0
independently of each other.

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
9: BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
This chapter outlines how Darwin developed his theory of evolution by natural selection, Wallace's
contribution to the theory, and evidence for evolution. The chapter also describes tools for studying
evolution, processes of microevolution and macroevolution, and how Earth formed and life first
evolved.

9.1: CASE STUDY: EVERYDAY EVOLUTION

One night in April 2009, Mateo woke up soaked in sweat. He had a fever of 102.4 degrees F,
chills, an intense headache, and body aches. He soon developed a sore throat and a bad cough.

9.2: DARWIN, WALLACE, AND THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION BY NATURAL

SELECTION
Eighteenth-century Englishman Charles Darwin is one of the most famous scientists who ever lived. His place in the history of
science is well deserved. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection represents a giant leap in human understanding. Darwin's
theory contains two major ideas: (1) that evolution occurs. and (2) that evolution occurs by natural selection. Natural selection is the
process in which living things with beneficial traits produce more offspring than others do.

9.3: EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

Fossils are a window into the past. They provide clear evidence that evolution has occurred. Scientists who find and study fossils are
called paleontologists. How do they use fossils to understand the past? The oldest horse fossils show what the earliest horses were
like. They were only 0.4 m tall, or about the size of a fox, and they had four long toes. Other evidence shows they lived in wooded
marshlands, where they probably ate soft leaves.

9.4: MICROEVOLUTION
Individuals do not evolve because their genes do not change over time. Instead, evolution occurs at the level of the population. A
population consists of organisms of the same species that live in the same area. In terms of evolution, the population is assumed to be
a relatively closed group. This means that most mating takes place within the population. Evolutionary change that occurs over
relatively short periods of time within populations is called microevolution.

9.5: MACROEVOLUTION
This garter snake preys on a variety of small animals, including small amphibians called rough-skinned newts. The newts produce a
powerful toxin that is concentrated in their skin. Garter snakes have evolved resistance to this toxin through a series of lucky genetic
mutations, allowing them to safely prey upon the newts. The predator-prey relationship between these animals has created an
evolutionary "arms" race.

9.6: TOOLS FOR STUDYING EVOLUTION

This interesting image is a 19th century representation of Earth that is based on an ancient Hindu myth. According to the myth, Earth
rests on the backs of elephants, which in turn stand on the back of a giant turtle.

9.7: ADAPTATION IN HUMANS

Milk naturally contains not only proteins and lipids; it also contains carbohydrates. Specifically, milk contains the sugar lactose.
Lactose is a disaccharide (two-sugar) compound that consists of one molecule each of galactose and glucose, as shown in the
structural formula below. Lactose makes up between 2 and 8 percent of milk by weight. The exact amount varies both within and
between species.

9.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: FLU AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

In April 2009, the world was hit with a swine flu pandemic. The Centers for Disease Control estimates that within that first year, 43 to
89 million people worldwide contracted the swine flu, and that it contributed to 8,870 to 18,300 deaths. Some people with swine flu
were spared serious complications, such as Mateo, who you read about in the beginning of this chapter.

1 4/25/2021
9.1: CASE STUDY: EVERYDAY EVOLUTION
CASE STUDY: FLU, FROM PIGS TO YOU
One night in April 2009, Mateo woke up soaked in sweat. He had a
fever of 102.4 °F, chills, an intense headache, and body aches. He soon
develops a sore throat and a bad cough. The next day he felt so sick
and exhausted that he could hardly get out of bed, and his fever and
other symptoms lasted for days. Clearly, this was not just a mild cold
virus — Mateo most likely had influenza, commonly known as the flu.

Figure 9.1.2 : Train passengers in Mexico City in April 2009, wearing

masks to protect against the swine flu epidemic.
How could a new viral strain like this emerge so suddenly? And how
Figure 9.1.1 : Sow and five piglets could it change from infecting pigs to infecting humans? This is an
example of evolution in action. You may think of evolution as
While watching TV as he recovered in bed, Mateo saw a news report
something that occurred in the distant past, for instance, how humans
about a new “swine flu” strain of the influenza virus that was spreading
evolved from earlier primates. But evolution is occurring all the time.
in people throughout North America, particularly in Mexico. It was
As you will learn in this chapter, evolution is the process by which
called the swine flu because scientists thought it most likely originated
characteristics of biological entities, such as living organisms or
in pigs, based on similarities in its genetic sequence with viruses that
viruses, change over time. Evolution can occur very slowly or more
infect pigs. However, contact with pigs was not necessary for people to
quickly, but it is particularly rapid in viruses and bacteria. In the Case
catch swine flu. This version seemed to spread directly between
Study Conclusion for this chapter, you will learn specifically about how
people, similar to the typical seasonal flu virus.
the 2009 H1N1 virus evolved from a virus that infects pigs to one that
Mateo’s symptoms were similar to those described in the news report infects humans.
on swine flu. Although he was beginning to recover, he saw that others
were not so lucky. Many people with swine flu developed severe CHAPTER OVERVIEW: BIOLOGICAL
pneumonia, and some even died. Because this was a new strain of flu EVOLUTION
virus that was significantly different than the previous seasonal flu In this chapter, you will learn about the theory of evolution, evidence
viruses, the existing flu vaccine was largely ineffective against swine for evolution, how evolution works, and the evolution of living
flu. Therefore, the only way to try to prevent infection by the swine flu organisms on Earth. Specifically, you will learn about:
virus was to limit exposure to it, including avoiding contact with
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection and how he
people with the flu and using good hand washing practices. The news
developed this theory.
report showed people in Mexico wearing masks as they went about
Evidence for the theory of evolution from fossils, DNA, and
their daily lives, to try to prevent exposure to the virus.
observations of living organisms.
By June 2009, Mateo was back to normal, but many other people
Microevolution, which is an evolution that occurs over a relatively
worldwide were not. Within just a few months, the swine flu had
short period of time within a population.
spread from North America to over 70 countries and territories
How allele frequencies in a population change due to the forces of
throughout the world. The World Health Organization declared the
evolution, which include mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and
spread of swine flu to be a pandemic, meaning that a significant portion
natural selection.
of the world’s population was infected. In September 2009, over 99%
Macroevolution, which is an evolution that occurs at or above the
of the influenza viruses circulating in the U.S. were the swine flu
species level. This includes the generation of new species and
strain, which is also known as the 2009 H1N1 virus. If you had the flu
coevolution between species.
in the U.S. during this time period, chances are high that it was the
Influences on the timing of macroevolution.
swine flu.
The tools used by scientists to study evolution including the fossil
record, methods of establishing the age of fossils, and molecular
clocks based on DNA or amino acid sequences.
As you read this chapter and learn more about evolution, think about
the following questions about the swine flu virus.
1. Viruses can replicate quickly. Why does this contribute to their
rapid rate of evolution?
2. Mutation plays an important role in the evolution of viruses. How
does mutation relate to evolution?

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3. One of the reasons why the 2009 H1N1 swine flu virus evolved is in which the movement of organisms or contact between organisms
that different types of influenza viruses can exchange genetic has contributed to evolutionary changes?
material with each other if they infect the same host, in a process
called reassortment. Why might this lead to a new strain of ATTRIBUTIONS
influenza virus with different characteristics? How is this similar to 1. Sow and five piglets by Scott Bauer, U.S. Department of
the genetic variation produced by sexual reproduction? Agriculture, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
4. It is thought that contact between North American and Eurasian 2. Masked Train Passengers by Eneas De Troya from Mexico City,
pigs, possibly through international trade, may have contributed to México, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
the evolution of the swine flu virus. What are some other examples 3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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9.2: DARWIN, WALLACE, AND THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION BY NATURAL
SELECTION
STEPPING BACK IN TIME In 1831, when Darwin was just 22 years old, he set sail on a scientific
The Grand Canyon, shown in Figure 9.2.1, is an American icon expedition on a ship called the HMS Beagle. Darwin was the naturalist
and one of the wonders of the natural world. It is also a record of on the voyage. As a naturalist, it was his job to observe and collect
the past. Look at the rock layers in the picture. If you were to walk specimens of plants, animals, rocks, and fossils wherever the
down a trail to the bottom of the canyon, with each step-down, you expedition went ashore. The route the ship took and the stops they
would be taking a step back in time. That’s because lower layers of made are shown on the map below. Darwin was fascinated by nature,
rock represent the more distant past. The rock layers and the fossils so he loved his job on the Beagle. He spent more than three years of
they contain show the prehistory of the region and its organisms the five-year trip exploring nature on distant continents and islands.
over a 2-billion-year time span. Although Charles Darwin never While he was away, a former teacher published Darwin’s accounts of
visited the Grand Canyon, he saw rock layers and fossils in other his observations. By the time Darwin finally returned to England, he
parts of the world. They were one inspiration for his theory of had become famous as a naturalist.
evolution. Darwin’s theory rocked the scientific world. In this
concept, you will read why.
Plymouth

Azores
Tenerife
Cape Verde

Galapagos Cocos
Bahia (Keeling) Isl.
Callao
Lima Rio de Mauritius
Janeiro Sydney
Valparaiso
Montevideo Cape Town King George's
Sound
Hobart
Falkland
Islands

Figure 9.2.2: Voyage of the Beagle. This map shows the route of
Darwin’s 5-year voyage on the HMS Beagle. Each stop along the way
is labeled. The route starts with Sydney. Along the way they stopped at
Hobart, King George's Sound, Cocos island, Mauritius, Cape town,
Bahia, Azores, Plymouth, Tenerife, Bhaia again, Rio de Janeiro,
Montevideo Islands, Valparaiso, Callao Lima, Galapagos, and then
back to Sydney. Darwin and the others on board eventually circled the
globe.

DARWIN’S OBSERVATIONS
Figure 9.2.1 : Grand Canyon During the long voyage, Darwin made many observations that helped
him form his theory of evolution. For example:
WHAT IS THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION BY He visited tropical rainforests and other new habitats where he saw
NATURAL SELECTION? many plants and animals he had never seen before, such as the giant
iguana and booby bird pictured below. These observations
Eighteenth-century Englishman Charles Darwin is one of the most
impressed him with the great diversity of life.
famous scientists who ever lived. His place in the history of science is
He experienced an earthquake that lifted the ocean floor 2.7 meters
well deserved. Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection
(9 feet) above sea level. He also found rocks containing fossil
represents a giant leap in human understanding. It explains and unifies
seashells in mountains high above sea level. These observations
all of biology. Darwin’s theory actually contains two major ideas:
suggested that continents and oceans had changed dramatically over
1. One idea is that evolution occurs. In other words, organisms change time and continue to change in dramatic ways.
over time. Life on Earth has changed as descendants diverged from He visited rock ledges that had clearly once were beaches that had
common ancestors in the past. gradually built up over time. This suggested that slow, steady
2. The other idea is that evolution occurs by natural selection. Natural processes also change Earth’s surface.
selection is the process in which living things with beneficial traits He dug up fossils of gigantic extinct mammals, such as the ground
produce more offspring than others do. This results in changes in sloth, fossils of which are also pictured below. This was hard
the traits of living things over time. evidence that organisms looked very different in the past. It
In Darwin’s day, most people believed that all species were created at suggested that living things — like the Earth’s surface — change
the same time and remained unchanged thereafter. They also believed over time.
that Earth was only 6,000 years old. Therefore, Darwin’s ideas
revolutionized biology. How did Darwin come up with these important
ideas? It all started when he went on a voyage.

VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE

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 3. Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) was an English economist. He wrote
an essay titled On Population. In the essay, Malthus argued that
human populations grow faster than the resources they depend on.
When populations become too large, famine and disease break out.
In the end, this keeps populations in check by killing off the
weakest members.
Figure 9.2.3 : On his voyage, Darwin saw giant marine iguanas and
blue-footed boobies. He also dug up the fossil skeleton of a giant
ground sloth-like the one shown here. From left: Giant Marine Iguana,
KNOWLEDGE OF ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
Blue-Footed Boobies, and Fossil Skeleton of a Giant Ground Sloth in a These weren’t the only influences on Darwin. He was also aware that
museum. humans could breed plants and animals to have useful traits. By
selecting which plants or animals were allowed to reproduce, they
THE GALÁPAGOS ISLANDS
could change an organism’s traits over time. The pigeons in the figure
Darwin’s most important observations were made on the Galápagos
below are good examples. Darwin called this type of change in
Islands (shown on the map above of the Beagle voyage). The
organisms artificial selection. He used the word artificial to
Galápagos Islands are a group of 16 small volcanic islands that are 966
distinguish it from natural selection.
kilometers (600 miles) off the west coast of South America. Individual
Galápagos islands differ from one another in important ways. Some are
rocky and dry; others have better soil and more rainfall. Darwin
noticed that the plants and animals on the different islands also
differed. For example, the giant tortoises on one island had saddle-
shaped shells, whereas those on another island had dome-shaped shells,
as you can see in the photos below. People who lived on the islands
could even tell which island a tortoise came from by its shell. This
started Darwin thinking about the origin of species. He wondered how Figure 9.2.5 : Artificial Selection in Pigeons. Pigeon hobbyists breed
each island came to have its own type of tortoise. pigeons to have certain characteristics. Artificial selection in pigeons.
The two fancy-looking pigeons on the right were both bred from the
common rock-pigeon on the far left.

DARWIN DEVELOPS HIS THEORY

Darwin spent many years thinking about the work of Lamarck, Lyell,
and Malthus; what he had seen on his voyage; and what he knew about
artificial selection. What did all this mean? How did it all fit together?
Eventually, it all came together in his theory of evolution by natural
Figure 9.2.4 : Galápagos tortoises have differently shaped shells selection. It’s easy to see how these influences helped shape Darwin’s
depending on which island they inhabit. Tortoises with saddle-shaped ideas, although it actually took Darwin years to formulate his theory.
shells can reach up to eat plant leaves above their head. Tortoises with His reasoning went like this:
dome-shaped shells cannot reach up in this way. These two types of
tortoises live on islands with different environments and food sources. 1. Like Lamarck, Darwin assumed that species can change over time.
How might this explain the differences in their shells? The fossils he found helped convince him of that.
2. From Lyell, Darwin saw that Earth and its life were very old. Thus,
OTHER INFLUENCES ON DARWIN there had been enough time for evolution to produce the great
Science, like evolution, always builds on the past. Darwin didn’t diversity of life that Darwin had observed.
develop his theory completely on his own. He was influenced by the 3. From Malthus, Darwin knew that populations could grow faster
ideas of earlier thinkers. than their resources. This “overproduction of offspring” led to a
“struggle for existence,” in Darwin’s words.
WRITINGS OF EARLIER SCIENTISTS 4. From artificial selection, Darwin knew that some offspring have
Three scientists whose writings influenced Darwin were Lamarck, chance variations that can be inherited. In nature, offspring with
Lyell, and Malthus. certain variations might be more likely to survive the “struggle for
1. Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829) was an important French existence” and reproduce. If so, they would pass their favorable
naturalist. He was one of the first scientists to propose that species variations to their offspring.
change over time. However, Lamarck was wrong about how species 5. Darwin coined the term fitness to refer to an organism’s relative
change. His idea of the inheritance of acquired characteristics is ability to survive and produce fertile offspring. Nature selects the
incorrect. Traits an organism develops during its own life cannot be variations that are most useful. Therefore, he called this type of
passed on to offspring, as Lamarck believed. selection natural selection.
2. Charles Lyell (1797–1875) was a well-known English geologist. 6. Darwin knew artificial selection could change domestic species
Darwin took his book, Principles of Geology, with him on the over time. He inferred that natural selection could also change wild
Beagle. In the book, Lyell argued that gradual geological processes species over time. In fact, he thought that if a species changed
have slowly shaped Earth’s surface over very long periods of time. enough, it might evolve into a new species.
From this, Lyell inferred that Earth must be far older than most
people believed. IT'S WALLACE’S THEORY TOO

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Did you ever hear the saying that “great minds think alike?” It certainly a springboard to introduce his idea of natural selection as well as to
applies to Charles Darwin and another English naturalist named Alfred provide support for it.
Russel Wallace. Wallace lived at about the same time as Darwin and The use of selective breeding to change the traits of other species
also traveled to distant places to study nature. Wallace wasn’t as has a very long history. In fact, archaeological evidence indicates
famous as Darwin, but he developed basically the same theory of that selective breeding of both plants and animals began as early as
evolution. While working in what is now Malaysia, Wallace sent 10,000 years ago in the Middle East when previous hunter-
Darwin a paper he had written explaining his evolutionary theory. gatherers began to domesticate animals and cultivate cereal plants.
Wallace's ideas served to confirm what Darwin already thought. It also Around this time, changes in climate led to increasing drought,
pushed Darwin to finish and publish his book, On the Origin of which forced people to concentrate around permanent water
Species. Published in 1859, the book changed science forever. It clearly sources. These population concentrations could not be supported by
spelled out Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection and wild animals and plants in the vicinity, providing a stimulus for the
provided convincing arguments and evidence to support it. invention of agriculture and the use of selective breeding to
increase the amount of available food. For thousands of years,
APPLYING DARWIN'S AND WALLACE’S THEORY species of plants such as wheat and rice and of animals such as
The following example applies Darwin’s and Wallace's theory of goats and sheep were selectively bred and changed from their wild
evolution by natural selection. It explains how giraffes came to have ancestors.
such long necks, like those shown in the photo below.
In the New World, the wild grain called teosinte, pictured on the
In the past, giraffes had short necks. But there was a chance left in Figure 9.2.7, was selectively bred by Native Americans to
variation in neck length. Some giraffes had necks a little longer produce larger and more numerous edible kernels. The result was
than the average. modern maize (commonly called corn), shown on the right in the
Then, as now, giraffes fed on tree leaves. Perhaps the climate same picture. Teosinte was very small with fewer grains on it. The
became drier, and leaves became scarcer. There would be more modern corn is bulky and with a lot more grain on it. After maize
giraffes than the trees could support. Thus, there would be a was created, it spread across the Americas and was introduced to
“struggle for existence.” Europe by European explorers and traders. Today, maize is still a
Giraffes with longer necks had an advantage. They could reach dietary staple and the most widely grown grain crop in the
leaves other giraffes could not. Therefore, long-necked giraffes Americas.
were more likely to survive and reproduce. In other words, they had
greater fitness.
These giraffes passed the long-neck trait to their offspring. With
each successive generation, the population contained giraffes with
longer necks. Eventually, all the giraffes had very long necks.

Figure 9.2.7 : Selective breeding changed teosinte (left) to modern

maize (right). The middle ear is a hybrid produced by breeding
teosinte with maize.
The wild ancestors of domesticated wheat and rice were easy to
identify because the modern species resemble their wild
counterparts. However, that wasn't the case with maize, which
Figure 9.2.6 . African Giraffes. Giraffes feed on leaves high in trees. looks very different from teosinte. Maize also appeared quite
Their long necks allow them to reach leaves that other ground animals
cannot. As this example shows, chance variations may help a species suddenly in the archaeological record, so its origin has been of
survive if the environment changes. Variation among species helps special interest.
ensure that at least one species will be able to survive environmental Go online to learn more about the selective breeding of teosinte to
change.
maize. Use only reliable sources such as university websites to find
FEATURE: RELIABLE SOURCES answers to the following questions:
In the first chapter of his book On the Origin of Species, Charles
1. Where and when was teosinte selectively bred to produce
Darwin discussed how artificial selection, also called selective
maize?
breeding, had been successful in changing the traits of animals,
2. How did the change from wild teosinte to modern maize occur
including pigeons, cats, cattle, and dogs. He used this discussion as
so rapidly?

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 3. What is the genetic basis of this change? 16. True or False. Fossils of extinct animals are one type of evidence
that supports Darwin’s theory of evolution.
REVIEW
EXPLORE MORE
1. State Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16768#Explore_More
2. Describe two observations Darwin made on his voyage on the
Beagle that helped him develop his theory of evolution. ATTRIBUTIONS
3. What is the inheritance of acquired characteristics? Which scientist 1. Rim of the Grand Canyon by presumed Ratte~commonswiki, CC
developed this mistaken idea? BY 2.5 via Wikimedia Commons
4. What is artificial selection? How does it work? 2. Voyage of the Beagle by Sémhur, licensed CC BY-SA 4.0 via
5. How did Alfred Russel Wallace contribute to the theory of Wikimedia Commons
evolution by natural selection? 3. Compilation by CK-12 based on
6. Apply Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection to a
1. Galapagos Marine Iguana by A.Davey, licensed CC BY 2.0 via
specific case. For example, explain how Galápagos tortoises could
Flickr.com
have evolved saddle-shaped shells.
2. Blue-footed Booby by Nicolas de Camaret, licensed CC BY 2.0
7. Why did Darwin’s observations of Galápagos tortoises cause him to
via Flickr.com
wonder how species originate?
3. Megatherium americanum by LadyofHats, released into the
8. Explain how the writings of Charles Lyell and Thomas Malthus
public domain via Wikimedia Commons
helped Darwin develop his theory of evolution by natural selection.
4. Compilation by CK-12 based on
9. If a person builds big muscles due to a special diet and a lot of
weightlifting, are big muscles a trait that will be automatically 1. Galapagos Giant Tortoise by Nicolas de Camaret, licensed CC
passed down to their children? Why or why not? BY 2.0 via Flickr.com
10. If a hypothetical ecosystem had unlimited resources available for 2. Geochelone nigra by Catriona MacCallum, CC BY 2.5 via
all the organisms living in it, how do you think this would affect Wikimedia Commons
evolution? 5. Compilation of pigeons by Suzanne Wakim licensed CC BY-SA 4.0
11. What is the best definition of “fitness” in terms of evolution? based on
A. The amount of lean muscle mass in an organism 1. Paloma bravía by Diego Delso, licensed CC BY-SA 4.0 via
B. The ability of an organism to exercise for a long period of time Wikimedia Commons
C. An organism’s ability to survive to an old age 2. Silesian cropper by jim gifford, licensed CC BY-SA 2.0 via
D. An organism’s ability to survive and produce fertile offspring Wikimedia Commons
12. In natural selection, organisms are selected by ___________ ; in 3. Fantail by jim gifford, licensed CC BY-SA 2.0 via Wikimedia
artificial selection, organisms are selected by __________ . Commons
13. Explain why naturally occurring variations between individuals are 6. Samburu reticulated giraffe by Dan Lundberg, licensed CC BY-SA
important for evolution. 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
14. True or False. Modern maize evolved from teosinte through natural 7. Corn selection by John Doebley, CC BY 2.5 via Wikimedia
selection. Commons
15. True or False. The theory of evolution states that living organisms 8. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
on earth all evolved at once and then stopped changing. 3.0

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9.3: EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
A HORSE IS A HORSE, OF COURSE, OF COURSE
This drawing was created in 1848, but it's likely that you recognize
the animal it depicts as a horse. Although horses haven't changed
that much since this drawing was made, they have a long
evolutionary history during which they changed significantly. How
do we know? The answer lies in the fossil record.

Figure 9.3.1 : Horse

EVIDENCE FROM FOSSILS

Fossils are a window into the past. They provide clear evidence that
evolution has occurred. Scientists who find and study fossils are called
paleontologists. How do they use fossils to understand the past?
Consider the example of the horse, outlined in figure 9.3.2. Fossils
spanning a period of more than 50 million years show how the horse Figure 9.3.2 : Evolution of the Horse. The fossil record reveals how
horses evolved. The lineage that led to modern horses (Equus) grew
evolved.
taller over time (from the 0.4 m Hyracotherium in early Eocene to the
The oldest horse fossils show what the earliest horses were like. They 1.6 m Equus). This lineage also developed longer molar teeth and the
were only 0.4 m tall, or about the size of a fox, and they had four long degeneration of the outer phalanges on the feet.
toes. Other evidence shows they lived in wooded marshlands, where
they probably ate soft leaves. Over time, the climate became drier, and
EVIDENCE FROM LIVING SPECIES
grasslands slowly replaced the marshes. Later fossils show that horses Scientists can learn a great deal about evolution by studying living
changed as well. species. They can compare the anatomy, embryos, and DNA of modern
organisms to help understand how they evolved.
They became taller, which would help them see predators while
they fed in tall grasses. Eventually, they reached a height of about COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
1.6 m. Comparative anatomy is the study of the similarities and differences
They evolved a single large toe that eventually became a hoof. This in the structures of different species. Similar body parts may be
would help them run swiftly and escape predators. homologous structures or analogous structures. Both provide evidence
Their molars (back teeth) became longer and covered with hard for evolution.
cement. This would allow them to grind tough grasses and grass
Homologous structures are structures that are similar in related
seeds without wearing out their teeth.
organisms because they were inherited from a common ancestor. These
structures may or may not have the same function in the descendants.
Figure 9.3.3 shows the upper appendages of several different
mammals. They all have the same basic pattern of bones, although they
now have different functions. All of these mammals inherited this basic
bone pattern from a common ancestor.
Analogous structures are structures that are similar in unrelated
organisms. The structures are similar because they evolved to do the
same job, not because they were inherited from a common ancestor.
For example, the wings of bats and birds, shown in the figure that
follows, look similar on the outside and have the same function.
However, wings evolved independently in the two groups of animals.
This is apparent when you compare the pattern of bones inside the
wings.

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 Darwin could compare only the anatomy and embryos of living things.
Today, scientists can compare their DNA. Similar DNA sequences are
the strongest evidence for evolution from a common ancestor. Look at
the diagram in Figure 9.3.5. The diagram is a cladogram, a branching
diagram showing related organisms. Each branch represents the
emergence of new traits that separate one group of organisms from the
rest. The cladogram in the figure shows how humans and apes are
related based on their DNA sequences.

Figure 9.3.3 : Mammals (such as cats and whales) have homologous

limb structures - with a different overall look but the same bones.
Insects (such as praying mantis and water boatman) also have
homologous limbs. Cat legs and praying mantis legs are analogous -
looking similar but from different evolutionary lineages.

COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY
Comparative embryology is the study of the similarities and
differences in the embryos of different species. Similarities in embryos
are likely to be evidence of common ancestry. All vertebrate embryos,
for example, have gill slits and tails. All of the embryos in Figure
9.3.4, except for fish, lose their gill slits by adulthood, and some of

them also lose their tail. In humans, the tail is reduced to the tail bone.
Thus, similarities organisms share as embryos may no longer be
present by adulthood. This is why it is valuable to compare organisms
in the embryonic stage.

Figure 9.3.1 : Figure 9.3.5 : Cladogram of Humans and Apes. This

cladogram is based on DNA comparisons. It shows how humans are
related to apes by descent from common ancestors. Humans are most
closely related to chimpanzees and Bonobo (our common ancestor
existed most recently). We are less closely related to gorillas, and even
less closely related to Orangutan.

EVIDENCE FROM BIOGEOGRAPHY

Biogeography is the study of how and why organisms live where they
do. It provides more evidence for evolution. Let’s consider the camel
family as an example.

BIOGEOGRAPHY OF CAMELS: AN EXAMPLE

Figure 9.3.4 : Embryos of different vertebrates look much more similar
than the animals do at later stages of life. Rows I, II, and III illustrate Today, the camel family includes different types of camels (Figure
the development of the embryos of fish on the far left, salamander, 9.3.6). All of today’s camels are descended from the same camel

tortoise, chick, hog, calf, rabbit, and human on the far right, from the ancestors. These ancestors lived in North America about a million
earliest to the latest stages. years ago.
VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES Early North American camels migrated to other places. Some went to
Structures like the human tail bone are called vestigial structures. East Asia via a land bridge during the last ice age. A few of them made
Evolution has reduced their size because the structures are no longer it all the way to Africa. Others went to South America by crossing the
used. The human appendix is another example of a vestigial structure. Isthmus of Panama. Once camels reached these different places, they
It is a tiny remnant of a once-larger organ. In a distant ancestor, it was evolved independently. They evolved adaptations that suited them for
needed to digest food, but it serves no purpose in the human body the particular environment where they lived. Through natural selection,
today. Why do you think structures that are no longer used shrink in descendants of the original camel ancestors evolved the diversity they
size? Why might a full-sized, unused structure reduce an organism’s have today.
fitness?

COMPARING DNA

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 The biogeography of islands yields some of the best evidence for
evolution. Consider the birds called finches that Darwin studied on the
Galápagos Islands (Figure 9.3.7)). All of the finches probably
descended from one bird that arrived on the islands from South
America. Until the first bird arrived, there had never been birds on the
islands. The first bird was a seed eater. It evolved into many finch
species, each adapted for a different type of food. This is an example of
adaptive radiation. This is the process by which a single species
evolves into many new species to fill available ecological niches.

Figure 9.3.6 . Camel Migrations and Present-Day Variation. Members

of the camel family now live in different parts of the world. Dromedary
camels are found in Africa, Bactrian camels in Asia, and Llamas in
South America. They differ from one another in a number of traits.
However, they share basic similarities. This is because they all evolved
from a common ancestor. What differences and similarities do you see?

Figure 9.3.7 : Galápagos finches differ in beak size and shape,

ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY depending on the type of food they eat. Those eating buds and fruits
have the largest beaks. Insect and grub eaters have narrower beaks

EYEWITNESSES TO EVOLUTION
In the 1970s, biologists Peter and Rosemary Grant went to the Galápagos Islands to re-study Darwin’s finches. They spent more than 30 years
on the project, but their efforts paid off. They were able to observe evolution by natural selection actually taking place.
While the Grants were on the Galápagos, a drought occurred, so fewer seeds were available for finches to eat. Birds with smaller beaks could
crack open and eat only the smaller seeds. Birds with bigger beaks could crack open and eat seeds of all sizes. As a result, many of the
smaller-beaked birds died in the drought, whereas birds with bigger beaks survived and reproduced. As shown in Figure 9.3.8, within 2 years,
the average beak size in the finch population increased. In other words, evolution by natural selection had occurred.

Figure 9.3.8. Evolution of Beak Size in Galápagos Finches. The left graph shows the beak sizes of the entire finch population studied by the
Grants in 1976. The right graph shows the beak sizes of the survivors in 1978. In just 2 years, the mean beak size increased from about 9 mm
to just above 10 mm.

6. Humans and apes have five fingers they can use to grasp objects.
REVIEW Are these analogous or homologous structures? Explain.
1. How do paleontologists learn about evolution? 7. Compare and contrast homologous and analogous structures. What
2. Describe what fossils reveal about the evolution of the horse. do they reveal about evolution?
3. What are vestigial structures? Give an example. 8. Why does comparative embryology show similarities between
4. Define biogeography. organisms that do not appear to be similar as adults?
5. Describe an example of island biogeography that provides evidence 9. What does a cladogram show?
of evolution. 10. Explain how DNA is useful in the study of evolution.

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11. A bat wing is more similar in anatomical structure to a cat forelimb answer the question?
than to a bird wing. Answer the following questions about these 12. True or False. Fossils are the only type of evidence that supports
structures. the theory of evolution.
A. Which pairs are homologous structures? 13. True or False. Adaptive radiation is a type of evolution that
B. Which pairs are analogous structures? produces new species.
C. Based on this, do you think a bat is more closely related to a cat
or to a bird? Explain your answer. EXPLORE MORE
D. If you wanted to test the answer you gave to part c, what is a https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16769#Explore_More
different type of evidence you could obtain that might help

ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Cheval de Dongolah by F Joseph Cardini, released into the public domain via Wikimedia Commons
2. Horse evolution by Mcy jerry licensed CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
3. Analogous & Homologous Structures by Vanessablakegraham, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
4. Haeckel drawings by Romanes, G. J, released into the public domain via Wikimedia Commons
5. The great apes by Merrilydancingape, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
6. Map by CK-12 foundation licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
7. Finch Beaks by Christopher Auyeung vua CK-12 foundation licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
8. Evolution of finch beaks by Lumen Learning, CC BY-SA 3.0
9. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0

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9.4: MICROEVOLUTION
SCHOOL DAYS the expected 50 percent heads and 50 percent tails. Due to such chance
Except for their plastic lunch coolers, you might think that this variations in small populations, allele frequencies drift over time.
picture of children on their way to school came from the 1800s. In There are two special conditions under which genetic drift occurs.
fact, the picture is a photograph that was taken in 2006. The They are called the bottleneck effect and founder effect.
children are part of a religious community called the Amish, whose 1. The bottleneck effect occurs when a population suddenly gets much
founders first came to the U.S. in the 1700s. Amish people shun smaller. This might happen because of a natural disaster such as a
modern conveniences such as electricity and automobiles. Their forest fire or disease epidemic. By chance, allele frequencies of the
lives are more similar to the lives of their founders than to those of survivors may be different from those of the original population.
most other people in the U.S. today. As you will learn when you 2. The founder effect occurs when a few individuals start or found a
read this concept, the Amish are an example of one way in which new population. By chance, allele frequencies of the founders may
populations may evolve. be different from allele frequencies of the population they left. An
example of the founder effect occurred in the Amish, as described
in figure 9.4.2.

Figure 9.4.1 : Amish On the way to school

Figure 9.4.2 : Founder Effect in the Amish Population. The Amish
GENES IN POPULATIONS population in the U.S. and Canada had approximately 200 founders
Individuals do not evolve because their genes do not change over time. who immigrated in the 1700s. The population has grown to almost
250,000 individuals who rarely interact with people outside the Amish
Instead, evolution occurs at the level of the population. A population community. One of the founders carried a recessive allele for a rare
consists of organisms of the same species that live in the same area. In condition called Ellis-van Creveld syndrome - a type of dwarfism that
terms of evolution, the population is assumed to be a relatively closed results in extra fingers and short limbs as seen in this image. Today the
group. This means that most mating takes place within the population. Amish population has far more cases of this syndrome than any other
population in the world.
Evolutionary change that occurs over relatively short periods of time
within populations is called microevolution. The science that focuses MUTATION
on evolution within populations is population genetics. It is a Mutation creates new genetic variation in a gene pool. It is how all new
combination of evolutionary theory and Mendelian genetics. alleles first arise. In sexually reproducing species, the mutations that
matter for evolution are those that occur in gametes. Only these
THE GENE POOL
mutations can be passed to offspring. For any given gene, the chance of
The genetic makeup of an individual is the individual’s genotype. A
a mutation occurring in a given gamete is very low. Thus, mutations
population consists of many individuals and therefore many genotypes.
alone do not have much effect on allele frequencies. However,
All the genotypes together make up the population’s gene pool. The
mutations provide the genetic variation needed for other forces of
gene pool consists of all the genes of all the members of the
evolution to act.
population. For each gene, the gene pool includes all the different
alleles of the gene that exist in the population. An allele is referred to GENE FLOW
as a version of a gene. For a given gene, the population is characterized Gene flow occurs when individuals move into or out of a population. If
by the frequency of the different alleles in the gene pool. Allele the rate of migration is high, this can have a significant effect on allele
frequency is how often an allele occurs in a gene pool relative to the frequencies. Allele frequencies may change in the population the
other alleles for the same gene. migrants leave as well as in the population the migrants enter. An
example of gene flow occurred during the Vietnam War in the 1960s
FORCES OF EVOLUTION and 1970s. Many young American servicemen had children with
The factors that cause allele frequencies to change are called the forces Vietnamese women. Most of the servicemen returned to the United
of evolution. There are four such forces: mutation, gene flow, genetic States after the war. However, they left copies of their genes behind in
drift, and natural selection. their offspring. In this way, they changed the allele frequencies in the
Vietnamese gene pool. Do you think the gene pool of the U.S. was also
GENETIC DRIFT
affected? Why or why not?
Genetic drift is a random change in allele frequencies that occurs in a
small population. When a small number of parents produce just a few NATURAL SELECTION
offspring, allele frequencies in the offspring may differ, just by chance, Natural selection occurs when there are differences in fitness among
from allele frequencies in the parents. This is like tossing a coin. If you members of a population. As a result, some individuals pass more
toss a coin just a few times, you may, by chance, get more or less than genes to the next generation than do other members of the population.

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This causes allele frequencies to change over time. The example of
sickle cell anemia, which is shown in the following table and described
below, shows how natural selection can keep even a harmful allele in a
gene pool.
Table 9.4.1 : Sickle Cell Anemia and Natural Selection
Genotype Phenotype Fitness
Somewhat reduced fitness because of
AA 100% normal hemoglobin
no resistance to malaria
Enough normal hemoglobin to Highest fitness because of resistance
AS
prevent sickle-cell anemia to malaria
100% abnormal hemoglobin, Greatly reduced fitness because of
SS
causing sickle-cell anemia sickle-cell anemia

The allele (S) for sickle cell anemia is a harmful, autosomal recessive
allele. It is caused by a mutation in the normal allele (A) for
hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying protein on red blood cells). Malaria
is a deadly tropical disease that is common in many African
populations. Heterozygotes (AS) with the sickle cell allele are resistant
to malaria. Therefore, they are more likely to survive and reproduce.
This keeps the S allele in the gene pool.
The sickle cell example shows that fitness depends on phenotypes and
also on the environment. What do you think might happen if malaria
were to be eliminated in an African population with a relatively high
frequency of the S allele? How might the fitness of the different
genotypes change? How might this affect the frequency of the S allele?
The sickle cell trait is controlled by a single gene. Natural selection for
polygenic traits, which are controlled by multiple genes, is more
complex, although it is less complicated if you consider just Figure 9.4.3 : Natural Selection for a Polygenic Trait. Natural selection
phenotypes for polygenic traits rather than genotypes. There are three may affect the distribution of a polygenic trait. The top panel shows the
major ways that natural selection can affect the distribution of disruptive selection in the oyster shell shades. The lightest and darkest
shades are more prevalent. The middle panel shows the stabilizing
phenotypes for a polygenic trait. The three ways are shown in the selection. Most lizards have median-sized tails. The bottom bottom
graphs in Figure 9.4.3. panel shows the directional selection of the giraffe's neck size.
1. Disruptive selection occurs when phenotypes in the middle of the FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS
range are selected against. This results in two overlapping Recently reported research may help solve one of the most
phenotypes, one at each end of the distribution. An example is important and long-lasting mysteries of human biology. The
a sexual dimorphism. This refers to differences between the mystery is why people with the AS genotype for sickle cell
phenotypes of males and females of the same species. In humans, hemoglobin are protected from malaria. As you read above, their
for example, males and females have different average heights and sickle cell hemoglobin gives them higher fitness in malaria areas
body shapes. than normal homozygotes (AA) who have only normal hemoglobin.
2. Stabilizing selection occurs when phenotypes at both extremes of
The malaria parasite and its mosquito vector were discovered in the
the phenotypic distribution are selected against. This narrows the
late 1800s. The genetic basis of sickle cell hemoglobin anemia and
range of variation. An example is human birth weight. Babies that
the resistance to malaria it confers were discovered around 1950.
are very large or very small at birth are less likely to survive, and
Since then, scientists have assumed, and some evidence has
this keeps birth weight within a relatively narrow range.
suggested, that the few sickle-shaped red blood cells of
3. Directional selection occurs when one of two extreme phenotypes
heterozygotes make them less hospitable hosts for the malaria
is selected for. This shifts the distribution toward that extreme. This
parasite than the completely normal red blood cells of AA
is the type of natural selection that the Grants observed in the beak
homozygotes. This seems like a reasonable hypothesis, but is it the
size of Galápagos finches. Larger beaks were selected for during
correct one? The new research suggests a different hypothesis.
drought, so beak size increased over time.
Working with genetically engineered mice as model organisms,
researchers in Portugal discovered that an enzyme that produces the
gas carbon monoxide is expressed at much higher levels in the
presence of sickle cell hemoglobin than normal hemoglobin.
Furthermore, the gas seems to protect the infected host from
developing the lesions and symptoms of malaria, even though it
does not seem to interfere with the life cycle of the malaria parasite
in red blood cells. These findings may lead to new therapies for
treating malaria, which is still one of the most serious public health
problems in the world. The findings may also shed light on other

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 abnormal hemoglobin variants that are known to protect against C. An island with no birds that becomes populated by a small
malaria. number of a species of bird.
D. Both A and C
REVIEW 10. True or False. Allele frequencies can change within an organism.
1. Why are populations, rather than individuals, the units of 11. True or False. Most populations on Earth are in Hardy-Weinberg
evolution? equilibrium.
2. What is a gene pool? 12. True or False. Genotype frequency can change if there is migration
3. List and define the four forces of evolution. into or out of the population.
4. Why is mutation needed for evolution to occur, even though it
usually has little effect on allele frequencies? EXPLORE MORE
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16770#Explore_More
5. What is the founder effect? Give an example.
6. Identify three types of natural selection for polygenic traits.
ATTRIBUTIONS
7. Explain why genetic drift is most likely to occur in a very small
1. Amish on their way to school by Gladjoboy, licensed CC BY 2.0
population.
via Wikimedia Commons
8. In some species, females prefer to mate with males that have certain
2. Polydactyly by Baujat G, Le Merrer M. CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
genetically determined characteristics, such as bright coloration or a
Commons
large, showy tail. How will this alter allele frequency in a
3. Selection type chart, by Azcolvin429, CC BY-SA 3.0; via
population?
Wikimedia.org
9. Which of the following may cause genetic drift?
4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
A. A natural disaster
3.0
B. A large population where members mate with each other and
also with new migrants that come into the population.

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9.5: MACROEVOLUTION
AN EVOLUTIONARY "ARMS" RACE area on the south rim of the Grand Canyon.
The garter snake in Figure 9.5.1 preys on a variety of small Kaibab squirrels became geographically isolated from Abert's
animals, including small amphibians called rough-skinned newts. squirrels, which are found on the south rim of the canyon.
The newts produce a powerful toxin that is concentrated in their In isolation, Kaibab squirrel« evolved distinct characteristics, such
skin. Garter snakes have evolved resistance to this toxin through a as a complete whitetail.
series of lucky genetic mutations, allowing them to safely prey Abert's squirrels are the original species from which Kaibab
upon the newts. The predator-prey relationship between these squirrels diverged. Kaibab squirrels are currently classified as a
animals has created an evolutionary "arms" race. It has resulted in subspecies of Abert's squirrels.
extremely high toxin levels in the newts and ever greater resistance Kaibab squirrels may eventually become different enough to be
to the toxin in the snakes. This is an example of the coevolution of classified as a separate species.
two species. Coevolution is a type of macroevolution.

Figure 9.5.2 : Allopatric Speciation in the Kaibab Squirrel. The Kaibab

squirrel is in the process of becoming a new species.

SYMPATRIC SPECIATION
Figure 9.5.1 : Coast Garter Snake with red, white, and black
Less often, a new species arises without geographic separation. This is
pattern.
called sympatric speciation.
WHAT IS MACROEVOLUTION? 1. Hawthorn flies lay eggs in hawthorn trees. The eggs hatch into
Macroevolution is an evolution that occurs at or above the level of the larvae that feed on hawthorn fruits. Both the flies and trees are
species. It is the result of microevolution taking place over many native to the U.S.
generations. Macroevolution may involve evolutionary changes in two 2. Apple trees were introduced to the U.S. by European settlers in the
interacting species, as in coevolution, or it may involve the emergence 1600s. Now, apple trees often grow near hawthorn trees. Some
of one or more brand new species. hawthorn flies started to lay eggs in nearby apple trees. When the
eggs hatched, the larvae fed on apples.
ORIGIN OF SPECIES 3. Over time, the two fly populations — those that feed on hawthorn
fruits and those that feed on apples — evolved reproductive
One of the main topics in macroevolution is how new species arise.
isolation because they breed at different times. Their breeding
The process by which a new species evolves is called speciation. How
season matches the season when apples or hawthorn fruits mature.
does speciation occur? How does one species evolve into two or more
4. Because they rarely interbreed, the two populations of flies are
new species? To understand how a new species forms, it is important to
evolving other genetic differences. They appear to be in the process
review what a species is. A species is a group of organisms that can
of becoming separate species. As this example shows, behaviors, as
breed and produce fertile offspring together in nature. For a new
well as physical traits, may evolve and lead to speciation.
species to arise, some members of a species must become
reproductively isolated from the rest of the species. This means they
can no longer interbreed with other members of the species. How does
this happen? Usually, they become geographically isolated first.

ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION
Assume that some members of a species become geographically Figure 9.5.3 : Sympatric Speciation in Hawthorn Flies (far left panel).
separated from the rest of the species. If they remain separated long Hawthorn flies are diverging from one species into two due to two
different habitats, Hawthorne tree (middle panel) and apple tree (right
enough, they may evolve genetic differences. If the differences prevent panel).
them from interbreeding with members of the original species, they
COEVOLUTION
have evolved into a new species. Speciation that occurs in this way is
called allopatric speciation. An example of allopatric speciation Evolution generally occurs in response to changes in the environment.
Environmental change often involves other species of organisms. In
involves Kaibab squirrels that live on the rim of the Grand Canyon, as
shown in figure 9.5.2. fact, many species evolve along with other species with which they
interact. This is called coevolution. As one species changes, the other
Notes about these two groups of squirrels:
species must also change in order to adapt. The coevolution of rough-
Kaibab squirrels are found only on the north rim of the Grand skinned newts and garter snakes is described above. Many other cases
Canyon, on the Kaibab Plateau. Abert's squirrels occupy a larger of coevolution occur in flowering plants and the species that pollinate

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them. The flowering plant and hummingbird in Figure 9.5.4 are an geologic conditions, than when the environment is stable?
example. They have evolved matching structures. The tubular flowers 7. What is reproductive isolation? Why is it necessary for speciation
of the plant are matched by the long, narrow beak of the hummingbird. to occur?
8. Kaibab squirrels are an example of what kind of speciation?
9. Imagine there is a large lake that dries up in certain regions,
creating several smaller, separate lakes. The original lake had a
particular species of fish and some fish got trapped in each of the
smaller lakes as the large lake dried up.
A. Is there a greater chance of speciation in the fish in the smaller,
separate lakes or in the original large lake? Explain your answer.
B. If new fish species evolve from the original species in the small,
separate lakes, would this be sympatric or allopatric speciation?
Explain your answer.
C. If speciation occurred in the small lakes as described in part b,
Figure and then flooding occurred and the small lakes joined to become
9.5.4 : Results of Coevolution in a Flower and Its Pollinator. The very one large lake again, do you think the fish are likely to become
long mouth part of this hummingbird has coevolved with the tubular one species again? Why or why not?
flower it pollinates. Only this species of bird can reach the nectar deep
in the narrow flower. 10. True or False. Speciation due to two populations breeding at
different times in the same area is an example of sympatric
speciation.
TIMING OF MACROEVOLUTION
11. True or False. Coevolution always occurs between individuals of
Is evolution slow and steady? Or does it occur in fits and starts? It may
the same species.
depend on what else is going on, such as changes in climate or
12. Explain what the “punctuated” and “equilibrium” periods are in
geologic conditions.
“punctuated equilibrium”.
When climate and geologic conditions are stable, evolution may
occur steadily and gradually. This is how Darwin thought evolution EXPLORE MORE
occurred. This model of the timing of evolution is called https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16771#Explore_More
gradualism.
When climate or geologic conditions are changing, evolution may ATTRIBUTIONS
occur more quickly. Long periods of little change may be 1. Coast garter snake by Steve Jurvetson, licensed CC BY 2.0 via
interrupted by bursts of relatively rapid change. This model of the Wikimedia Commons
timing of evolution is called punctuated equilibrium. It is 2. Allopatric speciation by CK-12 released into the public domain
generally better supported by the fossil record than is gradualism. 3. Sympatric speciation composite by Mandeep Grewal, licensed CC
BY-SA 2.0
REVIEW 1. Apple maggot by Joseph Berger CC BY 3.0 via forestry images
1. Define speciation. 2. Hawthorn berries by Andrew Smith, licensed CC BY-SA 2.0 via
2. Describe how allopatric speciation occurs. Wikimedia Commons
3. What is gradualism? When is it most likely to apply? 3. Apples on a tree by CSIRO, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
4. Describe the timing of evolutionary change according to the Commons
punctuated equilibrium model. 4. Purple-throated carib hummingbird by Charlesjsharp CC BY 3.0
5. Why is sympatric speciation less likely to occur than allopatric via Kiddle
speciation? 5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
6. Why would macroevolution occur more quickly when there are 3.0
major changes in the environment, such as changing the climate or

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9.6: TOOLS FOR STUDYING EVOLUTION
MYTHS ABOUT EARTH scale, Earth would have formed at midnight, and the first life would
This interesting image is a 19th-century representation of Earth that have appeared at about 3:00 a.m. Humans would have appeared only
is based on an ancient Hindu myth. According to the myth, Earth during the last minute of the day. If we are such newcomers on planet
rests on the backs of elephants, which in turn stand on the back of a Earth, how do we know about the vast period of time that went before
giant turtle. Virtually all human cultures and religions have us? How have we learned about the distant past?
developed myths about Earth and its origins. For example, until THE FOSSIL RECORD
fairly recently, many Westerners thought that Earth was created in a
Much of what we know about the history of life on Earth is based on
day and that this occurred just a few thousand years ago. However,
the fossil record, so this is an extremely important tool in the study of
a diversity of evidence has since convinced the scientific
evolution. The fossil record is the record of life that unfolded over four
community that Earth actually formed by natural processes from
billion years on Earth as reconstructed from the discovery and analysis
stardust a mind-boggling 4.5 to 4.6 billion years ago. Evidence also
of fossils. Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of organisms that
suggests that life first appeared on Earth up to 4 billion years ago
lived in the past. The soft parts of organisms almost always decompose
and has been evolving ever since.
quickly after death. On occasion, the hard parts — mainly bones, teeth,
or shells — remain long enough to mineralize and form fossils. An
example of a complete fossil skeleton is pictured inFigure 9.6.3.

Figure 9.6.1 : The Hindu Earth

Figure 9.6.3 : Extinct Lion Fossil. This fossilized skeleton represents an
EARTH IN A DAY extinct lion species. It is rare for fossils to be so complete and well
preserved as this one.
To be preserved as fossils, remains must be covered quickly by
sediments or preserved in some other way. For example, they may be
frozen in glaciers or trapped in tree resin or rock, like the frog shown in
Figure 9.6.4. Sometimes traces of organisms — such as footprints or
burrows — are preserved. The conditions required for fossils to form
rarely occur. Therefore, the chance of any given organism being
preserved as a fossil is extremely low.

Figure 9.6.2 : The geological clock: a projection of Earth's 4.6 Ga

history on a clock ("Ma" = a million years (Megayear) ago; "Ga" = a Figure 9.6.4 : The photo shows an ancient frog fossilized in rock
billion years (Gigayear) ago). In order for fossils to “tell” us the story of life, their chronology must
It can be difficult to wrap your mind around such vast amounts of time be established. This means that fossils must be dated. Only then can
as the age of Earth and its early life forms. A useful way for they help scientists reconstruct how life changed over time. Fossils can
envisioning the relative amounts of time that passed between Earth's be dated in two different ways, called relative dating and absolute
origin and important events in biological evolution is to condense the dating.
total period of time to a 24-hour day, as shown in Figure 9.6.2. On this

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 Relative dating determines which of two fossils is older or younger Even if fossils of transitional organisms do form, they must be
than the other, but not their age in years. Relative dating is based on discovered by researchers to be added to the fossil record. The vast
the positions of fossils in rock layers. Lower layers were laid down majority of fossils have not been found. Researchers are studying
earlier, so they are assumed to contain older fossils. This is the fossilization process to shed light on how much of the fossil
illustrated in the figure below. record has not yet been discovered.
Absolute dating determines how long ago a fossil organism lived, Fortunately, like fingerprints at a murder scene, the fossil record is
giving the fossil age in years. Absolute dating may be based on the just one type of evidence for evolution. In addition to fossils,
amount of carbon-14 or other radioactive elements that remains in a molecular sequences and other types of evidence are all used
fossil. together to reveal how life on Earth evolved.

REVIEW
1. Based on a 24-hour day, at what time did mammals evolve? How
much of Earth's past had already taken place by that time? When
did the first living things evolve?
2. What is the fossil record?
3. Why is the fossil record incomplete?
4. Compare and contrast relative and absolute dating of fossils.
5. Explain what molecular clocks can reveal about the evolution of
life.
6. Why is it important for the study of evolution to know a fossil’s
relative age compared to another fossil?
7. If fossil A is located above fossil B and fossil B is located above
fossil C in different rock layers, arrange the three fossils in order of
their likely age, from oldest to youngest.
8. Which tool could you use to study the evolutionary relationships
Figure 9.6.5 : Relative Dating Using Rock Layers. Relative dating between species that are still alive?
establishes which of two fossils is older than the other. It is based on A. Carbon-14 dating
the rock layers in which the fossils formed. The fossils which are B. Molecular clocks
deeper are older than the fossils which are more superficial.
C. Relative position in the fossil record
MOLECULAR CLOCKS D. None of the above
Molecular clocks are also valuable tools for studying evolution. A 9. Use the History of Earth in a Day model above to answer the
molecular clock uses DNA sequences (or the amino acid sequence of following questions.
proteins that DNA encodes) to estimate how long it has been since A. Which came first, free oxygen on Earth or the evolution of
related species diverged from a common ancestor. Molecular clocks are animals?
based on the assumption that mutations accumulate through time at a B. During which geologic period did multicellular life evolve?
steady average rate for a given region of DNA. Species that have C. About how much of Earth’s history had elapsed before
accumulated greater differences in their DNA sequences are assumed eukaryotes evolved?
to have diverged from their common ancestor in the more distant past. D. What is the name of our current era?
Molecular clocks based on different regions of DNA may be used 10. True or False. Fossils are always composed of actual tissue from
together for more accuracy. Look at the comparisons of DNA in the extinct organisms.
table below. Based on these data, which organism do you think shared 11. True or False. Absolute dating of fossils is usually done using a
the most recent common ancestor with humans? molecular clock.
Table 9.6.1 : DNA similarities of chimpanzee, mouse, chicken, and fruit fly
species is to human DNA. EXPLORE MORE
Organism Similarity with Human DNA (percent) https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16772#Explore_More
Chimpanzee 98
Mouse 85 ATTRIBUTIONS
Chicken 60 1. The Hindu Earth public domain via Wikimedia Commons
Fruit Fly 44 2. Geologic clock by Woudloper, released into the public domain via
Wikimedia Commons
FEATURE: MYTH VS. REALITY
3. Thylacoleo skeleton by Karora, released into the public domain via
Myth: Gaps in the fossil record disprove evolution. Wikimedia Commons
Reality: Gaps in the fossil record, where transitional fossils 4. Fossilized frog by Kevin Walsh from Oxford, England, licensed CC
between ancestral and descendant groups have not been found, are BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
to be expected. The chances of organisms being fossilized are low. 5. Relative dating of fossils by Jillcurie, CC BY-SA 3.0 via
Some organisms do not preserve well, and conditions needed for Wikimedia Commons
fossilization are only rarely present. If evolution is occurring 6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
rapidly, the chances of transitional fossils forming are even lower. 3.0

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9.7: ADAPTATION IN HUMANS
GOT LACTASE?
Do you remember this “got milk?” slogan from the 1990s? It was
used in ads for milk in which celebrities were pictured wearing
milk “mustaches.” While the purpose of the “got milk?” ads was to
sell more milk, there is no denying that drinking milk can be good
for one’s health. Milk is naturally high in protein and minerals. It
can also be low in fat or even fat-free if treated to remove the lipids
that naturally occur in milk. However, before you reach for a tall,
cold glass of milk, you might want to ask yourself another question:
“got lactase?”

Figure 9.7.1 : got milk slogan

ADAPTATION TO LACTOSE Figure 9.7.3 : The enzyme lactase is needed to break down the milk
Do you drink milk? Or do you avoid drinking milk and consuming sugar lactose into its galactose and glucose components.
milk products because they cause you discomfort? If the latter is the Lactose intolerance is the inability of older children and adults to
case, then you may have trouble digesting milk. digest lactose in milk. People who are lactose intolerant may be able to
drink small quantities of milk without any problems, but if they try to
MILK, LACTOSE, AND LACTASE consume larger amounts, they are likely to suffer adverse effects. For
Milk naturally contains not only proteins and lipids; it also contains example, they may have abdominal bloating and cramping, flatulence
carbohydrates. Specifically, milk contains the sugar lactose. Lactose is (gas), diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. The symptoms may occur from
a disaccharide (two-sugar) compound that consists of one molecule one-half to two hours after milk is consumed and are generally worse
each of galactose and glucose, as shown in the structural formula when the quantity of milk consumed is greater. The symptoms result
below. Lactose makes up between 2 and 8 percent of milk by weight. from the inability of the small intestine to digest and absorb lactose, so
The exact amount varies both within and between species. the lactose is passed on to the large intestine, where normal intestinal
bacteria start breaking it down through the process of fermentation.
This process releases gas and causes other symptoms of lactose
intolerance.

Figure 9.7.2 : Chemical structure of lactose which is consists of one

molecule of galactose (left) and one molecule of glucose (right)
Lactose in milk must be broken down into its two component sugars to
be absorbed by the small intestine. The enzyme lactase is needed for Figure 9.7.4 : Worldwide distribution of lactose intolerance in human
this process, as shown in the diagram below. Human infants are almost populations. This map is a broad general indicator; more specific data
can be found in this Lancet article from 2017.
always born with the ability to synthesize lactase. This allows them to
readily digest the lactose in their mother’s milk (or in infant formula). Lactose intolerance is actually the original and normal condition of the
However, in the majority of infants, lactase synthesis begins to decline human species, as it is of all other mammalian species. Early humans
at about 2 years of age, and less and less lactase is produced throughout were hunter-gatherers that subsisted on wild plant and animal foods.
childhood. The animal foods may have included meat and eggs but did not include
milk because animals had not been domesticated. Therefore, beyond
the weaning period, milk was not available for people to drink in early
human populations. It makes good biological sense to stop synthesizing
an enzyme that the body does not need. After a young child is weaned,

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it is a waste of materials and energy to keep producing lactase when It is likely that lactase persistence occurs as a result of both genes and
milk is no longer likely to be consumed. the environment. Some people inherit genes that help them keep
Overall, an estimated 60 percent of the world’s adult human population producing lactase after infancy. Geneticists think that several different
is thought to be lactose intolerant today. You can see the geographic mutations for lactase persistence arose independently in different
distribution of modern human lactose intolerance on the map in Figure populations within the last 10,000 years. Part of lactase persistence
9.7.4. Lactose intolerance (dark blue) approaches 100 percent in
may be due to continued exposure to milk in the diet in childhood and
populations throughout southern South America, southern Africa, and adulthood. In other words, a person may be genetically predisposed to
East and Southeast Asia. synthesize lactase at older ages because of a mutation but may need the
continued stimulation of milk drinking to keep producing lactase.
Lactose intolerance is not considered to be a medical problem because
its symptoms can be avoided by not consuming milk or milk products.
THRIFTY GENE OR DRIFTY GENE?
Dietary control of lactose intolerance may be a matter of trial and error,
Besides variation in lactase persistence, human populations may vary
however, because different people may be able to consume different
in how efficiently they use calories in the foods they consume. People
quantities of milk before symptoms occur. If you are lactose intolerant,
in some populations seem to be able to get by on quantities of food that
be aware that low-fat and fat-free milk may contain somewhat more
would be inadequate for others, so they tend to gain weight easily.
lactose than full-fat milk because the former often have added milk
What explains these differences in people?
solids that are relatively high in lactose.

LACTASE PERSISTENCE THRIFTY GENE HYPOTHESIS

In 1962, human geneticist James Neel proposed the thrifty gene
hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, so-called “thrifty genes”
evolved in some human populations because they allowed people to get
by on fewer calories and store the rest as body fat when food was
plentiful. According to Neel’s hypothesis, thrifty genes would have
increased in frequency through natural selection because they would
help people survive during times of famine. People with the genes
would be fatter and able to rely on their stored body fat for calories
when food was scarce.
Such thrifty genes would have been advantageous in early human
populations of hunter-gathers if food scarcity was recurrent stress.
However, in modern times, when most people have access to enough
food year-round, thrifty genes would no longer be advantageous. In
fact, under conditions of plentiful food, having thrifty genes would
predispose people to gain weight and develop obesity. They would also
tend to develop a chronic disease associated with obesity, particularly
Figure 9.7.5 : Sami (or Laplander) people in northern Scandinavia are type II diabetes. Diabetes mellitus is a disease that occurs when there
traditional reindeer herders, and they are nearly 100 percent lactase
are problems with the pancreatic hormone insulin, which normally
persistent. This photo of a Sami man and his daughter on a reindeer
was taken in 1900. Few Sami still herd reindeer today, but their lactase helps cells take up glucose from the blood and controls blood glucose
persistence has persisted. levels. In type II diabetes, body cells become relatively resistant to
Lactase persistence is the opposite of lactose intolerance. People who insulin, leading to high blood glucose. This causes symptoms including
are lactase persistent continue to produce the enzyme lactase beyond excessive thirst and urination. Without treatment, diabetes can lead to
infancy and generally throughout life. As a consequence, they are able serious consequences, such as blindness and kidney failure.
to digest lactose and drink milk at older ages without adverse effects. Neel proposed his thrifty gene hypothesis not on the basis of genetic
The map above can also be read to show where lactase persistence evidence for thrifty genes but as a possible answer to the mystery of
occurs today. Populations with a low percentage of lactose intolerance why genes that seem to promote diabetes have not been naturally
(including North Americans of European descent) have high selected out of some populations. The mystery arose from observations
percentages of lactase-persistent people. that certain populations — such as South Pacific Islanders, sub-
Lactase persistence is a uniquely human trait that is not found in any Saharan Africans, and southwestern Native Americans — developed
other mammalian species. Why did lactase persistence evolve in high levels of obesity and diabetes after they abandoned traditional
humans? When some human populations began domesticating and diets and adopted Western diets. This is reflected in figure 9.7.6 which
keeping herds of animals, animal milk became a potential source of shows the 2017-2018 rates of diabetes in the US. Prevalence of
food. Animals such as cows, sheep, goats, camels, and even reindeer diagnosed diabetes was highest among American Indians/Alaska
(Figure 9.7.5) can be kept for their milk. These kinds of animal milk Natives (14.7%), people of Hispanic origin (12.5%), and non-Hispanic
also contain lactose, so natural selection would be strong for any blacks (11.7%), followed by non-Hispanic Asians (9.2%) and non-
individuals who kept producing lactase beyond infancy and could make Hispanic whites (7.5%). An important note for studies based on race:
use of this nutritious food. Eventually, the trait of lactase persistence any two humans have 99.9% similar DNA. The 0.1% difference causes
would increase in frequency and come to be the predominant trait in variation in physical traits that humans have used to construct races.
dairying populations. Biologically, all humans belong to just one race. Different traits are

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selected in different environments due to natural selection and genetic against fatness. When the risk of predation was lessened, perhaps as
drift. early as 2 million years ago, genes keeping fatness in check would no
longer be selected for. Without selective pressure for these genes, their
frequencies could change randomly due to genetic drift. In some
populations, by chance, frequencies of the genes could decrease to
relatively low levels, whereas in other populations the frequencies
could be much higher.
FEATURE: MYTH VS. REALITY
Myth: Lactose intolerance is an allergy to milk.
Reality: Lactose intolerance is not an allergy because it is not an
immune system response. Rather, it is a sensitivity to milk that is
caused by lactase deficiency so the sugar in milk cannot be
digested. Milk allergy does exist, but it is a different condition that
Figure 9.7.6 : Age-adjusted estimated prevalence of diagnosed diabetes
occurs in only about 4 percent of people. It results when milk
by race/ethnicity group and sex for adults aged 18 years or older,
United States, 2017–2018 proteins (not milk sugar) trigger an immune reaction. How can you
determine whether you have lactose intolerance or a milk allergy?
If you can drink lactose-free milk without symptoms, it is likely
ASSESSING THE THRIFTY GENE HYPOTHESIS that you are lactose intolerant and not allergic to milk. However, if
One of the assumptions underlying the thrifty gene hypothesis is that lactose-free milk also produces symptoms, it is likely that you have
human populations that recently developed high rates of obesity and a milk allergy. Note that it is possible to have both conditions.
diabetes after Western contact had a long history of recurrent famine.
Myth: If you are lactose intolerant, you will never be able to drink
Anthropological evidence contradicts this assumption for at least some
milk or consume other dairy products without suffering adverse
of the populations in question. For example, South Pacific Islanders
physical symptoms.
have long lived in a “land of plenty,” with lush tropical forests year-
Reality: Lactose intolerance does not mean that consuming milk
round on islands surrounded by warm waters full of fish. Another
and other dairy products is out of the question. Besides lactose-free
assumption underlying the thrifty gene hypothesis is that hunter-
milk, which is widely available, many dairy products have
gatherer people became significantly fatter during periods of plenty.
relatively low levels of lactose, so you may be able to consume at
Again, there is little or no evidence that hunter-gatherers traditionally
least small amounts of them without discomfort. For example, you
deposited large fat stores when food was readily available.
may be able to consume milk in the form of yogurt without any
Some geneticists have searched directly for so-called thrifty genes.
problems because the bacteria in yogurt produce lactase that breaks
Studies have revealed many genes with small effects associated with
down the lactose. Greek yogurt may be your best bet because it is
obesity or diabetes. However, these genes can explain only a few
lower in lactose, to begin with. Aged cheeses also tend to have
percentage points of the total population variation in obesity or
relatively low levels of lactose because of the cheese-making
diabetes.
process. Finally, by gradually adding milk or milk products to your
THE DRIFTY GENE AND OTHER HYPOTHESES diet, you may be able to increase your tolerance to lactose.
Given the lack of evidence for the thrifty gene hypothesis, several
researchers have suggested alternative hypotheses to explain REVIEW
population variation in obesity and diabetes. One hypothesis posits that 1. Distinguish between the terms lactose and lactase.
susceptibility to obesity and diabetes may be a side effect of heat 2. What is lactose intolerance, and what percentage of all people have
adaptation. According to this idea, some populations evolved lower it?
metabolic rates as an adaptation to heat stress, because lower metabolic 3. Where and why did lactase persistence evolve?
rates reduced the amount of heat that the body produced. The lower 4. What is the thrifty gene hypothesis?
metabolic rates also predisposed people to gain excess weight and 5. How well is the thrifty gene hypothesis supported by evidence?
develop obesity and diabetes. 6. Describe an alternative hypothesis to the thrifty gene hypothesis.
A thrifty phenotype hypothesis has also been proposed. This 7. Do you think that a lack of exposure to dairy products might affect
hypothesis suggests that individuals who have inadequate nutrition a person’s lactase level? Why or why not?
during fetal development might develop an insulin-resistant phenotype. 8. Describe an experiment you would want to do or data you would
The insulin-resistant phenotype would supposedly prepare these want to analyze that would help to test the thrifty phenotype
individuals for a life of famine, based on the environment within the hypothesis. Remember, you are studying people, so be sure it is
womb. In a famine-free environment, however, the thrifty phenotype ethical! Discuss possible confounding factors that you should
would lead to the development of diabetes. control for in this study, or that might affect the interpretation of
your results.
The most recent alternative to the thrifty gene hypothesis is the drifty
9. Explain the relationship between insulin, blood glucose, and type II
gene hypothesis proposed by biologist John Speakman. He argues that
diabetes.
genes protecting humans from obesity were under strong natural
10. True or False. Lactose persistence evolved more recently than
selection pressure for a very long period of time while human ancestors
lactose intolerance.
were subject to the risk of predation. According to this view, being able
to outrun predators would have been an important factor in selecting

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11. True or False. The drifty gene hypothesis is dependent on the 2. Lactose Haworth by NEUROtiker released into the public domain
assumption that fatter people cannot run as effectively as thinner via Wikimedia Commons
people. 3. Adapted by Mandeep Grewal from Hydrolysis of lactose by
12. What two ethnic groups in the U.S. have a particularly high rate of Yikrazuul released into the public domain via Wikimedia
death from diabetes? What other types of data would you want to Commons
observe to determine whether certain ethnic groups are more 4. Laktoseintoleranz by Rainer Zenz released into the public domain
susceptible to diabetes? Explain why this additional data would be via Wikimedia Commons
helpful. 5. Lapper og Reinsdyr by Nasjonalbiblioteket from Norway uploaded
by Anne-Sophie Ofrim, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
EXPLORE MORE Commons
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17063#Explore_More 6. Diabetes graph and data by CDC, public domain
7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
ATTRIBUTIONS
3.0
1. Got milk released into the public domain via Wikimedia Commons

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9.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: FLU AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: FLU, FROM PIGS
TO YOU
In April 2009, the world was hit with a swine flu pandemic. The
Centers for Disease Control estimates that within that first year, 43 to
89 million people worldwide contracted the swine flu and that it
contributed to 8,870 to 18,300 deaths. Some people with swine flu
were spared serious complications, such as Mateo, who you read about
it at the beginning of this chapter. At the time, the swine flu spread
rapidly because as a newly evolved viral strain, most people had no
natural immunity against it, and the existing flu vaccine could not
prevent it. But by November 2009, a swine flu vaccine was developed,
and now it is included in the annual flu vaccine in the U.S. By August
2010, the World Health Organization declared the H1N1 swine flu
pandemic to be over. The virus is still around, but because of the
vaccine and the natural immunity of those who had the virus
previously, its infection rate is no longer of pandemic proportions.
The swine flu virus appears to have originated in pigs and later evolved
the ability to infect humans. How could this happen? Scientists think
that a process called reassortment played a critical role. In
reassortment, influenza viruses can exchange genetic material with
each other if they have infected the same cells. This creates new
combinations of genes, somewhat similar to the genetic mixing that
occurs in sexual reproduction when two parents with different genes
reproduce with each other. As you know, genes help dictate the
characteristics of an organism, or in this case, a virus. Therefore, the
production of novel combinations of genes due to viral reassortment
can lead to the evolution of new viral characteristics.
In addition to reassortment, influenza viruses have other characteristics
that cause them to evolve quickly. In contrast to sexual reproduction,
the replication of viruses to produce new “offspring” particles is much
more rapid. As you have learned in this chapter, evolution is typically a
slow process that takes place over many generations. But if these
generations are produced rapidly, as in the case of viruses and bacteria,
it speeds the rate of evolution. Additionally, RNA viruses have a very Figure 9.8.1 : Different viruses that infect pig may combine the pieces
of their genetic material to make a new virus
high rate of genetic mutation. The rapid evolution of the influenza
virus is one of the reasons why the annual seasonal flu vaccine is not Scientists do not know exactly when and where the 2009 H1N1
always effective against every strain. evolved, but they think that the reassortment event may have occurred
several years prior to the 2009 pandemic. This is based on evidence
But why did this flu pandemic come from pigs? Pigs are actually an
gathered from “molecular evolution” techniques, which are similar to
ideal “mixing bowl” for the evolution of influenza viruses because pigs
the molecular clock technique described in this chapter. Influenza
can become infected with influenza viruses from other species,
viruses are known to mutate at a relatively steady rate. The genetic
including birds and humans. Therefore, genetic reassortment can occur
sequences of the new 2009 H1N1 strain were compared to the
in pigs between viral strains that normally infect different species. This
sequences in related, older influenza viruses to count the number of
is what scientists think occurred to produce the 2009 H1N1 swine flu
new mutations, in order to give an estimate of when the new viral
virus. The 2009 H1N1 has gene segments from the birds, humans, and
strain evolved.
two different pig influenza viruses, and is therefore called a “quadruple
reassortant” virus. In the case of the 2009 H1N1, this resulted in a new Probably one of the final events that resulted in the generation of the
influenza strain that could infect humans, and be passed directly from 2009 H1N1 virus was contact between North American and Eurasian
person to person. pigs. This is because prior to 2009, there were “triple reassortant”
variants of H1N1 with gene segments from a bird, human, and North
American pig influenza already in existence. The 2009 H1N1 strain
additionally contained gene segments from influenza from Eurasian
pigs, resulting in the “quadruple reassortant” virus. Scientists think that
contact between pigs from these different regions, through international
trade or other methods of contact, could have created this new strain.
As you have learned in this chapter, the migration of organisms to new

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locations as well as contact between different organisms can influence genetic drift, which is a random change in allele frequencies that
evolution in many ways. Some examples are the migration of ancestral may occur in a small population; and natural selection, in which
camels throughout the world, the coevolution of flowers and their allele frequencies change because of differences in fitness among
pollinators, and the “founder effect” of small populations that move to individuals.
new locations, such as the Amish. New species arise in the process of speciation. Allopatric speciation
Along with fossils, comparative anatomy and embryology, DNA occurs when some members of a species become geographically
analysis, and biogeography, evidence for evolution includes direct isolated and evolve genetic differences. If the differences prevent
observation of it occurring. Peter and Rosemary Grant observed them from interbreeding with the original species, a new species
evolution occurring in the change in beak size of Galápagos finches. has evolved. Sympatric speciation occurs without geographic
The evolution of the swine flu virus is another example of evolution in isolation first occurring.
action. Evolution is not just a thing of the past — it is an ongoing and Coevolution occurs when interacting species evolve together. An
important process that affects our ecosystem, species, and even our example is flowering plants and their pollinators.
health. Like viruses, bacteria also evolve rapidly, and the evolution of Darwin thought that evolution occurs steadily and gradually. This
antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a growing public health concern. You model of evolution is called gradualism. The fossil record better
can see that evolution is very relevant to our lives today. supports the model of punctuated equilibrium. In this model, long
periods of little change are interrupted by bursts of relatively rapid
CHAPTER SUMMARY change.
In this chapter, you learned about the theory of evolution, evidence for The fossil record is the record of life on Earth as reconstructed from
evolution, how evolution works, and the evolution of living organisms the discovery and analysis of fossils. It is one of the most important
on Earth. Specifically, you learned: tools in the study of evolution, but it is incomplete because
fossilization is rare. To be added to the fossil record, fossils must be
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection states that living
dated using relative or absolute dating methods.
things with beneficial traits produce more offspring than others do.
Molecular clocks are additional tools for reconstructing how life on
This leads to changes in the traits of living things over time.
Earth evolved. Molecular clocks use DNA or protein sequences to
During his voyage on the Beagle, Darwin made many estimate how much time has passed since related species diverged
observations that helped him develop his theory of evolution, from a common ancestor.
particularly on the Galápagos Islands. The geologic time scale is a timeline of Earth's history. It divides
Darwin was influenced by other early thinkers, including Earth's chronology into smaller units of time such as eons and eras
Lamarck, Lyell, and Malthus. He was also influenced by his that are based on major changes in geology, climate, and living
knowledge of artificial selection. things.
Wallace’s paper on evolution confirmed Darwin’s ideas. It also Milk contains the sugar lactose, a disaccharide. Lactose must be
pushed him to publish his book, On the Origin of Species. The broken down into its two component sugars to be absorbed by the
book clearly spells out his theory and provides extensive small intestine, and the enzyme lactase is needed for this process.
evidence and well-reasoned arguments to support it. In about 60 percent of people worldwide, the ability to synthesize
Fossils provide a window into the past and are evidence for lactase and digest lactose declines after the first two years of life.
evolution. Scientists who find and study fossils are called These people become lactose intolerant and cannot consume much
paleontologists. milk without suffering symptoms such as bloating, cramps, and
Scientists compare the anatomy, embryos, and DNA of living diarrhea.
things to understand how they evolved. Evidence for evolution is In populations that herded milking animals for thousands of years,
provided by homologous and analogous structures. lactase persistence evolved. People who were able to synthesize
Biogeography is the study of how and why plants and animals live lactase and digest lactose throughout life were strongly favored by
where they do, which provides additional evidence for evolution. natural selection. People who descended from these early herders
On island chains, such as the Galápagos, one species may evolve generally still have lactase persistence. That includes many
into many new species to fill available niches. This is called Europeans and European-Americans.
adaptive radiation. Human populations may vary in how efficiently they use calories in
Peter and Rosemary Grant re-studied Galápagos finches. During a food. Some people (especially South Pacific Islanders, Native
drought in the 1970s, they were able to directly observe evolution Americans, and sub-Saharan Africans) seem to be able to get by on
occurring. fewer calories than would be adequate for others, so they tend to
Microevolution refers to evolution that occurs over a relatively easily gain weight, become obese, and develop diseases such as
short period of time within a population. Macroevolution refers to diabetes.
evolution that occurs at or above the level of species as the result of The thrifty gene hypothesis answers the question of how genes for
microevolution taking place over many generations. this ability could have evolved. It proposes that “thrifty genes”
The population is the unit of evolution, and population genetics is were selected for because they allowed people to use calories
the science that studies evolution at the population level. A efficiently and store body fat when food was plentiful so they had a
population’s gene pool consists of all the genes of all the members reserve to use when food was scarce. Thrifty genes become
of the population. For a given gene, the population is characterized detrimental and lead to obesity and diabetes when food is plentiful
by the frequency of different alleles in the gene pool. all of the time.
There are four forces of evolution: mutation, which creates new Several assumptions underlying the thrifty gene hypothesis have
alleles; gene flow, in which migration changes allele frequencies; been called into question, and genetic research has been unable to

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 actually identify thrifty genes. Alternate hypotheses to the thrifty 3. Speciation is:
gene hypothesis have been proposed, including the drifty gene A. The movement of a species to a new niche
hypothesis. The latter hypothesis explains variation in the tendency B. An evolution that occurs within a species
to become obese by genetic drift on neutral genes. C. The evolution of a new species from an existing species
D. The development of analogous structures
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW
4. True or False. An individual’s genotype is known as their gene
pool.
5. True or False. New species can evolve without geographic
separation.
6. True or False. In punctuated equilibrium, the periods of relatively
little evolutionary change are shorter than the periods of dramatic
change.
7. Describe one example of a major environmental change that
influenced the evolution of life on Earth. This change could include
climate change, geologic change, change in existing species,
change in the atmosphere, etc.
8. Explain why mass extinction events often cause rapid evolutionary
changes afterward.
9. Choose one. Species with homologous structures are (more/less)
likely to be closely related than species with analogous structures.
10. Explain why the fossils of extinct animals provide evidence for
evolution.
11. Which of the following is an example of evolution by natural
Figure 9.8.2 : Evolution of Beak Size in Galápagos Finches selection?
1. Data from Peter and Rosemary Grant’s study on the evolution of A. Humans breeding dogs for certain characteristics
beak size in Galápagos finches is shown above. The top graph B. Bats developing wings as an adaptation for flight
(1976) shows the distribution of beak size in the population before C. A and B
a drought, and the bottom graph (1978) shows beak size after the D. None of the above
drought. The drought reduced seed availability. Finches with big 12. Compare and contrast Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural
beaks can crack open and eat seeds of all sizes, while finches with selection and Lamarck’s idea of inheritance of acquired
small beaks can only crack open and eat small seeds. Answer the characteristics.
following questions about this data. 13. Explain how microevolution and macroevolution relate to each
A. How was the average beak size affected by the drought? other.
Although scientists would calculate this mathematically, you 14. The fact that embryonic humans have gill slits is evidence for:
may answer just based on your observation of the graphs. A. Coevolution
B. Explain how natural selection and the “struggle for existence” B. Evolution of analogous structures
likely changed the beak size in this population. C. Common ancestry of vertebrates
C. Is this an example of microevolution or macroevolution? D. Gene flow
Explain your answer. 15. The study of allele frequencies in a group of the same species in the
D. Explain why variation is important for evolution by natural same time and place is known as _________ genetics.
selection, using the data above as a specific example. 16. Explain how biogeography can be used to study adaptive radiation.
E. What do you notice about the distribution of beak sizes in the
1978 graph — are all the beaks one size? If not, why not? ATTRIBUTIONS
F. Is the change in beak size shown here an example of stabilizing 1. Antigenic shift by Mouagip derived from NIAID, public domain
selection, disruptive selection, or directional selection? via Wikimedia Commons
2. Which of the following is an example of macroevolution? 2. Evolution of beak size by Jodi So via CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
A. Speciation 3.0
B. Coevolution 3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
C. Structures that become larger in a population 3.0
D. A and B

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
10: INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY
This chapter outlines the organization of the human body and describes human cells, tissues, organs,
organ systems, and body cavities. It also explains how organ systems interact and how feedback
mechanisms maintain homeostasis in the body.

10.1: CASE STUDY: GETTING TO KNOW YOUR BODY

Looking at the photo of a football game above, you can see why it is so important that the players
wear helmets. Football often involves forceful impact to the head as players tackle each other. This
can cause damage to the brain - either temporarily as in the case of a concussion, or long-term and
more severe types of damage. Helmets are critical to reduce the incidence of traumatic brain
injuries (TBIs), but they do not fully prevent them.

10.2: ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY

This six-legged robot was created for research, but it looks like it might be fun to play with. It's obviously a complex machine. Think
about some other, more familiar machines, such as power drills, washing machines, and lawn mowers. Each machine consists of many
parts, and each part does a specific job, yet all the parts work together to perform certain functions.

10.3: HUMAN CELLS AND TISSUES

This photo looks like a close-up of an old-fashioned dust mop, and the object it shows has a somewhat similar function. However, the
object is greatly enlarged in the photo. Can you guess what it is? The answer may surprise you.

10.4: HUMAN ORGANS AND ORGAN SYSTEMS

An organ is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. Organs exist in most multicellular
organisms, including not only humans and other animals but also plants. In single-celled organisms such as bacteria, the functional
equivalent of an organ is an organelle.

10.5: HUMAN BODY CAVITIES

The human body, like that of many other multicellular organisms, is divided into a number of body cavities. A body cavity is a fluid-
filled space inside the body that holds and protects internal organs. Human body cavities are separated by membranes and other
structures. The two largest human body cavities are the ventral cavity and dorsal cavity. These two body cavities are subdivided into
smaller body cavities.

10.6: INTERACTION OF ORGAN SYSTEMS

Communication among organ systems is vital if they are to work together as a team. They must be able to respond to each other and
change their responses as needed to keep the body in balance. Communication among organ systems is controlled mainly by the
autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system.

10.7: HOMEOSTASIS AND FEEDBACK

Homeostasis is the condition in which a system such as the human body is maintained in a more-or-less steady state. It is the job of
cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems throughout the body to maintain many different variables within narrow ranges that are
compatible with life. Keeping a stable internal environment requires continually monitoring the internal environment and constantly
making adjustments to keep things in balance.

10.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: PRESSURE AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

As you learned in this chapter, the human body consists of many complex systems that normally work together efficiently like a well-
oiled machine to carry out life's functions.

1 4/25/2021
10.1: CASE STUDY: GETTING TO KNOW YOUR BODY
CASE STUDY: UNDER PRESSURE
Looking at the photo of a football game in Figure 10.1.1, you can see
why it is so important that the players wear helmets because players
may fall on their heads or on top of each other's heads. Football often
involves forceful impact to the head as players tackle each other. This
can cause damage to the brain — either temporarily as in the case of a
concussion, or long-term and more severe types of damage. Helmets
are critical to reducing the incidence of traumatic brain injuries (TBIs),
but they do not fully prevent them.

Figure 10.1.2 . Comparison of an infant with (on the right) and without
hydrocephalus (on the left). The ventricles (shown in blue-gray) are
located inside of the brain (shown in pink). Ventricles are enlarged in
the infant with hydrocephalus.
Hydrocephalus often occurs at birth, due to genetic factors or events
that occurred during fetal development. Because babies are born with
skull bones that are not fully fused, the skull of a baby born with
hydrocephalus can expand and relieve some of the pressure on the
brain, as reflected in the enlarged head size shown above. But adults
have fully fused, inflexible skulls, so when hydrocephalus occurs in an
adult, the brain experiences all of the increased pressure.
Why did Dayo develop hydrocephalus? There are many possible
causes of hydrocephalus in adults, including tumors, infections,
hemorrhages, and TBIs. Given their repeated and long history of TBIs
Figure 10.1.1 :Football players
due to football, and the absence of any evidence of infection, tumor, or
Take the example of 43-year-old Dayo. As a former professional other cause, Dayo’s doctor thinks their head injuries were most likely
football player who also played in college and high school, Dayo responsible for their hydrocephalus.
sustained many high-impact head injuries over the course of
Although hydrocephalus is serious, there are treatments. Read the rest
their football playing years. Dayo prefers they/ them pronouns. A few
of this chapter to learn about the cells, tissues, organs, cavities, and
years ago, Dayo began experiencing a variety of troubling symptoms,
systems of the body, how they are interconnected, and the importance
including the loss of bladder control (i.e. the involuntary leakage of
of keeping the body in a state of homeostasis, or balance. The amount
urine), memory loss, and difficulty in walking. Symptoms such as these
of cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles is normally kept at a relatively
are often signs of damage to the nervous system, which includes the
steady level, and the potentially devastating symptoms of
brain, spinal cord, and nerves, but they can result from many different
hydrocephalus are an example of what can happen when a system in
types of injuries or diseases that affect the nervous system. In order to
the body becomes unbalanced. At the end of the chapter, you will learn
treat Dayo properly, their doctors needed to do several tests to
about Dayo’s treatment and prognosis.
determine the exact cause of their symptoms. These included a spinal
tap to see if they had an infection, and an MRI (magnetic resonance CHAPTER OVERVIEW: INTRODUCTION TO THE
imaging) to see if there were any problems with their brain structure.
HUMAN BODY
The MRI revealed the cause of Dayo’s symptoms. There are fluid-filled
In this chapter, you will learn about the general organization and
spaces within the brain called ventricles, and Dayo’s ventricles were
functions of the human body. Specifically, you will learn about:
enlarged compared to normal ventricles. Based on this observation
The organization of the body from atoms and molecules up through
combined with the results of other tests, Dayo’s doctor diagnosed
cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
them with hydrocephalus, a term that literally means “water head.”
How organ systems work together to carry out the functions of life.
Hydrocephalus occurs when the fluid that fills the ventricles, called
The variety of different specialized cell types in humans, the four
cerebrospinal fluid, builds up excessively. This causes the ventricles to
major types of human tissues, and some of their functions.
become enlarged and puts pressure on the brain, which can cause a
What organs are and the 11 major organ systems of the human
variety of neurological symptoms including the ones Dayo was
body.
experiencing. You can see the difference between normal ventricles
Spaces in the body called body cavities, and the organs they hold
and ventricles that are enlarged due to hydrocephalus in the illustration
and protect.
below. Notice how the brain becomes “squeezed” due to hydrocephalus
The tissues and fluid that protect the brain and spinal cord.
in the image on the right.
How organ systems communicate and interact in body processes
such as cellular respiration, digestion, the fight-or-flight response to
stressors, and physical activities such as sports.

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 How homeostasis is maintained to keep the body in a relatively keep your body functioning properly?
steady, and the problems that can be caused by loss of homeostasis,
such as diabetes. ATTRIBUTIONS
As you read the chapter, think about the following questions: 1. Army vs. Navy Football game by U.S. Navy photo by
Photographer’s Mate 2nd Class Jayme Pastoric, public domain via
1. What is the normal function of cerebrospinal fluid?
Wikimedia Commons
2. What is a spinal tap and how does it test for infection?
2. Hydrocephalus by CDC released into the public domain via
3. In Dayo’s case, what organs and organ systems are probably
Wikimedia Commons
affected by their hydrocephalus? What are some ways in which
3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
these organ systems interact?
3.0
4. The level of cerebrospinal fluid is normally kept in a state of
homeostasis. What are other examples of types of homeostasis that

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10.2: ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY
A FANTASTIC MACHINE
This six-legged robot in Figure 10.2.1 was created for research, but
it looks like it might be fun to play with. It’s obviously a complex
machine. Think about some other, more familiar machines, such as
power drills, washing machines, and lawnmowers. Each machine
consists of many parts, and each part does a specific job, yet all the
parts work together to perform certain functions. Many people have
compared the human body to a machine, albeit an extremely
complex one. Like real machines, the human body also consists of
many parts that work together to perform certain functions, which
in the case of the human body include keeping the organism alive.
The human body may be the most fantastic machine on Earth, as
you will discover when you learn more about it in this concept.

Figure 10.2.1 : Six-legged walking robot LAURON IV

WHAT THE HUMAN MACHINE CAN DO

Imagine a machine that has all of the following attributes. It can
generate a “wind” of 166 km/hr (100 mi/hr), and it can relay messages
faster than 400 km/hr (249 mi/hr). It contains a pump that moves about Figure 10.2.2 : This diagram shows the levels of organization of the
a million barrels of fluid over its lifetime, and it has a control center human body, from atoms to the whole organism.
that contains billions of individual components. The machine in To study the smallest level of organization, scientists consider the
question can even repair itself if necessary and not wear out for up to asimplest building blocks of matter: atoms and molecules.
century or more. It has all these abilities, and yet it consists mainly of
The chemical level of organization considers these two building blocks
water. What is it? It is the human body. as atoms bond to form molecules with three-dimensional structures. All
matter in the universe is composed of one or more unique pure
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY substances called elements, familiar examples of which are hydrogen,
The human body is a complicated, highly organized structure that oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, and iron. The smallest unit of any
consists of trillions of parts that function together to achieve all the of these pure substances (elements) is an atom. Atoms are made up of
functions needed to maintain life. The biology of the human body subatomic particles such as the proton, electron, and neutron. Two or
incorporates the body’s structure, the study of which is called anatomy, more atoms combine to form a molecule, such as the water molecules,
and the body’s functioning, the study of which is called physiology. proteins, and sugars found in living things. Molecules are the chemical
The organization of the human body can be seen as a hierarchy of building blocks of all body structures.
increasing size and complexity, starting at the level of atoms and The cellular level is considered when a variety of molecules combine
molecules and ending at the level of the entire organism, which is an to form the fluid and organelles of a body cell. A cell is the smallest
individual living thing. You can see the intervening levels of independently functioning unit of a living organism. Even bacteria,
organization in Figure 10.2.2 and read about them in the figure and the which are extremely small, independently living organisms, have a
sections that follow. cellular structure. Each bacterium is a single cell. All living structures
of human anatomy contain cells, and almost all functions of human
physiology are performed in cells or are initiated by cells. A human
cell, such as a smooth muscle cell, typically consists of flexible
membranes that enclose cytoplasm, a water-based cellular fluid
together with a variety of tiny functioning units called organelles.
The tissue level can be studied when a community of similar cells
forms a body tissue. A tissue is a group of many similar cells (though
sometimes composed of a few related types) that work together to
perform a specific function. For example, when many smooth muscle
cells come together both structurally and functionally, these cells
collectively form a layer of smooth muscle tissue.

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An organ is an anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of TISSUES
two or more tissue types, which forms the organ level of After the cell, the tissue is the next level of organization in the human
organization. Each organ performs one or more specific physiological body. A tissue is a group of connected cells that have a similar
functions. The human bladder, which is composed of smooth muscle function. There are four basic types of human tissues: connective,
tissue, transitional epithelial tissue, and several types of connectiveepithelial, muscle, and nervous, tissues. These four tissue types, which
tissue serves the function of storing urine produced by the kidneys. are shown in Figure 10.2.4, make up all the organs of the human body.
An organ system level is a group of organs that work together to Connective tissue is composed of cells that are suspended in a matrix.
perform major functions or meet the physiological needs of the body. Epithelial tissue is mostly composed of cells that are tightly packed
In the organ example above, both the kidneys and the bladder are together in sheets. Muscle tissue is also composed of rightly backed
organs of the urinary system. The kidneys produce urine, which is cells and some types of muscle such as the skeletal muscle shown
moved to the bladder by the ureters. Urine can then leave the bladder, in Figure 10.2.4 contains striation due to the organization of muscle
and the body, through the urethra. These four organs work together to fibers. Nervous tissue is composed of cells with long extensions.
rid the body of liquid waste.

CELLS
The basic units of structure and function of the human body, as in all
living things, are cells — an amazing 37 trillion of them by the time the
average person reaches adulthood! Each cell carries out basic life
processes that allow the body to survive. In addition, most human cells
are specialized in structure and function to carry out other specific
roles. In fact, the human body may consist of as many as 200 different
types of cells, each of which has a special job to do. Just a few of these
different human cell types are pictured in Figure 10.2.3. The cells in
the figure have obvious differences in structure that reflect their
different functions. For example, nerve cells have long projections
sticking out from the body of the cell. These projections help them
carry electrical messages to other cells.
Figure 10.2.4 : Four types of tissues: Connective tissue, Epithelial
tissue, Muscle tissue, Nervous tissue

ORGANS AND ORGAN SYSTEMS

Figure 10.2.3 : A few of the many different types of cells in the human
body are illustrated here. Each type of cell is specialized for a
particular role in the body.

Figure 10.2.5 : A sample organ system (the digestive system) showing the organs within the system (mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach,
pancreas, large intestine, small intestine, liver, gallbladder, appendix, rectum, anus).
After tissues, organs are the next level of the organization of the human body. An organ is a structure that consists of two or more types of tissues
that work together to do the same job. Examples of human organs include the heart, brain, lungs, skin, and kidneys. Human organs are organized
into organ systems, the digestive system is shown in figure Figure 10.2.5. An organ system is a group of organs that work together to carry out a
complex overall function. Each organ of the system does part of the larger job.

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A WELL-OILED MACHINE 7. Define organ system, and name five organ systems in the human
All of the organs and organ systems of the human body normally work body.
together like a well-oiled machine. This is because they are closely 8. True or False. How cells use oxygen is an example of physiology.
regulated by the nervous and endocrine systems. The nervous system 9. The organ system that secretes hormones is called the
controls virtually all body activities, and the endocrine system secretes _______________ system.
hormones that help to regulate these activities. Functioning together, 10. A neuron is a:
the organ systems supply body cells with all the substances they need A. specialized cell
and eliminate their wastes. They also keep temperature, pH, and other B. unspecialized cell
conditions at just the right levels to support life. C. an organ
D. an organ system
REVIEW 11. Which organ system’s function is to provide structure to the body
1. How is the human body like a complex machine? and protect internal organs?
2. Compare and contrast human anatomy and human physiology. 12. How is the human body regulated so all of its organs and organ
3. Summarize the hierarchical organization of the human body. systems work together
4. Relate cell structure to cell function, and give examples of specific 13. True or False. Organs consist of one or more types of tissue.
cell types in the human body. 14. Give one example of how the respiratory and circulatory systems
5. Define tissue, and identify the four types of tissues that make up the work together.
human body.
6. What is an organ? Give three examples of organs in the human EXPLORE MORE
body. https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16775#Explore_More

ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Six-legged walking robot LAURON IV by FZI Forschungszentrum Informatik Karlsruhe - Abteilung IDS, released into the public domain via
Wikimedia Commons
2. Levels of organization by OpenStax, CC BY 4.0
3. Animals variety animal cells by Sunshineconnelly CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
4. Four types of tissue by NIH, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
5. Digestive System by National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease, released into the public domain
6. Text adapted from
A. Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
B. Anatomy by OERI CC BY 3.0

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10.3: HUMAN CELLS AND TISSUES
DUST MOP cells that line the bronchial passages produce mucus, a sticky substance
This photo in Figure 10.3.1 looks like a close-up of an old- that helps trap particles in the air before it passes into the lungs.
fashioned dust mop, and the object it shows has a somewhat similar DIFFERENT BUT IDENTICAL
function. However, the object is greatly enlarged in the photo. Can
All the different cell types within an individual human organism are
you guess what it is? The answer may surprise you. It is a scanning
genetically identical, so no matter how different the cells are, they all
electron micrograph of human epithelial cells that line the bronchial
have the same genes. How can such different types of cells arise? The
passages. The floppy, dust-mop-like extensions are actually
answer is the differential regulation of genes. Cells with the same
microscopic structures called cilia projecting from the outer surface
genes can be very different because different genes are expressed
of the epithelial cells. The function of the cilia is to trap dust,
depending on the cell type.
pathogens, and other particles in the air before it enters the lungs.
The cilia also sway back and forth to sweep the trapped particles EXAMPLES OF HUMAN CELL TYPES
upward toward the throat, from which they can be expelled from Many common types of human cells — such as bone cells and white
the body. blood cells — actually consist of several subtypes of cells. Each
subtype, in turn, has a special structure and function. A closer look at
these cell types will give you a better appreciation for the diversity of
structures and functions of human cells.
BONE CELLS
There are four main subtypes of bone cells, as shown in Figure 10.3.2.
Each type has a different form and function:
1. Osteocytes are star-shaped bone cells that make up the majority of
bone tissue. They are the most common cells in mature bone and
Figure 10.3.1 : Scanning electron microscope image of lung trachea can live as long as the organism itself. They also control the
epithelium. There are both ciliated and on-ciliated cells in this
function of bone cells called osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
epithelium. Note the difference in size between the cilia and the
microvilli (on non-ciliated cell surface) 2. Osteoblasts are cells with single nuclei that synthesize new bone.
They function in organized groups of connected cells called osteons
HUMAN CELLS to form the organic and mineral matrix of bone.
3. Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated stem cells that differentiate to
Like the ciliated bronchial cells in the micrograph above, many other
form osteoblasts in the tissue that covers the outside of the bone.
cells in the human body are very distinctive and well suited for special
4. Osteoclasts are very large, multinucleated cells that are responsible
functions. To perform their special functions, cells may vary in a
for the breakdown of bones through resorption. The breakdown of
number of ways.
bone is very important in bone health because it allows for bone
VARIATION IN HUMAN CELLS remodeling.
Some cells act as individual cells and are not attached to one another.
Red blood cells are a good example. Their main function is to transport
oxygen to other cells throughout the body, so they must be able to
move freely through the circulatory system. Many other cells, in
contrast, act together with other similar cells as part of the same tissue,
so they are attached to one another and cannot move freely. For
example, epithelial cells lining the respiratory tract are attached to each
other to form a continuous surface that protects the respiratory system
from particles and other hazards in the air.
Many cells can divide readily and form new cells. Skin cells are
constantly dying and being shed from the body and replaced by new
skin cells, and bone cells can divide to form new bone for growth or
Figure 10.3.2 : Four sub-types of bone cells in the human skeletal
repair. Some other cells, in contrast, such as certain nerve cells, can system: Osteocytes (maintain bone tissues), Osteoblast (form bone
divide and form new cells only under exceptional circumstances. matrix), Osteogenic cells (stem cell), Osteoclasts (reabsorb bone)
That’s why nervous system injuries such as a severed spinal cord
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
generally cannot heal by the production of new cells, resulting in a
White blood cells (also called leukocytes) are even more variable than
permanent loss of function.
bone cells. Five subtypes of white blood cells are shown in Figure
Many human cells have the primary job of producing and secreting a 10.3.3. All of them are immune system cells involved in defending the
particular substance, such as a hormone or an enzyme. For example, body, but each subtype has a different function. They also differ in the
special cells in the pancreas produce and secrete the hormone insulin, normal proportion of all leukocytes they make up.
which regulates the level of glucose in the blood. Some of the epithelial
1. Monocytes make up about 5 percent of leukocytes. They are the
biggest cells with extensions and a kidney-shaped nucleus. They

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 engulf and destroy (phagocytize) pathogens in tissues.
2. Eosinophils make up about 2 percent of leukocytes. They have and
a bilobed nucleus. They attack larger parasites and set off allergic
responses.
3. Basophils make up less than 1 percent of leukocytes. Like
eosinophils, these cells also have granules and a bilobed nucleus.
They release proteins called histamines that are involved in
inflammation.
4. Lymphocytes make up about 30 percent of leukocytes. These are
small cells with a large circular nucleus. They include B cells and T
cells. B cells produce antibodies against non-self antigens, and T
cells destroy virus-infected cells and cancer cells.
5. Neutrophils are the most numerous white blood cells, making up
about 62 percent of leukocytes. They have granules and a
multilobed nucleus. They phagocytize single-celled bacteria and
fungi in the blood.

Figure 10.3.4 : There are 4 different types of tissues in our body.

Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Muscular
tissue such as cardiac, smooth, and skeletal muscle. Epithelial tissue
lines the GI tract organs and other hollow organs and is found on the
skin surface (epidermis). Connective tissue such as fat and other soft
padding tissue, bone, and tendon.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
The most diverse and abundant of all tissues, connective tissue holds
cells together and supports the body. Connective tissue is made up of
cells suspended in a non-cellular matrix. The matrix (also known as
ground substance) is secreted by the connective tissue cells and
determines the characteristics of the connective tissue. It is the
Figure 10.3.3 : Five sub-types of human white blood cells in the human consistency of the matrix that determines the function of the connective
immune system: monocyte, eosinophil, basophil, lymphocyte,
neutrophil tissue. The matrix can be liquid, gel-like or solid, all depending on the
type of connective tissue. For example, the extracellular matrix of bone
TISSUES is a rigid mineral framework. The extracellular matrix of blood is
Groups of connected cells form tissues. The cells in a tissue may all be liquid plasma. Connective tissues such as bone and cartilage generally
the same type or they may be of multiple types. In either case, the cells form the body's structure. There are many sub-types of the four major
in the tissue work together to carry out a specific function. There are types of tissues in a human body, see the flow chart in Figure 10.3.5.
four main types of human tissues: connective, epithelial, muscle, and
nervous tissues.

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 Figure 10.3.7: Adipose Connective Tissue consists of fat
cells (adipocytes with a nucleus and stored lipids in their
cytoplasm) with a little extracellular matrix. It stores fat for
energy and provides insulation.

c. Reticular connective tissue is mostly composed of reticular

protein fibers which make a skeleton, known as stroma, for
the lymphatic and white blood cells. This type of tissue is
found in the spleen and other lymphatic system structures.

Figure 10.3.5: The image summarizes the various categories of

connective tissues found in the human body. Connective tissue can be
classified as connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, or blood.
Cartilage can be classified as hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, or
fibrocartilage. Connective tissue proper can be classified as loose and
dense or fibrous. Loose connective tissue can be classified as areolar,
adipose, or reticular. Dense or fibrous connective tissue can be Figure 10.3.8 : Reticular Connective Tissue. This is a loose
classified as regular, irregular, and elastic. connective tissue made up of a network of reticular fibers
that provides a supportive framework for soft organs
B. Dense connective tissue proper: This tissue consists of three
categories, dense regular connective tissue, dense irregular
connective tissue, and elastic connective tissue. These tissues
differ on the arrangement and composition of the fibrous
elements of the extracellular matrix.
a. Dense regular connective tissue has extracellular fibers that
all run in the same direction and plane. Muscle tendons are a
type of dense regular connective tissue.
Figure 10.3.6 : General features of connective tissues. The Matrix of b. Dense irregular connective tissue contains collagen and
most connective tissues is made up of ground substance and protein
fibers. There are cells suspended in the matrix. elastic fibers which are found running in all different
directions and planes. The dermis of the skin is composed of
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE INCLUDE: dense irregular connective tissue.
1. Connective Tissue Proper: Fibroblast cells are responsible for c. Elastic connective tissue: Made up of freely branching
synthesizing protein fibers for the matrix. Collagen fibers are elastic fibers with fibroblasts in the spaces between the
strong, elastic fibers are flexible and reticular fibers form a fibers, this tissue allows the kind of stretch that is found in
supportive framework for organs and basement membranes. There the walls of arteries.
are two subcategories of connective tissue proper.
A. Loose connective tissue: Thin and soft, this tissue contains
many collagen and elastic fibers in a jell-like matrix. The cells
in loose connective tissue are not close together. This tissue
functions in binding the skin to underlying structures. There are
three types of loose connective tissue.
a. Areolar connective tissue is a common form of loose
connective tissue. It is found in the skin and mucous
membranes, where it binds the skin or membrane to
underlying tissues such as muscles. It is also found around
blood vessels and internal organs where it links and supports
them.
b. Adipose connective tissue is commonly known as fat. This
tissue contains fat cells that are specialized for lipid storage. Figure 10.3.9: (a) Dense regular connective tissue consists
In addition to storing energy, this tissue also cushions and of collagen fibers packed into parallel bundles. (b) Dense
protects the organs. irregular connective tissue consists of collagen fibers
interwoven into a mesh-like network.

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 2. Cartilage: This connective tissue is relatively solid and is a
non-vascularized tissue (does not have a blood supply). The
matrix is produced by cells called chondroblasts. When these
cells slow down, they reside is small spaces called lacunae.
These mature cells in the lacunae are called chondrocytes. There
are three types of cartilage: hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage,
and fibrocartilage.
A. Hyaline cartilage is the most common type of cartilage,
contains many collagen fibers and is found in many places
including the nose, between the ribs and the sternum and in
the rings of the trachea.
B. Elastic cartilage has many elastic fibers in the matrix and
supports the shape of the ears and forms part of the larynx.
C. Fibrocartilage is tough and contains many collagen fibers
and is responsible for cushioning the knee joint and for
forming the disks between the vertebrae.

Figure 10.3.11: The image shows a micrograph as well as an

illustration of the cross-section of the compact bone tissue. The
osteons are concentric structures that are composed of osteocytes in
the lacunae and central (Haversian) canal. The small tunnels,
canaliculi connect osteocytes in the different layers of an osteon.
4. Blood: Considered a type of fluid connective tissue because the
matrix of blood is not solid. The fluid matrix is called plasma, and
formed elements of this tissue include white blood cells, red blood
cells, and platelets. Read more about the composition and function
of blood in the cardiovascular system chapter.

Figure 10.3.10: Cartilage is a connective tissue consisting of

collagenous fibers embedded in a firm matrix of chondroitin
sulfates. (a) Hyaline cartilage has chondrocytes in lacunae
within a matrix. (b) Fibrocartilage has chondrocytes in
lacunae within collage fibers in a matrix. (c) Elastic cartilage
has chondrocytes in lacunae within elastic fibers in a matrix.
3. Bone: A hard, mineralized tissue found in the skeleton. The bone
Figure 10.3.12: The cells and cellular components of human blood
matrix contains many collagen fibers as well as inorganic mineral
are shown. Red blood cells deliver oxygen to the cells and remove
salts, calcium carbonate, and calcium phosphate, all features that
carbon dioxide. White blood cells (including neutrophils,
make it a very rigid structure. Bone cells, called osteoblasts, monocytes, lymphocytes, eosinophils, and basophils) are involved
secrete the osteoid substance that eventually hardens around the in the immune response. Platelets form clots that prevent blood loss
cells to form an ossified matrix. The osteon forms the basic unit of after injury.
compact bone. Within the osteon, the osteocytes (mature bone cells)
are located in lacunae. Because the bone matrix is very dense, the EPITHELIAL TISSUE
osteocytes get their nutrition from the central canal via tiny canals Epithelial tissue is made up of cells that line inner and outer body
called canaliculi. surfaces, such as the skin and the inner surface of the digestive
tract. Epithelial tissue that lines inner body surfaces and body
openings is called mucous membrane. This type of epithelial
tissue produces mucus, a slimy substance that coats mucous
membranes and traps pathogens, particles, and debris. Epithelial
tissue protects the body and its internal organs, secretes substances

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 such as hormones in addition to mucus, and absorbs substances
such as nutrients.
EPITHELIAL CELL CLASSIFICATION
Most epithelial tissue is described with two names. The first name describes the number of cell layers present and the second describes the shape
of the cells. One layer of epithelial cells is called simple and more than one layer of epithelial cells is called stratified. There are three basic
shapes of epithelial cells, squamous, cuboidal, and columnar. Squamous cells are thin and flat; cuboidal cells have a shape of a cube; columnar
cells have a shape of a pillar. For example, simple squamous epithelial tissue describes a single layer of cells that are flat and scale-like in shape.

Figure 10.3.13: Classification of Epithelial Tissues

3. Cardiac muscles are striated and found only in the heart. Their
LOCATIONS AND FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES
contractions cause the heart to beat. Cardiac muscles are not under
These tissues are found at various locations in our body and they have
voluntary control.
many functions. Some locations and functions are listed below:
Simple squamous epithelium: This tissue is located in the sacs of
the lungs and kidney where the exchange of nutrients and gas is
essential.
Simple cuboidal epithelium: This tissue is located in the glands and
their ducts and kidneys. The main function of this tissue is
secretion.
Simple Columnar epithelium: This tissue lines the Gastrointestinal
tract. The main function of this tissue is absorption and secretion.
Pseudostratified epithelium: This is a simple tissue with the
appearance of stratification. This tissue is located in the respiratory
tract. This tissue may contain cilia to move mucus.
Stratified squamous epithelium: This tissue is located where
protection is needed such as skin.
Stratified cuboidal epithelium: This tissue is located in the sweat
glands for protection.
Stratified columnar epithelium: This tissue is located in some sweat
glands. The main function is to protect and secrete sweat
components.
Transitional epithelium: This tissue lines bladder, urethra, and
ureters. The tissue allows the urinary organs to expand and stretch.

MUSCLE TISSUE
Muscle tissue is made up of cells that have the unique ability to
contract or become shorter. There are three major types of muscle
tissue, as pictured in Figure 10.3.14: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac Figure 10.3.14: The body contains three types of muscle tissue: (a)
skeletal muscle, (b) smooth muscle, and (c) cardiac muscle.
muscle tissues.
1. Skeletal muscles are striated, or striped in appearance, because of NERVOUS TISSUE
their internal structure. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones, and
when they pull on the bones, they enable the body to move. Skeletal
muscles are under voluntary control.
2. Smooth muscles are nonstriated muscles. They are found in the
walls of blood vessels and in the reproductive, gastrointestinal, and
respiratory tracts. Smooth muscles are not under voluntary control.

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 REVIEW
1. Give an example of cells that function individually and move freely,
and give an example of cells that act together and are attached to
other cells of the same type.
2. What are examples of cells that can readily divide and cells that can
divide only under rare circumstances?
3. Identify a type of cell that secretes an important substance and
name the substance it secretes.
Figure 10.3.15. This diagram shows some of the cell types that make 4. Explain how different cell types come about when all the cells in an
up nervous tissues. individual human being are genetically identical.
Nervous tissue is made up of neurons and other types of cells 5. Compare and contrast four subtypes of human bone cells.
generally called glial cells (Figure 10.3.15). Neurons are composed of 6. Identify three types of human white blood cells, and state their
cell body and extension. The cell body contains the nucleus and the functions.
extensions make connections with the other tissues and neurons. 7. Why are bone and blood both classified as connective tissues?
Neurons transmit electrical messages and the glial cells play supporting 8. Name another type of connective tissue, and describe its role in the
roles. Nervous tissue makes up the central nervous system (mainly the human body.
brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (the network of 9. Based on the information in the table above of types of epithelial
nerves that runs throughout the rest of the body). tissues, list four general functions of this type of tissue in the
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY human body.
If you are a blood donor, then you have donated tissue. Blood is a 10. Compare and contrast the three types of muscle tissues.
tissue that you can donate when you are alive. You may have 11. Identify the four types of nervous tissues, where each type is found,
indicated on your driver’s license application that you wish to be a and its basic function.
tissue donor in the event of your death. Deceased people can donate 12. Of the main types of human tissue, name two that can secrete
many different tissues, including skin, bone, heart valves, and the hormones.
corneas of the eyes. If you are not already registered as a tissue 13. Cells in a particular tissue:
donor, the information below may help you decide if you would A. Are all of the same type
like to register. B. Have different genes from cells in other tissues
Each year, approximately 30,000 people donate tissues, which C. Work together to carry out a function
supply tissues for up to 1 million tissue transplants. One tissue D. Are always connected physically to each other
donor can enhance or save the life of more than 50 people! Unlike 14. Why are mucous membranes often located in regions that interface
organs, which generally must be transplanted immediately after the between the body and the outside world?
donor dies, donated tissues can be processed and stored for a long 15. Skin is a type of _____________ tissue.
time for later use. Donated tissues can be used to replace burned 16. Body fat is a type of ____________ tissue.
skin and damaged bone and to repair ligaments. Corneal tissues can
be used for corneal transplants that restore sight in blind people. In EXPLORE MORE
fact, each year 48,000 patients have their sight restored with https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16776#Explore_More
corneal transplants. Unfortunately, there are not enough tissues to
go around, and the need for donated tissues keeps rising.

ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Bronchiolar epithelium by Louisa Howard, released into the public domain via Wikimedia Commons
2. Bone cells by OpenStax College, licensed CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
3. White blood cells by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
4. Types of tissues by OpenStax College, licensed CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
5. Connective Tissue by Mandeep Grewal CC BY-NC 3.0
6. Loose Connective Tissue by Adrignola original uploader was Sunshineconnelly, licensed CC BY 2.5 via Wikimedia Commons
7. Adipose tissue by OpenStax College CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
8. Reticular tissue by OpenStax College CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
9. Dense regular and irregular by OpenStax College CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
10. Types of cartilage by OpenStax College CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
11. Bone Connective Tissue by Darshani Kansara licensed CC BY-SA 4.0
1. Transverse Section Of Bone by BDB licensed CC BY-SA 2.5 via Wikimedia Commons
12. Components of the Blood by OpenStax College CC BY 3.0 via Lumen Learning
13. Classification of epithelial tissues by the US Government Public domain via Wikimedia Commons.
14. Three types of muscle cells by OpenStax College CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.
15. Cells of Nervous tissue by OpenStax College CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

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16. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0

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10.4: HUMAN ORGANS AND ORGAN SYSTEMS
“ACHY BREAKY HEART” digestion, and producing proteins necessary for blood clotting.
You have probably heard this Billy Ray Cyrus song. Heartache, 5. The two lungs are located on either side of the upper chest. Their
heartbreak...it all has to do with love. Did you ever wonder why the main function is exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide with the
heart is associated with love? The heart was once thought to be the blood.
center of all thought processes, as well as the site of all emotions.
This notion may have stemmed from very early anatomical
dissections that found many nerves can be traced to the region of
the heart. The fact that the heart may start racing when one is
excited or otherwise emotionally aroused may have contributed to
this idea as well. In fact, the heart is not the organ that controls
thoughts or emotions. The organ that controls those functions is the
brain. In this concept, you’ll be introduced to the heart, brain, and
other major organs of the human body.

Figure 10.4.1 : Twemoji

HUMAN ORGANS
An organ is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a
common function. Organs exist in most multicellular organisms,
including not only humans and other animals but also plants. In single-
celled organisms such as bacteria, the functional equivalent of an organ
Figure 10.4.2 : Use this shadow diagram of human anatomy to locate
is an organelle. the five organs described above: heart, brain, kidneys, liver, and lungs.
Do you know the functions of any of the other organs in the diagram?
TISSUES IN ORGANS
Although organs consist of multiple tissue types, many organs are HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS
composed of the main tissue that is associated with the organ’s major Functionally related organs often cooperate to form whole organ
function and other tissues that play supporting roles. The main tissue systems. Figure 10.4.3 and Figure 10.4.4 show 11 human organ
may be unique to that specific organ. For example, the main tissue of systems, including separate diagrams for the male and female
the heart is the cardiac muscle, which performs the heart’s major reproductive systems. Some of the organs and functions of the organ
function of pumping blood and is found only in the heart. The heart systems are identified in the figure. Each system is also described in
also includes nervous and connective tissues that are required for it to more detail in the text that follows. Most of these human organ systems
perform its major function. For example, nervous tissues control the are also the subject of separate chapters in this book.
beating of the heart, and connective tissues make up heart valves that
keep blood flowing in just one direction through the heart. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Organs of the integumentary system include the skin, hair, and nails.
VITAL ORGANS The skin is the largest organ in the body. It encloses and protects the
The human body contains five organs that are considered vital for body and is the site of many sensory receptors. The skin is the body’s
survival. They are the heart, brain, kidneys, liver, and lungs. The first defense against pathogens, and it also helps regulate body
locations of these five organs and several other internal organs are temperature and eliminate wastes in sweat.
shown in Figure 10.4.2. If any of the five vital organs stops
functioning, the death of the organism is imminent without medical SKELETAL SYSTEM
intervention. The skeletal system consists of bones, joints, teeth. The bones of the
1. The heart is located in the center of the chest, and its function is to skeletal system are connected by tendons, ligaments, and cartilage.
keep blood flowing through the body. Blood carries substances to Functions of the skeletal system include supporting the body and
cells that they need and also carries away wastes from cells. giving it shape. Along with the muscular system, the skeletal system
2. The brain is located in the head and functions as the body’s control enables the body to move. The bones of the skeletal system also protect
center. It is the seat of all thoughts, memories, perceptions, and internal organs, store calcium, and produce red and white blood cells.
feelings.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
3. The two kidneys are located in the back of the abdomen on either
The muscular system consists of three different types of muscles,
side of the body. Their function is to filter blood and form urine,
including skeletal muscles, which are attached to bones by tendons and
which is excreted from the body.
allow for voluntary movements of the body. Smooth muscle tissues
4. The liver is located on the right side of the abdomen. It has many
control the involuntary movements of internal organs, such as the
functions, including filtering blood, secreting bile that is needed for
organs of the digestive system, allowing food to move through the

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system. Smooth muscles in blood vessels allow vasoconstriction and CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
vasodilation and thereby help regulate body temperature. Cardiac The cardiovascular system (also called the circulatory system) includes
muscle tissues control the involuntary beating of the heart, allowing it
the heart, blood, and three types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and
to pump blood through the blood vessels of the cardiovascular system. capillaries. The heart pumps blood, which travels through the blood
vessels. The main function of the cardiovascular system is transport.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive system are
The nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, which make up transported to cells throughout the body. Carbon dioxide and other
the central nervous system, and nerves that run throughout the rest of waste materials are picked up from the cells and transported to organs
the body, which make up the peripheral nervous system. The nervous such as the lungs and kidneys for elimination from the body. The
system controls both voluntary and involuntary responses of the human cardiovascular system also equalizes body temperature and transports
organism and also detects and processes sensory information. endocrine hormones to cells in the body where they are needed.

URINARY SYSTEM
The urinary system includes the pair of kidneys, which filter excess
water and a waste product called urea from the blood and form urine.
Two tubes called ureters carry the urine from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder, which stores the urine until it is excreted from the body
through another tube named the urethra. The kidneys also produce an
enzyme called renin and a variety of hormones. These substances help
regulate blood pressure, the production of red blood cells, and the
balance of calcium and phosphorus in the body.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Organs and other structures of the respiratory system include the nasal
passages, lungs, and a long tube called the trachea, which carries air
between the nasal passages and lungs. The main function of the
respiratory system is to deliver oxygen to the blood and remove carbon
dioxide from the body. Gases are exchanged between the lungs and
blood across the walls of capillaries lining tiny air sacs (alveoli) in the
lungs.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The lymphatic system is sometimes considered to be part of the
immune system. It consists of a network of lymph vessels and ducts
that collect excess fluid (called lymph) from extracellular spaces in
tissues and transport the fluid to the bloodstream. The lymphatic
system also includes many small collections of tissue, called lymph
nodes, and an organ called the spleen, both of which remove pathogens
and cellular debris from the lymph or blood. In addition, the thymus
gland in the lymphatic system produces some types of white blood
cells (lymphocytes) that fight infections.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive system consists of several main organs — including the
mouth, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines — that form
a long tube called the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Food moves through
this tract where it is digested, its nutrients absorbed, and its waste
Figure 10.4.3: Organ systems: Integumentary, Skeletal, Muscular,
products excreted. The digestive system also includes accessory organs
Nervous, Endocrine, and Cardiovascular
(such as the pancreas and liver) that produce enzymes and other
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM substances needed for digestion but through which food does not
actually pass.
The endocrine system is made up of glands that secrete hormones into
the blood, which carries the hormones throughout the body. Endocrine MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
hormones are chemical messengers that control many body functions, The reproductive system is the only body system that differs
including metabolism, growth, and sexual development. The master substantially between individuals. There is a range of Biological sex,
gland of the endocrine system is the pituitary gland, which produces but most books divide them into male and female. We will discuss the
hormones that control other endocrine glands. Some of the other Biology of sex in detail in the reproductive and development chapters.
endocrine glands include the pancreas, thyroid gland, and adrenal
glands.

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 the rest of his life so his immune system will not reject the organ.
The transplant team said that their success with this transplant
“holds promise for patients with devastating genitourinary injuries
and disease.” They also hope their experiences will be helpful for
gender reassignment surgery.

REVIEW
1. What is the main tissue in the heart, and what is its role?
2. What non-muscle tissues are found in the heart? What are their
functions?
3. Identify two vital organs in the human body. Identify their locations
and functions.
4. List three human organ systems. For each organ system, identify
some of its organs and functions.
5. Compare and contrast the male and female reproductive systems.
6. For each of the following pairs of organ systems, describe one way
in which they work together and/or overlap.
A. Skeletal system and muscular system
B. Muscular system and digestive system
C. Endocrine system and reproductive system
D. Cardiovascular system and urinary system
7. What is the largest organ of the human body?
8. What are the three organ systems involved in regulating human
body temperature?
9. Teeth are part of which system?
A. Integumentary
B. Skeletal
C. Nervous
D. A and B
10. Hair is part of which organ system?
11. True or False. Organs only exist in animals.
12. True or False. The respiratory system helps to remove wastes from
the body.
Figure 10.4.4: Organ Systems: Lymphatic, Respiratory, Digestive,
Urinary, male and female reproductive EXPLORE MORE
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ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Twemoji by Twitter, licensed CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS 2. Internal organs by Mikael Häggström released into the public
Organ transplantation has been performed by surgeons for more domain via Wikimedia Commons
than six decades, and you’ve no doubt heard of people receiving 3. Organ Systems by Lindsay M. Biga, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell,
heart, lung, and kidney transplants. However, you may have never Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern,
heard of a penis transplant. The first U.S. penis transplant was Katie Morrison-Graham, Devon Quick & Jon Runyeon CC BY-SA
performed in May of 2016 at Massachusetts General Hospital in 4.0 via Open Oregon Education.
Boston. The 15-hour procedure involved a team of more than 50 4. Organ Systems by Lindsay M. Biga, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell,
physicians, surgeons, and nurses. The patient was a 64-year-old Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern,
man who had lost his penis to cancer in 2012. The surgical Katie Morrison-Graham, Devon Quick & Jon Runyeon CC BY-SA
milestone involved grafting microscopic blood vessels and nerves 4.0 via Open Oregon Education.
of the donor organ to those of the recipient. As with most transplant 5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
patients, this patient will have to take immunosuppressing drugs for 3.0

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10.5: HUMAN BODY CAVITIES
CONTAIN THE BRAIN considerable changes in the size and shape of the organs within it as
The brain is a delicate organ that regulates the physiology of the they perform their functions. For example, organs such as the lungs,
whole body. Figure 10.5.1 shows the brain with its superficial stomach, or uterus can expand or contract without distorting other
structures. Brain coverings and the skull provide protection to the tissues or disrupting the activities of nearby organs.
brain. The space where the brain is located in the skull is called the
cranial cavity.

Figure 10.5.1: Human Brain lateral view

WHAT ARE BODY CAVITIES?

The human body, like that of many other multicellular organisms, is
divided into a number of body cavities. A body cavity is a fluid-filled
space inside the body that holds and protects internal organs. Human
body cavities are separated by membranes and other structures. The
two largest human body cavities are the ventral cavity and the dorsal
cavity. These two body cavities are subdivided into smaller body
cavities. Both the dorsal and ventral cavities and their subdivisions are
shown in Figure 10.5.2.

Figure 10.5.3 : Some of the major organs such as the spleen, stomach,
pancreas, gallbladder, liver, lungs, and heart inside the ventral cavity of
the human body
The ventral cavity is subdivided into the thoracic and abdominopelvic
cavities.
The thoracic cavity fills the chest and is subdivided into two
pleural cavities and the pericardial cavity. The pleural cavities hold
the lungs, and the pericardial cavity holds the heart.
The abdominopelvic cavity fills the lower half of the trunk and is
subdivided into the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity. The
abdominal cavity holds digestive organs and the kidneys, and the
pelvic cavity holds reproductive organs and organs of excretion.

DORSAL CAVITY
The dorsal cavity is at the posterior, or back, of the body, including
both the head and the back of the trunk. The dorsal cavity is subdivided
into the cranial and spinal cavities.
Figure 10.5.2: The ventral cavity includes the thoracic and The cranial cavity fills most of the upper part of the skull and
abdominopelvic cavities and their subdivisions. The contains the brain.
abdominopelvic cavity is further divided into abdominal and pelvic The spinal cavity is a very long, narrow cavity inside the vertebral
cavities. The dorsal cavity includes the cranial and spinal cavities. column. It runs the length of the trunk and contains the spinal cord.
The brain and spinal cord are protected by the bones of the skull and
VENTRAL CAVITY the vertebrae of the spine. They are further protected by the meninges,
The ventral cavity is at the anterior, or front, of the trunk. Organs a three-layer membrane that encloses the brain and spinal cord. A thin
contained within this body cavity include the lungs, heart, stomach, layer of cerebrospinal fluid is maintained between two of the
intestines, and reproductive organs. You can see some of the organs in meningeal layers. This clear fluid is produced by the brain, and it
the ventral cavity in Figure 10.5.3. The ventral cavity allows for provides extra protection and cushioning for the brain and spinal cord.

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 FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY 3. Identify the subdivisions of the ventral cavity and the organs each
The meninges membranes that protect the brain and spinal cord contains.
inside their cavities may become inflamed, generally due to a 4. Describe the subdivisions of the dorsal cavity and its contents.
bacterial or viral infection. This condition is called meningitis. 5. Identify and describe all the tissues that protect the brain and spinal
Meningitis can lead to serious long-term consequences such as cord.
deafness, epilepsy, or cognitive deficits, especially if not treated 6. What do you think might happen if fluid were to build up
quickly. Meningitis can also rapidly become life-threatening, so it is excessively in one of the body cavities?
classified as a medical emergency. 7. Explain why a woman’s body can accommodate a full-term fetus
Learning the symptoms of meningitis may help you or a loved one during pregnancy, without damage to her internal organs.
get prompt medical attention if you ever develop the disease. 8. Which body cavity does the needle enter in a lumbar puncture?
Common symptoms include fever, headache, and neck stiffness. 9. What are the names given to the three body cavity divisions where
Other symptoms may include confusion or altered consciousness, the heart is located?
vomiting, and an inability to tolerate light or loud noises. Young 10. What are the names given to the three body cavity divisions where
children often exhibit less specific symptoms, such as irritability, the kidneys are located?
drowsiness, or poor feeding. 11. True or False. The stomach is located in the dorsal cavity.
12. True or False. A body cavity must open to the outside world.
Meningitis is diagnosed with a lumbar puncture (commonly known
13. True or False. The vertebral column surrounds the spinal cavity.
as a "spinal tap"), in which a needle is inserted into the spinal canal
14. The _________ cavity is directly below the thoracic cavity.
to collect a sample of cerebrospinal fluid. The fluid is analyzed for
15. What is the name of the fluid that protects the brain and spinal
the presence of pathogens in a medical lab. If meningitis is
cord?
diagnosed, treatment consists of antibiotics and sometimes antiviral
drugs. Corticosteroids may also be administered to reduce A. meningeal
inflammation and the risk of complications such as brain damage. B. cerebrospinal
Supportive measures such as IV fluids may also be provided. C. lumbar
D. cranial
Some types of meningitis can be prevented with a vaccine. Ask
your health care professional whether you have had the vaccine or
EXPLORE MORE
should get it. Giving antibiotics to people who have had significant https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16778#Explore_More
exposure to certain types of meningitis may reduce their risk of
developing the disease. If someone you know is diagnosed with ATTRIBUTIONS
meningitis, see your doctor for advice if you are concerned about 1. Brain anatomy released into the public domain via Wikimedia
contracting the disease. Commons
2. Scheme body cavities by NCI (original) / Mysid (SVG), released
REVIEW into the public domain via Wikimedia Commons
1. What is a body cavity? 3. Abdominal Organs Anatomy by BruceBlaus, licensed CC BY-SA
2. Compare and contrast ventral and dorsal body cavities. 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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10.6: INTERACTION OF ORGAN SYSTEMS
TEAMWORK gland secretes thyroid stimulating hormone, the hormone travels
Every player on a softball team has a special job to perform. Each through the circulation to the thyroid gland, which is stimulated to
of the orange team’s players in Figure 10.6.1 has his part of the secrete thyroid hormone. Thyroid hormone then travels to cells
infield or outfield covered if the ball comes his way. Other players throughout the body, where it increases their metabolism.
on the orange team cover other parts of the field or pitch or catch
the ball. Playing softball clearly requires teamwork. The human
body is like a softball team in that regard. All the organ systems of
the human body must work together as a team to keep the body
alive and well. Teamwork within the body begins with
communication.

Figure 10.6.1 : Softball

COMMUNICATION AMONG ORGAN SYSTEMS

Communication among organ systems is vital if they are to work
together as a team. They must be able to respond to each other and
change their responses as needed to keep the body in balance.
Communication among organ systems is controlled mainly by the
autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system.
The autonomic nervous system is the part of the nervous system that
controls involuntary functions. For example, the autonomic nervous
system controls heart rate, blood flow, and digestion. You don’t have to
tell your heart to beat faster or to consciously squeeze muscles to push
food through the digestive system. In fact, you don’t have to even think
about these functions at all. The autonomic nervous system
orchestrates all the signals needed to control them. It sends messages
between parts of the nervous system and between the nervous system
and other organ systems via chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters.

Figure 10.6.3 : The image shows a concept map of how the fight-or-
flight response occurs. A treat (an attack, harmful event, or threat to
Figure 10.6.2 : The figure illustrates the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, survive) leads to the brain processing the signals - beginning in the
brain stem, spinal cord, cerebellum, pineal gland, and cerebrum. amygdala, and then the hypothalamus. ACTH (adrenocorticotropic
hormone) is released by the pituitary gland. This causes cortisol and
The endocrine system is the system of glands that secrete hormones adrenaline to be released. The physical effects include heart rate
directly into the bloodstream. Once in the blood, endocrine hormones increase, bladder relaxation, tunnel vision, shaking, dilated pupils,
circulate to cells everywhere in the body. The endocrine system is flushed face, dry mouth, slowed digestion, and hearing loss.
under the control of the hypothalamus, a part of the brain. The
hypothalamus secretes hormones that travel directly to cells of the EXAMPLES OF ORGAN SYSTEM
pituitary gland, which is located beneath it. The pituitary gland is the INTERACTIONS
master gland of the endocrine system. Most of its hormones either turn An increase in cellular metabolism requires more cellular respiration.
on or turn off other endocrine glands. For example, if the pituitary Cellular respiration is a good example of organ system interactions

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because it is a basic life process that occurs in all living cells. the process. An example is type 1 diabetes. This disorder occurs
when the pancreas does not secrete the endocrine hormone insulin.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION Insulin normally is secreted in response to an increasing level of
Cellular respiration is the intracellular process that breaks down glucose in the blood, and it brings the level of glucose back to
glucose with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and energy in the form normal by stimulating body cells to take up insulin from the blood.
of ATP molecules. It is the process by which cells obtain usable energy
Learn more about type 1 diabetes. Use several reliable Internet
to power other cellular processes. Which organ systems are involved in
sources to answer the following questions:
cellular respiration? The glucose needed for cellular respiration comes
from the digestive system via the cardiovascular system. The oxygen 1. What causes the endocrine system to fail to produce insulin in
needed for cellular respiration comes from the respiratory system also type 1 diabetes?
via the cardiovascular system. The carbon dioxide produced in cellular 2. Which organ systems are affected by high blood glucose levels
respiration leaves the body by the opposite route. In short, cellular if type 1 diabetes is not controlled? What are some of the
respiration requires at a minimum the digestive, cardiovascular, and specific effects?
respiratory systems. 3. How can blood glucose levels be controlled in patients with
type 1 diabetes?
FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT RESPONSE
The well-known fight-or-flight response is a good example of how the REVIEW
nervous and endocrine systems control other organ system responses. 1. What is the autonomic nervous system?
The fight-or-flight response begins when the nervous system perceives 2. How do the autonomic nervous system and endocrine system
sudden danger, as shown in Figure 10.6.2. The brain sends a message communicate with other organ systems so the systems can interact?
to the endocrine system (via the pituitary gland) for the adrenal glands 3. Explain how the brain communicates with the endocrine system.
to secrete their hormones cortisol and adrenaline. These hormones 4. What is the role of the pituitary gland in the endocrine system?
flood the circulation and affect other organ systems throughout the 5. Identify organ systems that play a role in cellular respiration.
body, including the cardiovascular, urinary, sensory, and digestive 6. How does the hormone adrenaline prepare the body to fight or flee?
systems. Specific responses include increased heart rate, bladder What specific physiological changes does it bring about?
relaxation, tunnel vision, and a shunting of blood away from the 7. Explain the role of the muscular system in the digestion of food.
digestive system and toward the muscles, brain, and other vital organs 8. Describe how three different organ systems are involved when a
needed to fight or flee. player makes a particular play in softball, such as catching a fly
DIGESTING FOOD ball.
9. True or False. The autonomic nervous system controls conscious
Digesting food requires teamwork between the digestive system and
movements.
several other organ systems, including the nervous, cardiovascular, and
10. True or False. Hormones travel throughout the body.
muscular systems. When you eat a meal, the organs of the digestive
11. True or False. The pituitary gland directly secretes thyroid
system need more blood to perform their digestive functions. Food
hormone.
entering the digestive systems causes nerve impulses to be sent to the
12. What are two types of molecules that the body uses to communicate
brain; in response, the brain sends messages to the cardiovascular
between organ systems?
system to increase heart rate and dilate blood vessels in the digestive
13. Explain why hormones can have such a wide variety of effects on
organs. Food passes through the organs of the digestive tract by
the body.
rhythmic contractions of smooth muscles in the walls of the organs, so
14. Heart rate can be affected by:
the muscular system is also needed for digestion. After food is
digested, nutrients from the food are absorbed into the blood of the A. Hormones
vessels lining the small intestine. Any remaining food waste is excreted B. Neurotransmitters
through the large intestine. C. The fight-or-flight response
D. All of the above
PLAYING SOFTBALL 15. Which gland secretes the hormone cortisol?
The men playing softball in Figure 10.6.1 are using multiple organ
systems in this voluntary activity. Their nervous systems are focused EXPLORE MORE
on observing and preparing to respond to the next play. Their other https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16779#Explore_More
systems are being controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Organ
systems they are using include the muscular, skeletal, respiratory, and ATTRIBUTIONS
cardiovascular systems. Can you explain how each of these organ 1. Marines play softball, public domain
systems is involved in playing softball? 2. Brain by National Cancer Institute, released into the public domain
via Wikimedia Commons
FEATURE: RELIABLE SOURCES
3. Fight or Flight Response by Jvnkfood (original), converted to PNG
Teamwork among organ systems allows the human organism to
and reduced to 8-bit by Pokéfan95, licensed CC BY 4.0 via
work like a finely tuned machine. Or at least it does until one of the
Wikimedia Commons
organ systems fails. When that happens, other organ systems
4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
interacting in the same overall process will also be affected. This is
3.0
especially likely if the system affected plays a controlling role in

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10.7: HOMEOSTASIS AND FEEDBACK
STEADY AS SHE GOES 4. The effector is an organ, gland, muscle, or other structure that acts
This device looks simple, but it controls a complex system that on the signal from the control center to move the variable back
keeps a home at a steady temperature. The device is an old- toward the set point.
fashioned thermostat. The dial shows the current temperature in the Each of these components is illustrated in Figure 10.7.2. The diagram
room and also allows the occupant to set the thermostat to the on the left is a general model showing how the components interact to
desired temperature. A thermostat is a commonly cited model of maintain homeostasis. The stimulus activates the sensor. The sensor
how living systems, including the human body, maintain a steady activates the control system that regulates the effector. The diagram on
state called homeostasis. the right shows the example of body temperature. From the diagrams,
you can see that maintaining homeostasis involves feedback, which is
data that feeds back to control a response. High body temperature may
stimulate the temperature regulatory center of the brain to activate the
sweat glands to bring the body temperature down. When body
temperature reaches normal range, it acts as negative feedback to stop
the process. Feedback may be negative or positive. All the feedback
mechanisms that maintain homeostasis use negative feedback.
Biological examples of positive feedback are much less common.

Figure 10.7.1 : Thermostat for a building

WHAT IS HOMEOSTASIS?
Homeostasis is the condition in which a system such as the human
body is maintained in a more-or-less steady state. It is the job of cells,
tissues, organs, and organ systems throughout the body to maintain
many different variables within narrow ranges that are compatible with
life. Keeping a stable internal environment requires
continuous monitoring of the internal environment and constantly
making adjustments to keep things in balance.

SETPOINT AND NORMAL RANGE Figure 10.7.2: Maintaining homeostasis through feedback requires a
For any given variable, such as body temperature or blood glucose stimulus, sensor, control center, and effector
level, there is a particular setpoint that is the physiological optimum
value. For example, the setpoint for human body temperature is about NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
37 ºC (98.6 ºF). As the body works to maintain homeostasis for In a negative feedback loop, feedback serves to reduce an excessive
temperature or any other internal variable, the value typically fluctuates response and keep a variable within the normal range. Examples of
around the set point. Such fluctuations are normal as long as they do processes controlled by negative feedback include body temperature
not become too extreme. The spread of values within which such regulation and control of blood glucose.
fluctuations are considered insignificant is called the normal range. In
the case of body temperature, for example, the normal range for an BODY TEMPERATURE
adult is about 36.5 to 37.5 ºC (97.7 to 99.5 ºF). Body temperature regulation involves negative feedback whether it
lowers the temperature or raises it (Figure 10.7.3).
MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis is normally maintained in the human body by an COOLING DOWN
extremely complex balancing act. Regardless of the variable being kept The human body’s temperature regulatory center is the hypothalamus
within its normal range, maintaining homeostasis requires at least four in the brain. When the hypothalamus receives data from sensors in the
interacting components: stimulus, sensor, control center, and effector. skin and brain that body temperature is higher than the setpoint, it sets
1. The stimulus is provided by the variable that is being regulated. into motion the following responses:
Generally, the stimulus indicates that the value of the variable has Blood vessels in the skin dilate (vasodilation) to allow more blood
moved away from the set point or has left the normal range. from the warm body core to flow close to the surface of the body,
2. The sensor monitors the values of the variable and sends data on it so heat can be radiated into the environment.
to the control center. As blood flow to the skin increases, sweat glands in the skin are
3. The control center matches the data with normal values. If the activated to increase their output of sweat (diaphoresis). When the
value is not at the set point or is outside the normal range, the sweat evaporates from the skin surface into the surrounding air, it
control center sends a signal to the effector. takes the heat with it.

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 Breathing becomes deeper, and the person may breathe through the BLOOD CLOTTING
mouth instead of the nasal passages. This increases heat loss from When a wound causes bleeding, the body responds with a positive
the lungs. feedback loop to clot the blood and stop blood loss. Substances
released by the injured blood vessel wall begin the process of blood
clotting. Platelets in the blood start to cling to the injured site and
release chemicals that attract additional platelets. As the platelets
continue to amass, more of the chemicals are released and more
platelets are attracted to the site of the clot. The positive feedback
accelerates the process of clotting until the clot is large enough to stop
the bleeding.

Figure 10.7.3 : The hypothalamus plays a major role in temperature

regulation

HEATING UP
When the brain’s temperature regulatory center receives data that body
temperature is lower than the setpoint, it sets into motion the following
responses:
Blood vessels in the skin contract (vasoconstriction) to prevent
blood from flowing close to the surface of the body. This reduces
heat loss from the surface.
As the temperature falls lower, random signals to skeletal muscles
are triggered, causing them to contract. This causes shivering, Figure 10.7.4 : Normal childbirth is driven by a positive feedback loop.
which generates a small amount of heat. Positive feedback causes an increasing deviation from the normal state
to a fixed endpoint rather than a return to a normal set point as in
The thyroid gland may be stimulated by the brain (via the pituitary homeostasis
gland) to secrete more thyroid hormones. This hormone increases
metabolic activity and heat production in cells throughout the body. CHILDBIRTH
The adrenal glands may also be stimulated to secrete the hormone Figure 10.7.4 shows the positive feedback loop that controls childbirth.
adrenaline. This hormone causes the breakdown of glycogen (the The process normally begins when the head of the infant pushes
carbohydrate used for energy storage in animals) to glucose, which against the cervix. This stimulates nerve impulses, which travel from
can be used as an energy source. This catabolic chemical process is the cervix to the hypothalamus in the brain. In response, the
exothermic, or heat producing. hypothalamus sends the hormone oxytocin to the pituitary gland,
which secretes it into the bloodstream so it can be carried to the uterus.
BLOOD GLUCOSE
Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions, which push the baby harder
In the control of the blood glucose level, certain endocrine cells in the against the cervix. In response, the cervix starts to dilate in preparation
pancreas called alpha and beta cells, detect the level of glucose in the for the passage of the baby. This cycle of positive feedback continues,
blood. Then they respond appropriately to keep the level of blood with increasing levels of oxytocin, stronger uterine contractions, and
glucose within the normal range. wider dilation of the cervix until the baby is pushed through the birth
If the blood glucose level rises above the normal range, pancreatic canal and out of the body. At that point, the cervix is no longer
beta cells release the hormone insulin into the bloodstream. Insulin stimulated to send nerve impulses to the brain, and the entire process
signals cells to take up the excess glucose from the blood until the stops.
level of blood glucose decreases to the normal range.
If the blood glucose level falls below the normal range, pancreatic WHEN HOMEOSTASIS FAILS
alpha cells release the hormone glucagon into the bloodstream. Homeostatic mechanisms work continuously to maintain stable
Glucagon signals cells to break down stored glycogen to glucose conditions in the human body. Sometimes, however, the mechanisms
and release the glucose into the blood until the level of blood fail. When they do, homeostatic imbalance may result, in which cells
glucose increases to the normal range. may not get everything they need or toxic wastes may accumulate in
the body. If homeostasis is not restored, the imbalance may lead to
POSITIVE FEEDBACK disease or even death. Diabetes is an example of a disease caused by
In a positive feedback loop, feedback serves to intensify a response homeostatic imbalance. In the case of diabetes, blood glucose levels
until an endpoint is reached. Examples of processes controlled by are no longer regulated and may be dangerously high. Medical
positive feedback in the human body include blood clotting and intervention can help restore homeostasis and possibly prevent
childbirth. permanent damage to the organism.

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Normal aging may bring about a reduction in the efficiency of the feel stressed out, do breathing exercises or take a brisk walk or
body’s control systems. This makes the body more susceptible to jog. Also, try to replace stressful thoughts with more calming
disease. For example, older people may have a harder time regulating ones.
their body temperature. This is one reason they are more likely than Establish a support system. Enlist the help and support of loved
younger people to develop serious heat-induced illnesses such as heat ones as well as medical professionals such as a nutritionist and
stroke. diabetes educator. Having a support system will help ensure that
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY you are on the path to wellness and that you can stick to your
Diabetes is diagnosed in people who have abnormally high levels plan.
of blood glucose after fasting for at least 12 hours. A fasting level
of blood glucose below 100 is normal. A level between 100 and REVIEW
125 places you in the pre-diabetes category, and a level higher than 1. What is homeostasis?
125 results in a diagnosis of diabetes. 2. Define the setpoint and normal range for physiological measures.
Of the two types of diabetes, type 2 diabetes is the most common, 3. Identify and define the four interacting components that maintain
accounting for about 90 percent of all cases of diabetes in the homeostasis in feedback loops.
United States. Type 2 diabetes typically starts after the age of 40. 4. Compare and contrast negative and positive feedback loops.
However, because of the dramatic increase in recent decades in 5. Explain how negative feedback controls body temperature.
obesity in younger people, the age at which type 2 diabetes is 6. Give two examples of physiological processes that are controlled
diagnosed has fallen. Even children are now being diagnosed with by positive feedback loops.
type 2 diabetes. Today, about 30 million Americans have type 2 7. A negative feedback loop:
diabetes, and another 90 million have pre-diabetes. A. brings a variable’s level back to a normal range
You are likely to have your blood glucose level tested during a B. can lower, but not raise, body temperature
routine medical exam. If your blood glucose level indicates that you C. is the type of feedback involved in blood clotting
have diabetes, it may come as a shock to you because you may not D. A and B
have any symptoms of the disease. You are not alone, because as 8. During breastfeeding, the stimulus of the baby sucking on the
many as one in four diabetics do not know they have the disease. nipple increases the amount of milk produced by the mother. The
Once the diagnosis of diabetes sinks in, you may be devastated by more sucking, the more milk is usually produced.
the news. Diabetes can lead to heart attacks, strokes, blindness, A. Is this an example of negative or positive feedback? Explain
kidney failure, and loss of toes or feet. The risk of death in adults your answer.
with diabetes is 50 percent greater than it is in adults without B. What do you think might be the evolutionary benefit of the milk
diabetes, and diabetes is the seventh leading cause of death of production regulation mechanism described in part a?
adults. In addition, controlling diabetes usually requires frequent
9. Explain why homeostasis is regulated by negative feedback loops,
blood glucose testing, watching what and when you eat, and taking
rather than positive feedback loops.
medications or even insulin injections. All of this may seem
10. A setpoint is usually:
overwhelming.
A. the top of a normal range
The good news is that changing your lifestyle may stop the
B. the bottom of a normal range
progression of type 2 diabetes or even reverse it. By adopting
C. in the middle of a normal range
healthier habits, you may be able to keep your blood glucose level
D. the point at which changes can no longer occur
within the normal range without medications or insulin. Here’s
11. The level of a sex hormone, testosterone (T), is controlled by
how:
negative feedback. Another hormone, gonadotropin-releasing
Lose weight. Any weight loss is beneficial. Losing as little as hormone (GnRH), is released by the hypothalamus of the brain,
seven percent of your weight may be all that is needed to stop which triggers the pituitary gland to release luteinizing hormone
diabetes in its tracks. It is especially important to eliminate (LH). LH stimulates the gonads to produce T. When there is too
excess weight around your waist. much T in the bloodstream, it feeds back on the hypothalamus,
Exercise regularly. You should try to exercise five days a week causing it to produce less GnRH. While this does not describe all
for at least 30 minutes. This will not only lower your blood the feedback loops involved in regulating T, answer the following
sugar and help your insulin work better; it will also lower your questions about this particular feedback loop.
blood pressure and improve your heart health. Another bonus of
A. What is the stimulus in this system? Explain your answer.
exercise is that it will help you lose weight by increasing your
B. What is the control center in this system? Explain your answer.
basal metabolic rate.
C. What is the pituitary considered in this system: stimulus, sensor,
Adopt a healthy diet. Decrease your consumption of refined
control center, or effector? Explain your answer.
carbohydrates such as sweets and sugary drinks. Increase your
intake of fiber-rich foods such as fruits, vegetables, and whole
EXPLORE MORE
grains. About a quarter of each meal should consist of high- https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17075#Explore_More
protein foods, such as fish, chicken, dairy products, legumes, or
nuts. ATTRIBUTIONS
Control stress. Stress can increase your blood glucose and also 1. Honeywell thermostat by Vincent de Groot, licensed CC BY 4.0 via
raise your blood pressure and risk of heart disease. When you Wikimedia Commons

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2. Negative feedback loop by OpenStax, licensed CC BY 4.0 via 4. Pregnancy-Positive Feedback by OpenStax, licensed CC BY 4.0 via
Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons
3. Temperature Regulation dedicated CC0 via Wikimedia Commons 5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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10.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: PRESSURE AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
such as bacteria to determine whether an infection was the cause of
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: UNDER their neurological symptoms. When no evidence of infection was
PRESSURE found, Doctors used an MRI to observe the structures of Dayo's brain.
As you learned in this chapter, the human body consists of many This is when Doctors discovered Dayo's enlarged ventricles, which are
complex systems that normally work together efficiently like a well- a hallmark of hydrocephalus.
oiled machine to carry out life’s functions. For example, Figure 10.8.1 To treat Dayo’s hydrocephalus, a surgeon implanted a device called a
illustrates how the brain and spinal cord are protected by layers of shunt in Dayo's brain to remove the excess fluid (Figure 10.8.2). One
membrane called meninges and fluid that flows between the meninges side of the shunt consists of a small tube, called a catheter, which was
and in spaces called ventricles inside the brain. This fluid is called inserted into Dayo’s ventricles. Excess CSF is then drained through a
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and as you have learned, one of its one-way valve to the other end of the shunt, which was threaded under
important functions is to cushion and protect the brain and spinal cord, their skin to their abdominal cavity, where the CSF is released and can
which make up most of the central nervous system (CNS). CSF be reabsorbed by the bloodstream.
additionally circulates nutrients and removes waste products from the
CNS. CSF is produced continually in the ventricles, circulates
throughout the CNS, and then is reabsorbed by the bloodstream. If too
much CSF is produced, its flow blocked, or if not enough is
reabsorbed, the system becomes out of balance, and CSF can build up
in the ventricles. This causes an enlargement of the ventricles called
hydrocephalus that can put pressure on the brain, resulting in the types
of neurological problems that former professional football player,
Dayo, described at the beginning of this chapter, is suffering from.

Figure 10.8.2 : Tube empties CSF into the abdominal cavity.

Implantation of a shunt is the most common way to treat
hydrocephalus, and for some people, it can allow them to recover
almost completely. However, there can be complications associated
with a brain shunt. The shunt can have mechanical problems or cause
an infection. Also, the rate of draining must be carefully monitored and
adjusted to balance the rate of removal of CSF with the rate of its
Figure 10.8.1 : The brain and nearby structures (including the skull, production. If it is drained too fast, it is called overdraining, and if it is
meninges, ventricles, and spinal cord). An enlarged inset shows the drained too slowly, it is called underdraining. In the case of
skull, fluid, and brain. underdraining, the pressure on the brain and associated neurological
Recall that Dayo’s symptoms included loss of bladder control, memory symptoms will persist. In the case of overdraining, the ventricles can
loss, and difficulty walking. The cause of their symptoms was not collapse, which can cause serious problems such as the tearing of blood
immediately clear, although their doctors suspected that it related to the vessels and hemorrhaging. To avoid these problems, some shunts have
nervous system since the nervous system acts as the control center of an adjustable pressure valve where the rate of draining can be adjusted
the body, controlling and regulating many other organ systems. Dayo’s by placing a special magnet over the scalp. You can see how the proper
memory loss directly implicated the involvement of the brain, since balance between CSF production and removal is so critical – both in
that is the site of thoughts and memory. The urinary system is also the causes of hydrocephalus and in its treatment.
controlled in part by the nervous system, and the inability to hold urine In what other ways does your body regulate balance, or maintain a state
appropriately can be a sign of a neurological issue. Dayo’s trouble of homeostasis? In this chapter, you learned about the feedback loops
walking involved the muscular system, which works alongside the that keep body temperature and blood glucose within normal ranges.
skeletal system to enable movement of the limbs. In turn, the Other important examples of homeostasis in the human body are the
contraction of muscles is regulated by the nervous system. You can see regulation of the pH in the blood and the balance of water in the body.
why a problem in the nervous system can cause a variety of different You will learn more about homeostasis in different body systems in the
symptoms by affecting multiple organ systems in the human body. coming chapters.
To try to find the exact cause of Dayo’s symptoms, their doctors Thanks to Dayo’s shunt, their symptoms are starting to improve, but
performed a lumbar puncture, or spinal tap, which is the removal of they have not fully recovered. Time may tell whether the removal of
some CSF through a needle inserted into the lower part of the spinal the excess CSF from their ventricles will eventually allow them to
canal. Doctors then analyzed Dayo’s CSF for the presence of pathogens recover normal functioning or whether permanent damage to

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their nervous system has already been done. The flow of CSF might If any of these five organs stops functioning, the death of the
seem simple but when it gets out of balance, it can easily wreak havoc organism is imminent without medical intervention.
on multiple organ systems because of the intricate interconnectedness An organ system is a group of organs that work together to carry
of the systems within the human “machine." out a complex overall function. For example, the skeletal system
provides structure to the body and protects internal organs.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
There are 11 major organ systems in the human organism. They
This chapter provided an overview of the organization and functioning are the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine,
of the human body. You learned that: cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and
The human body consists of multiple parts that function together to reproductive systems. Only the reproductive system varies
maintain life. The biology of the human body incorporates the significantly between males and females.
body’s structure, or anatomy, and the body’s functioning, or The human body is divided into a number of body cavities. A body
physiology. cavity is a fluid-filled space in the body that holds and protects
The organization of the human body is a hierarchy of increasing internal organs. The two largest human body cavities are the ventral
size and complexity, starting at the level of atoms and molecules cavity and the dorsal cavity.
and ending at the level of the entire organism.
The ventral cavity is at the anterior, or front, of the trunk. It is
Cells are the level of organization above atoms and molecules, and
subdivided into the thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity.
they are the basic units of structure and function of the human body.
The dorsal cavity is at the posterior, or back, of the body, and
Each cell carries out basic life functions as well as other specific
includes the head and the back of the trunk. It is subdivided into
roles. Cells of the human body show a lot of variation.
the cranial cavity and spinal cavity.
Variations in cell function are generally reflected in variations in
Organ systems of the human body must work together to keep the
cell structure.
body alive and functioning normally. This requires communication
Some cells are unattached to other cells and can move freely;
among organ systems. This is controlled by the autonomic nervous
others are attached to each other and cannot move freely. Some
system and endocrine system. The autonomic nervous controls
cells can divide readily and form new cells; others can divide
involuntary body functions, such as heart rate and digestion. The
only under exceptional circumstances. Many cells are
endocrine system secretes hormones into the blood that travel to
specialized to produce and secrete particular substances.
body cells and influence their activities.
All the different cell types within an individual have the same
genes. Cells can vary because different genes are expressed Cellular respiration is a good example of organ system
depending on the cell type. interactions because it is a basic life process that occurs in all
Many common types of human cells consist of several subtypes living cells. It is the intracellular process that breaks down
of cells, each of which has a special structure and function. For glucose with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and energy.
example, subtypes of bone cells include osteocytes, osteoblasts, Cellular respiration requires the interaction of the digestive,
osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts. cardiovascular, and respiratory systems.
The fight-or-flight response is a good example of how the
A tissue is a group of connected cells that have a similar function.
nervous and endocrine systems control other organ system
There are four basic types of human tissues that make up all the
responses. It is triggered by a message from the brain to the
organs of the human body: epithelial, muscle, nervous, and
endocrine system and prepares the body for flight or a fight.
connective tissues.
Many organ systems are stimulated to respond, including the
Connective tissues, such as bone and blood, are made up of cells cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive systems.
that are separated by non-living material, called the extracellular Digesting food requires teamwork between the digestive system
matrix. and several other organ systems, including the nervous,
Epithelial tissues, such as skin and mucous membranes, protect cardiovascular, and muscular systems.
the body and its internal organs and secrete or absorb Playing softball or doing other voluntary physical activities may
substances. involve the interaction of nervous, muscular, skeletal,
Muscle tissues are made up of cells that have the unique ability respiratory, and cardiovascular systems.
to contract. They include skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle
Homeostasis is the condition in which a system such as the human
tissues.
body is maintained in a more-or-less steady state. It is the job of
Nervous tissues are made up of neurons, which transmit
cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems throughout the body to
electrical messages, and glial cells of various types, which play
maintain homeostasis.
supporting roles. Types of nervous tissues include gray matter,
white matter, nerves, and ganglia. For any given variable, such as body temperature, there is a
particular set point that is the physiological optimum value. The
An organ is a structure that consists of two or more types of tissues
spread of values around the setpoint that is considered
that work together to do the same job. Examples include the brain
insignificant is called the normal range.
and heart.
Homeostasis is generally maintained by a negative feedback
Many organs are composed of a major tissue that performs the loop that includes a stimulus, sensor, control center, and
organ’s main function, as well as other tissues that play effector. Negative feedback serves to reduce an excessive
supporting roles. response and to keep a variable within the normal range.
The human body contains five organs that are considered vital
for survival. They are the heart, brain, kidneys, liver, and lungs.

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 Negative feedback loops control body temperature and blood A. Digestive
glucose level. B. Lymphatic
Sometimes homeostatic mechanisms fail, resulting in C. Integumentary
homeostatic imbalance. Diabetes is an example of a disease D. Urinary
caused by homeostatic imbalance. Aging can bring about a 12. Describe one way in which the integumentary and cardiovascular
reduction in the efficiency of the body’s control system, making systems work together to regulate homeostasis in the human body.
the elderly more susceptible to disease. 13. Name the two largest body cavities in humans and describe their
Positive feedback loops are not common in biological systems. general locations.
Positive feedback serves to intensify a response until an endpoint is 14. What are the names given to the three body cavity divisions where
reached. Positive feedback loops control blood clotting and the reproductive organs are located?
childbirth. 15. True or False. There are two pleural cavities.
The severe and broad impact of hydrocephalus on the body’s systems 16. True or False. Body cavities are filled with air.
highlights the importance of the nervous system and its role as the 17. The pituitary gland is in which organ system? Describe how the
master control system of the body. In the next chapter, you will learn pituitary gland increases metabolism.
much more about the structures and functioning of this fascinating and 18. When the level of thyroid hormone in the body gets too high, it acts
important system. on other cells to reduce the production of more thyroid hormone.
What type of feedback loop does this represent?
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW 19. Hypothetical organ A is the control center in a feedback loop that
helps maintain homeostasis. It secretes molecule A1 which reaches
1. Compare and contrast tissues and organs.
organ B, causing organ B to secrete molecule B1. B1 negatively
2. Osteocyte cells are part of which type of tissue and organ system?
feeds back onto organ A, reducing the production of A1 when the
3. Adipose tissue, or body fat, is the same general type of tissue as:
level of B1 gets too high.
A. mucous membranes
A. What is the stimulus in this feedback loop?
B. gray matter
B. If the level of B1 falls significantly below the setpoint, what do
C. skin
you think happens to the production of A1? Why?
D. blood
C. What is the effector in this feedback loop?
4. Which type of tissue lines the inner and outer surfaces of the body?
D. If organs A and B are part of the endocrine system, what type of
5. True or False. The extracellular matrix that surrounds cells is
molecules do you think A1 and B1 are likely to be?
always solid.
20. What are the two main systems that allow various organ systems to
6. True or False. Skin is an organ.
communicate with each other?
7. What is a vital organ? What happens if a vital organ stops working?
21. The hypothalamus is part of the:
8. Name three organ systems that transport or remove wastes from the
body. A. spinal cord
9. Name two types of tissue in the digestive system. B. thoracic cavity
10. For each of the following body functions, choose the organ system C. kidneys
that is most associated with the function. Organ systems: D. brain
integumentary; skeletal; muscular; nervous; endocrine; 22. What are two functions of the hypothalamus that you learned about
cardiovascular; lymphatic; respiratory; digestive; urinary; in this chapter?
reproductive
A. Processes sensory information ATTRIBUTIONS
B. Secretes hormones 1. Brain and Nearby Structures by NIH Image Gallery, public domain
C. Releases carbon dioxide from the body to the outside world via Flickr
D. Produces gametes 2. Diagram showing a brain shunt by Cancer Research UK, CC BY
E. Controls water balance in the body 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
11. The spleen is part of which organ system?
3.0

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
11: NERVOUS SYSTEM
This chapter describes neurons and other cells of the nervous system and compares and contrasts
divisions of the nervous system, including central, peripheral, somatic, and autonomic divisions. The
chapter explains how nerve impulses occur and how we sense stimuli. It also describes disorders of
the nervous system and the effects of psychoactive drugs on the nervous system.

11.1: CASE STUDY: THE CONTROL CENTER OF YOUR BODY

Each of these brightly-colored sticky notes represents a piece of information that someone doesn't
want to forget. Although we are all forgetful sometimes, most people do not have trouble
remembering things that are important or routine to us, such as our friend's name or how to get to
class.

11.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is the human organ system that coordinates all of the body's voluntary and involuntary actions by transmitting
electrical signals to and from different parts of the body. Specifically, the nervous system extracts information from the internal and
external environments using sensory receptors. It then usually sends signals encoding this information to the brain, which processes
the information to determine an appropriate response.

11.3: NEURONS
Neurons, also called nerve cells, are electrically excitable cells that are the main functional units of the nervous system. Their function
is to transmit nerve impulses. They are the only type of human cells that can carry out this function.

11.4: NERVE IMPULSES

This amazing cloud-to-surface lightning occurred when a difference in electrical charge built up in a cloud relative to the ground.

11.5: CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

This very odd-looking drawing is called a homunculus that represents a cross-sectional wedge of the human brain.

11.6: PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Did you ever see two people play the same piano? How do they coordinate all the movements of their own fingers, let alone
synchronize them with those of their partner? The peripheral nervous system plays an important part in this challenge.

11.7: HUMAN SENSES

This figure appears at first glance to be just a pattern of colored leaves, but hidden within it is the three-dimensional shape of an ant.

11.8: PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS

Who knew that a cup of coffee could also be a work of art? A talented barista can make coffee look as good as it tastes. If you are a
coffee drinker, you probably know that coffee can also affect your mental state.

11.9: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: MEMORY AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

The nervous system coordinates all of the body's voluntary and involuntary activities. It interprets information from the outside world
through sensory systems and makes appropriate responses through the motor system, through communication between the PNS and
CNS. The brain directs the rest of the nervous system and controls everything from basic vital functions such as heart rate and
breathing to high-level functions such as problem-solving and abstract thought.

1 4/25/2021
11.1: CASE STUDY: THE CONTROL CENTER OF YOUR BODY
Based on the results of these tests, Rosa’s doctor came to the
CASE STUDY: FADING MEMORY conclusion that she most likely has mild Alzheimer’s disease (AD). AD
Each of these brightly colored sticky notes represents a piece of results from abnormal changes in the molecules and cells of the brain,
information that someone doesn’t want to forget. Although we are all characterized by clumps of proteins called amyloid plaques between
forgetful sometimes, most people do not have trouble remembering brain cells and tangled bundles of protein fibers called neurofibrillary
things that are important or routine to us, such as our friend’s name or tangles within certain brain cells. The affected brain cells stop
how to get to class. Our brain, the control center of the nervous system functioning properly, lose their connections to other brain cells, and
and the rest of the body, normally allows us to retain and recall eventually will die. The picture below shows part of a cross-section of
information. But if the brain becomes damaged, a person may need to a brain from a patient who had severe AD compared to a similar
rely excessively on external reminders — like this wall of sticky notes section of a healthy brain. You can see how severely shrunken the brain
— rather than being able to trust their own memory. That is if they are with AD is, due to the death of many brain cells.
able to remember to write things down in the first place.

Figure 11.1.2 : The healthy brain is much larger than the brain with
AD.
AD is a progressive disease, which means the damage and associated
symptoms get worse over time. Clinicians have categorized the
progression into three main stages — mild, moderate, and severe AD.
Typically, AD cannot be definitively diagnosed until after death when
the brain tissue can be directly examined for plaques and tangles.
However, based on Rosa’s symptoms and the results of her tests, her
Figure 11.1.1 : Stickies
doctor thinks she most likely has mild AD, when the brain changes and
One person having trouble with their memory is Rosa, who is 68 years resulting symptoms are not yet severe.
old. Rosa has been having difficulty remembering where she has set
Although there is currently no cure for AD, and Rosa will eventually
down objects in her house and forgot about a few doctor’s
get worse, her doctor says that medications and behavioral therapies
appointments and lunches she planned with friends. Her family began
may improve and prolong her functioning and quality of life over the
to notice that she would sometimes not recall recent conversations,
next few years. He prescribes a medication that improves
requiring them to repeat things to her. Rosa would also sometimes
communication between brain cells, which has been shown to help
struggle to find the right word in a conversation and would put objects
some people with AD.
in unusual places, such as the milk in a cabinet instead of the
refrigerator. While most people do things like this occasionally, it As you read this chapter, you will learn much more about how the
seemed to Rosa and her family that it was happening to her more often brain and the rest of the nervous system work, and the multitude of
recently. functions they control in the body. By the end of the chapter, you will
have enough knowledge about the nervous system to learn more about
She also had some other symptoms that were impacting her life, such
why AD causes the symptoms that it does, how Rosa’s medication
as having trouble paying her bills on time and managing her budget,
works, and some promising new approaches that may help physicians
which she had previously done well. Rosa ascribed these lapses in
diagnose and treat AD patients at earlier stages.
memory and mental functioning to the normal effects of aging, but her
family was concerned. They noticed that she was also more irritable
CHAPTER OVERVIEW: NERVOUS SYSTEM
than usual and would sometimes verbally lash out at them, which was
not like her. When she became disoriented on a walk around her In this chapter, you will learn about the human nervous system, which
neighborhood and a neighbor had to escort her home, her family includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Specifically, you will learn
convinced her to see a doctor. about:
The organization of the nervous system, including the central and
Besides a complete physical exam and lab tests, Rosa’s doctor
peripheral nervous systems and their organs and subdivisions.
interviewed Rosa and her family about her memory, ability to carry out
The cells of the nervous system — neurons and glia — their parts,
daily tasks, and mood changes. He also administered a variety of tests
and their functions.
to assess her memory and cognitive functioning, such as her ability to
How messages are sent by neurons through the nervous system and
solve problems and use numbers and language correctly. Finally, he
to and from the rest of the body.
ordered a scan of her brain to investigate whether a tumor or some
How these messages, or nerve impulses, are transmitted by
other observable cause was causing changes in the functioning of her
electrical changes within neurons, and through chemical molecules
brain.

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 to other cells. 1. Based on Rosa’s symptoms, which parts of her brain may have been
The structure and functions of different parts of the central nervous affected by Alzheimer’s disease?
system, which includes the brain and spinal cord, and some of the 2. How are messages sent between cells in the nervous system? What
things that can go wrong when they are damaged. molecules are involved in this process? What are the ways in which
The structure and functions of the peripheral nervous system, which drugs can alter this process?
includes the nerves that carry motor and sensory information to and 3. Why can’t Rosa’s brain just grow new cells to replace the ones that
from the body to control voluntary and involuntary activities. have died?
The human senses and how visual information, sounds, smells,
tastes, touch, and balance are detected by sensory receptor cells and ATTRIBUTIONS
then sent to the brain for interpretation. 1. Stickies by woodleywonderworks, licensed CC BY 3.0 via Flickr
How legal and illegal drugs can have psychoactive effects on the 2. Healthy and AD brain by NIH Image Gallery, public domain via
brain-altering mood, perceptions, thinking, and behavior — which Flickr
can sometimes lead to addiction. 3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
As you read the chapter, think about the following questions: 3.0

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11.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
IN THE BLINK OF AN EYE
As you drive into a parking lot, a skateboarder suddenly flies in
front of your car across your field of vision. You see the
skateboarder in the nick of time and react immediately. You slam
on the brakes and steer sharply to the right — all in the blink of an
eye. You avoid a collision, but just barely. You’re shaken up but
thankful that no one was hurt. How did you respond so quickly?
Such rapid responses are controlled by your nervous system.

Figure 11.2.1 : Skateboarder

OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system, illustrated in Figure 11.2.2, is the human organ
system that coordinates all of the body’s voluntary and involuntary
actions by transmitting electrical signals to and from different parts of
the body. Specifically, the nervous system extracts information from
the internal and external environments using sensory receptors. It then
usually sends signals encoding this information to the brain, which
Figure 11.2.2 : The human nervous system consists of the brain and
processes the information to determine an appropriate response.
spinal cord (central nervous system) and a network of branching nerves
Finally, the brain sends signals to muscles, organs, or glands to bring that travel throughout the body (peripheral nervous system). Some of
about the response. In the example above, your eyes detected the the major nerves in the peripheral system are identified in this drawing.
skateboarder, the information traveled to your brain, and your brain In fact, the fastest nerve impulses travel at speeds greater than 100
instructed your body to act so as to avoid a collision. meters per second! Compare this to the chemical messages carried by
the hormones that are secreted into the blood by endocrine glands.
SIGNALS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM These hormonal messages are “broadcast” to all the cells of the body,
The signals sent by the nervous system are electrical signals called and they can travel only as quickly as the blood flows through the
nerve impulses, and they are transmitted by special nervous system cardiovascular system.
cells named neurons, or nerve cells, like the one in Figure 11.2.3 (all
the parts of a neuron are explained in the next section). Dendrites of a
neuron receive nerve impulses from other cells. Long projection (called
axons) from neurons carries nerve impulses directly to specific target
cells. Schwann cells wrapped around the axon are called glial cells.
They create a myelin sheath which allows the nerve impulse to travel
very rapidly through the axons. A cell that receives nerve impulses
from a neuron may be excited to perform a function, inhibited from
carrying out an action, or otherwise controlled. In this way, the
information transmitted by the nervous system is specific to particular
cells and is transmitted very rapidly.

Figure 11.2.3 : This simple model of a neuron shows 1 Dendrite, 2

Axon, 3 Nodes of Ranvier, 4 Axon Terminals, 5 Schwann cell (Myelin
Sheath), 6 Cell body, and 7 Nucleus

ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

As you might predict, the human nervous system is very complex. It
has multiple divisions, beginning with its two main parts, the central
nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), as
shown in Figure 11.2.4. The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord,

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and the PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are bundles of axons 3. Compare and contrast the central and peripheral nervous systems.
from neurons. The nerves of the PNS connect the CNS to the rest of the 4. Which major division of the peripheral nervous system allows you
body. You can learn much more about the CNS by reading the concept to walk to class? Which major division of the peripheral nervous
Central Nervous System. system controls your heart rate?
5. Identify the functions of the three divisions of the autonomic
nervous system.
6. What is an axon and what is its function?
7. True or False. A nerve impulse always causes the target cell to
perform an action.
8. True or False. The spinal cord is not considered part of the
peripheral nervous system.
9. Define nerve impulses.
10. Explain why signals in the nervous system are generally more
targeted and specific than signals in the endocrine system.
11. Explain generally how the brain and spinal cord can interact with
and control the rest of the body.
12. ___________ actions are performed without the person thinking
Figure 11.2.4 : The concept map illustrates that the nervous system is about them.
divided into the peripheral and central systems. The peripheral nervous 13. The fight-or-flight response is controlled by the:
system is divided into the autonomic and somatic systems. The
autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic and A. autonomic nervous system
parasympathetic systems. B. somatic nervous system
The PNS is divided into two major parts, called the autonomic and C. central nervous system
somatic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system controls D. parasympathetic nervous system
activities that are under voluntary control, such as turning a steering 14. How are nerves and neurons related?
wheel. The autonomic nervous system controls activities that are not 15. What type of information from the outside environment do you
under voluntary control, such as digesting a meal. The autonomic think is detected by sensory receptors in your ears?
nervous system has three divisions: the sympathetic division, which
controls the fight-or-flight response during emergencies; the EXPLORE MORE
parasympathetic division, which controls the routine “housekeeping” https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16782#Explore_More
functions of the body at other times; and the enteric division, which
provides local control of the digestive system. You can learn more
ATTRIBUTIONS
about the PNS and its subdivisions by reading the concept Peripheral 1. Skateboarder by JESHOOTS-com via Pixabay license
Nervous System. 2. Nervous System diagram by the Emirr, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
Commons
REVIEW 3. Neuron by NickGorton, licensed CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
1. List the general steps by which the nervous system generates an Commons
appropriate response to information from the internal and external 4. Nervous System Flowchart by Suzanne Wakim dedicated CC0
environments. 5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
2. What are neurons? 3.0

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11.3: NEURONS
LIFE AS ART The axon is a long, thin extension of the cell body. It transmits
This colorful picture could be an abstract work of modern art. You nerve impulses away from the cell body and toward other cells. The
might imagine it hanging in an art museum or art gallery. In fact, axon branches at the end, forming multiple axon terminals. These
the picture illustrates real life rather than an artistic creation. It is a are the points where nerve impulses are transmitted to other cells,
micrograph of human nervous tissue. The neon green structures in often to the dendrites of other neurons. An area called a synapse
the picture are neurons. The neuron is one of two basic types of occurs at each axon terminal. Synapses are complex membrane
cells in the nervous system, the other type being the glial cell. junctions that transmit signals to other cells. An axon may branch
hundreds of times, but there is never more than one axon per
neuron.
Spread out along axons, especially the long axons of nerves, are
many sections of the myelin sheath. These are lipid layers that
cover sections of the axon. The myelin sheath is a very good
electrical insulator, similar to the plastic or rubber that encases an
electrical cord.
Regularly spaced gaps between sections of myelin sheath occur
along the axon. These gaps are called nodes of Ranvier, and they
allow the transmission of nerve impulses along the axon. Nerve
impulses skip from node to node, allowing nerve impulses to travel
along the axon very rapidly.
A Schwann cell (also on an axon) is a type of glial cell. Its function
Figure 11.3.1 : Interneurons of Adult Visual Cortex is to produce the myelin sheath that insulates axons in the
Neurons, also called nerve cells, are electrically excitable cells that are peripheral nervous system. In the central nervous system, a
the main functional units of the nervous system. Their function is to different type of glial cell, called an oligodendrocyte, produces the
transmit nerve impulses. They are the only type of human cells that can myelin sheath.
carry out this function. NEUROGENESIS
NEURON STRUCTURE Fully differentiated neurons, with all their special structures, cannot
Figure 11.3.2 shows the structure of a typical neuron. The main parts divide and form new daughter neurons. Until recently, scientists
of a neuron are labeled in the figure and described below. thought that new neurons could no longer be formed after the brain
developed prenatally. In other words, they thought that people were
born with all the brain neurons they would ever have, and as neurons
died, they would not be replaced. However, new evidence shows that
additional neurons can form in the brain, even in adults, from the
division of undifferentiated neural stem cells that are found throughout
the brain. The production of new neurons is called neurogenesis. The
extent to which it can occur is not known, but it is not likely to be very
great in humans.

NEURONS IN NERVOUS TISSUES

The nervous tissue in the brain and spinal cord consists of gray matter
and white matter. Gray matter contains mainly the cell bodies of
neurons. It is gray only in cadavers; living gray matter is actually more
Figure 11.3.2: Somatic Motor Neuron with cell body, axon, axon, pink than gray (see image below). White matter consists mainly of
myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier, axon terminal, dendrites, synaptic end axons covered with myelin sheath, which gives them their white color.
of the bulbs, and other associated structures. White matter also makes up nerves of the peripheral nervous system.
The cell body is the part of a neuron that contains the cell nucleus Nerves consist of long bundles of myelinated axons that extend to
and other cell organelles. It is usually quite compact, and may not muscles, organs, or glands throughout the body. The axons in each
be much wider than the nucleus. nerve are bundled together like wires in a cable. Axons in nerves may
Dendrites are thin structures that are extensions of the cell body. be more than a meter long in an adult. The longest nerve runs from the
Their function is to receive nerve impulses from other cells and base of the spine to the toes.
carry them to the cell body. A neuron may have many dendrites,
and each dendrite may branch repeatedly to form a dendrite “tree”
with more than 1,000 “branches.” The end of each branch can
receive nerve impulses from another cell, allowing a given neuron
to communicate with tens of thousands of other cells.

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 different function. Schwann cells and Oligodendrocytes are glial cells
that produce myelin sheath.
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY
Would you like your brain to make new neurons that could help you
become a better learner? What college student wouldn’t want a
little more brainpower when it comes to learning new things? If
research on rats applies to humans, then sustained aerobic exercise
such as running can increase neurogenesis in the adult brain, and
specifically in the hippocampus, a brain structure important for
learning temporally and/or spatially complex tasks as well as
memory. Although the research is still at the beginning stages, it
suggests that exercise may actually lead to a “smarter” brain.
However, even if the research results are not confirmed in the
Figure 11.3.3 : You can see the layers of (pinkish) gray matter and future for humans, it can’t hurt to get more aerobic exercise,
white matter in this photo of a brain from a recently deceased human because it is certainly beneficial for your body if not for your brain.
patient

TYPES OF NEURONS REVIEW

There are hundreds of different types of neurons in the human nervous 1. Identify the three main parts of a neuron and their functions.
system. These types exhibit a variety of structures and functions. 2. Describe the myelin sheath and nodes of Ranvier. How does their
Nonetheless, many neurons can be classified functionally based on the arrangement allow nerve impulses to travel very rapidly along
direction in which they carry nerve impulses. axons?
3. What is a synapse?
4. Define neurogenesis. What is the potential for neurogenesis in the
human brain?
5. Relate neurons to different types of nervous tissues.
6. Compare and contrast sensory and motor neurons.
7. Identify the role of interneurons.
8. For each type of neuron below, identify whether it is a sensory
neuron, motor neuron, or interneuron.
A. A neuron in the spinal cord receives touch information and then
transmits that information to another spinal cord neuron that
controls the movement of an arm muscle.
B. A neuron that takes taste information from your tongue and
sends it to your brain.
C. A spinal cord neuron stimulates a muscle to contract.
9. The myelin sheath is made by:
Figure 11.3.4 : Sensory neurons carry information towards the CNS. A. Sensory neurons
Motor neurons carry information from the CNS. Interneurons carry B. White neurons
information between sensory and motor neurons. C. Peripheral nervous system neurons
Sensory (also called afferent) neurons carry nerve impulses from D. Glial cells
sensory receptors in tissues and organs to the central nervous 10. True or False. Synapses often exist where a dendrite and an axon
system. They change physical stimuli such as touch, light, and terminal meet.
sound into nerve impulses. 11. True or False. There is only one axon terminal per neuron.
Motor (also called efferent) neurons, like the one in figure 11.3.2,
carry nerve impulses from the central nervous system to muscles EXPLORE MORE
and glands. They change nerve signals into the activation of these https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16783#Explore_More
structures.
Interneurons carry nerve impulses back and forth often between ATTRIBUTIONS
sensory and motor neurons within the spinal cord or brain. 1. Interneurons of Adult Visual Cortex by Wei-Chung Allen Lee,
Hayden Huang, Guoping Feng, Joshua R. Sanes, Emery N. Brown,
GLIAL CELLS Peter T. So, Elly Nedivi, licensed CC BY 2.5 via Wikimedia
Besides neurons, nervous tissues also consist of glial cells (also called Commons
neuroglia). The word glial comes from a Greek word meaning “glue.” 2. Neuron by Chiara Mazzasette adapted from OpenStax, licensed CC
This reflects earlier ideas about the role of glial cells in nervous tissues. BY 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
Glial cells were thought to be little more than “glue” holding together 3. White and gray matter by OpenStax, licensed CC BY 4.0 via
the all-important neurons. Glial cells are no longer thought to be just Wikimedia Commons
“glue.” They are now known to play many vital roles in the nervous 4. Sensory Neuron Test Water by OpenStax, licensed CC BY 4.0 via
system. There are several different types of glial cells, each with a Wikimedia Commons

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5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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11.4: NERVE IMPULSES
WHEN LIGHTNING STRIKES ACTION POTENTIAL
This amazing cloud-to-surface lightning occurred when a difference An action potential, also called a nerve impulse, is an electrical charge
in electrical charge built up in a cloud relative to the ground. When that travels along the membrane of a neuron. It can be generated when
the buildup of charge was great enough, a sudden discharge of a neuron’s membrane potential is changed by chemical signals from a
electricity occurred. A nerve impulse is similar to a lightning strike. nearby cell. In an action potential, the cell membrane potential changes
Both a nerve impulse and a lightning strike occur because of quickly from negative to positive as sodium ions flow into the cell
differences in electrical charge, and both result in an electric through ion channels, while potassium ions flow out of the cell, as
current. shown in Figure 11.4.3.

Figure 11.4.1 : Lightning

GENERATING NERVE IMPULSES

A nerve impulse, like a lightning strike, is an electrical phenomenon.
A nerve impulse occurs because of a difference in electrical charge Figure 11.4.3 : An action potential speeds along an axon in
milliseconds. Sodium ions flow in and cause the action potential, and
across the plasma membrane of a neuron. How does this difference in then potassium ions flow out to reset the resting potential.
electrical charge come about? The answer involves ions, which are
electrically charged atoms or molecules.

RESTING POTENTIAL

Figure 11.4.2 : The sodium-potassium pump maintains the resting

potential of a neuron. There is more negative charge inside than outside
the cell membrane. ATP is used to pump sodium out and potassium
into the cell. There is more concentration of sodium outside the
membrane and more concentration of potassium inside the cell due to
the unequal movement of these ions by the pump
When a neuron is not actively transmitting a nerve impulse, it is in a
resting state, ready to transmit a nerve impulse. During the resting
state, the sodium-potassium pump maintains a difference in charge
across the cell membrane of the neuron. The sodium-potassium pump
is a mechanism of active transport that moves sodium ions out of cells Figure 11.4.4 : An action potential graph of membrane potential over
and potassium ions into cells. The sodium-potassium pump moves both time. A neuron must reach a certain threshold in order to begin the
ions from areas of lower to higher concentration, using energy in ATP depolarization step of reaching the action potential. The figure also
and carrier proteins in the cell membrane. Figure 11.4.3shows in shows the change in potential during the repolarization and refractory
periods of the axon.
greater detail how the sodium-potassium pump works. Sodium is the
principal ion in the fluid outside of cells, and potassium is the principal The change in membrane potential results in the cell becoming
ion in the fluid inside of cells. These differences in concentration create depolarized. An action potential works on an all-or-nothing basis. That
an electrical gradient across the cell membrane, called resting is, the membrane potential has to reach a certain level of
potential. Tightly controlling membrane resting potential is critical for depolarization, called the threshold, otherwise, an action potential will
the transmission of nerve impulses. not start. This threshold potential varies but is generally about 15

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millivolts (mV) more positive than the cell's resting membrane
potential. If a membrane depolarization does not reach the threshold
level, an action potential will not happen. You can see in Figure 11.4.4
that two depolarizations did not reach the threshold level of -55mV.
The first channels to open are the sodium ion channels, which allow
sodium ions to enter the cell. The resulting increase in positive charge
inside the cell (up to about +40 mV) starts the action potential. This is
called the depolarization of the membrane. Potassium ion channels
then open, allowing potassium ions to flow out of the cell, which ends
the action potential. The inside of the membrane becomes negative
again. This is called repolarization of the membrane. Both of the ion
channels then close, and the sodium-potassium pump restores the
resting potential of -70 mV. The action potential will move down the
axon toward the synapse like a wave would move along the surface of
the water. Figure 11.4.4shows the change in potential of the axon
membrane during an action potential. The nerve goes through a brief
refractory period before racing resting potential. During the refractory
period, another action potential cannot be generated
Figure 11.4.5 : This diagram shows how an action potential transmits a
In myelinated neurons, ion flows occur only at the nodes of Ranvier. signal across a synapse to another cell by neurotransmitter molecules.
As a result, the action potential signal "jumps" along the axon The inset diagram shows the axon terminal, synapse, and receptor of
membrane from node to node rather than spreading smoothly along the the postsynaptic cell. The neurotransmitters are released from the axon
terminal, travel in the synaptic cleft, and attach to the receptors.
membrane, as they do in axons that do not have a myelin sheath. This
is due to a clustering of Na+ and K+ ion channels at the Nodes of
Ranvier. Unmyelinated axons do not have nodes of Ranvier, and ion REVIEW
channels in these axons are spread over the entire membrane surface. 1. Define nerve impulse.
2. What is the resting potential of a neuron, and how is it maintained?
TRANSMITTING NERVE IMPULSES 3. Explain how and why an action potential occurs.
The place where an axon terminal meets another cell is called a 4. Outline how a signal is transmitted from a presynaptic cell to a
synapse. This is where the transmission of a nerve impulse to another postsynaptic cell at a chemical synapse.
cell occurs. The cell that sends the nerve impulse is called the 5. What generally determines the effects of a neurotransmitter on a
presynaptic cell, and the cell that receives the nerve impulse is called postsynaptic cell?
the postsynaptic cell. 6. Identify three general types of effects neurotransmitters may have
on postsynaptic cells.
Some synapses are purely electrical and make direct electrical
7. Explain how an electrical signal in a presynaptic neuron causes the
connections between neurons. However, most synapses are chemical
transmission of a chemical signal at the synapse.
synapses. The transmission of nerve impulses across chemical synapses
8. The flow of which type of ion into the neuron results in an action
is more complex.
potential?
CHEMICAL SYNAPSES A. How do these ions get into the cell?
At a chemical synapse, both the presynaptic and postsynaptic areas of B. What does this flow of ions do to the relative charge inside the
the cells are full of the molecular machinery that is involved in the neuron compared to the outside?
transmission of nerve impulses. As shown in Figure 11.4.5, the 9. The sodium-potassium pump:
presynaptic area contains many tiny spherical vessels called synaptic A. is activated by an action potential
vesicles that are packed with chemicals called neurotransmitters. B. requires energy
When an action potential reaches the axon terminal of the presynaptic C. does not require energy
cell, it opens channels that allow calcium to enter the terminal. Calcium D. pumps potassium ions out of cells
causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the membrane, releasing their
10. True or False. Some action potentials are larger than others,
contents into the narrow space between the presynaptic and
depending on the amount of stimulation.
postsynaptic membranes. This area is called the synaptic cleft. The
11. True or False. Synaptic vesicles from the presynaptic cell enter the
neurotransmitter molecules travel across the synaptic cleft and bind to
postsynaptic cell.
receptors, which are proteins that are embedded in the membrane of
12. True or False. An action potential in a presynaptic cell can
the postsynaptic cell.
ultimately cause the postsynaptic cell to become inhibited.
The effect of a neurotransmitter on a postsynaptic cell depends mainly 13. Name three neurotransmitters.
on the type of receptors that it activates, making it possible for a
particular neurotransmitter to have different effects on various target EXPLORE MORE
cells. A neurotransmitter might excite one set of target cells, inhibit https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16784#Explore_More
others, and have complex modulatory effects on still others, depending Attributions
on the type of receptors. However, some neurotransmitters have
1. Adapted by Mandeep Grewal from Lincoln Lightning by U.S. Navy
relatively consistent effects on other cells.
photo by Photographers Mate 2nd Class Aaron Ansarov; public

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 domain via Wikimedia Commons 5. Chemical synapse schema cropped by Looie496 created file, US
2. Scheme sodium-potassium pump by LadyofHats Mariana Ruiz National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Aging created
Villarreal, released into the public domain via Wikimedia original, released into the public domain via Wikimedia Commons
Commons 6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3. Action potential licensed CC BY 3.0 by OpenStax 3.0
4. Action potential by Chris 73, licensed CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
Commons

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11.5: CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
HOMUNCULUS blood into the CNS while keeping out potentially harmful substances.
Figure 11.5.1 is a very odd-looking drawing and is called a These physical and chemical barriers make the CNS less susceptible to
homunculus. The mass represents a cross-sectional wedge of the injury. However, damage to the CNS is likely to have more serious
human brain. The drawing shows some areas of the brain associated consequences.
with different parts of the body. As you can see, larger areas of the
brain in this region are associated with the hands, face, and tongue
than the legs and feet. Given the importance of speech, manual
dexterity, and face-to-face social interactions in human beings, it is
not surprising that relatively large areas of the brain are needed to
control these body parts. The brain is the most complex organ in the
human body and part of the central nervous system.
Hip

k
Trun

Neck
Head

Arm
lder

Leg
Shou

rea ow
rm

t
Fo Elb

Foot ris
W
Toes nd
Ha
Genitals
tle
Lit ing
R dle
d x
Mi Inde b
um
Th

Eye
e
Nos
e
Fac

Teeth, Lips Figure 11.5.2 : The two main parts of the central nervous system are the
gums brain and the spinal cord. Ganglions and nerves are part of the
and jaw
Tongue peripheral nerve system.
Pharynx
THE BRAIN

Figure 11.5.1: Brain-Body Map. There’s a map of your body on

your brain’s cortex, but the map is not proportional to actual space.
Sensitive parts like the face and fingers are represented by more
areas than less sensitive parts like the legs or back

WHAT IS THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM?

The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system
that includes the brain and spinal cord. Figure 11.5.2 shows the central
nervous system as one of the two main divisions of the total nervous
system. The other main division is the peripheral nervous system
(PNS). The CNS and PNS work together to control virtually all body Figure 11.5.3 : Cerebrum, Cerebellum, and Brain Stem are the major
functions. You can read much more about the PNS in the concept parts of the brain. the medulla is part of the brain stem.
Peripheral Nervous System. The brain is the control center not only of the rest of the nervous
The delicate nervous tissues of the central nervous system are protected system but of the entire organism. The adult brain makes up only about
by major physical and chemical barriers. Physically, the brain and 2 percent of the body’s weight, but it uses about 20 percent of the
spinal cord are surrounded by tough meninges, a three-layer protective body’s total energy. The brain contains an estimated one hundred
sheath that also contains cushioning cerebrospinal fluid. The bones of billion neurons, and each neuron has thousands of synaptic connections
the skull and spinal vertebrae also contribute to physically protecting to other neurons. The brain also has about the same number of glial
the brain and spinal cord. Chemically, the brain and spinal cord are cells as neurons. No wonder the brain uses so much energy! In
isolated from the circulation — and most toxins or pathogens in the addition, the brain uses mostly glucose for energy. As a result, if the
blood — by the blood-brain barrier. The blood-brain barrier is a brain is deprived of glucose, it can lead to unconsciousness. The brain
highly selective membrane formed of endothelial cells (a type of glial is able to store some glucose in the form of glycogen, but in much
cells) that separates the circulating blood from the extracellular fluid in smaller amounts than are found in the liver and skeletal muscles.
the CNS. The barrier allows water, certain gases, glucose, and some The brain controls such mental processes as reasoning, imagination,
other molecules needed by the brain and spinal cord to cross from the memory, and language. It also interprets information from the senses

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and commands the body how to respond. It controls basic physical
processes such as breathing and heartbeat as well as voluntary
activities such as walking and writing. The brain has three major parts:
the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem (Figure 11.5.3). The figure
shows the brain from the left side of the head. It shows how the brain
would appear if the skull and meninges were removed. The brain stem
via its medulla links to the spinal cord. The cerebellum is a small
section at the back of the brain. The largest part of the brain is the
cerebrum.

CEREBRUM
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It controls conscious,
intellectual functions. For example, it controls reasoning, language,
memory, sight, touch, and hearing. When you read a book, play a video
game, or recognize a classmate, you are using your cerebrum.
Figure 11.5.4 : Each hemisphere of the cerebrum consists of four parts,
HEMISPHERES AND LATERALIZATION OF THE called lobes. The lobes are associated with multiple functions. The
CEREBRUM image shows one function of each lobe. Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, and
Temporal lobes are associated with reasoning, touch, sight, and
The cerebrum is divided from front to back into two halves called the hearing, respectively.
left and right hemispheres. The two hemispheres are connected by a
thick bundle of axons, known as the corpus callosum, which lies deep 2. The parietal lobes are located behind the frontal lobes at the top of
within the brain. The corpus callosum is the main avenue of the head. The parietal lobes are involved in sensation, including
communication between the two hemispheres. It connects each point in temperature, touch, and taste. Reading and arithmetic are also functions
the cerebrum to the mirror-image point in the opposite hemisphere. of the parietal lobes.
The right and left hemispheres of the cerebrum are similar in shape, 3. The temporal lobes are located at the sides of the head below the
and most areas of the cerebrum are found in both hemispheres. Some frontal and parietal lobes. The temporal lobes enable hearing, the
areas, however, show lateralization, or a concentration in one formation and retrieval of memories, and the integration of memories
hemisphere or the other. For example, in most people, language and sensations.
functions are more concentrated in the left hemisphere, whereas 4. The occipital lobes are located at the back of the head below the
abstract reasoning and visual-spatial abilities are more concentrated in parietal lobes. The occipital lobes are the smallest of the four pairs of
the right hemisphere. lobes. They are dedicated almost solely to vision.
For reasons that are not yet clear, each hemisphere of the brain
interacts primarily with the opposite side of the body. The left side of INNER STRUCTURES OF THE BRAIN
the brain receives messages from and sends commands to the right side Several structures are located deep within the brain and are important
of the body, and the right side of the brain receives messages from and for communication between the brain and spinal cord or the rest of the
sends commands to the left side of the body. Sensory nerves from the body. These structures include the hypothalamus and thalamus. Figure
spinal cord to the brain and motor nerves from the brain to the spinal 11.5.5 shows where these structures are located in the brain. The

cord both cross the midline of the body at the level of the brain stem. cerebrum, hypothalamus, and thalamus exist in two halves, one in each
hemisphere.
CEREBRAL CORTEX
Most of the information processing in the brain actually takes place in
the cerebral cortex. This is a rind of gray matter and other tissues just
a few millimeters thick that makes up the outer surface of the cerebrum
in both hemispheres of the brain. The cerebral cortex has many folds in
it that greatly increase the amount of surface area of the brain that can
fit within the skull. Because of all the folds in the human cerebral
cortex, it has a surface area of about 2,500 cm2(2.5 ft2). The size and
importance of the cerebral cortex are far greater in the human brain
than the brains of any other vertebrates including nonhuman primates.

LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is further divided into the four lobes
shown in Figure 11.5.4 and described below. Figure 11.5.5 : Just below the cerebrum is the thalamus. Hypothalamus
is located below the thalamus and a little to the anterior. The pituitary
1. The frontal lobes are located at the front of the brain behind the gland is attached to the hypothalamus via a tube called
forehead. The frontal lobes are associated with executive functions the infundibulum.
such as attention, self-control, planning, problem-solving, reasoning,
abstract thought, language, and personality. HYPOTHALAMUS
The hypothalamus is located just above the brain stem and is about
the size of an almond. The hypothalamus is responsible for certain

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metabolic processes and other activities of the autonomic nervous
system, including body temperature, heart rate, hunger, thirst, fatigue,
sleep, wakefulness, and circadian (24-hour) rhythms. The
hypothalamus is also an important emotional center of the brain. The
hypothalamus can regulate so many body functions because it responds
to many different internal and external signals, including messages
from the brain, light, steroid hormones, stress, and invading pathogens,
among others.
One way the hypothalamus influences body functions is by
synthesizing hormones that directly influence body processes. For
example, it synthesizes the hormone oxytocin, which stimulates uterine
contractions during childbirth and the letdown of milk during lactation.
It also synthesizes the hormone vasopressin (also called antidiuretic
hormone), which stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb more water and
excrete more concentrated urine. These two hormones are sent from the
Figure 11.5.6 : Brain stem includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla
hypothalamus via a stalk-like structure called the infundibulum (see oblongata
diagram above) directly to the posterior (back) portion of the pituitary
gland, which secretes them into the blood. One of the brain stem’s most important roles is that of an “information
highway.” That is, all of the information coming from the body to the
The main way the hypothalamus influences body functions is by
brain and the information from the cerebrum to the body go through
controlling the pituitary gland, known as the master gland of the
the brain stem. Sensory pathways for such things as pain, temperature,
endocrine system. The hypothalamus synthesizes neurohormones
touch, and pressure sensation go upward to the cerebrum, and motor
called releasing factors that travel through the infundibulum directly to
pathways for movement and other body processes go downward to the
the anterior (front) part of the pituitary gland. The releasing factors
spinal cord. Most of the axons in the motor pathways cross from one
generally either stimulate or inhibit the secretion of anterior pituitary
side of the CNS to the other as they pass through the medulla
hormones, most of which control other glands of the endocrine system.
oblongata. As a result, the right side of the brain controls much of the
THALAMUS movement on the left side of the body, and the left side of the brain
The thalamus, which is located near the hypothalamus (Figure controls much of the movement on the right side of the body.
11.5.5 ), is a major hub for information traveling back and forth
between the spinal cord and cerebrum. It filters sensory information
SPINAL CORD
traveling to the cerebrum. It relays sensory signals to the cerebral
cortex and motor signals to the spinal cord. It is also involved in the
regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness.

CEREBELLUM
The cerebellum is just below the cerebrum and at the back of the brain
behind the brain stem (Figure 11.5.3). It coordinates body movements
and is involved in movements that are learned with repeated practice.
For example, when you hit a softball with a bat or touch type on a
keyboard you are using the cerebellum. Many nerve pathways link the
cerebellum with motor neurons throughout the body.

BRAIN STEM
Sometimes called the “lower brain,” the brain stem is the lower part of
the brain that is joined to the spinal cord. There are three parts to the
brainstem: the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata, which
are shown in Figure 11.5.6 below. The brain stem is primarily involved
in the unconscious autonomic functions as well as several types of
sensory information. It also helps coordinate large body movements
such as walking and running. The midbrain deals with sight and sound
information and translates these inputs before sending them to the Figure 11.5.7 : The spinal cord (yellow) runs from the bottom of the
brain to the lower back
forebrain. The pons relays messages to other parts of the brain
(primarily the cerebrum and cerebellum) and helps regulate breathing. The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissues that
Some researchers have hypothesized that the pons plays a role in extends from the brain stem and continues down the center of the back
dreaming. Some of the functions of the Pons are shared by the medulla to the pelvis. It is highlighted in yellow in Figure 11.5.7. The spinal
oblongata, also called the medulla. The medulla controls several cord is enclosed within but is shorter than, the vertebral column.
subconscious homeostatic functions such as breathing, heart and blood STRUCTURE OF THE SPINAL CORD
vessel activity, swallowing, and digestion.

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The center of the spinal cord consists of gray matter, which is made up cord. In the spinal cord, the message passes to an interneuron and from
mainly of cell bodies of neurons, including interneurons and motor the interneuron to a motor nerve, which carries the impulse to a
neurons. The gray matter is surrounded by white matter that consists muscle. The muscle contracts in response. These neuron connections
mainly of myelinated axons of motor and sensory neurons. Spinal form a reflex arc, which requires no input from the brain. No doubt you
nerves, which connect the spinal cord to the PNS, exit from the spinal have experienced such reflex actions yourself. For example, you may
cord between vertebrae (Figure 11.5.8). have reached out to touch a pot on the stove, not realizing that it was
very hot. Virtually at the same moment that you feel the burning heat,
you jerk your arm back and remove your hand from the pot.

INJURIES TO THE SPINAL CORD

Physical damage to the spinal cord may result in paralysis, which is a
loss of sensation and movement in part of the body. Paralysis generally
affects all the areas of the body below the level of the injury because
nerve impulses are interrupted and can no longer travel back and forth
between the brain and body beyond that point. If an injury to the spinal
cord produces nothing more than swelling, the symptoms may be
transient. However, if nerve fibers (axons) in the spinal cord are badly
damaged, the loss of function may be permanent. Experimental studies
have shown that spinal nerve fibers attempt to regrow, but tissue
Figure 11.5.8 : This model shows three vertebrae (white) with destruction usually produces scar tissue that cannot be penetrated by
branching spinal nerves (yellow) emerging from either side of the the regrowing nerves, as well as other factors that inhibit nerve fiber
spinal cord between vertebrae regrowth in the central nervous system.
FUNCTIONS OF THE SPINAL CORD FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY
Each year, many millions of people have a stroke, and stroke is the
second leading cause of death in adults. Stroke, also known as
cerebrovascular accident, occurs when poor blood flow to the brain
results in the death of brain cells. There are two main types of
strokes:
Ischemic strokes occur due to a lack of blood flow because of a
blood clot in an artery going to the brain.
Hemorrhagic strokes occur due to bleeding from a broken blood
vessel in the brain.
Either type of stroke may result in paralysis, loss of the ability to
speak or comprehend speech, loss of bladder control, personality
changes, and many other potential effects, depending on the part of
the brain that is injured. The effects of a stroke may be mild and
transient or more severe and permanent. A stroke may even be
fatal. It generally depends on the type of stroke and how extensive
it is.
Are you at risk of stroke? The main risk factor for stroke is age:
about two-thirds of strokes occur in people over the age of 65.
There is nothing you can do about your age, but most other stroke
risk factors can be reduced with lifestyle changes or medications.
Figure 11.5.9 : This diagram shows what happens in a long reflex (top),
The risk factors include high blood pressure, tobacco smoking,
in which sensory nerves carry the message all the way to the spinal
cord; and in a short reflex (bottom), in which sensory nerves travel obesity, high blood cholesterol, diabetes mellitus, and atrial
only to a ganglion outside the spinal cord. Note that interneurons are fibrillation.
involved in reflexes, connecting sensory and motor neurons, but they
Chances are good that you or someone you know is at risk of a
are not actually shown in the diagram.
stroke, so it is important to recognize a stroke if one occurs. Stoke
The spinal cord serves as an information superhighway. It passes
is a medical emergency, and the more quickly treatment is given,
messages from the body to the brain and from the brain to the body.
the better the outcome is likely to be. In the case of ischemic
Sensory (afferent) nerves carry nerve impulses to the brain from
strokes, the use of clot-busting drugs may prevent permanent brain
sensory receptor cells everywhere in and on the body. Motor (efferent)
damage if administered within 3 or 4 hours of the stroke.
nerves carry nerve impulses away from the brain to glands, organs, or
Remembering the signs of a stroke is easy.
muscles throughout the body.
They are summed up by the acronym FAST, as explained in the
The spinal cord also independently controls certain rapid responses
chart below.
called reflexes without any input from the brain. You can see how this
may happen in Figure 11.5.9. A sensory receptor responds to a
sensation and sends a nerve impulse along a sensory nerve to the spinal

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 13. Why do severe spinal cord injuries usually cause paralysis?
14. What do you think are some possible consequences of severe
damage to the brain stem? How might this compare to the
consequences of severe damage to the frontal lobe? Explain your
answer.
15. Information travels very quickly in the nervous system, but
generally, the longer the path between areas, the longer it takes.
Based on this, explain why you think reflexes often occur at the
spinal cord level and do not require input from the brain.

EXPLORE MORE
Figure 11.5.10: The signs of stroke are abbreviated as FAST. https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16784#Explore_More
Where F, A, S, and T stand for droopy face, arm weakness, slurry
speak, and time fo call 911, respectively. ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Sensory Homunculus by Popadius adapted from OpenStax, licensed
CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
2. Overview of nervous system by OpenStax, licensed CC BY 4.0 via
Wikimedia Commons
REVIEW 3. Brain by Laura Guerin, CC BY-NC 3.0 via CK-12
1. What is the central nervous system? 4. Brain lobes by Laura Guerin, CC BY-NC 3.0 via CK-12
2. How is the central nervous system protected? 5. Hypothalamus-Pituitary Complex by OpenStax, licensed CC BY
3. What is the overall function of the brain? 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
4. Identify the three main parts of the brain and one function of each 6. Brain stem by OpenStax, licensed CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia
part. Commons
5. Describe the hemispheres of the brain. 7. Spinal cord by BruceBlaus licensed CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
6. Explain and give examples of lateralization of the brain. Commons
7. Identify one function of each of the four lobes of the cerebrum. 8. Spinal readjustment by Tomwsulcer dedicated CC0 via Wikimedia
8. Summarize the structure and function of the cerebral cortex. Commons
9. Explain how the hypothalamus controls the endocrine system. 9. Short and long reflexes by OpenStax, licensed CC BY 4.0 via
10. Describe the spinal cord. Wikimedia Commons
11. What is the main function of the spinal cord? 10. Stroke Communications Kit by CDC, public domain
12. Explain how reflex actions occur. 11. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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11.6: PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
ONE PIANO, FOUR HANDS TISSUES OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
Did you ever see two people play the same piano? How do they SYSTEM
coordinate all the movements of their own fingers, let alone The tissues that make up the PNS are nerves and ganglia. Ganglia are
synchronize them with those of their partner? The peripheral nervous tissues that act as relay points for messages transmitted
nervous system plays an important part in this challenge. through nerves of the PNS. Nerves are cable-like bundles of axons that
make up the majority of PNS tissues. Nerves are generally classified on
the basis of the direction in which they carry nerve impulses as sensory,
motor, or mixed nerves. See examples of sensory and motor never in
Figure 11.6.3.
Sensory nerves transmit information from sensory receptors in the
body to the CNS. Sensory nerves are also called afferent nerves.
Motor nerves transmit information from the CNS to muscles,
organs, and glands. Motor nerves are also called efferent nerves.
Mixed nerves contain both sensory and motor neurons, so they can
transmit information in both directions. They have both afferent and
efferent functions.

Figure 11.6.1 : Two

people playing piano together

WHAT IS THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS

SYSTEM?
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the nervous tissue
that lies outside of the central nervous system (CNS). The main
function of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the rest of the organism.
Figure 11.6.3 : An afferent nerve is a sensory nerve. The one pictured
It serves as a communication relay, going back and forth between the here sends nerve impulses from sensory cells in the skin to the CNS.
CNS and muscles, organs, and glands throughout the body. An efferent nerve is a motor nerve. This one sends nerve impulses from
the CNS to a muscle.

DIVISIONS OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS

SYSTEM
The PNS is divided into two major systems, called the autonomic
nervous system and the somatic (or sensory-somatic) nervous system.
Both systems of the PNS interact with the CNS and include sensory
and motor neurons, but they use different circuits of nerves and
ganglia.

SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The somatic nervous system primarily senses the external
environment and controls voluntary activities in which decisions and
commands come from the cerebral cortex of the brain. For example,
when you feel too warm, decide to turn on the air conditioner, and walk
across the room to the thermostat, you are using your somatic nervous
system. In general, the somatic nervous system is responsible for all of
your conscious perceptions of the outside world and all of the
voluntary motor activities you perform in response. Whether it’s
playing piano, driving a car, or playing basketball, you can thank your
somatic nervous system for making it possible.
Structurally, the somatic nervous system consists of 12 pairs of cranial
Figure 11.6.2: The nerves of the peripheral nervous system are shown nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves (Figure 11.6.2). Cranial nerves are
in blue in this figure. in the head and neck and connect directly to the brain. Sensory cranial
nerves sense smells, tastes, light, sounds, and body position. Motor

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cranial nerves control muscles of the face, tongue, eyeballs, throat,
head, and shoulders. The motor nerves also control the salivary glands
and swallowing. Four of the 12 cranial nerves participate in both
sensory and motor functions as mixed nerves, having both sensory and
motor neurons.
Spinal nerves of the somatic nervous system emanate from the spinal
column between vertebrae. All of the spinal nerves are mixed nerves,
containing both sensory and motor neurons. Spinal nerves also include
motor nerves that stimulate skeletal muscle contraction, allowing for
voluntary body movements.

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The autonomic nervous system primarily senses the internal
environment and controls involuntary activities. It is responsible for
monitoring conditions in the internal environment and bringing about
appropriate changes in them. In general, the autonomic nervous system
is responsible for all the activities that go on inside your body without
your conscious awareness or voluntary participation.
Structurally, the autonomic nervous system consists of sensory and
motor nerves that run between the CNS (especially the hypothalamus
in the brain) and internal organs (such as the heart, lungs, and digestive Figure 11.6.4: This diagram summarizes the structures and functions
organs) and glands (such as the pancreas and sweat glands). Sensory controlled by the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the
neurons in the autonomic system detect internal body conditions and autonomic nervous system. The images explained how eyes, salivary
gland, bronchi, heart rate, digestive system, bladder, and genitalia are
send messages to the brain. Motor nerves in the autonomic system
affected in opposite ways by the two systems.
function by controlling the contractions of smooth or cardiac muscle or
glandular tissue. For example, when sensory nerves of the autonomic The sympathetic division controls the fight-or-flight response.
system detect a rise in body temperature, motor nerves signal smooth Changes occur in organs and glands throughout the body that
muscles in blood vessels near the body surface to undergo vasodilation, prepare the body to fight or flee in response to a perceived danger.
and the sweat glands in the skin secrete more sweat to cool the body. For example, the heart rate speeds up, air passages in the lungs
The autonomic nervous system, in turn, has two subdivisions: the become wider, more blood flows to the skeletal muscles, and the
sympathetic division and parasympathetic division. The two digestive system temporarily shuts down.
subdivisions of the autonomic system are summarized in Figure 11.6.4. The parasympathetic division returns the body to normal after the
Both affect the same organs and glands, but they generally do so in fight-or-flight response has occurred. For example, it slows down
opposite ways. the heart rate, narrows air passages in the lungs, reduces blood flow
to the skeletal muscles, and stimulates the digestive system to start
working again. The parasympathetic division also maintains the
internal homeostasis of the body at other times.

DISORDERS OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS

SYSTEM
Unlike the CNS, which is protected by bones, meninges, and
cerebrospinal fluid, the PNS has no such protections. The PNS also has
no blood-brain barrier to protect it from toxins and pathogens in the
blood. Therefore, the PNS is more subject to injury and disease than is
the CNS. Causes of nerve injury include diabetes, infectious diseases
such as shingles, and poisoning by toxins such as heavy metals.
Disorders of the PNS often have symptoms such as loss of feeling,
tingling, burning sensations, or muscle weakness. If a traumatic injury
results in a nerve being transacted (cut all the way through), it may
regenerate, but this is a very slow process and may take many months.

REVIEW
1. Describe the general structure of the peripheral nervous system, and
state its primary function.
2. What are ganglia?
3. Identify three types of nerves based on the direction in which they
carry nerve impulses.
4. Outline all of the divisions of the peripheral nervous system.

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 5. Compare and contrast the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. B. Carry motor information
6. When and how does the sympathetic division of the autonomic C. Are part of the somatic nervous system
nervous system affect the body? D. All of the above
7. What is the function of the parasympathetic division of the 12. True or False. All of the spinal nerves carry both sensory and motor
autonomic nervous system? What specific effects does it have on information.
the body? 13. True or False. The sympathetic nervous system enhances digestion
8. Name and describe two disorders of the peripheral nervous system. to provide more energy for the body.
9. Give one example of how the CNS interacts with the PNS to
control a function in the body. EXPLORE MORE
10. For each of the following types of information, identify whether the https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16786#Explore_More
neuron carrying it is sensory or motor and whether it is most likely
in the somatic or autonomic nervous system. ATTRIBUTIONS
A. Visual information 1. Ashton playing the piano by Dominic Smith, licensed CC BY-NC-
B. Blood pressure information SA 2.0 via Flickr
C. Information that causes muscle contraction in digestive organs 2. The nervous system licensed CC BY-SA 4.0 via Lumen Learning
after eating 3. Afferent nerve by Pearson Scott Foresman, Public domain via
D. Information that causes muscle contraction in skeletal muscles Wikimedia Commons
based on the person’s decision to make a movement 4. Autonomic nervous system by Geo-Science-International,
dedicated CC0 via Wikimedia Commons
11. The cranial nerves:
5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
A. Carry sensory information
3.0

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11.7: HUMAN SENSES
SEEING IS BELIEVING detect damaging heat or cold, others detect excessive pressure, and
Figure 11.7.1 appears at first glance to be just a pattern of colored still, others detect painful chemicals such as very hot spices in food.
leaves, but hidden within it is the three-dimensional shape of an ant. Photoreceptors detect and respond to light. Most photoreceptors
Can you see the ant among the leaves? This figure is an example of are found in the eyes and are needed for the sense of vision.
a stereogram, which is a two-dimensional picture that reveals a Chemoreceptors respond to certain chemicals. They are found
three-dimensional object when viewed correctly. If you can’t see mainly in taste buds on the tongue, where they are needed for the
the hidden image, it doesn’t mean that there is anything wrong with sense of taste; and in nasal passages, where they are needed for the
your eyes. It’s all in how your brain interprets what your eyes are sense of smell.
sensing. The eyes are special sensory organs, and vision is one of
our special senses.
TOUCH
Touch is the ability to sense pressure, vibration, temperature, pain, and
other tactile stimuli. These types of stimuli are detected by
mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, and nociceptors all over the body,
but most noticeably in the skin. These receptors are especially
concentrated on the tongue, lips, face, palms of the hands, and soles of
the feet. Various types of tactile receptors in the skin are shown in
Figure 11.7.2.

Figure 11.7.1 : Stereogram

SPECIAL AND GENERAL SENSES

The human body has two basic types of senses, called special senses
and general senses. Special senses have specialized sense organs that
gather sensory information and change it into nerve impulses. Special
senses include the vision for which the eyes are the specialized sense
organs, hearing (ears), balance (ears), taste (tongue), and smell (nasal
passages). General senses, in contrast, are all associated with the sense
of touch and lack special sense organs. Instead, sensory information
about touch is gathered by the skin and other body tissues, all of which
have important functions besides gathering sensory information.
Whether the senses are special or general, however, all of them depend
on cells called sensory receptors.

SENSORY RECEPTORS
A sensory receptor is a specialized nerve cell that responds to a
stimulus in the internal or external environment by generating a nerve
impulse. The nerve impulse then travels along with the sensory Figure 11.7.2 : Tactile receptors in the skin include free nerve endings,
Merkel cells, Meissner’s corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles, root hair
(afferent) nerve to the central nervous system for processing and to
plexuses, and Ruffini corpuscles. Each type of sensory receptor
form a response. responds to a different kind of tactile stimulus. For example, free nerve
There are several different types of sensory receptors that respond to endings generally respond to pain and temperature variations, whereas
Merkel cells are associated with the sense of light touch and the
different kinds of stimuli:
discrimination of shapes and textures.
Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical forces such as pressure,
roughness, vibration, and stretching. Most mechanoreceptors are VISION
found in the skin and are needed for the sense of touch. Vision, or sight, is the ability to sense light and see. The eye is the
Mechanoreceptors are also found in the inner ear where they are special sensory organ that collects and focuses light and forms images.
needed for the senses of hearing and balance. However, the eye is not sufficient for us to see. The brain also plays a
Thermoreceptors respond to variations in temperature. They are necessary role in vision.
found mostly in the skin and detect temperatures that are above or
below body temperature. HOW THE EYE WORKS
Nociceptors respond to potentially damaging stimuli, which are Figure 11.7.3 shows the anatomy of the human eye in cross-section.
generally perceived as pain. They are found in internal organs as The eye gathers and focuses light to form an image and then changes
well as on the surface of the body. Different nociceptors are the image to nerve impulses that travel to the brain. How the eye
activated depending on the particular stimulus. For example, some performs these functions is summarized in the following steps.

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 1. Light passes first through the cornea, which is a clear outer layer Myopia, or nearsightedness, occurs when the light that comes into the
that protects the eye and helps to focus the light by refracting, or eye does not directly focus on the retina but in front of it, as shown in
bending, it. Figure 11.7.4. This causes the image of distant objects to be out of
2. Light next enters the interior of the eye through an opening called focus but does not affect the focus of close objects. Myopia may occur
the pupil. The size of this opening is controlled by the colored part because the eyeball is elongated from front to back or because the
of the eye, called the iris, which adjusts the size based on the cornea is too curved. Myopia can be corrected through the use of
brightness of the light. The iris causes the pupil to narrow in bright corrective lenses, either eyeglasses or contact lenses. Myopia can also
light and widen in dim light. be corrected by refractive surgery performed with a laser.
3. The light then passes through the lens, which refracts the light even
more and focuses it on the retina at the back of the eye as an
inverted image.
4. The retina contains photoreceptor cells of two types, called rods
and cones. Rods, which are found mainly in all areas of the retina
other than the very center, are particularly sensitive to low levels of
light. Cones, which are found mainly in the center of the retina, are
sensitive to light of different colors and allow color vision. The rods
and cones convert the light that strikes them to nerve impulses.
5. The nerve impulses from the rods and cones travel to the optic
nerve via the optic disc, which is a circular area at the back of the
eye where the optic nerve connects to the retina.

Figure 11.7.4 : In myopia, the focal point of images is in front of the

retina because the eyeball is elongated.
HYPEROPIA
Hyperopia, or farsightedness, occurs when the light that comes into
the eye does not directly focus on the retina but behind it, as shown in
Figure 11.7.5. This causes the image of close objects to be out of focus
but does not affect the focus of distant objects. Hyperopia may occur
because the eyeball is too short from front to back or because the lens
is not curved enough. Hyperopia can be corrected through the use of
corrective lenses or laser surgery.

Figure 11.7.3 : In this image, you can see the three layers of the
eyeball, the sclera (cornea at the front), choroid, and retina. Lens, pupil,
Irish, optic disc, option nerve (not labeled), blood vessels, and eye
muscles are also visible. Trace the path of light through the eye as you
read about in the five steps described in the text

ROLE OF THE BRAIN IN VISION

The optic nerves from both eyes meet and cross just below the bottom
of the hypothalamus in the brain. The information from both eyes is
sent to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the cerebrum, which is
part of the cerebral cortex. The visual cortex is the largest system in the
human brain and is responsible for processing visual images. It
interprets messages from both eyes and “tells” us what we are seeing.
Figure 11.7.5 : In hyperopia, the focal point of images is behind the
VISION PROBLEMS retina because the eyeball is too short.

Vision problems are very common. Two of the most common are PRESBYOPIA
myopia and hyperopia, and they often start in childhood or Presbyopia is a vision problem associated with aging in which the eye
adolescence. Another common problem, called presbyopia, occurs in gradually loses its ability to focus on close objects. The precise cause
most people beginning in middle adulthood. All three problems result of presbyopia is not known for certain, but evidence suggests that the
in blurred vision due to the failure of the eyes to focus images correctly lens may become less elastic with age, and the muscles that control the
on the retina. lens may lose power as people grow older. The first signs of presbyopia
MYOPIA – eyestrain, difficulty seeing in dim light, problems focusing on small
objects, and fine print – are usually first noticed between the ages of 40
and 50. Most older people with this problem use corrective lenses to

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focus on close objects because surgical procedures to correct
presbyopia have not been as successful as those for myopia and
hyperopia.

HEARING

Figure 11.7.7 .Taste receptor cells are in taste buds on the tongue. Taste
pore exposes these cells into the oral cavity. Basal cells are not
involved in tasting but differentiate into taste receptor cells.
Olfactory receptors line the passages inside the nasal passages (Figure
11.7.8). There are millions of olfactory receptors, which sense

chemicals in the air. Unlike taste receptors, which can sense only five
Figure 11.7.6 : The image shows structures of the outer, middle and different tastes, olfactory receptors can sense hundreds of different
inner ear. The outer ear has an auricle and an ear canal in it. The odors and send signals to the olfactory bulb of the brain. Did you ever
eardrum is in the middle of the outer and middle ear. The middle ear notice that food seems to have less taste when you have a stuffy nose?
contains a hammer, anvil, and stirrup, and the inner ear has a cochlea,
This occurs because the sense of smell contributes to the sense of taste,
vestibule (not labeled), semicircular canal, and Eustachian tube. Most
of the structures of the ear are involved in hearing. Only the and a stuffy nose interferes with the ability to smell.
semicircular canals are not involved in hearing. Instead, they sense
head position, which is used to monitor balance.
Hearing is the ability to sense sound waves, and the ear is the organ
that senses sound. Sound waves enter the ear through the ear canal and
travel to the eardrum (see the diagram of the ear in Figure 11.7.6). The
sound waves strike the eardrum and make it vibrate. The vibrations
then travel through the three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) of
the middle ear, which amplify the vibrations. From the middle ear, the
vibrations pass to the cochlea in the inner ear. The cochlea is a coiled
tube filled with liquid. The liquid moves in response to the vibrations,
causing tiny hair cells (which are mechanoreceptors) lining the cochlea
to bend. In response, the hair cells send nerve impulses to the auditory
nerve, which carries the impulses to the brain. The brain interprets the
impulses and “tells” us what we are hearing.

TASTE AND SMELL Figure 11.7.8 : The yellow structures inside this drawing of the nasal
Taste and smell are both abilities to sense chemicals, so taste and passages are an olfactory nerve with many nerve endings. The nerve
olfactory (odor) receptors are chemoreceptors. Both types of endings are located at the roof of the nasal cavity. The nerve endings
chemoreceptors send nerve impulses to the brain along sensory nerves, sense chemicals in the air as it passes through the nasal cavities.
and the brain “tells” us what we are tasting or smelling. FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS
Taste receptors are found in tiny bumps on the tongue called taste The most common cause of blindness in the Western hemisphere is
buds. You can see a diagram of a taste receptor cell and related age-related macular degeneration (AMD). About 15 million
structures in Figure 11.7.7. Taste receptor cells make contact with people in the United States have this type of blindness, and 30
chemicals in food through tiny openings called taste pores. When million people are affected worldwide. At present, there is no cure
certain chemicals bind with taste receptor cells, it generates nerve for AMD. The disease occurs with the death of a layer of cells
impulses that travel through afferent nerves to the CNS. There are called retinal pigment epithelium, which normally provides
separate taste receptors for sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and meaty tastes. nutrients and other support to the macula of the eye. The macula is
The meaty or savory taste is called umami. an oval-shaped pigmented area near the center of the retina that is
specialized for high visual acuity and has the retina’s greatest
concentration of cones. When the epithelial cells die and the macula
is no longer supported or nourished, the macula also starts to die.
Patients experience a black spot in the center of their vision, and as
the disease progresses, the black spot grows outward. Patients

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 eventually lose the ability to read and even to recognize familiar 12. Identify a mechanoreceptor used in two different human senses, and
faces before developing total blindness. describe the type of mechanical stimuli that each one detects.
In 2016, a landmark surgery was performed as a trial on a patient 13. If a person is blind but their retina is functioning properly, where do
with severe AMD. In the first-ever operation of its kind, Dr. Pete you think the damage might be? Explain your answer.
Coffey of the University of London implanted a tiny patch of cells 14. When you see colors, what receptor cells are activated? Where are
behind the retina in each of the patient’s eyes. The cells were retinal these receptors located? What lobe of the brain is primarily used to
pigmented epithelial cells that had been grown in a lab from stem process visual information?
cells, which are undifferentiated cells that have the ability to 15. The auditory nerve carries:
develop into other cell types. By six months out from the operation, A. Smell information
the new cells were still surviving, and the doctor was hopeful that B. Taste information
the patient’s vision loss would stop and even be reversed. At that C. Balance information
point, several other operations had already been planned to test the D. Sound information
new procedure. If these cases are a success, Dr. Coffey predicts that
the surgery will become as routine as cataract surgery and prevent EXPLORE MORE
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ATTRIBUTIONS
REVIEW
1. Bigant by GifTagger assumed CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
1. Compare and contrast special senses and general senses.
Commons
2. What are sensory receptors?
2. Skin tactile receptors by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery
3. List five types of sensory receptors and the type of stimulus each
of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
detects.
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. CC BY 3.0 via
4. Describe the range of tactile stimuli that are detected in the sense of
Wikimedia Commons
touch.
3. Eye anatomy by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
5. Explain how the eye collects and focuses light to form an image
Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
and converts it to nerve impulses.
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. CC BY 3.0 via
6. Identify two common vision problems, including both their causes
Wikimedia Commons
and their effects on vision.
4. Myopia by National Eye Institute, public domain via Wikimedia
7. Explain how the structures of the ear collect and amplify sound
Commons
waves and transform them into nerve impulses.
5. Hyperopia by National Eye Institute, public domain via Wikimedia
8. What role does the ear play in balance? Which structures of the ear
Commons
are involved in balance?
6. Human ear public domain via Wikimedia Commons
9. Describe two ways that the body senses chemicals and the special
7. Taste buds by Jonas Töle dedicated CC0 via Wikimedia Commons
sense organs that are involved in these senses.
8. Head olfactory nerve by Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator, CC
10. Explain why your skin can detect different types of stimuli, such as
BY 2.5 via Wikimedia Commons
pressure and temperature.
9. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
11. Choose one. Sensory information is sent to the central nervous
3.0
system via (efferent/afferent) nerves.

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11.8: PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
ART IN A CUP Stimulants are drugs that stimulate the brain and increase alertness
Who knew that a cup of coffee could also be a work of art? A and wakefulness. Examples of stimulants include caffeine, nicotine,
talented barista can make coffee look as good as it tastes. If you are cocaine, and amphetamines such as Adderall.
a coffee drinker, you probably know that coffee can also affect your Depressants are drugs that calm the brain, reduce anxious feelings,
mental state. It can make you more alert and may improve your and induce sleepiness. Examples of depressants include ethanol (in
concentration. That’s because the caffeine in coffee is a alcoholic beverages) and opioids such as codeine and heroin.
psychoactive drug. In fact, caffeine is the most widely consumed Anxiolytics are drugs that have a tranquilizing effect and inhibit
psychoactive substance in the world. In North America, for anxiety. Examples of anxiolytic drugs include benzodiazepines such
example, 90 percent of adults consume caffeine daily. as diazepam (Valium), barbiturates such as phenobarbital, opioids,
and antidepressant drugs such as sertraline (Zoloft).
Euphoriants are drugs that bring about a state of euphoria, or
intense feelings of well-being and happiness. Examples of
euphoriants include the so-called club drug MDMA (ecstasy),
amphetamines, ethanol, and opioids such as morphine.
Hallucinogens are drugs that can cause hallucinations and other
perceptual anomalies. They also cause subjective changes in
thoughts, emotions, and consciousness. Examples of hallucinogens
include LSD, mescaline, nitrous oxide, and psilocybin.
Empathogens are drugs that produce feelings of empathy, or
Figure 11.8.1 : Murano Coffee with decoration on the surface. sympathy with other people. Examples of empathogens include
amphetamines and MDMA.
Psychoactive drugs are substances that change the function of the
brain and result in alterations of mood, thinking, perception, and/or
behavior. Psychoactive drugs may be used for many purposes,
including therapeutic, ritual, or recreational purposes. Besides caffeine,
other examples of psychoactive drugs include cocaine, LSD, alcohol,
tobacco, codeine, and morphine. Psychoactive drugs may be legal
prescription medications (e.g., codeine and morphine), legal
nonprescription drugs (e.g., alcohol and tobacco), or illegal drugs
(cocaine and LSD).

Figure 11.8.3 : Ecstasy (MDMA) is most commonly taken in tablet

form, like the colorful and decorated tablets shown here.
Many psychoactive drugs have multiple effects so they may be placed
in more than one class. An example is MDMA, pictured below, which
may act both as a euphoriant and as an empathogen. In some people,
MDMA may also have stimulant or hallucinogenic effects. As of 2016,
MDMA had no accepted medical uses, but it was undergoing testing
for use in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder and certain
other types of anxiety disorders.
Figure 11.8.2 : Advertising for legal psychoactive drugs is ubiquitous.
Cannabis (or marijuana) is also a psychoactive drug, but its status is in MECHANISMS OF ACTION
flux, at least in the United States. Depending on the jurisdiction, Psychoactive drugs generally produce their effects by affecting brain
cannabis may be used recreationally and/or medically, and it may be chemistry, which in turn may cause changes in a person’s mood,
either legal or illegal. Legal prescription medications such as opioids thinking, perception, and/or behavior. Each drug tends to have a
are also used illegally by increasingly large numbers of people. Some specific action on one or more neurotransmitters or neurotransmitter
legal drugs, such as alcohol and nicotine, are readily available almost receptors in the brain. Generally, they act as either agonists or
everywhere, as illustrated by the sign pictured in Figure 11.8.2. antagonists.
Agonists are drugs that increase the activity of particular
CLASSES OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS neurotransmitters. They might act by promoting the synthesis of the
Psychoactive drugs are divided into different classes according to their neurotransmitters, reducing their reuptake from synapses, or
pharmacological effects. Several classes are listed below, along with mimicking their action by binding to receptors for the
examples of commonly used drugs in each class. neurotransmitters.

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 Antagonists are drugs that decrease the activity of particular Various other psychoactive drugs — including jimsonweed, psilocybin
neurotransmitters. They might act by interfering with the synthesis mushrooms, and cannabis — have also been used by various peoples
of the neurotransmitters or by blocking their receptors so the for ritual purposes for millennia.
neurotransmitters cannot bind to them.
Consider the example of the neurotransmitter GABA. This is one of the
most common neurotransmitters in the brain, and it normally has an
inhibitory effect on cells. GABA agonists, which increase its activity,
include ethanol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines, among other
psychoactive drugs. All of these drugs work by promoting the activity
of GABA receptors in the brain.

USES OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS

You may have been prescribed psychoactive drugs by your doctor. For
example, you may have been prescribed an opioid drug such as codeine
Figure 11.8.5 : The peyote cactus contains a hallucinogenic drug that is
for pain (most likely in the form of Tylenol with added codeine). still used by some Native Americans for religious rituals.
Chances are you also use nonprescription psychoactive drugs, such as
caffeine for mental alertness. These are just two of the many possible RECREATIONAL USES
uses of psychoactive drugs. The recreational use of psychoactive drugs generally has the purpose of
altering one’s consciousness and creating a feeling of euphoria
MEDICAL USES commonly called a “high.” Some of the drugs used most commonly for
recreational purposes include cannabis, ethanol, opioids, and stimulants
such as nicotine. Hallucinogens are also used recreationally, primarily
for the alterations in thinking and perception that they cause.
Some investigators have suggested that the urge to alter one’s state of
consciousness is a universal human drive, similar to the drive to satiate
thirst, hunger, or sexual desire. They think that the drive to alter one’s
state of mind is even present in children, who may attain an altered
state by repetitive motions such as spinning or swinging. Some
nonhuman animals also exhibit a drive to experience altered states. For
example, they may consume fermented berries or fruit and become
Figure 11.8.4 : This child is being prepared to receive a general intoxicated. The way cats respond to catnip (Figure 11.8.6) is another
anesthetic prior to surgery example.
Medical uses of psychoactive drugs include general anesthesia, in
which pain is blocked and unconsciousness is induced. General
anesthetics are most often used during surgical procedures and may be
administered in gaseous form, as in the photo below. General
anesthetics include the drugs halothane and ketamine. Other
psychoactive drugs are used to manage pain without affecting
consciousness. They may be prescribed either for acute pain in cases of
trauma such as broken bones; or for chronic pain such as pain caused
by arthritis, cancer, or fibromyalgia. Most often, the drugs used for
pain control are opioids, such as morphine and codeine.
Many psychiatric disorders are also managed with psychoactive drugs.
For example, antidepressants such as sertraline are used to treat
depression, anxiety, and eating disorders. Anxiety disorders may also
be treated with anxiolytics, such as buspirone and diazepam.
Stimulants such as amphetamines are used to treat attention deficit
Figure 11.8.6 : This cat is holding a catnip toy and apparently enjoying
disorder. Antipsychotics such as clozapine and risperidone, as well as its psychoactive effects.
mood stabilizers such as lithium, are used to treat schizophrenia and
bipolar disorder. ADDICTION, DEPENDENCE, AND REHABILITATION
Psychoactive substances often bring about subjective changes that the
RITUAL USES user may find pleasant (for example, euphoria) or advantageous (for
Certain psychoactive drugs, particularly hallucinogens, have been used example, increased alertness). These changes are rewarding and
for ritual purposes since prehistoric times. For example, Native positively reinforcing, so they have the potential for misuse, addiction,
Americans have used the mescaline-containing peyote cactus (pictured and dependence. Addiction refers to the compulsive use of a drug
below) for religious ceremonies for as long as 5,700 years. In despite the negative consequences that such use may entail. Sustained
prehistoric Europe, the mushroom Amanita muscaria, which contains a use of an addictive drug may produce dependence on the drug.
hallucinogenic drug called muscimol, was used for similar purposes. Dependence may be physical and/or psychological. It occurs when

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cessation of drug use produces withdrawal symptoms. Physical prescriptions for these drugs had risen to 219 million, an almost
dependence produces physical withdrawal symptoms, which may three-fold increase. During these same two decades, Mexican drug
include tremors, pain, seizures, or insomnia. Psychological dependence cartels began shipping huge amounts of heroin to the United States.
produces psychological withdrawal symptoms, such as anxiety, Heroin became cheaper and easier to buy than prescription
depression, paranoia, or hallucinations. painkillers. Many people who became addicted to prescription
Rehabilitation for drug dependence and addiction typically involves opioids switched to heroin. About 80 percent of new heroin users in
psychotherapy, which may include both individual and group therapy. 2014 reported started out misusing prescription painkillers.
Organizations such as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Narcotics Doctors, public health professionals, and politicians have all called
Anonymous (NA) may also be helpful for people trying to recover for new policies, funding, programs, and laws to address the opioid
from addiction. These groups are self-described as international mutual epidemic. Changes that have already been made include a shift
aid fellowships with the primary purpose of helping addicts achieve from criminalizing to medicalizing the problem, an increase in
and maintain sobriety. In some cases, rehabilitation is aided by the treatment programs, and more widespread distribution and use of
temporary use of psychoactive substances that reduce cravings and the opioid-overdose antidote naloxone (Narcan). Opioids can slow
withdrawal symptoms without creating addiction themselves. For or stop a person's breathing, which is what usually causes overdose
example, the drug methadone is commonly used in the treatment of deaths. Naloxone helps the person wake up and keeps them
heroin addiction. breathing until emergency medical treatment can be provided.
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS What, if anything, will work to stop the opioid epidemic in the
Currently in the United States, a lot of media attention is being United States? Keep watching the news to find out.
given to a rising tide of opioid addiction and overdose deaths.
Opioids are drugs derived from the opium poppy or synthetic REVIEW
versions of such drugs. They include illegal drug heroin and 1. What are psychoactive drugs?
prescription painkillers such as codeine, morphine, hydrocodone, 2. Identify six classes of psychoactive drugs and an example of a drug
oxycodone, and fentanyl. In 2016, fentanyl received wide media in each class.
attention when it was announced that an accidental fentanyl 3. Compare and contrast psychoactive drugs that are agonists and
overdose was responsible for the death of rock-music icon Prince. psychoactive drugs that are antagonists.
Fentanyl is an extremely strong and dangerous drug, said to be 50 4. Describe two medical uses of psychoactive drugs.
to 100 times stronger than morphine, making the risk of overdose 5. Give an example of a ritual use of a psychoactive drug.
death from fentanyl very high. 6. Why do people generally use psychoactive drugs recreationally?
The dramatic increase in opioid addiction and overdose deaths has 7. Define addiction.
been called an opioid epidemic. It is considered to be the worst 8. Identify possible withdrawal symptoms associated with physical
drug crisis in American history. Consider the following facts: dependence on a psychoactive drug.
In 1999, there were more than twice as many accidental deaths 9. Why might a person with a heroin addiction be prescribed the
from motor vehicle crashes than from drug overdoses. By 2014, psychoactive drug methadone?
these causes of accidental death were reversed, with close to 40 10. The prescription drug Prozac inhibits the reuptake of the
percent more accidental deaths from drug overdoses than car neurotransmitter serotonin, causing more serotonin to be present in
crashes. The majority of these drug overdose deaths were from the synapse. Prozac can elevate mood, which is why it is sometimes
heroin and opioid painkillers. used to treat depression. Answer the following questions about
In 1999, the stimulant drug cocaine killed about twice as many Prozac.
people as did heroin. By 2014, deaths from heroin were up by A. Is Prozac an agonist or an antagonist for serotonin? Explain
439 percent. During the same interval, deaths from cocaine also your answer.
rose slightly but were a much smaller proportion of all drug B. Is Prozac a psychoactive drug? Explain your answer.
deaths than those caused by heroin. 11. Name 3 classes of psychoactive drugs that include opioids.
In 2014, 4.8 million Americans reported using heroin at some
12. True or False. All psychoactive drugs are either illegal or available
point in their lives, and 4.3 million reported using prescription
by prescription only.
painkillers non-medically in the previous month.
13. True or False. Anxiolytics might be prescribed by a physician.
The opioid epidemic in the United States has occurred in all 14. Name two drugs that activate receptors for the neurotransmitter
demographic groups, including every ethnic, age, gender, and GABA. Why do you think these drugs generally have a depressant
socioeconomic category. What has caused this epidemic? The effect?
answer appears to be an equally dramatic increase in the medical
use of prescription painkillers. In 1991, about 76 million EXPLORE MORE
prescriptions were written for painkillers. In 2011, the number of https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17088#Explore_More

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11.9: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: MEMORY AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: FADING MEMORY
Figure 11.9.1 illustrates some of the molecular and cellular changes
that occur in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), which Rosa was diagnosed
with at the beginning of this chapter, after experiencing memory
problems and other changes in her cognitive functioning, mood, and
personality. These abnormal changes in the brain include the Figure 11.9.2 : Illustration showing the areas of the brain that become
development of amyloid plaques between brain cells and damaged as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) progresses. This is a side view
along the middle of the brain, with the front of the brain shown to the
neurofibrillary tangles inside of neurons. These hallmark left. Damaged are (blue shade) is widespread in severe AD.
characteristics of AD are associated with the loss of synapses between
You can see that the damage starts in a relatively small location
neurons, and ultimately the death of neurons.
towards the bottom of the brain. One of the earliest brain areas to be
affected by AD is the hippocampus. The hippocampus is important for
learning and memory. This explains why many of Rosa’s symptoms of
mild AD involve deficits in memory, such as trouble remembering
where she placed objects, recent conversations, and appointments.
As AD progresses, more of the brain is affected, including areas
involved in emotional regulation, social behavior, planning, language,
spatial navigation, and higher-level thought. Rosa is beginning to show
signs of problems in these areas, including irritability, lashing out at
family members, getting lost in her neighborhood, problems finding
the right words, putting objects in unusual locations, and difficulty in
managing her finances. You can see that as AD progresses, damage
spreads further across the cerebrum, which you now know controls
conscious functions such as reasoning, language, and interpretation of
sensory stimuli. You can also see how the frontal lobe, which controls
executive functions such as planning, self-control, and abstract thought,
becomes increasingly damaged.
Increasing damage to the brain causes corresponding deficits in
Figure 11.9.1 : Characteristics of Alzheimer's disease. On a functioning. In moderate AD, patients have increased memory,
microscopic level, some of the changes that happen are depicted above. language, and cognitive deficits compared to mild AD. They may not
For example, the neurons lose connections, plaque accumulates,
recognize their own family members, and may wander and get lost,
microtubes disintegrate, and much more.
engage in inappropriate behaviors, become easily agitated, and have
After reading this chapter, you should have a good appreciation for the
trouble carrying out daily activities such as dressing. In severe AD,
importance of keeping neurons alive and communicating with each
much of the brain is affected. Patients usually cannot recognize family
other at synapses. The nervous system coordinates all of the body’s
members or communicate and are fully dependent on others for their
voluntary and involuntary activities. It interprets information from the
care. They begin to lose the ability to control their basic functions, such
outside world through sensory systems and makes appropriate
as bladder and bowel control and proper swallowing. Eventually, AD
responses through the motor system, through communication between
causes death, usually as a result of this loss of basic functions.
the PNS and CNS. The brain directs the rest of the nervous system and
controls everything from basic vital functions such as heart rate and For now, Rosa only has mild AD is still able to function relatively well
breathing to high-level functions such as problem-solving and abstract with care from her family. The medication her doctor gave her has
thought. The nervous system is able to perform these important helped improve some of her symptoms. It is a cholinesterase inhibitor,
functions by generating action potentials in neurons in response to which blocks an enzyme that normally degrades the neurotransmitter
stimulation and sending messages between cells at synapses, typically acetylcholine. With more of the neurotransmitter available, more of it
using chemical neurotransmitter molecules. When neurons are not can bind to neurotransmitter receptors on postsynaptic cells. Therefore,
functioning properly, lose their synapses, or die, they cannot carry out this drug acts as an agonist for acetylcholine, which enhances
the signaling that is essential for the proper functioning of the nervous communication between neurons in Rosa’s brain. This increase in
system. neuronal communication can help restore some of the functions lost in
early Alzheimer’s disease and may slow the progression of symptoms.
AD is a progressive neurodegenerative disease, meaning that the
damage to the brain becomes more extensive as time goes on. Figure But medication such as this is only a short-term measure and does not
11.9.2 illustrates how the damage progresses from before AD is
halt the progression of the underlying disease. Ideally, the damaged or
diagnosed (preclinical AD), to mild and moderate AD, and finally to dead neurons would be replaced by new, functioning neurons. Why
severe AD. does this not happen automatically in the body? As you have learned,
neurogenesis is very limited in adult humans, so once neurons in the
brain die, they are not normally replaced to any significant extent.
However, scientists are studying the ways in which neurogenesis might

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be able to be increased in cases of disease or injury to the brain. Also, junction at the end of an axon terminal that transmits signals to
they are investigating the possibility of using stem cell transplants to another cell.
replace damaged or dead neurons with new neurons. But this research Axons are often wrapped in an electrically-insulating myelin
is in very early stages and is not currently a treatment for AD. sheath, which is produced by glial cells. Electrical impulses called
One promising area of research is in the development of methods to action potentials occur at gaps in the myelin sheath, called nodes of
allow earlier detection and treatment of AD, given that the changes in Ranvier, which speeds the conduction of nerve impulses down the
the brain may actually start 10 to 20 years before the diagnosis of AD. axon.
For example, a radiolabeled chemical called Pittsburgh Compound B Neurogenesis, or the formation of new neurons by cell division,
(PiB) binds to amyloid plaques in the brain and in the future may be may occur in a mature human brain but only to a limited extent.
used in conjunction with brain imaging techniques to detect early signs The nervous tissue in the brain and spinal cord consists of gray
of AD. Scientists are also looking for biomarkers in bodily fluids such matter, which contains mainly the cell bodies of neurons; and white
as blood and cerebrospinal fluid that might indicate the presence of AD matter, which contains mainly myelinated axons of neurons. Nerves
before symptoms appear. Finally, researchers are also investigating of the peripheral nervous system consist of long bundles of
possible early and subtle symptoms, such as changes in how people myelinated axons that extend throughout the body.
move or a loss of smell, to see whether they can be used to identify There are hundreds of types of neurons in the human nervous
people who will go on to develop AD. This research is in the early system, but many can be classified on the basis of the direction in
stages, but the hope is that patients can be identified earlier to provide which they carry nerve impulses. Sensory neurons carry nerve
earlier and possibly more effective treatment and to allow families impulses away from the body and toward the central nervous
more time to plan. system, motor neurons carry them away from the central nervous
system and toward the body, and interneurons often carry them
Scientists are also still trying to fully understand the causes of AD,
between sensory and motor neurons.
which affects more than 5 million Americans. Some genetic mutations
A nerve impulse is an electrical phenomenon that occurs because of
have been identified that play a role, but environmental factors also
a difference in electrical charge across the plasma membrane of a
appear to be important. With more research into the causes and
neuron.
mechanisms of AD, hopefully, a cure can be found, and people like
The sodium-potassium pump maintains an electrical gradient across
Rosa can live a longer and better life.
the plasma membrane of a neuron when it is not actively
CHAPTER SUMMARY transmitting a nerve impulse. This gradient is called the resting
potential of the neuron.
In this chapter, you learned about the human nervous system.
An action potential is a sudden reversal of the electrical gradient
Specifically, you learned that:
across the plasma membrane of a resting neuron. It begins when the
The nervous system is the organ system that coordinates all of the neuron receives a chemical signal from another cell or some other
body’s voluntary and involuntary actions by transmitting signals to type of stimulus. The action potential travels rapidly down the
and from different parts of the body. It has two major divisions, the neuron’s axon as an electric current.
central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system A nerve impulse is transmitted to another cell at either an electrical
(PNS). or a chemical synapse. At a chemical synapse, neurotransmitter
The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord. chemicals are released from the presynaptic cell into the synaptic
The PNS consists mainly of nerves that connect the CNS with the cleft between cells. The chemicals travel across the cleft to the
rest of the body. It has two major divisions: the somatic nervous postsynaptic cell and bind to receptors embedded in its membrane.
system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic system There are many different types of neurotransmitters. Their effects
controls activities that are under voluntary control. The autonomic on the postsynaptic cell generally depend on the type of receptor
system controls activities that are involuntary. they bind to. The effects may be excitatory, inhibitory, or
The autonomic nervous system is further divided into the modulatory in more complex ways. Both physical and mental
sympathetic division, which controls the fight-or-flight response; disorders may occur if there are problems with neurotransmitters or
the parasympathetic division, which controls most routine their receptors.
involuntary responses; and the enteric division, which provides The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord. It is physically
local control for digestive processes. protected by bones, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid. It is
Signals sent by the nervous system are electrical signals called chemically protected by the blood-brain barrier.
nerve impulses. They are transmitted by special, electrically The brain is the control center of the nervous system and of the
excitable cells called neurons, which are one of two major types of entire organism. The brain uses a relatively large proportion of the
cells in the nervous system. body’s energy, primarily in the form of glucose.
Glial cells are the other major type of nervous system cells. There The brain is divided into three major parts, each with different
are many types of glial cells, and they have many specific functions: brain stem, cerebellum, and cerebrum. The cerebrum is
functions. In general, glial cells function to support, protect, and further divided into left and right hemispheres. Each hemisphere
nourish neurons. has four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. Each lobe
The main parts of a neuron include the cell body, dendrites, and is associated with specific senses or other functions.
axon. The cell body contains the nucleus. Dendrites receive nerve The cerebrum has a thin outer layer called the cerebral cortex. Its
impulses from other cells, and the axon transmits nerve impulses to many folds give it a large surface area. This is where most
other cells at axon terminals. A synapse is a complex membrane information processing takes place.

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 Inner structures of the brain include the hypothalamus, which Psychoactive drugs are substances that change the function of the
controls the endocrine system via the pituitary gland; and the brain and result in alterations of mood, thinking, perception, and/or
thalamus, which has several involuntary functions. behavior. They include prescription medications such as opioid
The spinal cord is a tubular bundle of nervous tissues that extends painkillers, legal substances such as nicotine and alcohol, and
from the head down the middle of the back to the pelvis. It illegal drugs such as LSD and heroin.
functions mainly to connect the brain with the PNS. It also controls Psychoactive drugs are divided into different classes according to
certain rapid responses called reflexes without input from the brain. their pharmacological effects. They include stimulants, depressants,
A spinal cord injury may lead to paralysis (loss of sensation and anxiolytics, euphoriants, hallucinogens, and empathogens. Many
movement) of the body below the level of the injury because nerve psychoactive drugs have multiple effects so they may be placed in
impulses can no longer travel up and down the spinal cord beyond more than one class.
that point. Psychoactive drugs generally produce their effects by affecting
The PNS consists of all the nervous tissue that lies outside of the brain chemistry. Generally, they act either as agonists, which
CNS. Its main function is to connect the CNS to the rest of the enhance the activity of particular neurotransmitters; or as
organism. antagonists, which decrease the activity of particular
The tissues that make up the PNS are nerves and ganglia. Ganglia neurotransmitters.
act as relay points for messages that are transmitted through nerves. Psychoactive drugs are used for various purposes, including
Nerves are classified as sensory, motor, or a mix of the two. medical, ritual, and recreational purposes.
The PNS is not as well protected physically or chemically as the Misuse of psychoactive drugs may lead to addiction, which is the
CNS, so it is more prone to injury and disease. PNS problems compulsive use of a drug despite negative consequences. Sustained
include injury from diabetes, shingles, and heavy metal poisoning. use of an addictive drug may produce physical or psychological
Two disorders of the PNS are Guillain-Barre syndrome and dependence on the drug. Rehabilitation typically involves
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease. psychotherapy and sometimes the temporary use of other
The human body has two major types of senses, special senses, and psychoactive drugs.
general senses. Special senses have specialized sense organs and
In addition to the nervous system, there is another system of the body
include vision (eyes), hearing (ears), balance (ears), taste (tongue),
that is important for coordinating and regulating many different
and smell (nasal passages). General senses are all associated with
functions – the endocrine system. You will learn about the endocrine
touch and lack special sense organs. Touch receptors are found
system in the next chapter.
throughout the body but particularly in the skin.
All senses depend on sensory receptor cells to detect sensory CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW
stimuli and transform them into nerve impulses. Types of sensory
1. Imagine that you decide to make a movement. To carry out this
receptors include mechanoreceptors (mechanical forces),
decision, a neuron in the cerebral cortex of your brain (neuron A)
thermoreceptors (temperature), nociceptors (pain), photoreceptors
fires a nerve impulse that is sent to a neuron in your spinal cord
(light), and chemoreceptors (chemicals).
(neuron B). Neuron B then sends the signal to a muscle cell,
Touch includes the ability to sense pressure, vibration, temperature,
causing it to contract, resulting in movement. Answer the following
pain, and other tactile stimuli. The skin includes several different
questions about this pathway.
types of touch receptor cells.
a. Which part of the brain is neuron A located in — the
Vision is the ability to sense light and see. The eye is the special
cerebellum, cerebrum, or brain stem? Explain how you know.
sensory organ that collects and focuses light, forms images, and
b. The cell body of neuron A is located in a lobe of the brain that is
changes them to nerve impulses. Optic nerves send information
involved in abstract thought, problem-solving and planning.
from the eyes to the brain, which processes the visual information
Which lobe is this?
and “tells” us what we are seeing.
c. Part of neuron A travels all the way down to the spinal cord to
Common vision problems include myopia (nearsightedness),
meet neuron B. Which part of neuron A travels to the spinal
hyperopia (farsightedness), and presbyopia (age-related decline in
cord?
close vision).
d. Neuron A forms a chemical synapse with neuron B in the spinal
Hearing is the ability to sense sound waves, and the ear is the organ
cord. How is the signal from neuron A transmitted to neuron B?
that senses sound. It changes sound waves to vibrations that trigger
e. Is neuron A in the central nervous system (CNS) or peripheral
nerve impulses, which travel to the brain through the auditory
nervous system (PNS)?
nerve. The brain processes the information and “tells” us what we
f. The axon of neuron B travels in a nerve to a skeletal muscle
are hearing.
cell. Is the nerve part of the CNS or PNS? Is this an afferent
The ear is also the organ that is responsible for the sense of balance,
nerve or an efferent nerve?
which is the ability to sense and maintain an appropriate body
g. What part of the PNS is involved in this pathway — the
position. The ears send impulses on head position to the brain,
autonomic nervous system or the somatic nervous system?
which sends messages to skeletal muscle via the peripheral nervous
Explain your answer.
system. The muscles respond by contracting to maintain balance.
Taste and smell are both abilities to sense chemicals. Taste 2. What are the differences between a neurotransmitter receptor and a
receptors in taste buds on the tongue sense chemicals in food and sensory receptor?
olfactory receptors in the nasal passages sense chemicals in the air. 3. Which part of a postsynaptic neuron typically receives the signals
The sense of smell contributes significantly to the sense of taste. from a presynaptic neuron?
A. The axon terminal

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 B. The nodes of Ranvier 12. Compare and contrast Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes.
C. The dendrites 13. True or False. The cerebellum makes up most of the brain and is
D. The cell body divided into four lobes.
4. True or False. Glial cells produce action potentials. 14. True or False. The hypothalamus is part of the brain.
5. True or False. The spinal cord consists of white matter only. 15. Which lobe of the brain processes touch information?
6. True or False. Axons may be more than a meter long in adult A. Parietal
humans. B. Occipital
7. If a person has a stroke and as a result has trouble using language C. Cochlea
correctly, which hemisphere of their brain was most likely D. Temporal
damaged? Explain your answer. 16. Information about sounds is mainly sent to which lobe of the brain?
8. The right side of the brain generally controls the which side of the A. Parietal
body? B. Occipital
A. right side C. Cochlea
B. left side D. Temporal
C. head region 17. Rods and cones in the retina are:
D. trunk and leg regions
A. Mechanoreceptors
9. Electrical gradients are responsible for the resting potential and
B. Nociceptors
action potential in neurons. Answer the following questions about
C. Photoreceptors
the electrical characteristics of neurons.
D. Chemoreceptors
a. Define what an electrical gradient is, in the context of a cell.
18. For the senses of smell and hearing, name their respective sensory
b. What is responsible for maintaining the electrical gradient that
receptor cells, what type of receptor cells they are, and what stimuli
results in the resting potential?
they detect.
c. Compare and contrast the resting potential and the action
19. True or False. Sensory information such as smell, taste, and sound,
potential.
are carried to the CNS by cranial nerves.
d. Where along a myelinated axon does the action potential occur?
20. True or False. The parasympathetic nervous system is a division of
Why does it happen here?
the central nervous system.
10. What does it mean that the action potential is “all-or-none?”
11. What determines whether a neurotransmitter has an excitatory or ATTRIBUTIONS
inhibitory effect? Choose the best answer. 1. Characteristics of AD by National Institute on Aging, National
A. The neurotransmitter itself Institutes of Health; public domain via Wikimedia Commons
B. The specific receptor for the neurotransmitter on the 2. Alzheimer’s Disease, Spreads through the Brain by National
postsynaptic cell Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health; public domain via
C. The number of synaptic vesicles in the axon terminal Flickr.com
D. Whether it is in a sensory neuron or a motor neuron 3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
12: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
This chapter describes the endocrine system and its vital roles in communication, control, and
homeostasis within the human body. The focus is on the pituitary gland, as the master gland of the
endocrine system, and three other endocrine glands: the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and pancreas.
The chapter also explains the differing mechanisms of steroid and non-steroid endocrine hormones.

12.1: CASE STUDY: HORMONES AND HEALTH

18 year-old Gabrielle checks her calendar. It has been 42 days since her last menstrual period, two
weeks later than the length of the average woman's menstrual cycle. Although many women would
suspect pregnancy if their period was late, Gabrielle has not been sexually active.

12.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The patient in this photo has the characteristic moon face of a disorder named Cushing's syndrome.

12.3: ENDOCRINE HORMONES

The medication pictured above with the brand name Progynon was a drug used to control the effects of menopause in women.

12.4: PITUITARY GLAND

This adorable nursing infant is part of a positive feedback loop. When he suckles on the nipple, it sends nerve impulses to his
mother’s hypothalamus, which "tell" her pituitary gland to release the hormone prolactin into her bloodstream.

12.5: THYROID GLAND

A goiter is an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland, which is located in the neck. The formation of a goiter may occur in a
number of different thyroid disorders. You'll learn why in this concept.

12.6: ADRENAL GLANDS

The adrenal glands are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones. Adrenal hormones include the fight-or-flight hormone
adrenaline and the steroid hormone cortisol. The two adrenal glands are located on both sides of the body, just above the kidneys. The
right adrenal gland is smaller and has a pyramidal shape. The left adrenal gland is larger and has a half-moon shape.

12.7: PANCREAS
Giving yourself an injection can be difficult, but for someone with diabetes, it may be a matter of life or death. The person in the
photo has diabetes and is injecting himself with insulin, the hormone that helps control the level of glucose in the blood. Insulin is
produced by the pancreas.

12.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: HORMONAL AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

Gabrielle, who you read about in the beginning of this chapter, has polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). PCOS is named for the
multiple fluid-filled sacs, or cysts, that are present in the ovaries of women with this syndrome. You can see these cysts in the
illustration above, which compares a normal ovary with a polycystic ovary. The cysts result from follicles in the ovary that did not
properly produce and release an egg. Mature eggs are normally released from follicles monthly during the process

1 4/25/2021
12.1: CASE STUDY: HORMONES AND HEALTH
regulated properly. At the end of the chapter, you will learn more about
CASE STUDY: HORMONAL HAVOC PCOS, its possible long-term consequences including fertility problems
18-year-old Gabrielle checks her calendar. It has been 42 days since and diabetes, and how these negative outcomes can sometimes be
her last menstrual period, two weeks later than the length of the prevented with lifestyle changes and medications.
average woman’s menstrual cycle. Although many women would
suspect pregnancy if their period was late, Gabrielle has not been CHAPTER OVERVIEW: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
sexually active. She is not even sure she is “late” because her period In this chapter, you will learn about the endocrine system, a system of
has never been regular. Ever since her first period at 13 years of age, glands that secrete hormones that regulate many of the body’s
her cycle lengths have varied greatly, and there are months where she functions. Specifically, you will learn about:
does not get a period at all. Her mother told her that a girl’s period is The glands that make up the endocrine system and how hormones
often irregular when it first starts, but Gabrielle’s still has not become act as chemical messengers in the body.
regular five years later. She decides to go to the student health center The general types of endocrine system disorders.
on her college campus to get it checked out. The types of endocrine hormones, including steroid hormones such
as sex hormones, and non-steroid hormones such as insulin; and
how they affect the functions of their target cells by binding to
different types of receptor proteins.
How the levels of hormones are regulated mostly through negative,
but sometimes through positive, feedback loops.
The master gland of the endocrine system, the pituitary gland,
controls other parts of the endocrine system through the hormones
that it secretes; and how the pituitary itself is regulated by
hormones secreted from the hypothalamus of the brain.
The thyroid gland and its hormones, which regulate processes such
as metabolism and calcium homeostasis; how the thyroid is
regulated; and the disorders that can occur when there are problems
in thyroid hormone regulation, such as hyperthyroidism and
Figure 12.1.1 : Calendar
hypothyroidism.
The doctor asks her about the timing of her menstrual periods and The adrenal glands, which secrete hormones that regulate processes
performs a pelvic exam. She also notices that Gabrielle is overweight, such as metabolism, electrolyte balance, responses to stress, and
has acne, and excess facial hair. As she explains to Gabrielle, while reproductive functions; and the disorders that can occur when there
these physical characteristics can be perfectly normal, in combination are problems in adrenal hormone regulation, such as Cushing’s
with an irregular period they can be signs of a disorder of the syndrome and Addison’s disease.
endocrine, or hormonal, system called polycystic ovary syndrome The pancreas, which secretes hormones that regulate blood glucose
(PCOS). levels such as insulin; and disorders of the pancreas and its
In order to check for PCOS, the doctor refers Gabrielle for a pelvic hormones including diabetes.
ultrasound and sends her to the lab to get blood work done. When her
As you read this chapter, think about the following questions:
lab results come back, Gabrielle learns that her levels of androgens (a
group of hormones) are high, and so is her blood glucose (sugar). The 1. Why can hormones have such a broad-range effect on the body,
ultrasound showed that she has multiple fluid-filled sacs known as such as is seen in PCOS?
cysts in her ovaries. Based on Gabrielle’s symptoms and test results, 2. Which hormones normally regulate blood glucose and how is this
the doctor tells her that she does indeed have PCOS. related to diabetes?
3. What are androgens? How do you think their functions relate to
PCOS is common in young women. It is estimated that between 1 in 10
some of the symptoms that Gabrielle is experiencing?
to 20 women of childbearing age have PCOS — as many as five
million women in the United States. You may know someone with ATTRIBUTIONS
PCOS or may have it yourself.
1. Calendar by Andreanna Moya CC BY 2.0 via flickr.com
Read the rest of this chapter to learn about the glands and hormones of 2. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
the endocrine system, their functions, how they are regulated, and the 3.0
disorders — such as PCOS — that can arise when hormones are not

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12.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
MOON FACE
The patient in Figure 12.2.1 has the characteristic moon face of a
disorder named Cushing’s syndrome. Other signs and symptoms of
this disorder include abnormal weight gain, acne, and excessive
hairiness, among many other abnormalities. What can cause so
many different problems in one patient? The answer is the
overproduction of the endocrine system hormone cortisol.

Figure 12.2.2 : Pineal gland, hypothalamus, Pituitary gland, Thyroid,

Thymus, Pancreas, Adrenal gland, over and testes are part of the
Figure 12.2.1 : a person with Cushing's syndrome endocrine system. Note that the ovary and testis are the only endocrine
glands that differ in males and females
OVERVIEW OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
PITUITARY GLAND
The endocrine system is a system of glands called endocrine glands
The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain. It is controlled by
that release chemical messenger molecules into the bloodstream. The
the nervous system via the brain structure called the hypothalamus, to
messenger molecules of the endocrine system are called endocrine
which it is connected by a thin stalk. The pituitary gland consists of
hormones. Other glands of the body, including sweat glands and
two lobes, called the anterior (front) lobe and posterior (back) lobe.
salivary glands, also secrete substances but not into the bloodstream.
The posterior lobe stores and secretes hormones synthesized by the
Instead, they secrete them through ducts that carry them to nearby body
hypothalamus. The anterior lobe synthesizes and secretes its own
surfaces. These other glands are not part of the endocrine system.
endocrine hormones, also under the influence of the hypothalamus.
Instead, they are called exocrine glands.
One endocrine hormone secreted by the pituitary gland is growth
Endocrine hormones act slowly compared with the rapid transmission
hormone, which stimulates cells throughout the body to synthesize
of electrical messages by the nervous system. Endocrine hormones
proteins and divide. Most of the other endocrine hormones secreted by
must travel through the bloodstream to the cells they affect, and this
the pituitary gland control other endocrine glands. Generally, these
takes time. On the other hand, because endocrine hormones are
hormones direct the other glands to secrete either more or less of their
released into the bloodstream, they travel throughout the body
hormones. This is why the pituitary gland is often referred to as the
wherever blood flows. As a result, endocrine hormones may affect
“master gland” of the endocrine system.
many cells and have body-wide effects. The effects of endocrine
hormones are also longer lasting than the effects of nervous system REMAINING GLANDS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
messages. Endocrine hormones may cause effects that last for days, Each of the other glands of the endocrine system is summarized below.
weeks, or even months. Several of these endocrine glands are also discussed in greater detail in
other concepts in the present chapter.
GLANDS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The thyroid gland is a large gland in the neck. Thyroid hormones
The major glands of the endocrine system are shown in Figure 12.2.2. such as thyroxine increase the rate of metabolism in cells
The glands in the figure are described briefly in the rest of this section. throughout the body. They control how quickly cells use energy and
Refer to the figure as you read about the glands in the following text. make proteins.
The four parathyroid glands are located in the neck behind the
thyroid gland. The parathyroid hormone helps keep the level of
calcium in the blood within a narrow range. It stimulates bone cells
to dissolve calcium and release it into the blood.
The pineal gland is a tiny gland located near the center of the brain.
It secretes the hormone melatonin, which controls the sleep-wake
cycle and several other processes. The production of melatonin is
stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light. Cells in the retina of
the eye detect light and send signals to a structure in the brain
named the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Nerve fibers carry the

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 signals from the SCN to the pineal gland via the autonomic nervous close to 500 pounds. He was normal in size at birth but started to grow
system. very rapidly by about age 6 years, presumably because of the
The pancreas is located near the stomach. Its endocrine hormones hypersecretion of growth hormone.
include insulin and glucagon, which work together to control the
level of glucose in the blood. The pancreas also secretes digestive HYPOSECRETION
enzymes into the small intestine. Hyposecretion by an endocrine gland is often caused by the destruction
The two adrenal glands are located above the kidneys. Adrenal of the hormone-secreting cells of the gland. As a result, not enough of
glands secrete several different endocrine hormones, including the the hormone is secreted. An example of this is type 1 diabetes, in
hormone adrenaline, which is involved in the fight-or-flight which the body’s own immune system attacks and destroys cells of the
response. Other endocrine hormones secreted by the adrenal glands pancreas that secrete insulin. This type of diabetes is generally treated
have a variety of functions. For example, the hormone aldosterone with frequent injections of insulin.
helps to regulate the balance of minerals in the body. The hormone
HORMONE INSENSITIVITY
cortisol, which causes Cushing's syndrome when it is produced in
In some cases, an endocrine gland secretes a normal amount of
excess, is also an adrenal gland hormone.
hormone, but target cells do not respond normally to it. This may occur
The gonads include the ovaries in females and testes in males. They
because target cells have become resistant to the hormone. An example
secrete sex hormones, such as testosterone (in males) and estrogen
of this type of endocrine disorder is Androgen Insensitivity Disorder.
(in females). These hormones control sexual maturation during
Individuals with this disorder are born with an X and Y chromosome
puberty and the production of gametes (sperm or egg cells) by the
but develop and raised as females. This is due to a mutation in the
gonads after sexual maturation.
Androgen Receptor (AR) gene which is located on the X chromosome.
The thymus gland is located in front of the heart. It is the site where
Testosterone is an androgen hormone that causes testes to descend and
immune system cells called T cells mature. T cells are critical to the
typical male characteristics to develop. People with this form of the
adaptive immune system, in which the body adapts to specific
condition have the external sex characteristics of females but do not
pathogens.
have a uterus and therefore do not menstruate and are unable to
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM DISORDERS conceive a child (infertile). They are typically raised as females and
have a female gender identity. Affected individuals have male internal
Diseases of the endocrine system are relatively common. An endocrine
sex organs (testes) that are undescended, which means they are located
system disease usually involves the secretion of too much or not
in the pelvis or abdomen.
enough of a hormone. When too much hormone is secreted, the
condition is called hypersecretion. When not enough hormone is
REVIEW
secreted, the condition is called hyposecretion.
1. What is the endocrine system? What is its general function?
HYPERSECRETION 2. Compare and contrast endocrine and exocrine glands.
3. How do endocrine system messages differ from those of the
nervous system?
4. Describe the role of the pituitary gland in the endocrine system.
5. List three endocrine glands other than the pituitary gland, and
identify their functions.
6. Which endocrine gland has an important function in the immune
system? What is that function?
7. Define hypersecretion and hyposecretion.
8. Name an endocrine disorder in which too much of a hormone is
produced.
9. What are two reasons people with diabetes might have signs and
symptoms of inadequate insulin?
10. Choose one. Cushing’s syndrome is an example of
(hyposecretion/hypersecretion).
11. True or False. The hypothalamus is the master gland of the
endocrine system.
12. True or False. Mammary glands that produce milk for offspring are
part of the endocrine system.
Figure 12.2.3 : Martin Van Buren Bates 13. Melatonin is produced by the:
Hypersecretion by an endocrine gland is often caused by a tumor. For A. A. Pituitary gland
example, a tumor of the pituitary gland can cause hypersecretion of B. B. Hypothalamus
growth hormone. If this occurs in childhood and goes untreated, it C. C. Pineal gland
results in very long arms and legs and abnormally tall stature by D. D. Pancreas
adulthood (see ). This condition is commonly known as gigantism. 14. Besides location, what is the main difference between the anterior
Martin Van Buren Bates is depicted in Figure 12.2.3 standing next to a lobe of the pituitary and the posterior lobe of the pituitary?
man of average size. Bates was a Civil War-era American famed for his 15. Which endocrine glands differ between males and females? Which
incredibly large size. He was at least 7 feet 9 inches tall and weighed hormones do they produce?

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EXPLORE MORE 2. Endocrine glands by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal CC BY-NC 3.0 via
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16789#Explore_More CK-12 Foundation
3. Martin Van Buren Bates by Magnus Manske; public domain via
ATTRIBUTIONS Wikimedia Commons
1. Cushing's face by Ozlem Celik, Mutlu Niyazoglu, Hikmet Soylu 4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
and Pinar Kadioglu CC BY 2.5 via Wikimedia Commons 3.0

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12.3: ENDOCRINE HORMONES
PILLS FROM PEE
The medication pictured above with the brand name Progynon was
a drug used to control the effects of menopause in women. The pills
first appeared in 1928 and contained the human sex hormone
estrogen. Estrogen secretion declines in women around the time of
menopause and may cause symptoms such as mood swings and hot
flashes. The pills were supposed to ease the symptoms by
supplementing estrogen in the body. The manufacturer of Progynon Figure 12.3.2 : A steroid hormone crosses the plasma membrane of a
obtained estrogen for the pills from the urine of pregnant women target cell, binds with a receptor protein within the cytoplasm, and
because it was a cheap source of the hormone. Progynon is still forms a complex that moves to the nucleus where it affects gene
used today to treat menopausal symptoms. Although the drug has expression.
been improved over the years, it still contains estrogen. Estrogen is NON-STEROID HORMONES
an example of an endocrine hormone.
A non-steroid hormone is made of amino acids. It is not fat soluble,
so it cannot diffuse across the plasma membrane of a target cell.
Instead, it binds to a receptor protein on the cell membrane. In the
following diagram, you can see that the binding of the hormone with
the receptor activates an enzyme in the cell membrane. The enzyme
then stimulates another molecule, called the second messenger, which
influences processes inside the cell. Most endocrine hormones are non-
steroid hormones. Examples include glucagon and insulin, both
produced by the pancreas.

Figure 12.3.1 : Progynon pills bottle circa 1930 UK

HOW DO ENDOCRINE HORMONES WORK?

Endocrine hormones like estrogen are messenger molecules that are
secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream. They travel
throughout the body in the circulation. Although they reach virtually
every cell in the body in this way, each hormone affects only certain
cells, called target cells. A target cell is the type of cell on which a
hormone has an effect. A target cell is affected by a particular hormone
because it has receptor proteins — either on the cell surface or within Figure 12.3.3 : A non-steroid hormone binds with a receptor protein on
the cell — that are specific to that hormone. An endocrine hormone the plasma membrane of a target cell. This activates an enzyme, which
travels through the bloodstream until it finds a target cell with a controls a secondary messenger molecule.
matching receptor to which it can bind. When the hormone binds to the
REGULATION OF ENDOCRINE HORMONES
receptor, it causes changes within the cell. The manner in which it
changes the cell depends on whether the hormone is a steroid hormone Endocrine hormones regulate many body processes, but what regulates
or a non-steroid hormone. the secretion of endocrine hormones? Most endocrine hormones are
controlled by feedback mechanisms. A feedback mechanism is a loop
STEROID HORMONES in which a product feeds back to control its own production. Feedback
A steroid hormone such as estrogen is made of lipids. It is fat soluble, loops may be either negative or positive.
so it can diffuse across a target cell’s plasma membrane, which is also Most endocrine hormones are regulated by negative feedback
made of lipids. Once inside the cell, a steroid hormone binds with loops. Negative feedback keeps the concentration of a hormone
receptor proteins in the cytoplasm. As you can see in the diagram within a relatively narrow range and maintains homeostasis.
below, the steroid hormone and its receptor form a complex, called a Very few endocrine hormones are regulated by positive feedback
steroid complex, which moves into the nucleus where it influences the loops. Positive feedback causes the concentration of a hormone to
expression of genes. Examples of steroid hormones include cortisol, become increasingly higher.
which is secreted by the adrenal glands, and sex hormones, which are
secreted by the gonads. REGULATION BY NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
A negative feedback loop controls the synthesis and secretion of
hormones by the thyroid gland. This loop includes the hypothalamus
and pituitary gland in addition to the thyroid, as shown in Figure

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12.3.4 . When the levels of thyroid hormones circulating in the blood also accelerate the development of bones and red blood cells,
fall too low, the hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin releasing hormone increase endurance so athletes can train harder and longer, and
(TRH). This hormone travels directly to the pituitary gland through the speed up muscle recovery. Unfortunately, these benefits of steroid
thin stalk connecting the two structures. In the pituitary gland, TRH use come with costs. If you ever consider taking anabolic steroids
stimulates the pituitary to secrete thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). to build muscles and improve athletic performance, consider the
TSH, in turn, travels through the bloodstream to the thyroid gland and following myths and corresponding realities.
stimulates it to secrete thyroid hormones. This continues until the Myth: Steroids are safe.
blood levels of thyroid hormones are high enough. At that point, the
Reality: Steroid use may cause several serious side effects.
thyroid hormones feedback to stop the hypothalamus from secreting
Prolonged use may increase the risk of liver cancer, heart disease,
TRH and the pituitary from secreting TSH. Without the stimulation of
and high blood pressure.
TSH, the thyroid gland stops secreting its hormones. Eventually, the
levels of thyroid hormones in the blood start to fall too low again. Myth: Steroids will not stunt your growth.
When that happens, the hypothalamus releases TRH, and the loop Reality: Teens who take steroids before they have finished growing
repeats. in height may have their growth stunted so they remain shorter
throughout life than they would otherwise have been. Such stunting
occurs because steroids increase the rate at which skeletal maturity
is reached. Once skeletal maturity occurs, additional growth in
height is impossible.
Myth: Steroids do not cause drug dependency.
Reality: Steroid use may cause dependency as evidenced by the
negative effects of stopping steroid use. These negative effects may
include insomnia, fatigue, and depressed mood, among others.
Myth: There is no such thing as “roid rage.”
Reality: Steroid use has been shown to increase aggressiveness in
some people. It has also been implicated in a number of violent acts
committed by people who had not demonstrated violent tendencies
until they started using steroids.
Myth: Only males use steroids.
Reality: Although steroid use is more common in males than
females, some females also use steroids. They use them to build
muscle and improve physical performance, generally either for
athletic competition or for self-defense.

REVIEW
1. What are endocrine hormones?
Figure 12.3.4 : This diagram shows how the thyroid gland is regulated
by a negative feedback loop that also involves the hypothalamus and 2. Define the target cell in the context of endocrine hormones.
pituitary gland. 3. Explain how steroid hormones influence target cells.
4. How do non-steroid hormones affect target cells?
REGULATION BY POSITIVE FEEDBACK
5. Compare and contrast negative and positive feedback loops.
Prolactin is a non-steroid endocrine hormone secreted by the pituitary 6. Outline the way feedback controls the production of thyroid
gland. One of the functions of prolactin is to stimulate a nursing hormones.
mother’s mammary glands to produce milk. The regulation of prolactin 7. Describe the feedback mechanism that controls milk production by
in the mother is controlled by a positive feedback loop that involves the the mammary glands.
nipples, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and mammary glands. Positive 8. Why do endocrine hormones only affect some of the cells in the
feedback begins when a baby suckles on the mother’s nipple. Nerve body? Choose the best answer.
impulses from the nipple reach the hypothalamus, which stimulates the
A. They only reach certain cells.
pituitary gland to secrete prolactin. Prolactin travels in the blood to the
B. Many hormones cannot cross the plasma membrane of cells.
mammary glands and stimulates them to produce milk. The release of
C. Some cells feedback negatively in response to a hormone.
milk causes the baby to continue suckling, which causes more prolactin
D. Only some cells have receptor proteins that can bind to a given
to be secreted and more milk to be produced. The positive feedback
hormone.
loop continues until the baby stops suckling at the breast.
9. People with a condition called hyperthyroidism produce too much
FEATURE: MYTH VS. REALITY thyroid hormone. What do you think this does to the level of TSH?
Anabolic steroids are synthetic versions of the naturally occurring Explain your answer.
male sex hormone testosterone. Male hormones have androgenic, 10. Which is more likely to maintain homeostasis — negative feedback
or masculinizing, effects, but they also have anabolic, or muscle- or positive feedback? Explain your answer.
building effects. The anabolic effects are the reason that synthetic 11. Does testosterone bind to receptors on the plasma membrane of
steroids are used by athletes. In addition to building muscles, they target cells or in the cytoplasm of target cells? Explain your answer.

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12. True or False. Endocrine hormones can affect the expression of https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16790#Explore_More
genes.
13. True or False. Non-steroid hormones cannot affect intracellular ATTRIBUTIONS
processes. 1. Glass bottle for 'Progynon' pills, United Kingdom, 1928-1948 by
14. True or False. Insulin binds to receptors on the plasma membrane Schering, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Science Museum Group Collection
of cells. 2. Steroid hormone by LadyofHats CC BY-NC 3.0 via CK-12
15. Which hormone is secreted by the pituitary gland? Foundation
A. Prolactin 3. Non-Steroid hormone by LadyofHats CC BY-NC 3.0 via CK-12
B. Insulin Foundation
C. Cortisol 4. Thyroid feedback by Rupali Raju CC BY-NC 3.0 via CK-12
D. Thyrotropin releasing hormone Foundation
5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
EXPLORE MORE 3.0

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12.4: PITUITARY GLAND
MILK ON DEMAND
This adorable nursing infant is part of a positive feedback loop. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE
When he suckles on the nipple, it sends nerve impulses to his PITUITARY GLAND
mother’s hypothalamus, which “tell” her pituitary gland to release The pituitary gland is about the size of a pea. It protrudes from the
the hormone prolactin into her bloodstream. Prolactin travels to the
bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the inner brain (Figure
mammary glands in the breasts and stimulates milk production,
12.4.2). The pituitary is connected to the hypothalamus by a thin stalk
which motivates the infant to keep suckling.
(called the infundibulum). Blood vessels and nerves in the stalk allow
direct connections between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.
The pituitary gland consists of two bulb-like lobes: an anterior lobe and
a posterior lobe (Figure 12.4.3).

Figure 12.4.3 : Both anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland
are directly connected to the hypothalamus by capillaries (anterior
lobe) and nerve axons (posterior lobe)

ANTERIOR LOBE
The anterior pituitary is at the front of the pituitary gland. It
Figure 12.4.1: Nursing infant synthesizes and releases hormones into the blood. Table 12.4.1 shows
some of the endocrine hormones released by the anterior pituitary,
WHAT IS THE PITUITARY GLAND? including their targets and effects.
The pituitary gland is the master gland of the endocrine system, the Table 12.4.1 : Anterior Pituitary Hormones
system of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Hormone Target Effect(s)
Endocrine hormones control virtually all physiological processes. For Adrenocorticotropic Adrenal Stimulates the cortex of each adrenal gland to secrete
hormone (ACTH) glands its hormones
example, they control growth, sexual maturation, reproduction, body
Thyroid-stimulating Thyroid Stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroid
temperature, blood pressure, and metabolism. The pituitary gland is
hormone (TSH) gland hormone
considered the master gland of the endocrine system because it controls
Growth hormone Stimulates body cells to synthesize proteins and
the rest of the endocrine system. Many pituitary hormones either Body cells
(GH) grow
promote or inhibit hormone secretion by other endocrine glands. Follicle-stimulating Ovaries, Stimulates the ovaries to develop mature eggs;
hormone (FSH) testes stimulates the testes to produce sperm
Luteinizing hormone Ovaries, Stimulates the ovaries and testes to secrete sex
(LH) testes hormones; stimulates the ovaries to release eggs
Mammary
Prolactin (PRL) Stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk
glands

The anterior pituitary gland is regulated mainly by hormones from the

hypothalamus. The hypothalamus secretes hormones called releasing
hormones and inhibiting hormones that travel through capillaries
directly to the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. The hormones
stimulate the anterior pituitary to either release or stop releasing
particular pituitary hormones. Several of these hypothalamic hormones
and their effects on the anterior pituitary are shown in Table 12.4.2.

Figure 12.4.2 : The pituitary gland in the endocrine system is closely

connected to the hypothalamus in the brain

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 Table 12.4.2 : Hypothalamic Hormones and Their Effects on the Anterior 4. Explain how the hypothalamus influences the output of hormones
Pituitary by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
Hypothalamic Hormone Effect on Anterior Pituitary
5. Name and give the function of two hypothalamic hormones
Thyrotropin releasing hormone
Release of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) released by the posterior pituitary gland.
(TRH)
Corticotropin releasing hormone Release of adrenocorticotropic hormone
6. True or False. The pituitary gland only secretes hormones that are
(CRH) (ACTH) involved in reproduction.
Gonadotropin releasing hormone Release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) 7. True or False. The brain does not produce hormones, only glands
(GnRH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) produce hormones.
Growth hormone releasing hormone 8. If a releasing hormone is secreted from the hypothalamus to the
Release of growth hormone (GH)
(GHRH)
pituitary gland, which part of the pituitary receives it? Explain your
Growth hormone inhibiting hormone
(GHIH) (Somatostatin)
Stopping of growth hormone release answer.
Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) Release of prolactin 9. Answer the following questions about prolactin releasing hormone
Prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH) (PRH) and prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH).
Stopping of prolactin release
(Dopamine) A. Where are these hormones produced?
B. Where are their target cells located?
POSTERIOR LOBE
C. What are their effects on their target cells?
The posterior pituitary is at the back of the pituitary gland. This lobe D. What are their ultimate effects on milk production? Explain
does not synthesize any hormones. Instead, the posterior lobe stores your answer.
hormones that come from the hypothalamus along the axons of nerves
10. e. When a baby nurses, which of these hormones is most likely
connecting the two structures (Figure 12.4.3). The posterior pituitary
released in the mother? Explain your answer.
then secretes the hormones into the bloodstream as needed.
11. For each of the following hormones, state whether it is synthesized
Hypothalamic hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary include
in the pituitary or the hypothalamus.
vasopressin and oxytocin.
A. Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
Vasopressin (also called antidiuretic hormone, or ADH) helps to
B. Growth hormone (GH)
maintain homeostasis in body water. It stimulates the kidneys to
C. Oxytocin
conserve water by producing more concentrated urine. Specifically,
12. d. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
vasopressin targets ducts in the kidneys and makes them more
permeable to water. This allows more water to be resorbed by the
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Oxytocin (OXY) targets cells in the uterus to stimulate uterine
contractions, for example, during childbirth. It also targets cells in ATTRIBUTIONS
the breasts of a nursing mother to stimulate the letdown of milk. 1. Nursing by honey-bee, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
2. Pituitary Gland by Laura Guerin, CC BY-NC 3.0 via CK-12
REVIEW Foundation
1. Explain why the pituitary gland is called the master gland of the 3. Pituitary gland representation by Diberri licensed CC BY-SA 3.0
endocrine system. via en.wikipedia
2. Compare and contrast the two lobes of the pituitary gland and their 4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
general functions. 3.0
3. Identify two hormones released by the anterior pituitary, their
targets, and their effects.

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12.5: THYROID GLAND
TOO MUCH OF A GOOD THING THYROID HORMONES: T4 AND T3
The individual in Figure 12.5.1 has a goiter. A goiter is an There are two main thyroid hormones produced by the follicles:
abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland, which is located in the thyroxine (T4), which contains four iodide ions and is represented by
neck. The formation of a goiter may occur in a number of different the structural diagram below; and triiodothyronine (T3), which
thyroid disorders. You’ll learn why in this concept. contains three iodide ions. T3 is much more powerful than T4, but T4
makes up about 90 percent of circulating thyroid hormone, and T3
makes up only about 10 percent. However, most of the T4 is converted
to T3 by target tissues.

Figure 12.5.3: This structural model represents a single molecule of

triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). The letter I represents the
iodide ions they contain. The rings consist mainly of carbon atoms
Figure 12.5.1 : Goiter

THYROID STRUCTURE
The thyroid gland is one of the largest endocrine glands in the body. It
is located in the front of the neck below Adam’s apple (see Figure
12.5.2). The gland is butterfly-shaped and composed of two lobes. The

lobes are connected by a narrow band of thyroid tissue called an

isthmus.

Figure 12.5.2 : The thyroid gland is a two-lobed gland in the front of Figure 12.5.4 : The thyroid system is a negative feedback loop that
the neck includes the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and thyroid gland. As this
diagram shows, thyroid hormones increase the effect of catecholamines
Internally, the thyroid gland is composed mainly of follicles. A follicle such as adrenaline, a fight-or-flight hormone
is a small cluster of cells surrounding a central cavity, which stores Like steroid hormones, T3 and T4 cross cell membranes everywhere in
hormones and other molecules made by the follicular cells. Thyroid the body and bind to intracellular receptors to regulate gene expression.
follicular cells are unique in being highly specialized to absorb and use However, unlike steroid hormones, thyroid hormones can cross cell
iodine. They absorb iodine as iodide ions (I-) from the blood and use membranes only with the help of special transporter proteins. Once
the iodide to produce thyroid hormones. The cells also use some of the inside the nucleus of cells, T3 and T4 turn on genes that control protein
iodide they absorb to form a protein called thyroglobulin, which serves synthesis. Thyroid hormones increase the rate of metabolism in cells,
to store iodide for later hormone synthesis. The outer layer of cells of so cells absorb more carbohydrates, use more energy, and produce
each follicle secretes thyroid hormones as needed. Scattered among the more heat. Thyroid hormones also increase the rate and force of the
follicles are another type of thyroid cells, called parafollicular cells (or heartbeat. In addition, they increase the sensitivity of cells to fight-or-
C cells). These cells synthesize and secrete the hormone calcitonin. flight hormones (that is, catecholamine hormones such as adrenaline).
The production of both T4 and T3 is regulated primarily by thyroid
FUNCTIONS OF THE THYROID
stimulating hormone (TSH), which is secreted by the anterior pituitary
Like all endocrine glands, the function of the thyroid is to synthesize
gland (see the diagram below). TSH production, in turn, is regulated by
hormones and secrete them into the bloodstream. Once in the blood,
thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH), which is produced by the
they can travel to cells throughout the body and influence their
hypothalamus. The thyroid gland, pituitary gland, and hypothalamus
functions.
form a negative feedback loop to keep thyroid hormone secretion

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within a normal range. TRH and TSH production is suppressed when
T4 levels start to become too high. The opposite occurs when T4 levels
start to become too low.

CALCITONIN
The calcitonin produced by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland
has the role of helping to regulate blood calcium levels by stimulating
the movement of calcium into bone. Calcitonin is secreted in response
to rising blood calcium levels. It decreases blood calcium levels by
enhancing calcium absorption and deposition in bone. Calcitonin works
hand-in-hand with parathyroid hormone, which is secreted by the
parathyroid glands and has the opposite effects as calcitonin. Together,
these two hormones maintain calcium homeostasis.

THYROID DISORDERS
As with other endocrine disorders, thyroid disorders are generally
associated with either over or under-secretion of hormones. Abnormal
secretion of thyroid hormones may occur for a variety of reasons.

HYPERTHYROIDISM
Hyperthyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland produces excessive Figure 12.5.6 : the signs and symptoms of hypothyroidism may include
fatigue, coldness, weight gain, shortness of breath, constipation,
amounts of thyroid hormones. The most common cause of
menorrhagia, poor memory and hearing, hoarseness, slow heart rate,
hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease. Graves’ disease is an autoimmune delayed reflexes, and carpal tunnel syndrome.
disorder in which abnormal antibodies produced by the immune system Hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland produces insufficient
stimulate the thyroid to secrete excessive quantities of its hormones. amounts of thyroid hormones. It can result from surgical removal of
This stimulation overrides the usual negative feedback mechanism that the thyroid. However, worldwide, the most common cause of
normally controls thyroid hormone output. Graves’ disease often hypothyroidism is dietary iodine deficiency. In cases of iodine
results in the formation of an enlarged thyroid (goiter) because of the deficiency, the negative feedback loop controlling the release of
continued stimulation to produce more hormones. thyroid hormone causes repeated stimulation of the thyroid. This
Besides a goiter, other signs and symptoms of hyperthyroidism may results in the thyroid gland growing in size and producing a goiter.
include protruding eyes (see photo below), heart palpitations, excessive Although the gland gets larger, it cannot increase hormone output
sweating, diarrhea, weight loss despite increased appetite, muscle because of the lack of iodine in the diet.
weakness, and unusual sensitivity to heat. Medications can be Iodine deficiency is uncommon in the Western world because iodine is
prescribed to mitigate the symptoms of the disease. Anti-thyroid drugs added to salt. Where iodine deficiency is not a problem, the most
can also be given to decrease the production of thyroid hormones. If common cause of hypothyroidism is Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. This is
the drugs are ineffective, the gland can be partially or entirely removed. another autoimmune disease, but in this case, the immune system
This can be done surgically or with the administration of radioactive destroys the thyroid gland, producing hypothyroidism. Hashimoto’s
iodine. Removal of the thyroid produces hypothyroidism. thyroiditis tends to run in families so it is likely to have a genetic
component. It usually appears after the age of 30 and is more common
in females than males.
Hypothyroidism produces many signs and symptoms, as shown in
Figure 12.5.6. These may include abnormal weight gain, tiredness,
baldness, cold intolerance, and slow heart rate. Hypothyroidism is
generally treated with thyroid hormone replacement therapy. This may
be needed for the rest of a person’s life. Hypothyroidism in a pregnant
woman can have serious adverse consequences for the fetus. During
Figure 12.5.5 : Protruding eyes are one sign of hyperthyroidism, such the fetal period, cells of the developing brain are a major target for
as Graves’ disease thyroid hormones, which play a crucial role in brain maturation. When
levels of thyroid hormones are too low, the fetus may suffer permanent
HYPOTHYROIDISM deficits in cognitive abilities. Deafness is also a potential outcome of
hypothyroidism in utero.

Feature: Myth vs. Reality

Thyroid disorders are relatively common, affecting as many as 20
million people in the United States. Because the disorders are
common, there are also many common myths about them.
Myth: If you have a thyroid problem, you will know something is
wrong because you will have obvious symptoms.

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 Reality: The majority of people with a thyroid disorder are not 4. How do T4 and T3 affect body cells?
aware they have it because the symptoms are often mild, 5. Explain how T4 and T3 production is regulated.
nonspecific, and easy to ignore. Generally, blood tests of thyroid 6. What is the function of calcitonin?
hormone levels are needed to make a conclusive diagnosis. 7. Identify the chief cause and effects of hyperthyroidism.
Myth: If you are diagnosed with a thyroid disorder, you will have 8. What are two possible causes of hypothyroidism?
to take medication for the rest of your life. 9. List signs and symptoms of hypothyroidism.
10. Why may both hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism cause goiters?
Reality: Whether you need to continue thyroid medication for life
11. Choose one symptom each for hyperthyroidism and
depends on the cause of the disorder. For example, some women
hypothyroidism and explain why they occur based on the functions
develop hypothyroidism during pregnancy but no longer need
of thyroid hormones.
medication after the pregnancy is over and hormone levels return to
12. Which hormone is produced by the thyroid gland?
normal.
A. T3
Myth: As soon as you start taking thyroid medication, your
B. Calcitonin
symptoms will resolve.
C. Parathyroid hormone
Reality: It often takes weeks or even months for thyroid hormone D. TSH
levels to return to normal and symptoms to disappear. E. A and B
Myth: You can take an over-the-counter iodine supplement to 13. In cases of hypothyroidism due to Hashimoto’s thyroiditis or
correct hypothyroidism. removal of the thyroid gland to treat hyperthyroidism, patients are
Reality: In the United States, where dietary iodine is almost always often given medication to replace the missing thyroid hormone.
adequate, iodine deficiency is unlikely to be the cause of Explain why the level of replacement thyroid hormone must be
hypothyroidism. Therefore, taking supplemental iodine is not likely carefully monitored and adjusted if needed.
to correct the problem. 14. True or False. T3 and T4 bind to receptors on the plasma
Myth: If thyroid symptoms are mild, you don’t need to take membrane of target cells.
medication. 15. Which disease causes too much thyroid hormone to be produced?
Reality: Because thyroid hormones are responsible for so many A. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
vital body functions, failing to treat even a mild thyroid disorder B. Graves’ disease
may lead to a range of other problems, such as osteoporosis or C. Goiter
infertility. D. Iodine deficiency
Myth: Goiter may be caused by eating “goitrogenic” vegetables,
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Reality: Although these foods can interfere with the thyroid’s
ability to process iodide, you would have to eat huge amounts of ATTRIBUTIONS
them to cause goiter. 1. Goiter by Almazi, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
Myth: Thyroid disorders occur only after middle age and only in 2. Thyroide by NIH, public domain via Arnavaz at French Wikipedia
women. 3. Triiodothyronine by Ayacop Public Domain via Wikimedia
Commons
Reality: Thyroid disorders may occur at any age and in any sex.
Hypothyroidism occurs more commonly in older adults, but 1. Thyroxin chemical_structure by Wesalius; Public Domain via
hyperthyroidism occurs more commonly in younger adults. Wikimedia Commons
Although women are more likely to develop thyroid disorders, 4. Thyroid system
about 20 percent of cases occur in men. 5. Proptosis and lid retraction from Graves' Disease by Jonathan
Trobe, M.D. - University of Michigan Kellogg Eye Center (The
REVIEW Eyes Have It), CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
1. Describe the structure and location of the thyroid gland. 6. Signs and symptoms of hypothyroidism by Mikael Häggström
2. Identify the types of cells within the thyroid gland that produce public domain via Wikimedia Commons
hormones. 7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3. Compare and contrast T4 and T3. 3.0

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12.6: ADRENAL GLANDS
EEK! 1. Zona glomerulosa is the outermost layer of the adrenal cortex. It
Being bitten on the nose by an eel certainly qualifies as a lies immediately under the outer fibrous capsule that encloses the
frightening experience! The fear this man is experiencing produces adrenal gland.
the same physiological responses in most people— racing heart, 2. Zona fasciculata is the middle layer of the adrenal cortex. It is the
rapid breathing, clammy hands. These and other fight-or-flight largest of the three zones, accounting for nearly 80 percent of the
responses prepare the body to either defend itself or run away from adrenal cortex.
danger. Why does fear elicit these changes in the body? The 3. Zona reticularis is the innermost layer of the adrenal cortex. It is
responses occur in large part because of hormones secreted by the directly adjacent to the medulla of the adrenal gland.
adrenal glands.

Figure 12.6.1 : Attack Figure 12.6.3 : The adrenal cortex is divided into three zones, zona
glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and zona reticularis. Each zone produces
INTRODUCTION TO THE ADRENAL GLANDS a different type of steroid hormone. This photomicrograph also shows
the medulla of the adrenal gland.
The adrenal glands are endocrine glands that produce a variety of
hormones. Adrenal hormones include the fight-or-flight hormone TYPES OF ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES
adrenaline and the steroid hormone cortisol. The two adrenal glands are Hormones produced by the adrenal cortex are called corticosteroids.
located on both sides of the body, just above the kidneys, as shown in As steroid hormones, corticosteroids are endocrine hormones that are
Figure 12.6.2. The right adrenal gland (on the left in the figure) is made of lipids and exert their effects on target cells by crossing the
smaller and has a pyramidal shape. The left adrenal gland (on the right plasma membrane and binding with receptors within the cytoplasm. A
in the figure) is larger and has a half-moon shape. steroid hormone and its receptor form a complex that enters the cell
nucleus and affects gene expression. There are three types of
corticosteroids synthesized and secreted by the adrenal cortex. Each
type is produced by a different zone of the adrenal cortex, as shown in
Figure 12.6.3.
MINERALOCORTICOIDS
Mineralocorticoids are produced in the zona glomerulosa and include
the hormone aldosterone. These hormones help control the balance of
mineral salts (electrolytes) in the body. In the kidneys, aldosterone
increases the reabsorption of sodium ions and the excretion of
potassium ions. Aldosterone also stimulates the retention of sodium
Figure 12.6.2 : Each of the two adrenal glands is found above a kidney ions by cells in the colon and by the sweat glands. The amount of
Each adrenal gland has two distinct parts, and each part has a different sodium in the body affects the volume of extracellular fluids including
function, although both parts produce hormones. There is an outer the blood and thereby affects blood pressure. In this way,
layer, called the adrenal cortex, which produces steroid hormones mineralocorticoids help control blood volume and blood pressure.
including cortisol. There is also an inner layer, called the adrenal GLUCOCORTICOIDS
medulla, which produces non-steroid hormones including adrenaline.
Glucocorticoids are produced in the zona fasciculata and include the
hormone cortisol, which is released in response to stress and is
ADRENAL CORTEX
considered the primary stress hormone. Glucocorticoids help control
The adrenal cortex, or the outer layer of the adrenal gland, is divided,
the rate of metabolism of proteins, fats, and sugars. In general, they
in turn, into three additional layers, called zones (Figure 12.6.3). Each
increase the level of glucose and fatty acids circulating in the blood.
zone has distinct enzymes that produce different hormones from the
Cells rely primarily on glucose for energy, but they can also use fatty
common precursor molecule cholesterol, which is a lipid.
acids for energy as an alternative to glucose. Glucocorticoids are also

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involved in the suppression of the immune system, having a potent term for male sex hormones, although this is somewhat misleading as
anti-inflammatory effect. In addition, cortisol reduces the production of adrenal cortex androgens are produced by both males and females. In
new bone and decreases the absorption of calcium from the adult males, they are converted to more potent androgens such as
gastrointestinal tract. testosterone in the male gonads (testes). In adult females, they are
converted to female sex hormones called estrogens in the female
ANDROGENS
gonads (ovaries).
Androgens are produced in the zona reticularis and include the
hormone DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone). Androgens are a general
Disorders of the adrenal glands generally include either hypersecretion
REGULATION OF ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES or hyposecretion of adrenal hormones. The underlying cause of the
Steroid hormone production by the three zones of the adrenal cortex is abnormal secretion may be a problem with the adrenal glands or with
regulated by hormones secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary the pituitary gland, which controls adrenal cortex hormone production.
gland as well as by other physiological stimuli. For example, the Both adrenal and pituitary glands are subject to the formation of
production of glucocorticoids such as cortisol is stimulated by tumors, which may cause adrenal disorders. The adrenal gland may
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary, also be affected by infections or autoimmune diseases.
which in turn is stimulated by corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
from the hypothalamus. When levels of glucocorticoids start to rise too ADRENAL HYPERSECRETION: CUSHING’S SYNDROME
high, they provide negative feedback to the hypothalamus and pituitary Hypersecretion of the glucocorticoid hormone cortisol leads to a
gland to stop secreting CRH and ACTH, respectively. This negative disorder named Cushing’s syndrome. The most common cause of
feedback mechanism is illustrated in Figure 12.6.4. The opposite Cushing’s syndrome is a pituitary tumor, which causes excessive
occurs when levels of glucocorticoids start to fall too low. production of ACTH. The disease produces a wide variety of signs and
symptoms, which may include obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure
(hypertension), excessive body hair, osteoporosis, and depression. A
distinctive sign of Cushing’s syndrome is the appearance of stretch
marks in the skin, as the skin becomes progressively thinner. Another
distinctive sign is a moon face shown in the section Introduction to the
Endocrine System, in which fat deposits give the face a rounded
appearance. Treatment of Cushing’s syndrome depends on its cause
and may include surgery to remove a tumor or medications to suppress
the activity of the adrenal glands.

ADRENAL HYPOSECRETION: ADDISON’S DISEASE

Figure 12.6.4 : The negative feedback loop that controls the production
of glucocorticoids includes the pituitary gland and hypothalamus in
addition to the adrenal cortex.

ADRENAL MEDULLA
The adrenal medulla is at the center of each adrenal gland and is
surrounded by the adrenal cortex. It contains a dense network of blood
vessels into which it secretes its hormones. The hormones synthesized
and secreted by the adrenal medulla are called catecholamines, and
they include adrenaline (also called epinephrine) and noradrenaline
(also called norepinephrine). These are water-soluble, non-steroid
hormones are made of amino acids. As non-steroid hormones, they
cannot cross the plasma membrane of target cells. Instead, they exert
their effects by binding to receptors on the surface of target cells. The Figure 12.6.5 : Hyperpigmentation of the skin is a characteristic sign of
binding of hormone and receptor activates an enzyme in the plasma Addison’s disease. The photo on the left shows the dark skin
membrane that controls a second messenger. It is the second messenger pigmentation of an Addison’s patient before treatment. The photo on
that influences processes inside the cell. the right shows the same patient after treatment.
Hyposecretion of the glucocorticoid hormone cortisol leads to a
Catecholamines function to produce a rapid response throughout the
disorder named Addison’s disease. There may also be hyposecretion
body in stressful situations. They bring about such changes as
of mineralocorticoids with this disorder. Addison’s disease is generally
increased heart rate, more rapid breathing, constriction of blood vessels
an autoimmune disorder, in which the immune system produces
in certain parts of the body, and an increase in blood pressure. The
abnormal antibodies that attack cells of the adrenal cortex. Untreated
release of catecholamines by the adrenal medulla is stimulated by
infections, especially of tuberculosis, may also damage the adrenal
activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
cortex and cause Addison’s disease. A third possible cause is the
system.
decreased output of ACTH by the pituitary gland, generally due to a
DISORDERS OF THE ADRENAL GLANDS pituitary tumor. A distinctive sign of Addison’s disease is

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hyperpigmentation of the skin (Figure 12.6.5). Other symptoms tend to hypothalamus to produce opiate-like endorphins, leading to a so-
be nonspecific and include excessive fatigue. Addison’s disease is called “runner’s high.” Like the euphoric feeling adrenaline causes,
generally treated with replacement hormones in pill form. a runner’s high may last for hours.
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY
REVIEW
1. Describe the structure and location of the adrenal glands.
2. Compare and contrast the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla.
3. Identify the three layers of the adrenal cortex and the type of
hormones each layer produces.
4. Give an example of each type of corticosteroid and state its
function.
5. Explain how the production of glucocorticoids is regulated.
6. What is a catecholamine? Give an example of a catecholamine and
state its function.
7. Compare and contrast Cushing’s syndrome and Addison’s disease.
8. Cortisol is a type of:
Figure 12.6.6 : Base Jump
A. Corticosteroid
Does just looking at this photo cause you to break out in a cold
B. Mineralocorticoid
sweat and experience heart palpitations? Imagine how scary it
C. Glucocorticoid
would be to fling yourself backward off a tall building like the
D. A and C
BASE jumper in the photo. There would be very little time to use a
parachute to slow your fall before you hit the ground. BASE 9. True or False.The adrenal glands help regulate the body’s stress
jumping is called the most dangerous sport on Earth. In fact, it is so response and reproductive functions.
dangerous that it is outlawed in some places. 10. True or False. The left adrenal gland produces steroid hormones,
while the right adrenal gland produces non-steroid hormones.
People who participate in such dangerous activities as BASE
11. Would it help to give someone with Cushing’s syndrome more
jumping are likely to be adrenaline “junkies.” They are addicted to
ACTH? Explain your answer.
the adrenaline rush and euphoria, or “high,” it causes when their
12. What are two ways in which the nervous system (which includes
fight-or-flight response is triggered by danger. Why does adrenaline
the brain, spinal cord, and nerves) controls the adrenal gland?
have this effect? Adrenaline is closely related to dopamine, a
13. If the level of cortisol rises too high, the amount of CRH secreted
chemical messenger in the brain that plays a major role in pleasure
will normally:
and addiction.
A. not change
Adrenaline addicts don’t have to participate in BASE jumping or
B. become excessively high
other dangerous sports to get an adrenaline rush. They might
C. become slightly higher
choose a dangerous occupation such as firefighting, participate in
D. decrease
risky behaviors such as reckless driving or bank robbing, or just
pick fights with other people. They might even create their own 14. Noradrenaline is also called:
stress by always taking on too much work or delaying projects until A. norepinephrine
close to their deadline. B. adrenaline
C. adrenocorticotropin
While some excitement in one’s life is generally a good thing,
D. glucocorticoid
always putting oneself in danger or constantly being under stress
are obviously not good things. If you think you might be an 15. Explain why a pituitary tumor can cause either hypersecretion or
adrenaline addict, note that there are healthier ways to experience a hyposecretion of cortisol.
hormonal “high.” Running, biking, or participating in some other
form of vigorous aerobic exercise causes the pituitary gland and EXPLORE MORE
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ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Attack by Jerry Kirkhart, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
2. Adrenal gland by cancer.gov, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
3. Adrenal cortex labeled by Jpogi, CC0
4. ACTH Negative Feedback by DRosenbach; CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
5. A 69 Year Old with Tiredness and a Persistent; CC BY 2.5; Petros Perros via Wikimedia Commons
6. Base Jump by Kontizas Dimitrios; CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0

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12.7: PANCREAS
A SHOT IN THE ARM of Langerhans. In Figure 12.7.3, you can see pancreatic tissue,
Giving yourself an injection can be difficult, but for someone with including islets. There are approximately 3 million pancreatic islets,
diabetes, it may be a matter of life or death. The person in the photo and they are crisscrossed by a dense network of capillaries. The
has diabetes and is injecting himself with insulin, the hormone that capillaries are lined by layers of islet cells that have direct contact with
helps control the level of glucose in the blood. Insulin is produced the blood vessels, into which they secrete their endocrine hormones.
by the pancreas.

Figure 12.7.1 : Insulin Application

INTRODUCTION TO THE PANCREAS

The pancreas is a large gland located in the upper left abdomen behind
the stomach, as shown in the figure below. The pancreas is about 15
centimeters (6 in.) long; and it has a flat, oblong shape. Structurally, the
pancreas is divided into a head, body, and tail. Functionally, the
pancreas serves as both an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland.

Figure 12.7.3 : Anatomy of the pancreas. The inset diagram shows

pancreatic islet cells that produce endocrine hormones. It also shows
the cells (called acinar cells) that secrete exocrine substances involved
in digestion into pancreatic ducts.
The pancreatic islets consist of four main types of cells, each of which
secretes a different endocrine hormone. However, all of the hormones
produced by the pancreatic islets play crucial roles in glucose
metabolism and the regulation of blood glucose levels, among other
functions.
1. Islet cells called alpha (α) cells secrete the hormone glucagon. The
function of glucagon is to increase the level of glucose in the blood.
It does this by stimulating the liver to convert stored glycogen into
glucose, which is released into the bloodstream.
Figure 12.7.2 : The pancreas is located behind the stomach and near the 2. Islet cells called beta (β) cells secrete the hormone insulin. The
upper part of the small intestine (duodenum). Its main parts are tail, function of insulin is to decrease the level of glucose in the blood. It
body, and head. Its ducts carry digestive enzymes into the small
intestine. The endocrine hormones it produces are secreted into the does this by promoting the absorption of glucose from the blood
blood. into fat, liver, and skeletal muscle cells. In these tissues, the
As an endocrine gland, the pancreas is part of the endocrine system. absorbed glucose is converted into glycogen, fats (triglycerides), or
As such, it releases hormones, such as insulin, directly into the both.
bloodstream for transport to cells throughout the body. 3. Islet cells called delta (δ) cells secrete the hormone somatostatin.
As an exocrine gland, the pancreas is part of the digestive system. This hormone is also called the growth hormone inhibiting
As such, it releases digestive enzymes into ducts that carry the hormone because it inhibits the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland
enzymes to the gastrointestinal tract where they assist with from producing growth hormone. Somatostatin also inhibits the
digestion. In this concept, the focus is on the pancreas as an secretion of pancreatic endocrine hormones and pancreatic exocrine
endocrine gland. You can read about the pancreas as an exocrine enzymes.
gland in the chapter Digestive System. 4. Islet cells called gamma (γ) cells secrete the hormone pancreatic
polypeptide. The function of pancreatic polypeptide is to help
THE PANCREAS AS AN ENDOCRINE GLAND regulate the secretion of both endocrine and exocrine substances by
The tissues within the pancreas that have an endocrine role exist as the pancreas.
clusters of cells called pancreatic islets. They are also called the islets
DISORDERS OF THE PANCREAS
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There are a variety of disorders that affect the pancreas. They include Main symptoms of
pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer, and diabetes mellitus. Diabetes
blue = more common
PANCREATITIS Central in Type 1
Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas. It has a variety of - Polydipsia
- Polyphagia Eyes
possible causes including gallstones, chronic alcohol use, infections
- Lethargy - Blurred vision
such as measles or mumps, genetic causes, and certain medications. - Stupor
Pancreatitis occurs when digestive enzymes produced by the pancreas
damage the gland’s tissues, which causes problems with fat digestion. Breath
The disorder is usually associated with intense pain in the central Systemic - Smell of acetone
- Weight loss
abdomen, and the pain may radiate to the back. Yellowing of the skin
and whites of the eyes (Figure 12.7.4), which is called jaundice, is a
common sign of pancreatitis. People with pancreatitis may also have
pale stools and dark urine. Treatment of pancreatitis includes Gastric
Respiratory - Nausea
administering drugs to manage pain and addressing the underlying - Vomiting
- Kussmaul
cause of the disease, for example, by removing gallstones. breathing - Abdominal
(hyper- pain
ventilation)

Urinary
- Polyuria
- Glycosuria

Figure 12.7.5 : Diabetes can affect many systems of the body. The
symptoms shared by both type 1 and type 2 diabetes, such as blurred
vision, polyuria, glycosuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia are listed in
Figure 12.7.4 : Jaundice, or yellowing of the skin and whites of the black, and the symptoms more common in type 1 diabetes, such as the
eyes, is a common sign of pancreatitis. smell of acetone, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, lethargy, stupor,
weight loss, and hyperventilation are listed in blue.
PANCREATIC CANCER
There are several different types of pancreatic cancer that may affect
When diabetes is not well controlled, it is likely to have several serious
either the endocrine or the exocrine tissues of the gland. Cancers
long-term consequences. Most of these consequences are due to
affecting the endocrine tissues are all relatively rare. However, their
damage to small blood vessels because of high blood levels of glucose.
incidence has been rising sharply. It is unclear to what extent this
Damage to blood vessels, in turn, may lead to an increased risk of
reflects increased detection, especially through medical imaging
coronary artery disease and stroke. Damage to blood vessels in the
techniques. Unfortunately, pancreatic cancer is usually diagnosed at a
retina of the eye can result in gradual vision loss and blindness.
relatively late stage when it is too late for surgery, which is the only
Damage to blood vessels in the kidneys can lead to chronic kidney
way to cure the disorder. In the United States, pancreatic cancer is the
disease, sometimes requiring dialysis or a kidney transplant. Long-term
fourth most common cause of death due to cancer.
consequences of diabetes may also include damage to the nerves of the
Pancreatic cancer is rare before the age of 40 and occurs most often body, known as diabetic neuropathy. In fact, this is the most common
after the age of 60. Factors that increase the risk of developing complication of diabetes. Symptoms of diabetic neuropathy may
pancreatic cancer include smoking, chronic pancreatitis, and diabetes. include numbness, tingling, and pain in the extremities.
About one in four cases of pancreatic cancer are attributable to
smoking. Certain rare genetic conditions are also risk factors for TYPE 1 DIABETES
pancreatic cancer. Type 1 diabetes is a chronic autoimmune disorder in which the
immune system attacks the insulin-secreting beta cells of the pancreas.
DIABETES MELLITUS As a result, people with type 1 diabetes lack the insulin needed to keep
By far the most common type of pancreatic disorder is diabetes blood glucose levels within the normal range. Type 1 diabetes may
mellitus, more commonly called simply diabetes. There are many develop in people of any age but is most often diagnosed before
different types of diabetes, but diabetes mellitus is the most common. It adulthood. For type 1 diabetics, insulin injections are critical for
occurs in two major types, type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes. The two survival.
types have different causes and may also have different treatments, but
TYPE 2 DIABETES
they generally produce the same initial symptoms, which include
Type 2 diabetes is the single most common form of diabetes. The
excessive urination and thirst. These symptoms occur because the
cause of high blood glucose in this form of diabetes usually includes a
kidneys excrete more urine in an attempt to rid the blood of excess
combination of insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion. Both
glucose, and loss of water in urine stimulates greater thirst. Other signs
genetic and environmental factors play roles in the development of
and symptoms of diabetes are listed in Figure 12.7.5.
type 2 diabetes. Management of type 2 diabetes includes changes in
diet and physical activity, which may increase insulin sensitivity and
help reduce blood glucose levels to normal ranges. Medications may
also be used as part of the treatment, as may insulin injections.

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 FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS 7. If the alpha islet cells of the pancreas were damaged to the point
Some patients with type 1 diabetes have been given pancreatic islet that they no longer functioned, how would this affect blood glucose
cells transplants from other human donors. If the transplanted cells levels? Would the administration of insulin be more likely to help
are not rejected by the recipient’s immune system, they can cure the or hurt the condition? Explain your answer.
patient of diabetes. However, only about 1,000 such surgeries have 8. Explain how the pancreas is able to regulate the production of its
been performed over the past 10 years because of a shortage of own endocrine hormones, to some extent.
appropriate human donors. 9. True or False. The pancreas is part of both the digestive system and
In June of 2016, a research team led by Dr. David K.C. Cooper at the endocrine system.
the Thomas E. Starzl Transplantation Institute in Pittsburgh, 10. Give an example of how the pancreas can regulate the production
Pennsylvania, reported on their work developing pig islet cells for of hormones from the pituitary gland.
transplant into human diabetes patients. The researchers genetically 11. Which is the most common form of diabetes mellitus?
engineered the pig islet cells to be protected from the human 12. Explain why diabetes causes excessive thirst.
immune response. As a result, patients receiving transplanted cells 13. Damage to __________ is the underlying cause of many of the
would require only minimal suppression of their immune system long-term consequences of diabetes.
after the surgery. The pig islet cells would also be less likely to A. the adrenal gland
transmit pathogenic agents because the animals could be raised in a B. gamma islet cells
controlled environment. C. blood vessels
The researchers have successfully transplanted the pig islet cells D. the pituitary gland
into monkey models of type 1 diabetes. As of June 2016, the
scientists were looking for funding to undertake clinical trials in
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humans with type 1 diabetes. Dr. Cooper predicted then that if the
human trials go as well as expected, the pig islet cells could be ATTRIBUTIONS:
available for curing patients in as little as two years.
1. Insulin Application by Mr Hyde, public domain, via Czech
Wikipedia
REVIEW 2. Pancreas anatomy by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
1. Describe the structure and location of the pancreas. Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
2. Distinguish between the endocrine and exocrine functions of the DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY
pancreas. 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
3. Identify the four types of pancreatic islet cells and the endocrine 3. Exocrine and Endocrine Pancreas by OpenStax College, CC BY
hormone each type of cell produces. 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
4. What is pancreatitis? What are the possible causes and effects of 4. Jaundice eye by CDC, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
pancreatitis? 5. Symptoms of diabetes; licensed CC-0 via Wikimedia Commons
5. Describe the incidence, prognosis, and risk factors of cancer of the 6. Text adapted fromHuman Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
endocrine tissues of the pancreas. 3.0
6. Compare and contrast type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

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12.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: HORMONAL AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
stopping breathing during sleep), and uterine cancer, among other
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: HORMONAL diseases and disorders. There is hope, however. Lifestyle modifications
HAVOC and medicines not only can help women cope with the symptoms of
Gabrielle, who you read about in the beginning of this chapter, has PCOS, but may also reduce the risk of some of the possible long-term
polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). PCOS is named for the multiple consequences by lowering blood sugar and androgen levels. For
fluid-filled sacs, or cysts, that are present in the ovaries of women with instance, eating a healthy diet and exercising regularly can help women
this syndrome. You can see these cysts in the illustration above, which with PCOS lose weight. This can help lower blood glucose levels,
compares a normal ovary with a polycystic ovary. The cysts result from improve insulin functioning, and can even make the menstrual cycle
follicles in the ovary that did not properly produce and release an egg. more regular. Medications such as birth control pills and anti-
Mature eggs are normally released from follicles monthly during the androgens can help restore a more regular menstrual cycle and reduce
process of ovulation, but in PCOS this often does not occur. Ovarian facial and body hair and acne. The diabetes medication metformin can
cysts can be common and do not necessarily mean that a woman has be used to treat several of the symptoms of PCOS, and even may
PCOS, but the presence of multiple ovarian cysts plus other telltale prevent type 2 diabetes, by improving insulin functioning and lowering
signs and symptoms may cause her physician suspect PCOS. testosterone. Finally, women with PCOS who are trying to conceive
may be helped with fertility medications that stimulate ovulation.
The underlying cause of PCOS is not definitively known, although it is
thought that both genetic and environmental factors play a role. PCOS
tends to run in families, and women with a sister with PCOS are twice
as likely to also have it. Researchers think that the insulin resistance
seen in PCOS may cause an increase in androgens, illustrating how
hormonal systems can influence each other.
As you have seen throughout this chapter, endocrine hormones can
have a wide variety of effects on the body, including the regulation of
metabolism, reproductive functions, homeostasis of different ions and
molecules, and mediating responses to stressful situations. Different
hormones have different effects, but even a single hormone can have
Figure 12.8.1 : Polycystic Ovary multiple effects. Hormones travel throughout the bloodstream and
Gabrielle’s symptoms of PCOS included irregular menstrual periods, affect any cells that have the appropriate receptors for them, known as
weight gain, acne, and excess facial hair. There are many other target cells. Many hormones have target cells in multiple types of
symptoms of PCOS that women can experience, such as male-pattern organs and tissues, or they regulate molecules, such as blood glucose,
baldness, pelvic pain, and depression, among others. As you may that affect many organ systems. These are some of the reasons why
recall, Gabrielle also had some abnormal blood test results, such as changes in the normal level of an endocrine hormone — either
high levels of androgens and blood glucose. These can also be hypersecretion or hyposecretion — can result in a wide variety of
indications of PCOS. symptoms, such as is seen in Cushing’s syndrome, diabetes, and PCOS.
As you have learned, androgens are a term for male sex hormones, but By understanding what goes wrong in these disorders, you can better
females also normally produce androgens, albeit to a lesser extent than appreciate how important the endocrine system is for regulating the
males. In women with PCOS, the level of androgens is abnormally many diverse functions of the human body.
high. These androgens include testosterone, which is produced by the
ovaries, and DHEA, which is produced by the adrenal glands. This CHAPTER SUMMARY
increase in androgens can have a “masculinizing” effect on women, In this chapter, you learned about the glands and hormones of the
including an increase in facial and body hair, male-pattern baldness, endocrine system, their functions, how they are regulated, and some
and interference with the menstrual cycle by preventing ovulation. diseases and disorders of the endocrine system. Specifically, you
Androgens also can cause weight gain and acne — two of the other learned that:
common symptoms of PCOS. The endocrine system is a system of glands that release chemical
In addition to hypersecretion of androgens, PCOS often causes high messenger molecules called hormones into the bloodstream. Other
blood glucose as a result of insulin resistance. As you have learned, glands, called exocrine glands, release substances onto nearby body
insulin is a hormone secreted by the pancreas that works in conjunction surfaces through ducts.
with other pancreatic hormones (such as glucagon) to regulate the level Endocrine hormones travel more slowly than nerve impulses, which
of blood glucose. What is another disease involving insulin resistance? are the body’s other way of sending messages. However, the effects
If you answered type 2 diabetes, you are correct! In fact, women with of endocrine hormones may be much longer lasting.
PCOS are at a high risk of developing type 2 diabetes because of their The pituitary gland is the master gland of the endocrine system.
resistance to insulin. More than 50 percent of women with PCOS will Most of the hormones it produces control other endocrine glands.
develop diabetes or pre-diabetes before they are 40 years old. These glands include the thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pineal
Besides diabetes, women with PCOS have a higher chance of gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads (testes and ovaries), and
developing fertility problems, heart disease, sleep apnea (briefly thymus gland.

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 Diseases of the endocrine system are relatively common. An Abnormal secretion of thyroid hormones may occur for a
endocrine disease usually involves hypersecretion or hyposecretion variety of reasons and may lead to the development of a goiter.
of a hormone. Hypersecretion is frequently caused by a tumor. The most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease,
Hyposecretion is often caused by the destruction of hormone- an autoimmune disorder. Iodine deficiency is a common cause
secreting cells by the body’s own immune system. of hypothyroidism worldwide. In the United States, the most
Endocrine hormones travel throughout the body but affect only common cause of hypothyroidism is Hashimoto’s thyroiditis,
certain cells, called target cells, which have receptors specific to another autoimmune disorder. Hypothyroidism in pregnant
particular hormones. women may cause permanent cognitive deficits in children.
Steroid hormones such as estrogen are endocrine hormones made of The adrenal glands are endocrine glands that produce a variety of
lipids that cross plasma membranes and bind to receptors inside hormones. The two adrenal glands are located on both sides of the
target cells. The hormone-receptor complexes then move into the body, just above the kidneys. Each gland has two layers: an outer
nucleus where they influence gene expression. layer called the adrenal cortex and an inner layer called the adrenal
Non-steroid hormones such as insulin are endocrine hormones medulla.
made of amino acids that bind to receptors on the surface of target
The adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones called by the
cells. This activates an enzyme in the plasma membrane, and the
general term corticosteroids, of which there are three types:
enzyme controls a second messenger molecule, which influences
mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone, which helps control
cell processes.
electrolyte balance; glucocorticoids such as cortisol, which
Most endocrine hormones are controlled by negative feedback
helps control the rate of metabolism and suppresses the immune
loops in which rising levels of hormone feedback to stop its own
system; and androgens such as DHEA, which is converted to
production — and vice-versa. For example, a negative feedback
sex hormones in the gonads.
loop controls the production of thyroid hormones. The loop
The adrenal medulla produces non-steroid catecholamine
includes the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and thyroid gland.
hormones including adrenaline and noradrenaline. These
Only a few endocrine hormones are controlled by positive feedback
hormones stimulate the fight-or-flight response.
loops in which rising levels of hormone feedback to stimulate
Disorders of the adrenal glands generally include either
continued production of the hormone. Prolactin, the pituitary
hypersecretion or hyposecretion of adrenal hormones. The cause
hormone that stimulates milk production by mammary glands, is
may be a problem with the adrenal glands or with the pituitary
controlled by a positive feedback loop. The loop includes the
gland, which controls adrenal cortex hormone production.
nipples, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and mammary glands.
Examples include Cushing’s syndrome, in which there is
The pituitary gland is at the base of the brain, where it is connected
hypersecretion of cortisol; and Addison’s disease, in which there
to the hypothalamus by nerves and capillaries. It has an anterior
is hyposecretion of cortisol and mineralocorticoids.
(front) lobe that synthesizes and secretes pituitary hormones and a
The pancreas is a gland located in the upper left abdomen behind
posterior (back) lobe that stores and secretes hormones from the
the stomach that functions as both an endocrine gland and an
hypothalamus.
exocrine gland. As an endocrine gland, the pancreas releases
Hormones synthesized and secreted by the anterior pituitary hormones, such as insulin, directly into the bloodstream. As an
include growth hormone, which stimulates cell growth exocrine gland, the pancreas releases digestive enzymes into ducts
throughout the body, and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), that carry them to the gastrointestinal tract.
which stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete its hormones.
Tissues in the pancreas that have an endocrine role exist as
Hypothalamic hormones stored and secreted by the posterior
clusters of cells called pancreatic islets. The islets consist of
pituitary include vasopressin, which helps maintain homeostasis
four main types of cells, each of which secretes a different
in body water; and oxytocin, which stimulates uterine
endocrine hormone. Alpha (α) cells secrete glucagon, beta (β)
contractions during birth and the letdown of milk during
cells secrete insulin, delta (δ) cells secrete somatostatin, and
lactation.
gamma (γ) cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
The thyroid gland is a large endocrine gland in the front of the The endocrine hormones secreted by the pancreatic islets all
neck. It is composed mainly of clusters of cells called follicles, play a role, either directly or indirectly, in glucose metabolism
which are specialized to absorb iodine and use it to make thyroid and homeostasis of blood glucose levels. For example, insulin
hormones. Parafollicular cells among the follicles synthesize the stimulates the uptake of glucose by cells and decreases the level
hormone calcitonin. of glucose in the blood, whereas glucagon stimulates the
The thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) conversion of glycogen to glucose and increases the level of
cross cell membranes and regulate gene expression to control glucose in the blood.
the rate of metabolism in cells body-wide, among other Disorders of the pancreas include pancreatitis, pancreatic
functions. The production of T4 and T3 is regulated by thyroid cancer, and diabetes mellitus. Pancreatitis is a painful
stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary, which is inflammation of the pancreas that has many possible causes.
regulated, in turn, by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) Pancreatic cancer of the endocrine tissues is rare but increasing
from the hypothalamus. in frequency. It is generally discovered too late to cure
Calcitonin helps regulate blood calcium levels by stimulating surgically. Smoking is a major risk factor for pancreatic cancer.
the movement of calcium into bone. It works in conjunction Diabetes mellitus is the most common type of pancreatic
with parathyroid hormone to maintain calcium homeostasis. disorder. In diabetes, the inadequate activity of insulin results in
high blood levels of glucose. Type 1 diabetes is a chronic

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 autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks the A. Insulin
insulin-secreting beta cells of the pancreas. Type 2 diabetes is B. Glucagon
usually caused by a combination of insulin resistance and C. Endocrine hormones
impaired insulin secretion due to a variety of environmental and D. Digestive enzymes
genetic factors. 13. Give one example of negative feedback in the endocrine system.
14. Explain the circumstances in which organs and hormones in a
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW negative feedback loop can actually increase the level of a
1. The pituitary gland is considered the master gland of the endocrine hormone.
system because its hormones control other endocrine glands. For 15. True or False. The hormone vasopressin is synthesized by the
each of the glands below, describe one way in which it is controlled hypothalamus.
by the pituitary gland. 16. True or False. Like most other hormones, prolactin is regulated by
A. The thyroid gland a negative feedback loop.
B. The adrenal gland 17. Identify the gland that secretes each of the following hormones:
C. The gonads (ovaries and testes) A. Melatonin
2. What is the name of the main brain structure that secretes hormones B. Growth hormone
that control the pituitary gland? C. Thyroid stimulating hormone
3. Define hyposecretion and give an example of an endocrine disorder D. Aldosterone
involving hyposecretion. Be sure to include the name of the 18. A goiter is an enlargement of which structure?
hormone involved. 19. Explain why giving iodine can treat some cases of hypothyroidism,
4. Define hypersecretion and give an example of an endocrine but it is not usually helpful when someone has hypothyroidism due
disorder involving hypersecretion. Be sure to include the name of to Hashimoto’s thyroiditis.
the hormone involved. 20. For each disease below, identify the hormone involved and whether
5. Which hormone plays a role in regulating metabolism in some the problem involves hyposecretion or hypersecretion of this
way? hormone.
A. Cortisol A. Addison’s disease
B. Thyroid hormone B. Graves’ disease
C. Glucagon C. Cushing’s syndrome
D. All of the above D. Type 1 diabetes
6. Which endocrine gland plays an important role in the fight-or-flight 21. What is an example of a disease that is due to hormone resistance?
response? 22. True or False. Adrenaline is an exocrine hormone.
7. True or False. Sex hormones, such as androgens, are only produced 23. Steroid hormones:
by the gonads. A. always increase muscle mass
8. True or False. Estrogen can travel to the nucleus of a cell. B. are fat soluble
9. Explain why non-steroid hormones typically require the activation C. bind to receptors on the plasma membrane
of second messenger molecules to have their effects, instead of D. include insulin
directly affecting intracellular processes themselves.
24. Explain generally how autoimmune disorders can disrupt the
10. Explain what it means that endocrine hormones are “chemical
endocrine system, and give one example.
messengers.”
11. If you were a physician, and a patient came to you complaining of
ATTRIBUTIONS
excessive thirst and urination, what endocrine disorder might you
1. Polycystic Ovary, by U.S. Department of Health and Human
suspect the patient has?
Services; public domain
A. In order to diagnose this disorder, what would you want to
2. Text adapted fromHuman Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
check for in the patient’s blood? Explain your answer.
3.0
12. Pancreatic islet cells all produce:

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
13: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
This chapter describes the structure and functions of the epidermis and dermis, hair, and nails. In
addition, the chapter outlines types of skin cancer and risk factors for skin cancer.

13.1: CASE STUDY: SKIN CANCER

In this chapter, you will learn about the structure and functions of the integumentary system.
Specifically, you will learn about: The functions of the organs of the integumentary system - the
skin, hair, and nails - including protecting the body, helping to regulate homeostasis, and sensing
and interacting with the external world. The two main layers of the skin: the thinner outer layer
called the epidermis and the thicker inner layer called the dermis.

13.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

In addition to the skin, the integumentary system includes the hair and nails, which are organs that grow out of the skin. Because the
organs of the integumentary system are mostly external to the body, you may think of them as little more than accessories, like
clothing or jewelry, but they serve vital physiological functions. They provide a protective covering for the body, sense the
environment, and help the body maintain homeostasis.

13.3: SKIN
The epidermis is the outer of the two main layers of the skin, the inner layer being the dermis. It averages about 0.10 mm thick and is
much thinner than the dermis. The epidermis is thinnest on the eyelids (0.05 mm) and thickest on the palms of the hands and soles of
the feet (1.50 mm). The epidermis covers almost the entire body surface. It is continuous with, but structurally distinct from, the
mucous membranes that line the mouth, anus, urethra, and vagina.

13.4: HAIR AND NAILS

Hair is a filament that grows from a hair follicle in the dermis of the skin. It consists mainly of tightly packed, keratin-filled cells
called keratinocytes. The human body is covered with hair follicles except for a few areas, including the mucous membranes, lips,
palms of the hands, and soles of the feet.

13.5: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: SKIN CANCER AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

Skin cancer begins in the outer layer of skin, the epidermis. There are three common types of skin cancer: basal cell carcinoma,
squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma.

1 4/25/2021
13.1: CASE STUDY: SKIN CANCER
The summer sun may feel good on your body, but its invisible UV rays Skin cancer affects people of all skin colors, including those with dark
wreak havoc on your skin. Exposing the skin to UV light causes photo- skin. It also affects more people altogether than all other cancers
aging: premature wrinkling, brown discolorations, and other combined. One in five Americans develops skin cancer in his or her
unattractive signs of sun exposure. Even worse, UV light increases lifetime.
your risk of skin cancer. At the end of the chapter, you will learn about the different types of
skin cancer and how to identify if a growth is a mole or potentially
cancerous.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW: INTEGUMENTARY

SYSTEM
In this chapter, you will learn about the structure and functions of the
integumentary system. Specifically, you will learn about:
The functions of the organs of the integumentary system—the skin,
hair, and nails—including protecting the body, helping to regulate
homeostasis, and sensing and interacting with the external world.
The two main layers of the skin: the thinner outer layer called the
epidermis and the thicker inner layer called the dermis.
The cells and layers of the epidermis and their functions, including
Figure 13.1.1 : two individuals sunbathing synthesizing vitamin D and protecting the body against injury and
Exposure to UV radiation causes about 90% of all skin cancer cases. pathogens, UV light exposure, and water loss.
The connection between skin cancer and UV light is so strong that the The composition and layers of the dermis and their functions,
World Health Organization has classified UV radiation (whether from including cushioning other tissues, regulating body temperature,
tanning beds or the sun) as a Group 1 carcinogen (cancer-causing sensing the environment, and excreting wastes.
agent). Group 1 carcinogens are those carcinogens that are known with The specialized structures in the dermis, which include sweat and
virtual certainty to cause cancer. In addition to UV light, Group 1 sebaceous (oil) glands, hair follicles, and sensory receptors that
carcinogens include tobacco and plutonium. In terms of the number of detect touch, temperature, and pain.
cancers caused, UV radiation is far worse than tobacco. More people The structure and biological functions of hair, which include
develop skin cancer because of UV light exposure than develop lung retaining body heat, detecting sensory stimuli, and protecting the
cancer because of smoking. The increase in cancer risk due to UV light body against UV light, pathogens, and small particles.
is especially great if you have ever had blistering sunburns as a child or The structure and functions of nails, which include protecting the
teen. fingers and toes, enhancing the detection of sensory stimuli, and
Besides UV light exposure, other risk factors for skin cancer include: acting like tools.
having light-colored skin As you read this chapter and learn more about the skin, think
having a lot of moles about the following questions:
being diagnosed with precancerous skin lesions 1. What is skin cancer and how does it form?
having a family history of skin cancer 2. What are the similarities and differences of various types of cancer?
having a personal history of skin cancer 3. How can people decrease their risk of getting skin cancer?
having a weakened immune system
being exposed to other forms of radiation or to certain toxic EXPLORE MORE
substances such as arsenic https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16795#Explore_More
What exactly is skin cancer? Skin cancer is a disease in which skin
ATTRIBUTION
cells grow out of control. It is caused mainly by excessive exposure to
1. Stolen moment in the sun by Angie Garrett, CC BY 2.0 via
UV light, which damages DNA. Therefore, skin cancer most often
Wikimedia Commons
develops on areas of the skin that are frequently exposed to UV light.
2. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
However, it can also occur in areas that are rarely exposed to UV light.
3.0

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13.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
ART FOR ALL ERAS
This is Maud Stevens Wagner, a tattoo artist who is pictured in
Figure 13.2.1. Maud was pictured in 1907. Clearly, tattoos are not
just a late 20th and early 21st-century trend. They have been
popular in many eras and cultures. Tattoos literally illustrate the
biggest organ of the human body: the skin. The skin is very thin,
but it covers a large area — about 2 m2 in adults. The skin is the
major organ in the integumentary system.

Figure 13.2.2 : The epidermis is the thinner outer layer of skin which is
composed of tightly packed epithelial cells. The dermis is the thicker
inner layer of skin that contains structures such as blood vessels, hair
follicles, and sweat glands.

OUTER LAYER OF SKIN

The outer layer of skin is the epidermis. This layer is thinner than the
inner layer, the dermis. The epidermis consists mainly of epithelial
cells, called keratinocytes, which produce the tough, fibrous protein
keratin. The innermost cells of the epidermis are stem cells that divide
continuously to form new cells. The newly formed cells move up
through the epidermis toward the skin surface, while producing more
and more keratin. The cells become filled with keratin and die by the
time they reach the surface, where they form a protective, waterproof
Figure 13.2.1 : Maud Stevens Wagner layer. As the dead cells are shed from the surface of the skin, they are
replaced by other cells that move up from below. The epidermis also
WHAT IS THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM? contains melanocytes, the cells that produce the brown pigment
In addition to the skin, the integumentary system includes the hair melanin, which gives skin most of its color. Although the epidermis
and nails, which are organs that grow out of the skin. Because the contains some sensory receptor cells, called Merkel cells, it contains no
organs of the integumentary system are mostly external to the body, nerves, blood vessels, or other structures.
you may think of them as little more than accessories, like clothing or
INNER LAYER OF SKIN
jewelry, but they serve vital physiological functions. They provide a
protective covering for the body, sense the environment, and help the The dermis is the inner and thicker layer of skin. It consists mainly of
body maintain homeostasis. tough connective tissue and is attached to the epidermis by collagen
fibers. The dermis contains many structures, as shown in the figure
THE SKIN above, including blood vessels, sweat glands, and hair follicles, which
are structures where hairs originate. In addition, the dermis contains
The skin is remarkable not only because it is the body’s largest organ.
many sensory receptors, nerves, and oil glands.
It is remarkable for other reasons as well. The average square inch of
skin has 20 blood vessels, 650 sweat glands, and more than a thousand FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN
nerve endings. It also has an incredible 60,000 pigment-producing
The skin has multiple roles in the body. Many of these roles are related
cells. All of these structures are packed into a stack of cells that is just
to homeostasis. The skin’s main functions include preventing water
2 mm thick, or about as thick as the cover of a book. Although the skin
loss from the body and serving as a barrier to the entry of
is thin, it consists of two distinct layers, the epidermis and dermis, as
microorganisms. Another function of the skin is synthesizing vitamin
shown in Figure 13.2.2.
D, which occurs when the skin is exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light.
Melanin in the epidermis blocks some of the UV light and protects the
dermis from its damaging effects.
Another important function of the skin is helping to regulate body
temperature. For example, when the body is too warm, the skin lowers
body temperature by producing sweat, which cools the body when it

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evaporates. The skin also increases the amount of blood flowing near REVIEW
the body surface through vasodilation (widening of blood vessels), 1. Name the organs of the integumentary system.
bringing heat from the body core to radiate out into the environment. 2. Compare and contrast the epidermis and dermis.
3. Identify the functions of the skin.
HAIR
4. What is the composition of hair?
Hair is a fiber that is found only in mammals. It consists mainly of
5. Describe three physiological roles played by the hair.
keratin-producing keratinocytes. Each hair grows out of a follicle in the
6. What do nails consist of?
dermis. By the time the hair reaches the surface, it consists mainly of
7. List two functions of nails.
dead cells filled with keratin. Hair serves several homeostatic
8. What do the outermost surface of the skin, the nails, and hair have
functions. Head hair is important in preventing heat loss from the head
in common, in terms of their composition?
and protecting its skin from UV radiation. Hairs in the nose trap dust
9. The innermost layer of the epidermis consists of _________ cells
particles and microorganisms in the air and prevent them from reaching
than the outermost layer of the epidermis.
the lungs. Hair all over the body provides sensory input when objects
brush against it or it sways in moving air. Eyelashes and eyebrows A. older
protect the eyes from water, dirt, and other irritants. B. younger
C. more sweat glands
NAILS
D. more blood vessel
Fingernails and toenails consist of dead keratinocytes that are filled
with keratin. The keratin makes them hard but flexible, which is 10. Identify two types of cells found in the epidermis of the skin and
important for the functions they serve. Nails prevent injury by forming describe their functions.
protective plates over the ends of the fingers and toes. They also 11. True or False. Keratin-producing cells in the epidermis are a type
enhance sensation by acting as a counterforce to the sensitive fingertips of epithelial cell.
when objects are handled. In addition, fingernails can be used as tools. 12. True or False. Vasodilation is used to warm the body.
13. Which structure and layer of skin do hair grow out of?
INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER ORGAN
SYSTEMS 14. Identify three main functions of the integumentary system and give
an example of each.
The skin and other parts of the integumentary system work with other
organ systems to maintain homeostasis. 15. What are two ways in which the integumentary system protects the
body against UV radiation?
The skin works with the immune system to defend the body from
pathogens by serving as a physical barrier to microorganisms.
EXPLORE MORE
Vitamin D is needed by the digestive system to absorb calcium https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16796#Explore_More
from food. By synthesizing vitamin D, the skin works with the
digestive system to ensure that calcium can be absorbed. ATTRIBUTIONS
Most immune cells, such as B and T cells have Vitamin D 1. Maud Stevens Wagner by The Plaza Gallery, public domain via
receptors. Vitamin D levels in the body are associated with Wikimedia Commons
autoimmune diseases and immune deficiencies. 2. Skin epidermis and dermis by National Cancer Institute, public
To control body temperature, the skin works with the domain via Wikimedia Commons
cardiovascular system to either lose body heat or conserve it 3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
through vasodilation or vasoconstriction. 3.0
To detect certain sensations from the outside world, the nervous
system depends on nerve receptors in the skin.

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13.3: SKIN
FEEL THE BURN Less than 1 percent of epidermal cells are Merkel cells, which
The person in Figure 13.3.1 is no doubt feeling the burn — sunburn respond to light touch and connect to nerve endings in the dermis.
that is. Sunburn occurs when the outer layer of the skin is damaged LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS
by UV light from the sun or tanning lamps. Some people
The epidermis in most parts of the body consists of four distinct layers.
deliberately allow UV light to burn their skin because after the
A fifth layer occurs in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet,
redness subsides, they are left with a tan. A tan may look healthy,
where the epidermis thicker than it is in the rest of the body. The layers
but it is actually a sign of skin damage. People who experience one
of the epidermis are shown in Figure 13.3.2 and described in the
or more serious sunburns are significantly more likely to develop
following text.
skin cancer. Natural pigment molecules in the skin help protect it
from UV light damage. These pigment molecules are found in the
layer of the skin called the epidermis.

Figure 13.3.1 : sunburn

The epidermis is the outer of the two main layers of the skin, the inner
layer being the dermis. It averages about 0.10 mm thick and is much
thinner than the dermis. The epidermis is thinnest on the eyelids (0.05
mm) and thickest on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet (1.50
mm). The epidermis covers almost the entire body surface. It is Figure 13.3.2 : Five layers of epidermis: stratum corneum, stratum
continuous with, but structurally distinct from, the mucous membranes lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale, from
top to bottom. The epidermis is connected with Dermis with the help of
that line the mouth, anus, urethra, and vagina. the basement membrane.
STRATUM BASALE
STRUCTURE OF THE EPIDERMIS
There are no blood vessels and very few nerve cells in the epidermis. The stratum basale is the innermost or the deepest layer of the
Without blood to bring epidermal cells oxygen and nutrients, the cells epidermis. It is separated from the dermis by a membrane called the
must absorb oxygen directly from the air and obtain nutrients via basement membrane. The stratum basale contains stem cells, called
diffusion of fluids from the dermis below. However, as thin as it is, the basal cells, which divide to form all the keratinocytes of the epidermis.
epidermis still has a complex structure. It has a variety of cell types and When keratinocytes first form, they are cube-shaped and contain
multiple layers. almost no keratin. As more keratinocytes are produced, previously
formed cells are pushed up through the stratum basale. Melanocytes
CELLS OF THE EPIDERMIS and Merkel cells are also found in the stratum basale. The Merkel cells
There are several different types of cells in the epidermis. All of the are especially numerous in touch-sensitive areas such as the fingertips
cells are necessary for the important functions of the epidermis. and lips.
The epidermis consists mainly of stacks of keratin-producing STRATUM SPINOSUM
epithelial cells called keratinocytes. These cells make up at least 90 Just above the stratum basale is the stratum spinosum. This is the
percent of the epidermis. Near the top of the epidermis, these cells thickest of the four epidermal layers. The keratinocytes in this layer
are also called squamous cells. have begun to accumulate keratin, and they have become tougher and
Another 8 percent of epidermal cells are melanocytes. These cells flatter. Spiny cellular projections form between the keratinocytes and
produce the pigment melanin that protects the dermis from UV hold them together. In addition to keratinocytes, the stratum spinosum
light. contains the immunologically active Langerhans cells.
About 1 percent of epidermal cells are Langerhans cells. These are
STRATUM GRANULOSUM
immune system cells that detect and fight pathogens entering the
skin. The next layer above the stratum spinosum is the stratum granulosum.
In this layer, keratinocytes have become nearly filled with keratin,

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giving their cytoplasm a granular appearance. Lipids are released by
keratinocytes in this layer to form a lipid barrier in the epidermis. Cells
in this layer have also started to die because they are becoming too far
removed from blood vessels in the dermis to receive nutrients. Each
dying cell digests its own nucleus and organelles, leaving behind only a
tough, keratin-filled shell.
STRATUM LUCIDUM Figure 13.3.3 : This scrape on the arm provides an opportunity for
bacteria to enter the body through the broken skin.
Only on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, the next layer
above the stratum granulosum is the stratum lucidum. This is a layer PROTECTION FROM UV LIGHT
consisting of stacks of translucent, dead keratinocytes that provide The UV light that penetrates the epidermis can damage epidermal cells.
extra protection to the underlying layers. In particular, it can cause mutations in DNA that lead to the
STRATUM CORNEUM development of skin cancer, in which epidermal cells grow out of
control. The UV light can also destroy vitamin B9 (in forms such as
The uppermost layer of the epidermis everywhere on the body is the
folate or folic acid), which is needed for good health and successful
stratum corneum. This layer is made of flat, hard, tightly packed dead
reproduction. In a person with light skin, just an hour of exposure to
keratinocytes that form a waterproof keratin barrier to protect the
intense sunlight can reduce the body’s vitamin B9 level by 50 percent.
underlying layers of the epidermis. Dead cells from this layer are
constantly shed from the surface of the body. The shed cells are Melanocytes in the stratum basale of the epidermis contain small
continually replaced by cells moving up from the lower layers of the organelles called melanosomes, which produce, store, and transport the
epidermis. It takes a period of about 48 days for newly formed dark brown pigment melanin. As melanosomes become full of melanin,
keratinocytes in the stratum basale to make their way to the top of the they move into thin extensions of the melanocytes. From there, the
stratum corneum to replace shed cells. melanosomes are transferred to keratinocytes in the epidermis, where
they absorb UV light that strikes the skin. This prevents the light from
FUNCTIONS OF THE EPIDERMIS penetrating deeper into the skin and causing damage. The more
The epidermis has several crucial functions in the body. These melanin there is in the skin, the more UV light that can be absorbed.
functions include protection, water retention, and vitamin D synthesis. WATER RETENTION
PROTECTIVE FUNCTIONS The ability of the skin to hold water and not lose it to the surrounding
The epidermis provides protection to underlying tissues from physical environment is due mainly to the stratum corneum. Lipids arranged in
damage, pathogens, and UV light. an organized way among the cells of the stratum corneum form a
barrier to water loss from the epidermis. This is critical for maintaining
PROTECTION FROM PHYSICAL DAMAGE
healthy skin and preserving proper water balance in the body.
Most of the physical protection of the epidermis is provided by its
Although the skin is impermeable to water, it is not impermeable to all
tough outer layer, the stratum corneum. Because of this layer, minor
substances. Instead, the skin is selectively permeable, allowing certain
scrapes and scratches generally do not cause significant damage to the
fat-soluble substances to pass through the epidermis. The selective
skin or underlying tissues. Sharp objects and rough surfaces have
permeability of the epidermis is both a benefit and a risk.
difficulty penetrating or removing the tough, dead, keratin-filled cells
of the stratum corneum. If cells in this layer are pierced or scraped off, Selective permeability allows certain medications to enter the
they are quickly replaced by new cells moving up to the surface from bloodstream through the capillaries in the dermis. This is the basis
lower skin layers. of medications that are delivered using topical ointments or patches
that are applied to the skin. These include steroid hormones such as
PROTECTION FROM PATHOGENS
estrogen (for hormone replacement therapy), scopolamine (for
When pathogens such as viruses and bacteria try to enter the body, it is motion sickness), nitroglycerin (for heart problems), and nicotine
virtually impossible for them to enter through intact epidermal layers. (for people trying to quit smoking).
Generally, pathogens can enter the skin only if the epidermis has been Selective permeability of the epidermis also allows certain harmful
breached, for example by a cut, puncture, or scrape in Figure 13.3.3. substances to enter the body through the skin. Examples include the
That’s why it is important to clean and cover even a minor wound in heavy metal lead and many pesticides.
the epidermis. This helps ensure that pathogens do not use the wound
VITAMIN D SYNTHESIS
to enter the body. Protection from pathogens is also provided by
conditions at or near the skin surface. These include relatively high Vitamin D is a nutrient that is needed in the human body for the
acidity (pH of about 5.0), low amounts of water, the presence of absorption of calcium from food. Molecules of a lipid compound
antimicrobial substances produced by epidermal cells, and Langerhans named 7-dehydrocholesterol are precursors of vitamin D. These
cells, which phagocytize bacteria or other pathogens. molecules are present in the stratum basale and stratum spinosum
layers of the epidermis. When UV light strikes the molecules, it
changes them to vitamin D3. In the kidneys, vitamin D3 is converted to
calcitriol, which is the form of vitamin D that is active in the body.

WHAT GIVES SKIN ITS COLOR?

Melanin in the epidermis is the main substance that determines the
color of human skin and explains most of the variation in skin color in
people around the world. However, two other substances also

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contribute to skin color, especially in light-skinned people: carotene
and hemoglobin.
The pigment carotene is present in the epidermis and gives skin a
yellowish tint, especially in the skin with low levels of melanin.
Hemoglobin is a red pigment found in red blood cells. It is visible
through the skin as a pinkish tint, again mainly in the skin with low
levels of melanin. The pink color is most visible when capillaries in
the underlying dermis dilate, allowing greater blood flow near the
surface.

BACTERIA ON SKIN
The surface of the human skin normally provides a home to countless
numbers of bacteria. Just one square inch of skin normally has an
average of about 50 million bacteria. These generally harmless bacteria
represent roughly 1,000 bacterial species (Figure 13.3.4) from 19
different bacterial phyla. Typical variations in the moistness and
oiliness of the skin produce a variety of rich and diverse habitats for
these microorganisms. For example, the skin in the armpits is warm Figure 13.3.5 : This photomicrograph shows a section of the papillary
and moist and often hairy, whereas the skin on the forearms is smooth and reticular layers of the dermis
and dry. These two areas of the human body are as diverse to The basic anatomy of the dermis is a matrix, or sort of scaffolding,
microorganisms as rainforests and deserts are to larger organisms. The composed of connective tissues. These tissues include collagen fibers,
density of bacterial populations on the skin depends largely on the which provide toughness; and elastin fibers, which provide elasticity.
region of the skin and its ecological characteristics. For example, oily Surrounding these fibers, the matrix also includes a gel-like substance
surfaces, such as the face, may contain over 500 million bacteria per made of proteins. The tissues of the matrix give the dermis both
square inch. Despite the huge number of individual microorganisms strength and flexibility.
living on the skin, their total volume is only about the size of a pea. The dermis is divided into two layers: the papillary layer and the
reticular layer.
PAPILLARY LAYER
The papillary layer is the upper layer of the dermis, just below the
basement membrane that connects the dermis to the epidermis above it.
The papillary layer is the thinner of the two dermal layers. It is
Figure 13.3.4: The bacterium Staphylococcus epidermidis is a common
composed mainly of loosely arranged collagen fibers. The papillary
microorganism living on healthy human skin
layer is named for its fingerlike projections, or papillae, that extend
In general, the normal microorganisms living on the skin keep one upward into the epidermis. The papillae contain capillaries and sensory
another in check and thereby play an important role in keeping the skin touch receptors.
healthy. However, if the balance of microorganisms is disturbed, there The papillae give the dermis a bumpy surface that interlocks with the
may be an overgrowth of certain species, and this may result in an epidermis above it, strengthening the connection between the two
infection. For example, when a patient is prescribed antibiotics, it may layers of skin. On the palms and soles, the papillae create epidermal
kill off normal bacteria and allow an overgrowth of single-celled yeast. ridges. Epidermal ridges on the fingers are commonly called
Even if the skin is disinfected, no amount of cleaning can remove all of fingerprints (see the photo below). Fingerprints are genetically
the microorganisms it contains. Disinfected areas are also quickly determined, so no two people (other than identical twins) have exactly
recolonized by bacteria residing in deeper areas such as hair follicles the same fingerprint pattern. Therefore, fingerprints can be used as a
and in adjacent areas of the skin. means of identification, for example, at crime scenes. Fingerprints
WHAT IS DERMIS? were much more commonly used forensically before DNA analysis
was introduced for this purpose.
The dermis is the inner of the two major layers that make up the skin,
the outer layer being the epidermis. The dermis consists mainly of
connective tissues. It also contains most skin structures such as glands
and blood vessels. The dermis is anchored to the tissues below it by
flexible collagen bundles that permit most areas of the skin to move
freely over subcutaneous (“below-the-skin”) tissues. Functions of the
dermis include cushioning subcutaneous tissues, regulating body Figure 13.3.6 : Epidermal ridges on a finger
temperature, sensing the environment, and excreting wastes.
RETICULAR LAYER
ANATOMY OF THE DERMIS The reticular layer is the lower layer of the dermis, below the
papillary layer. It is the thicker of the two dermal layers. It is composed
of densely woven collagen and elastin fibers. These protein fibers give
the dermis its properties of strength and elasticity. This layer of the
dermis cushions subcutaneous tissues of the body from stress and

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strain. The reticular layer of the dermis also contains most of the
structures in the dermis, such as glands and hair follicles.

STRUCTURES IN THE DERMIS

Both papillary and reticular layers of the dermis contain numerous
sensory receptors, which make the skin the body’s primary sensory
organ for the sense of touch. Both dermal layers also contain blood
vessels. They provide nutrients to and remove wastes from dermal cells
as well as cells in the lowest layer of the epidermis, the stratum basale.
The circulatory components of the dermis are shown in Figure 13.3.7.

Figure 13.3.8 : The dermis contains sweat and oil (sebaceous) glands as
well as hair follicles and blood vessels

Hair Follicles
Hair follicles are the structures where hairs originate (Figure 13.3.8).
Hairs grow out of follicles, pass through the epidermis, and exit at the
surface of the skin. Associated with each hair follicle is a sebaceous
gland, which secretes sebum that coats and waterproofs the hair. Each
follicle also has a bed of capillaries, a nerve ending, and a tiny muscle
Figure 13.3.7 : Both the papillary layer and the reticular layer of the called arrector pili.
dermis contain blood vessels
FUNCTIONS OF THE DERMIS
GLANDS
The main functions of the dermis are regulating body temperature,
Glands in the reticular layer of the dermis include sweat glands and enabling the sense of touch, and eliminating wastes from the body.
sebaceous (oil) glands. Both are exocrine glands, which are glands that
release their secretions through ducts to nearby body surfaces. The TEMPERATURE REGULATION
diagram below shows these glands and also several other structures in Several structures in the reticular layer of the dermis are involved in
the dermis. regulating body temperature. For example, when the body temperature
Sweat glands produce the fluid called sweat, which contains mainly rises, the hypothalamus of the brain sends nerve signals to sweat
water and salts. The glands have ducts that carry the sweat to hair glands, causing them to release sweat. An adult can sweat up to four
follicles or to the surface of the skin. There are two different types of liters an hour. As the sweat evaporates from the surface of the body, it
sweat glands: eccrine glands and apocrine glands. uses energy in the form of body heat, thus cooling the body. The
hypothalamus also causes dilation of blood vessels in the dermis when
Eccrine sweat glands occur in the skin all over the body. Their ducts
the body temperature rises. This allows more blood to flow through the
empty through tiny openings called pores onto the skin surface.
skin, bringing body heat to the surface, where it can radiate into the
These sweat glands are involved in temperature regulation.
environment.
Apocrine sweat glands are larger than eccrine glands and occur
only in the skin of the armpits and groin. The ducts of apocrine When the body is too cool, sweat glands stop producing sweat, and
glands empty into hair follicles, and then the sweat travels along blood vessels in the skin constrict, thus conserving body heat. The
hairs to reach the surface. Apocrine glands are inactive until arrector pili muscles also contract, moving hair follicles and lifting hair
puberty, at which point they start producing an oily sweat that is shafts. This results in more air being trapped under the hairs to insulate
consumed by bacteria living on the skin. The digestion of apocrine the surface of the skin. These contractions of arrector pili muscles are
sweat by bacteria is the cause of body odor. the cause of goosebumps.

Sebaceous glands are exocrine glands that produce a thick, fatty SENSING THE ENVIRONMENT
substance called sebum. Sebum is secreted into hair follicles and makes Sensory receptors in the dermis are mainly responsible for the body’s
its way to the skin surface along with hairs. It waterproofs the hair and tactile senses. The receptors detect such tactile stimuli as warm or cold
skin and helps prevent them from drying out. Sebum also has temperature, shape, texture, pressure, vibration, and pain. They send
antibacterial properties, so it inhibits the growth of microorganisms on nerve impulses to the brain which interprets and responds to the
the skin. Sebaceous glands are found in every part of the skin except sensory information. Sensory receptors in the dermis can be classified
for the palms of the hands and soles of the feet where hair does not on the basis of the type of touch stimulus they sense.
grow. Mechanoreceptors sense mechanical forces such as pressure,
roughness, vibration, and stretching. Thermoreceptors sense variations

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in temperature that are above or below body temperature. Nociceptors Mild acne often responds well to treatment with over-the-counter
sense painful stimuli. Figure 13.3.9 shows several specific kinds of (OTC) products containing benzoyl peroxide or salicylic acid.
tactile receptors in the dermis. Each kind of receptor senses one or Treatment with these products may take a month or two to clear up
more types of touch stimuli. the acne. Once the skin clears, treatment generally needs to be
Free nerve endings sense pain and temperature variations. continued for some time to prevent future breakouts.
Merkel cells sense light touch, shapes, and textures. If acne fails to respond to OTC products, nodules develop, or acne
Meissner’s corpuscles sense light touch. is affecting self-esteem, a visit to a dermatologist is in order. A
Pacinian corpuscles sense pressure and vibration. dermatologist can determine which treatment is best for a given
Ruffini corpuscles sense stretching and sustained pressure. patient. A dermatologist can also prescribe prescription medications
(which are likely to be more effective than OTC products) and
provide other medical treatments such as laser light therapies or
chemical peels.
What can you do to maintain healthy skin and prevent or reduce
acne? Dermatologists recommend the following tips:
Wash affected or acne-prone skin (such as the face) twice a day
and after sweating.
Use your fingertips to apply a gentle, non-abrasive cleanser.
Avoid scrubbing, which can make acne worse.
Use only alcohol-free products and avoid any products that
irritate the skin, such as harsh astringents or exfoliants.
Rinse with lukewarm water, and avoid using very hot or cold
water.
Shampoo your hair regularly.
Do not pick, pop, or squeeze acne. If you do, it will take longer
to heal and is more likely to scar.
Figure 13.3.9 : A variety of types of tactile receptors are located in the
dermis of the skin Keep your hands off your face. Avoid touching your skin
throughout the day.
EXCRETING WASTES Stay out of the sun and tanning beds. Some acne medications
The sweat released by eccrine sweat glands is one way the body make your skin very sensitive to UV light.
excretes waste products. Sweat contains excess water, salts
(electrolytes), and other waste products that the body must get rid of to
REVIEW
maintain homeostasis. The most common electrolytes in sweat are
1. What is the dermis?
sodium and chloride. Potassium, calcium, and magnesium electrolytes
2. Describe the basic anatomy of the dermis.
may be excreted in sweat as well. When these electrolytes reach high
3. Compare and contrast the papillary and reticular layers of the
levels in the blood, extra electrolytes are excreted in sweat. This helps
dermis.
to bring their blood levels back into balance. Besides electrolytes,
4. What causes epidermal ridges, and why can they be used to identify
sweat contains small amounts of waste products from metabolism
individuals?
including ammonia and urea. Sweat may also contain alcohol in
5. Name the two types of sweat glands in the dermis and state how
someone who has been drinking alcoholic beverages.
they differ.
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY 6. What is the function of sebaceous glands?
Acne is the most common skin disorder in the United States. At 7. Describe structures associated with hair follicles.
least 40 million Americans have acne at any given time. Acne 8. Explain how the dermis helps regulate body temperature.
occurs most commonly in teens and young adults, but it can occur 9. Identify three specific kinds of tactile receptors in the dermis and
at any age. Even newborn babies can get acne. the type of stimuli they sense.
The main sign of acne is the appearance of pimples (pustules) on 10. How does the dermis excrete wastes, and what waste products does
the skin, like those in the photo above. Other signs of acne may it excrete?
include whiteheads, blackheads, nodules, and other lesions. Besides 11. What are the subcutaneous tissues? Which layer of the dermis
the face, acne can appear on the back, chest, neck, shoulders, upper provides cushioning for subcutaneous tissues and why does this
arms, and buttocks. Acne can permanently scar the skin, especially layer provide most of the cushioning instead of the other layer?
if it isn’t treated appropriately. Besides its physical effects on the 12. For each of the following functions, describe which structure within
skin, acne can also lead to low self-esteem and depression. the dermis carries it out.
Acne is caused by clogged, sebum-filled pores that provide a A. Brings nutrients to and removes wastes from dermal and lower
perfect environment for the growth of bacteria. The bacteria cause epidermal cells
infection, and the immune system responds with inflammation. B. Causes hairs to move
Inflammation, in turn, causes swelling and redness and may be C. Detects painful stimuli on the skin
associated with the formation of pus. If the inflammation goes deep 13. What is the epidermis?
into the skin, it may form an acne nodule. 14. Identify the types of cells in the epidermis.

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15. Describe the layers of the epidermis. ATTRIBUTIONS
16. State one function of each of the four epidermal layers found all 1. Sunburn by QuinnHK, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
over the body. 2. Structure epidermis by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery
17. Explain three ways the epidermis protects the body. of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
18. What makes the skin waterproof? DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY
19. Why is the selective permeability of the epidermis both a benefit 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
and risk? 3. Scraped knee by Remux, CC0 via Wikimedia Commons
20. How is vitamin D synthesized in the epidermis? 4. Staphylococcus epidermidis by Janice Carr, CDC, public domain
21. Identify three pigments that impart color to the skin. via Wikimedia Commons
22. Describe bacteria that normally reside on the skin, and explain why 5. Epidermis and dermis slide by Kilbad, public domain via
they do not usually cause infections. Wikimedia Commons
23. Explain why the keratinocytes at the surface of the epidermis are 6. Fingerprint detail by Frettie, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
dead, while keratinocytes located deeper in the epidermis are still 7. Dermal circulation by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery
alive. of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
24. Which layer of the epidermis contains keratinocytes that have DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY
begun to die? 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
25. True or False. The extra layer of epidermis found on the palms of 8. Anatomy of the skin by Don Bliss, National Cancer Institute, public
the hands and soles of the feet is located on the very outer surface domain via Wikimedia Commons
of the skin. 9. Skin tactile receptors by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery
26. True or False. Melanin can be found in keratinocytes. of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
27. Explain why our skin is not permanently damaged if we rub off DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY
some of the surface layers by using a rough washcloth. 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
10. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
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13.4: HAIR AND NAILS
FASHION STATEMENT FUNCTIONS OF HAIR
This pink hairstyle makes quite a fashion statement. Many people In humans, one function of head hair is to provide insulation and help
spend a lot of time and money on their hair, even if they don’t have the head retain heat. Head hair also protects the skin on the head from
such an exceptional hairstyle as this one. Besides its display value, damage by UV light. The function of hair in other locations on the
hair actually has important physiological functions. body is debated. One idea is that body hair helps to keep us warm in
cold weather. When the body is too cold, the arrector pili muscles
contract and cause hairs to stand up, trapping a layer of warm air above
the epidermis. However, this is more effective in mammals that have
thick hair or fur than it is in relatively hairless human beings.

Figure 13.4.1 : dyed hair Figure 13.4.3 : This young child is using his eyebrows to good effect to
convey his displeasure
Hair is a filament that grows from a hair follicle in the dermis of the Human hair has an important sensory function as well. Sensory
skin. It consists mainly of tightly packed, keratin-filled cells called receptors in the hair follicles can sense when the hair moves, whether it
keratinocytes. The human body is covered with hair follicles except for moves because of a breeze or the touch of a physical object. The
a few areas, including the mucous membranes, lips, palms of the hands, receptors may also provide sensory awareness of the presence of
and soles of the feet. parasites on the skin. Some hairs, such as eyelashes, are especially
sensitive to the presence of potentially harmful matter. The eyebrows
STRUCTURE OF HAIR protect the eyes from dirt, sweat, and rain. In addition, the eyebrows
The part of the hair that is located within the follicle is called the hair play a key role in nonverbal communication (Figure 13.4.3). They help
root. The root is the only living part of the hair. The part of the hair express emotions such as sadness, anger, surprise, and excitement.
that is visible above the surface of the skin is the hair shaft. The shaft
of the hair has no biochemical activity and is considered dead. WHAT ARE NAILS?
Nails are accessory organs of the skin. They are made of sheets of dead
FOLLICLE AND ROOT
keratinocytes and are found on the far, or distal, ends of the fingers and
toes. The keratin in nails makes them hard but flexible. Nails serve a
number of purposes, including protecting the digits, enhancing
sensations, and acting like tools.

NAIL ANATOMY
A nail has three main parts: the root, plate, and free margin. Other
structures around or under the nail include the nail bed, cuticle, and
nail fold. Nails grow from a deep layer of living epidermal tissue,
known as the nail matrix, at the proximal end of the nail. The nail
matrix surrounds the nail root. It contains stem cells that divide to form
keratinocytes, which are cells that produce keratin and make up the
nail. These structures are shown in Figure 13.4.4.
The nail root is the portion of the nail found under the surface of
the skin at the near, or proximal, end of the nail. It is where the nail
Figure 13.4.2 : A hair follicle has sebaceous glands and arrector pili begins.
muscles associated with it. The part of the hair that is visible from The nail plate (or body) is the portion of the nail that is external to
outside is called the hair shaft. The thick skin of palms and soles does the skin. It is the visible part of the nail.
not contain hair follicles.
The free margin is the portion of the nail that protrudes beyond the
Hair growth begins inside a follicle (Figure 13.4.2:). Each hair follicle distal end of the finger or toe. This is the part that is cut or filed to
contains stem cells that can keep dividing and allow hair to grow. The keep the nail trimmed.
stem cells can also regrow new hair after one falls out. Another The nail bed is the area of skin under the nail plate. It is pink in
structure associated with a hair follicle is a sebaceous gland that color due to the presence of capillaries in the dermis.
produces oily sebum, which lubricates and helps to waterproof the hair. The cuticle is a layer of dead epithelial cells that overlaps and
A tiny arrector pili muscle is also attached to the follicle. When it covers the edge of the nail plate. It helps to seal the edges of the
contracts, the follicle moves, and the hair in the follicle stands up.

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 nail to prevent infection of the underlying tissues. 1. What training and certification are required for professional nail
The nail fold is a groove in the skin in which the side edges of the technicians?
nail plate are embedded. 2. What licenses and inspections are required for nail salons?
3. What hygienic practices should be followed in nail salons to
reduce the risk of infections being transmitted to clients?
4. Which professional nail products are potentially harmful to the
human body and which are safer?
5. How likely is it to have an adverse health consequence when
you get a professional manicure or pedicure?
6. What steps can you take to ensure that a professional manicure
or pedicure is safe?

REVIEW
Figure 13.4.4 : The left diagram in this figure shows the external,
visible part of the nail and the cuticle. The right diagram shows internal 1. Compare and contrast the hair root and hair shaft.
structures in a cross-section of the nail, matrix, and nail bed. 2. Describe hair follicles.
3. Identify the three zones of a hair shaft.
FUNCTIONS OF NAILS
4. Describe two functions of human hair.
Both fingernails and toenails protect the soft tissues of the fingers and 5. True or False. Eyelashes can have a sensory function.
toes from injury. Fingernails also serve to enhance sensation and 6. Hair consists mainly of:
precise movements of the fingertips through the counter-pressure
A. Melanocytes
exerted on the pulp of the fingers by the nails. In addition, fingernails
B. Keratinocytes
can function as several different types of tools. For example, they
C. Epidermocytes
enable a fine precision grip like tweezers and can also be used for
D. Hirocytes
cutting and scraping.
7. What are the nails?
NAILS AND HEALTH 8. Describe three parts of the nail.
Healthcare providers, particularly EMTs, often examine the fingernail 9. Explain why most of the nail plate looks pink.
beds as a quick and easy indicator of oxygen saturation of the blood or 10. Describe a lunula.
the amount of blood reaching the extremities. If the nail beds are bluish 11. Explain how a nail grows.
or purple, it is generally a sign of low oxygen saturation. To see if 12. Identify three functions of nails.
blood flow to the extremities is adequate, a blanch test may be done. In 13. Give several examples of how nails are related to health.
this test, a fingernail is briefly depressed to turn the nail bed white by 14. True or False. Nails grow from the distal end to the proximal end of
forcing the blood out of its capillaries. When the pressure is released, your fingers and toes.
the pink color of the nail bed should return within a second or two if 15. True or False. The nail bed refers to the middle portion of the hard
there is normal blood flow. If the return to a pink color is delayed, then nail plate
it can be an indicator of low blood volume due to dehydration or shock. 16. Nails are composed mainly of a protein called:
Nails — especially toenails — are common sites of fungal infections, A. Elastin
causing nails to become thickened and yellowish in color. Toenails are B. Collagen
more often infected than fingernails because they are often confined in
C. Keratin
shoes. This provides a dark, warm, moist environment where fungi can
thrive. Toes also tend to have less blood flow than fingers, making it D. Melanin
harder for the immune system to detect and stop infections in toenails. 17. a. What is the cuticle of the nail composed of?
Although nails are harder and tougher than the skin, they are more b. What is the function of the cuticle?
permeable than skin. Harmful substances, such as herbicides may be c. Why is it a bad idea to cut the cuticle during a manicure?
absorbed through the nails and cause health problems.
18. What is the name of the part of the nail that you trim?
FEATURE: RELIABLE SOURCES
19. Is the nail plate composed of living or dead cells?
Do you get regular manicures or pedicures from a nail technician?
If so, there is a chance that you are putting your health at risk. Nail EXPLORE MORE
tools that are not properly disinfected between clients may transmit https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16798#Explore_More
infections from one person to another. Cutting the cuticles with
scissors may create breaks in the skin that let infective agents enter ATTRIBUTIONS
the body. Products such as acrylics, adhesives, and UV gels that are 1. Tangle portrait by Disabled And Here, licensed CC BY 4.0
applied to the nails may be harmful, especially if they penetrate the 2. Skin layers by Madhero88 and M.Komorniczak, CC BY-SA 3.0 via
nails and enter the skin. Wikimedia Commons
Use the Internet and find several reliable sources that address the 3. Omer's scowl by Jon Eben Field, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
health risks of professional manicures or pedicures. Try to find Commons
answers to the following questions: 4. Fingernail anatomy by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery
of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).

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 DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. CC BY 3.0 via 5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
Wikimedia Commons 3.0

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13.5: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: SKIN CANCER AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
survive for at least five years. If melanoma is discovered only after it
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION has already metastasized to distant organs, there is only a 17 percent
Skin cancer begins in the outer layer of skin, the epidermis. There are chance of patients surviving for five years. You can see an example of
three common types of skin cancer: basal cell carcinoma, squamous melanoma in Figure 13.5.4.
cell carcinoma, and melanoma.

Figure 13.5.2 : Basal cell

carcinoma

Figure 13.5.3 : Squamous cell

carcinoma

Figure 13.5.4 :
Figure 13.5.1 : cancer screening poster Melanoma
Melanoma can develop anywhere on the body. It may develop in
BASAL CELL CARCINOMA
otherwise normal skin, or an existing mole may become cancerous.
Basal cell carcinoma occurs in basal cells of the epidermis. Basal cells
Signs of melanoma may include a:
are stem cells in the stratum basale layer that divide to form all the
keratinocytes of the epidermis. Basal cell carcinoma is the most mole that changes in size, feel, or color
common form of skin cancer. More than four million cases occur in the mole that bleeds
United States each year. A basal cell carcinoma may appear as a pearly large brown spot on the skin sprinkled with darker specks
or waxy bump, like the one shown in Figure 13.5.2. Basal cell small lesion with an irregular border and parts that appear red,
carcinomas rarely spread (or undergo metastasis), so they can white, blue, or blue-black
generally be cured with a biopsy, in which the lesion is cut out of the dark lesion on the palms, soles, fingertips, toes, or mucous
skin and analyzed in a medical lab. membranes
As with most types of cancer, skin cancer is the easiest to treat and
SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA most likely to be cured the earlier it is detected. The skin is one of the
Squamous cell carcinoma occurs in squamous cells of the epidermis. few organs that you can monitor for cancer yourself, as long as you
Squamous cells are flattened, keratin-filled cells in the upper layers of know what to look for. A brown spot on the skin is likely to be a
the epidermis. Squamous cell carcinoma is the second most common harmless mole, but it could be a sign of skin cancer. As shown in
form of skin cancer. More than two million cases occur in the United Figure 13.5.5, unlike moles, skin cancers may be asymmetrical, have
States each year. A squamous cell carcinoma may appear as a firm, red irregular borders, be very dark in color, and may have a relatively great
nodule, or as a flat lesion with a scaly or crusty surface, like the one diameter. These characteristics can be remembered with the mnemonic
pictured in Figure 13.5.3. Squamous cell carcinomas are generally ABCD.
localized and unlikely to metastasize, so they are usually curable
surgically.

MELANOMA
Melanoma occurs in the melanocytes of the epidermis. Melanocytes
are the melanin-producing cells in the stratum basale of the epidermis.
Melanoma is the rarest type of skin cancer, accounting for less than one
percent of all skin cancer cases. Melanoma, however, is the most Figure 13.5.5: ABCDs of skin cancer
deadly type of skin cancer. It causes the vast majority of skin cancer With the help of mirrors, you should check all of your skin regularly.
deaths because melanoma is malignant. If not treated, it will Look for new skin growths or changes in any existing moles, freckles,
metastasize and spread to other parts of the body. If melanoma is
detected early and while it is still localized in the skin, most patients

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bumps, or birthmarks. Report anything suspicious or different to your The surface of healthy skin normally is covered by vast numbers
doctor. of bacteria representing about 1,000 species from 19 phyla.
If you have risk factors for skin cancer, it’s a good idea to have an Different areas of the body provide diverse habitats for skin
annual skin check by a dermatologist. This helps ensure that cancerous microorganisms. Usually, microorganisms on the skin keep each
or precancerous lesions will be detected before they grow too large and other in check unless their balance is disturbed.
become difficult to cure—or, in the case of melanoma, before they The thicker inner layer of the skin, the dermis, has two layers. The
metastasize. upper papillary layer has papillae extending upward into the
epidermis and loose connective tissues. The lower reticular layer
CHAPTER REVIEW has denser connective tissues and structures such as glands and hair
In this chapter, you learned about the structures and functions of the follicles. Glands in the dermis include eccrine and apocrine sweat
organs of the integumentary system. Specifically, you learned that: glands and sebaceous glands. Hair follicles are structures where
The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, and nails. hairs originate.
Functions of the integumentary system include providing a Functions of the dermis include cushioning subcutaneous tissues,
protective covering for the body, sensing the environment, and regulating body temperature, sensing the environment, and
helping the body maintain homeostasis. excreting wastes. The dense connective tissues of the dermis
The skin’s main functions include preventing water loss from the provide cushioning. The dermis regulates body temperature mainly
body, serving as a barrier to the entry of microorganisms, by sweating and by vasodilation or vasoconstriction. The many
synthesizing vitamin D, blocking UV light, and helping to regulate tactile sensory receptors in the dermis make it the main organ for
body temperature. the sense of touch. Wastes excreted in sweat include excess water,
The skin consists of two distinct layers: a thinner outer layer called electrolytes, and certain metabolic wastes.
the epidermis and a thicker inner layer called the dermis. Hair is a filament that grows from a hair follicle in the dermis of the
skin. It consists mainly of tightly packed, dead keratinocytes that
The epidermis consists mainly of epithelial cells called
are filled with keratin. The human body is almost completely
keratinocytes, which produce keratin. New keratinocytes form
covered with hair follicles.
at the bottom of the epidermis. They become filled with keratin
Hair helps prevent heat loss from the head and protects its skin
and die as they move upward toward the surface of the skin,
from UV light. Hair in the nose filters the incoming air, and the
where they form a protective, waterproof layer.
eyelashes and eyebrows keep harmful substances out of the eyes.
The dermis consists mainly of tough connective tissues that
Hair all over the body provides tactile sensory input. The eyebrows
provide strength and stretch; and almost all skin structures,
also play a role in nonverbal communication.
including blood vessels, sensory receptors, hair follicles, and oil
The part of the hair that is within the follicle is the hair root. This is
and sweat glands.
the only living part of a hair. The part of the hair that is visible
Cell types in the epidermis include keratinocytes which make up 90 above the skin surface is the hair shaft. It consists of dead cells.
percent of epidermal cells; melanocytes that produce melanin;
Hair growth begins inside a follicle when stem cells within the
Langerhans cells that fight pathogens in the skin; and Merkel cells
follicle divide to produce new keratinocytes.
that respond to light touch.
A hair shaft has three zones: the outermost zone called the
The epidermis in most parts of the body consists of four distinct
cuticle; the middle zone called the cortex, and the innermost
layers. A fifth layer occurs only in the epidermis of the palms of the
zone called the medulla.
hands and soles of the feet.
Genetically controlled, visible characteristics of hair include hair
The innermost layer of the epidermis is the stratum basale,
color, hair texture, and the extent of balding in adult males. Melanin
which contains stem cells that divide to form new keratinocytes.
(eumelanin and/or pheomelanin) is the pigment that gives hair its
The next layer is the stratum spinosum, which is the thickest
color. Aspects of hair texture include curl pattern, thickness, and
layer and contains Langerhans cells and spiny keratinocytes.
consistency.
This is followed by the stratum granulosum, in which
Among mammals, humans are nearly unique in having undergone a
keratinocytes are filling with keratin and starting to die. The
significant loss of body hair during their evolution, probably
stratum lucidum is next, but only on the palms and soles. It
because sweat evaporates more quickly from the less hairy skin.
consists of translucent dead keratinocytes. The outermost layer
Curly hair also is thought to have evolved at some point during
is the stratum corneum, which consists of flat, dead, tightly
human evolution, perhaps because it provided better protection
packed keratinocytes that form a tough, waterproof barrier for
from UV light.
the rest of the epidermis.
Hair has social significance for human beings, being an indicator of
Functions of the epidermis include protecting underlying tissues biological sex, age, and ethnic ancestry. Human hair also has
from physical damage and pathogens. Melanin in the epidermis cultural significance. For example, hairstyle may be an indicator of
absorbs and protects underlying tissues from UV light. The a social group membership.
epidermis also prevents the loss of water from the body and Nails consist of sheets of dead, keratin-filled keratinocytes. The
synthesizes vitamin D. keratin in nails makes them hard but flexible. They help protect the
Melanin is the main pigment that determines the color of human ends of the fingers and toes, enhance the sense of touch in the
skin. However, the pigments of carotene and hemoglobin also fingertips, and may be used as tools.
contribute to skin color, especially in the skin with low levels of A nail has three main parts: the nail root, which is under the
melanin. epidermis; the nail plate, which is the visible part of the nail; and

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 the free margin, which is the distal edge of the nail. Other structures 17. The basement membrane is between the:
under or around a nail include the nail bed, cuticle, and nail fold. A. Dermis and epidermis
A nail grows from a deep layer of living epidermal tissues, called B. Dermis and the subcutaneous tissues beneath it
the nail matrix, at the proximal end of the nail. Stem cells in the nail C. Dermis and the hair in the follicle
matrix keep dividing to allow nail growth, forming first the nail D. Nail matrix and the nail bed
root and then the nail plate as the nail continues to grow longer and
18. For each of the descriptions below (A-D), match it to the protein
emerges from the epidermis.
that is best described by it (protein choices:
Fingernails grow faster than toenails. Actual rates of growth depend
keratin, collagen, melanin, elastin).
on many factors, such as age, sex, and season.
A. Helps provide strength and elasticity in the lower layer of the
The color of the nail bed can be used to quickly assess oxygen and
dermis
blood flow in a patient. How the nail plate grows out can reflect
B. Makes up the loosely arranged fibers in the upper layer of the
recent health problems, such as illness or nutrient deficiency. Nails
dermis
— and especially toenails — are prone to fungus infections. Nails
C. The predominant protein in hair, skin, and nails
are more permeable than skin and can absorb several harmful
D. Protects against damage from UV light.
substances such as herbicides.
Skin cancer is a disease in which skin cells grow out of control. It is 19. Keratinocytes are found in:
caused mainly by excessive exposure to UV light, which damages A. Skin
DNA. Skin cancer affects more Americans than all other cancers B. Hair
combined. C. Nails
There are three common types of skin cancer: basal cell carcinoma, D. All of the above
squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma. Carcinomas are more 20. Papillae extend from the :
common and unlikely to metastasize. Melanoma is rare and likely A. sebaceous glands to the surface of the skin
to metastasize. It causes the most skin cancer deaths. B. sweat glands to the surface of the skin
Besides exposure to UV light, risk factors for skin cancer include C. epidermis down into the dermis
having light-colored skin, many moles, and a family history of skin D. dermis up into the epidermis
cancer, among several others.
21. Describe two types of waterproofing used in the integumentary
Now that you have learned about the organs on the surface of the body, system. Include the types of molecules and where they are located
read the next chapter to travel inside and learn about the skeletal in your answer.
system, which protects and supports us internally, among other 22. Explain why nails enhance touch sensations.
functions. 23. Why do you think light-colored skin is a risk factor for skin cancer?
24. Which vitamin is synthesized by the skin?
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW A. Vitamin A
1. What is skin cancer? B. Vitamin D
2. How common is skin cancer? C. Vitamin B9
3. Compare and contrast the three common types of skin cancer. D. Vitamin E
4. Identify factors that increase the risk of skin cancer.
25. Describe the similarities between how the epidermis, hair, and nails
5. How does exposure to UV light cause skin cancer?
all grow.
6. In which layer of the skin does skin cancer normally start?
26. True or False. The inside of the mouth is considered to be
7. Which two skin cancers described in this section start in the same
epidermal tissue.
sublayer? Include the name of the sublayer and the cells affected in
27. True or False. Epidermal cells are filled with an increasing amount
each of these cancers in your answer.
of keratin as they go from the lowest layer to the outermost layer.
8. If a type of skin cancer spreads to other organs, which type is it
28. True or False. Cells in the stratum corneum of the skin do not have
most likely to be? Explain your answer.
a nucleus or organelles.
9. True or False. A mole is a form of cancer.
29. What does the whitish crescent-shaped area at the base of your nails
10. True or False. Exposure to UV light can contribute to wrinkles.
(towards your hands) represent? What is its function?
11. True or False. Skin cancers are always dark in color.
30. What is one difference between human hair and the hair of non-
12. Which form of skin cancer is the most deadly?
human primates?
13. What are some ways people can reduce their risk of getting skin
31. True or False. Blood vessels extend through the entire thickness of
cancer? Explain your answer.
the skin.
14. True or False. UV radiation causes more cancers than tobacco use.
32. True or False. Cells that produce melanin are located in the dermis
15. Describe one way in which the integumentary system works with
of the skin.
another organ system to carry out a particular function.
33. Describe the relationship between skin and hair.
16. Put the following layers of skin in order, from the deepest layer to
34. What kind of skin cancer is a cancer of a type of stem cell?
the layer closest to the surface:
35. For the skin and hair, describe one way in which they each protect
A. papillary layer the body against pathogens.
B. stratum basale 36. If sweat glands are in the dermis, how is sweat released to the
C. reticular layer surface of the body?
D. stratum spinosum

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37. Explain why you think that physicians usually insist that patients ATTRIBUTIONS
remove any nail polish before having surgery. 1. Skin cancer prevention in NZ by Sarang, public domain via
38. True or False. Langerhans cells are immune cells located in the Wikimedia Commons
epidermis. 2. Basal cell carcinoma by National Cancer Institute, public domain
39. True or False. Fingerprints are due to structures on the surface of via Wikimedia Commons
the epidermis. 3. Squamous cell carcinoma by National Cancer Institute, public
40. Describe generally how the brain gets touch information from the domain via Wikimedia Commons
skin. 4. Melanoma by National Cancer Institute, public domain via
Wikimedia Commons
EXPLORE MORE 5. ABCD melanoma by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16799#Explore_More
6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
14: SKELETAL SYSTEM
This chapter describes the structure and functions of the skeletal system and its two major divisions,
the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. It details the structure of bone, how bones grow,
and how they are remodeled and repaired. The chapter also explains how joints work and how they
are classified as well as the causes and effects of major skeletal system disorders.

14.1: CASE STUDY: YOUR SUPPORT SYSTEM

Amari loves wearing high heels when they go out at night, especially stilettos. They know high
heels are not the most practical shoes, but Amari likes how they look. Lately Amari has been
experiencing pain in the balls of thier feet—the area just behind the toes. Even when they trades
heels for comfortable sneakers, it still hurts when Amari stands or walks.

14.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skull and cross-bones symbol has been used for a very long time to represent death, perhaps because after death and
decomposition, bones are all that remain. Many people think of bones as being dead, dry, and brittle. These adjectives may correctly
describe the bones of a preserved skeleton, but the bones of a living human being are very much alive. Living bones are also strong
and flexible. Bones are the major organs of the skeletal system.

14.3: DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

This somewhat macabre display can be viewed at the Slovak National Museum in Bratislava, Slovakia. The skulls are meant to
represent normal human skeletal anatomy. The skull is part of the axial skeleton, which is one of the two major divisions of the human
skeleton. The other division is the appendicular skeleton.

14.4: STRUCTURE OF BONE

Do you recognize the food item in the top left of this photo? It's roasted bone marrow, still inside the bones. It's considered a delicacy
in some cuisines. Marrow is a type of tissue found inside many animal bones, including our own. It's a soft tissue that in adults may
be mostly fat. You'll learn more about bone marrow and other tissues that make up bones when you read this concept.

14.5: BONE GROWTH, REMODELING, AND REPAIR

Did you ever break a leg or other bone, like the man looking longingly at the water in this swimming pool? Having a broken bone can
really restrict your activity. Bones are very hard, but they will break, or fracture, if enough force is applied to them. Fortunately, bones
are highly active organs that can repair themselves if they break. Bones can also remodel themselves and grow. You'll learn how
bones can do all of these things in this concept.

14.6: JOINTS
Joints are locations at which bones of the skeleton connect with one another. A joint is also called an articulation. The majority of
joints are structured in such a way that they allow movement. However, not all joints allow movement. Of joints that do allow
movement, the extent and direction of the movements they allow also vary.

14.7: DISORDERS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The woman on the right in this image has a deformity in her back commonly called dowager's (widow's) hump, because it occurs
most often in elderly women. Its medical name is kyphosis, and it is defined as excessive curvature of the spinal column in the
thoracic region. The curvature generally results from fractures of thoracic vertebrae. As the inset drawings suggest, these fractures
may occur due to a significant decrease in bone mass, which is called osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is one of the mo

14.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: HEELS AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

You may have seen signs indicating that high-heeled shoes are not allowed on certain walking surfaces because of the risk of injury.
High heels affect a person's balance, and wearers can easily twist their ankle on uneven or slippery surfaces, causing a sprain or even a
fracture. Besides twisting an ankle, wearing high heels on a regular basis can cause a variety of other negative health consequences—
some of which may be long-lasting.

1 4/25/2021
14.1: CASE STUDY: YOUR SUPPORT SYSTEM
CHAPTER OVERVIEW: SKELETAL SYSTEM
CASE STUDY: A PAIN IN THE FOOT In this chapter, you will learn about the structure, functions, growth,
Amari loves wearing high heels when they go out at night, like the repair, and disorders of the skeletal system. Specifically, you will learn
stiletto heels shown in Figure 14.1.1. Amari uses gender-neutral about:
pronouns, such as they, them, and their. They know high heels are not
The components of the skeletal system, which include bones,
the most practical shoes, but they like how they look. Lately, Amari has
ligaments, and cartilage.
been experiencing pain in the balls of their feet—the area just behind
The functions of the skeletal system, which include supporting and
the toes. Even when they trade heels for comfortable sneakers, it still
giving shape to the body, protecting internal organs, facilitating
hurts when they stand or walk.
movement, producing blood cells, helping maintain homeostasis,
and producing endocrine hormones.
The organization and functions of the two main divisions of the
skeletal system: the axial skeletal system, which includes the skull,
spine, and rib cage; and the appendicular skeletal system, which
includes the limbs and girdles that attach the limbs to the axial
skeleton.
Figure 14.1.1 : high heels The tissues and cells that make up bones and their specific
What could be going on? Amari searches online to try to find some functions, including making new bone, breaking down bone,
answers. They find a reputable source for foot pain information—a producing blood cells, and regulating mineral homeostasis.
website from a professional organization of physicians that peer The different types of bones in the skeletal system, based on shape
reviews the content by experts in the field. There, Amari reads about a and location.
condition called metatarsalgia, which produces pain in the ball of the How bones grow, remodel, and repair themselves.
foot that sounds very similar to what they are experiencing. The different types of joints between bones, where they are located,
Amari learns that a common cause of metatarsalgia is the wearing of and the ways in which they allow different types of movement
high heels because they push the foot into an abnormal position. This depending on their structure.
results in excessive pressure being placed onto the ball of the foot. The causes, risk factors, and treatments for the two most common
Looking at the photograph above, you can imagine how much of the disorders of the skeletal system: osteoporosis and osteoarthritis.
body weight is focused on the ball of the foot because of the shape of As you read this chapter, think about the following questions:
the high heels. If they were not wearing high heels, the weight would
1. Amari suspects they have a condition called metatarsalgia. This
be more evenly distributed across the foot.
term is related to the term “metatarsals.” What are metatarsals,
As they read more about the hazards of high heels, Amari learns that where are they located, and how do you think they are related to
heels can also cause foot deformities such as hammertoes and metatarsalgia?
bunions, small cracks in the bone called stress fractures, and may even 2. High heels can cause stress fractures, which are small cracks in the
contribute to the development of osteoarthritis of the knees at an early bone that usually appear after repeated mechanical stress, instead of
age. after a significant acute injury. What other condition described in
These conditions caused by high heels are all problems of the skeletal this chapter involves a similar process?
system, which includes bones and connective tissues that hold bones 3. What are bunions and osteoarthritis of the knee? Why do you think
together and cushion them at joints such as the knee. The skeletal they can be caused by wearing high heels?
system supports the body’s weight and protects internal organs, but as
you will learn as you read this chapter, it also carries out a variety of ATTRIBUTIONS
other important physiological functions. 1. High heels by Agnali via Pixabay license
At the end of the chapter, you will find out why high heels can cause 2. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
these skeletal system problems and the steps Amari takes to recover 3.0
from their foot pain and prevent long-term injury.

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14.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
SKULL AND CROSS-BONES
The skull and cross-bones symbol has been used for a very long
time to represent death, perhaps because after death and
decomposition, bones are all that remain. Many people think of
bones as being dead, dry, and brittle. These adjectives may
correctly describe the bones of a preserved skeleton, but the bones
of a living human being are very much alive. Living bones are also
strong and flexible. Bones are the major organs of the skeletal
system.

Figure 14.2.1 : skull and cross-bones flag

The skeletal system is the organ system that provides an internal

framework for the human body. Why do you need a skeletal system?
Try to imagine what you would look like without it. You would be a
soft, wobbly pile of skin containing muscles and internal organs but no
bones. You might look something like a very large slug. Not that you
would be able to see yourself — folds of skin would droop down over
your eyes and block your vision because of your lack of skull bones.
You could push the skin out of the way if you could only move your
arms, but you need bones for that as well!

COMPONENTS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM Figure 14.2.2 : Some of the 206 bones are labeled on the adult human
In adults, the skeletal system includes 206 bones, many of which are skeleton.
shown in Figure 14.2.2. Bones are organs made of dense connective Besides bones, the skeletal system includes cartilage and ligaments.
tissues, mainly the tough protein collagen. Bones contain blood
Cartilage is a type of dense connective tissue, made of tough
vessels, nerves, and other tissues. Bones are hard and rigid due to
protein fibers. It is strong but flexible and very smooth. It covers
deposits of calcium and other mineral salts within their living tissues.
the ends of bones at joints, providing a smooth surface for bones to
Locations, where two or more bones meet, are called joints. Many
move over.
joints allow bones to move like levers. For example, your elbow is a
Ligaments are bands of fibrous connective tissue that hold bones
joint that allows you to bend and straighten your arm.
together. They keep the bones of the skeleton in place.

AXIAL AND APPENDICULAR SKELETONS

The skeleton is traditionally divided into two major parts: the axial
skeleton and the appendicular skeleton, both of which are pictured in
Figure 14.2.3.
The axial skeleton forms the axis of the body. It includes the skull,
vertebral column (spine), and rib cage. The bones of the axial
skeleton, along with ligaments and muscles, allow the human body
to maintain its upright posture. The axial skeleton also transmits
weight from the head, trunk, and upper extremities down the back

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 to the lower extremities. In addition, the bones protect the brain and The skeletal system has many different functions that are necessary for
organs in the chest. human survival. Some of the functions, such as supporting the body,
The appendicular skeleton forms the appendages and their are relatively obvious. Other functions are less obvious but no less
attachments to the axial skeleton. It includes the bones of the arms important. For example, three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup)
and legs, hands and feet, and shoulder and pelvic girdles. The bones inside the middle ear transfer sound waves into the inner ear.
of the appendicular skeleton make possible locomotion and other
movements of the appendages. They also protect the major organs SUPPORT, SHAPE, AND PROTECTION
of digestion, excretion, and reproduction. The skeleton supports the body and gives it shape. Without the rigid
bones of the skeletal system, the human body would be just a bag of
soft tissues, as described above. The bones of the skeleton are very
hard and provide protection to the delicate tissues of internal organs.
For example, the skull encloses and protects the soft tissues of the
brain, and the vertebral column protects the nervous tissues of the
spinal cord. The vertebral column, ribs, and sternum (breast bone)
protect the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels. Providing protection
to these latter internal organs requires the bones to be able to expand
and contract. The ribs and the cartilage that connects them to the
sternum and vertebrae are capable of small shifts that allow breathing
and other internal organ movements.

MOVEMENT
The bones of the skeleton provide attachment surfaces for skeletal
muscles. When the muscles contract, they pull on and move the bones.
The figure below, for example, shows the muscles attached to the
bones at the knee. They help stabilize the joint and allow the leg to
bend at the knee. The bones at joints act like levers moving at a
fulcrum point, and the muscles attached to the bones apply the force
needed for movement.
Figure 14.2.3 : Axial skeleton represented in
blue

Figure 14.2.4 : Bones that meet at the knee joint include the tibia and
fibula in the lower leg, the femur in the upper leg, and the kneecap at
the front of the knee. These bones provide attachment surfaces for
muscles that move the bones at the joint. Muscles are attached to the
bones via tendons.

HEMATOPOIESIS
Hematopoiesis is the process in which blood cells are produced. This
process occurs in a tissue called red marrow, which is found inside
Figure 14.2.3 : Appendicular skeleton represented some bones, including the pelvis, ribs, and vertebrae. Red marrow
in blue
synthesizes red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Billions of
these blood cells are produced inside the bones every day.
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
MINERAL STORAGE AND HOMEOSTASIS

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Another function of the skeletal system is storing minerals, especially 9. True or False. Bone cells contract to pull on muscles in order to
calcium and phosphorus. This storage function is related to the role of initiate a movement.
bones in maintaining mineral homeostasis. Just the right levels of 10. If a person has a problem with blood cell production, what type of
calcium and other minerals are needed in the blood for the normal bone tissue is most likely involved? Explain your answer.
functioning of the body. When mineral levels in the blood are too high, 11. Are the pelvic girdles part of the axial or appendicular skeleton?
bones absorb some of the minerals and store them as mineral salts, 12. What are three forms of homeostasis that the skeletal system
which is why bones are so hard. When blood levels of minerals are too regulates? Briefly explain how each one is regulated by the skeletal
low, bones release some of the minerals back into the blood. Bone system.
minerals are alkaline (basic), so their release into the blood buffers the 13. What do you think would happen to us if we did not have
blood against excessive acidity (low pH), whereas their absorption ligaments? Explain your answer.
back into bones buffers the blood against excessive alkalinity (high 14. a. Define a joint in the skeletal system.
pH). In this way, bones help maintain acid-base homeostasis in the b. How is cartilage related to joints?
blood.
c. Identify one joint in the human body and describe its function.
Another way bones help to maintain homeostasis is by acting as an
endocrine organ. One endocrine hormone secreted by bone cells is EXPLORE MORE
osteocalcin, which helps regulate blood glucose and fat deposition. It https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16803#Explore_More
increases insulin secretion and also the sensitivity of cells to insulin. In
addition, it boosts the number of insulin-producing cells and reduces ATTRIBUTIONS
fat stores. 1. Fighter squadron 84 by US Navy, public domain via Wikimedia
Commons
REVIEW 2. Human skeleton front by LadyofHats Mariana Ruiz Villarreal,
1. What is the skeletal system? How many bones are there in the adult publicdomain via Wikimedia Commons
skeleton? 3. Axial skeleton by LadyofHats Mariana Ruiz Villarreal,
2. Describe the composition of bones. publicdomain via Wikimedia Commons
3. Besides bones, what other organs are included in the skeletal 4. Appendicular skeleton by LadyofHats Mariana Ruiz Villarreal,
system? publicdomain via Wikimedia Commons
4. Identify the two major divisions of the skeleton. 5. Knee anatomy by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
5. List several functions of the skeletal system. Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
6. Discuss sexual dimorphism in the human skeleton. DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. CC BY 3.0 via
7. Bones, cartilage, and ligaments are all made of types of Wikimedia Commons
____________ tissue. 6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
8. True or False. Bones contain living tissue and can affect processes 3.0
in other parts of the body.

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14.3: DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
SKULLS ON DISPLAY for major blood vessels and nerves. A large opening, called the
This somewhat macabre display can be viewed at the Slovak foramen magnum, allows the spinal cord and brain to connect.
National Museum in Bratislava, Slovakia. The skulls are meant to
represent normal human skeletal anatomy. The skull is part of the
axial skeleton, which is one of the two major divisions of the
human skeleton. The other division is the appendicular skeleton.

Figure 14.3.3 : The cranium consists of eight bones that are fused
Figure 14.3.1 : Skulls on Display together at their joints.

FACIAL BONES
AXIAL SKELETON The 14 facial bones of the skull are located below the frontal bone of
The axial skeleton, shown in blue in Figure 14.3.2, consists of a total the cranium. They are depicted in Figure 14.3.4. Large bones in the
of 80 bones. Besides the skull, it includes the rib cage and vertebral face include the upper jawbones, or maxillae (singular, maxilla),
column. It also includes the three tiny ossicles (hammer, anvil, and which form the middle part of the face and the bottom of the two eye
stirrup) in the middle ear and the hyoid bone in the throat, to which the sockets. The maxillae are fused together except for an opening between
tongue and some other soft tissues are attached. them for the nose. The lower edge of the maxillae contains sockets for
the upper teeth. The lower jaw bone, or mandible, is also large. The
top edge of the mandible contains sockets for the lower teeth. The
mandible opens and closes to chew food and is controlled by strong
muscles. There are two zygomatic or cheekbones and two nasal bones.
The nasal region also contains seven smaller bones, as indicated in the
figure.

Figure 14.3.2 : The bones of the axial skeleton are shown here in blue.

SKULL
Figure 14.3.4 : The 14 bones that make up the face are labeled in this
The skull is the part of the human skeleton that provides a bony
drawing of the skull.
framework for the head. It consists of 22 different bones. There are 8
bones in the cranium, which encloses the brain, and 14 bones in the VERTEBRAL COLUMN
face. The vertebral column, also called the spine or backbone, is the
CRANIUM flexible column of vertebrae (singular, vertebra) that connects the
trunk with the skull and encloses the spinal cord. It consists of 33
The cranium, sometimes called the braincase, forms the entire upper
vertebrae that are divided into five regions, as shown in Figure 14.3.5:
portion of the skull. As shown in Figure 14.3.3, it consists of eight
the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions. From the
bones: one frontal bone, two parietal bones, two temporal bones, one
neck down, the first 24 vertebrae (cervical, thoracic, and lumbar) are
occipital bone, one sphenoid bone, and one ethmoid bone. The ethmoid
individual bones. The five sacral vertebrae are fused together, as are
bone separates the nasal cavity from the brain. The sphenoid bone is
the four coccygeal vertebrae.
one of several bones, including the frontal bone, that helps form the
eye sockets. The other bones of the cranium are large and plate-like.
They cover and protect the brain. The bottom of the skull has openings

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 Figure 14.3.6 : The rib cage encloses and protects the thoracic cavity

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Figure 14.3.5 : The vertebral column consists of 24 individual vertebrae

that are separated by intervertebral discs of cartilage. An additional 9
vertebrae are fused together at the base of the spine. Note the S-shaped
curve of the vertebral column in the profile view on the right.
The human vertebral column reflects adaptations for upright bipedal
locomotion. For example, the vertebral column is less like a rigid
column than an S-shaped spring (see a profile view in the figure
above). Although newborn infants have a relatively straight spine, the
curves develop as the backbone starts taking on its support functions,
such as keeping the trunk erect, holding up the head, and helping to
anchor the limbs. The S shape of the vertebral column allows it to act
as a shock absorber, absorbing much of the jarring of walking and
running so the forces are not transmitted directly from the pelvis to the
skull. The S shape also helps protect the spine from breaking, which
would be more likely with a straight, more rigid vertebral column. In Figure 14.3.7 . The appendicular skeleton (in red) includes the upper
and lower appendages and girdles.
addition, the S shape helps to distribute the weight of the body, and
particularly of the internal organs, so the weight load is not all at the The appendicular skeleton, shown in red in Figure 14.3.7, consists of a
bottom, as would occur with a straight spine. total of 126 bones. It includes all the bones of the limbs (arms, legs,
hands, and feet) as well as the bones of the shoulder (shoulder girdle)
RIB CAGE and pelvis (pelvic girdle).
The rib cage (also called thoracic cage) is aptly named because it
UPPER LIMBS
forms a sort of cage that holds within it the organs of the upper part of
the trunk, including the heart and lungs (Figure 14.3.6). The rib cage Each upper limb consists of 30 bones. As shown in Figure 14.3.8, there
includes the 12 thoracic vertebrae and the breastbone (or sternum) as is one bone, called the humerus, in each of the upper arms, and there
well as 12 pairs of ribs, which are attached at joints to the vertebrae. are two bones, called the ulna and radius, in each of the lower arms.
The ribs are divided into three groups, called true ribs, false ribs, and The remaining bones of the upper limb are shown in Figure 14.3.9.
floating ribs. The top seven pairs of ribs are true ribs. They are attached Each wrist contains eight carpal bones, which are arranged in two rows
by cartilage directly to the sternum. The next three pairs of ribs are of four bones each; and each hand contains five metacarpal bones. The
false ribs. They are attached by cartilage to the ribs above them, rather bones in the fingers of each hand include 14 phalanges (three in each
than directly to the sternum. The lowest two pairs of ribs are floating finger except the thumb, which has two phalanges). The thumb has the
ribs. They are attached by cartilage to muscles in the abdominal wall. unique ability to move into opposition with the palm of the hand and
The attachments of false and floating ribs let the lower part of the rib with each of the fingers when they are slightly bent. This allows the
cage expand to accommodate the internal movements of breathing. hand to handle and manipulate objects such as tools.

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 knee cap, or patella, is an additional leg bone at the front of each knee,
which is the largest joint in the human body.
The remaining bones of the lower limbs are shown in Figure 14.3.11.
Each ankle contains seven tarsal bones (including the talus and
calcaneus), and each foot contains five metatarsal bones. The tarsals
and metatarsals form the ankle, heel, and arch of the foot. They give
the foot strength while allowing flexibility. The bones in the toes of
each foot consist of 14 phalanges (three in each toe except the big toe,
which has two phalanges)

Figure 14.3.8 : In the upper limb, the upper arm contains one bone,
Humerus, and the lower arm contains two bone, Ulna and Radius.

Figure 14.3.11: Bones of the lower leg (fibula and tibia), ankle (talus),
heel (calcaneus), foot (metatarsals), and toes (phalanges).

Figure 14.3.9 : Bones of the wrist (carpals A-E) and hand (metacarpals
1-5 and phalanges).

LOWER LIMBS

Figure 14.3.12: Bones of the shoulder girdle are clavicle and scapula.
The pectoral girdle (also called shoulder girdle) attaches the upper
limbs to the trunk of the body. Its connection with the axial skeleton is
by muscles alone. This allows a considerable range of motion in the
upper limbs. The shoulder girdle consists of just two pairs of bones,
with one of each pair on opposite sides of the body (Figure 14.3.12).
There is a right and left clavicles (collarbone) and right and left
scapulae (shoulder blade). The scapula is a pear-shaped flat bone that
helps to form the shoulder joint. The clavicle is a long bone that serves
as a strut between the shoulder blade and the sternum.
Figure 14.3.10: Bones of the legs. PELVIC GIRDLE
Each lower limb consists of 30 bones. As shown in Figure 14.3.10, The pelvic girdle attaches the legs to the trunk of the body and also
there is one bone, called the femur, in each of the upper legs, and there provides a basin to contain and support the organs of the abdomen. It is
are two bones, called the tibia and fibula, in each of the lower legs. The connected to the vertebral column of the axial skeleton by ligaments.
The pelvic girdle consists of two halves, one half for each leg, but the

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halves are fused with each other in adults at a joint called the pubic 13. Describe some of the similarities between the upper limbs and the
symphysis. Each half of the pelvic girdle includes three bones, as lower limbs.
shown in the figure below: the ilium (flaring upper part of the pelvic 14. Explain the advantage of having some ribs that are not attached
girdle), pubis (lower front), and ischium (lower back). Each of these directly to the sternum.
bones helps form the acetabulum, which is a depression into which the 15. Put the following vertebral regions in order, from the closest to the
top of the femur (thigh bone) fits. When the body is in a seated head to the farthest from the head:
position, it rests on protrusions (called tuberosities) of the two ischial sacral; lumbar; cervical; coccygeal; thoracic
bones.
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ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Human skulls on display by KiwiEV, CC0 via Wikimedia
Commons
2. Axial skeleton diagram by LadyofHats Mariana Ruiz Villarreal,
public domain via Wikimedia Commons
3. Cranial bones, original by Edoarado, adapted text by Was a
bee, CC0 via Wikimedia Commons
4. Facial bones, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
5. Vertebral column by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
Figure 14.3.13: Bones of the pelvic girdle. Commons
6. Thoracic cage, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
REVIEW
7. Appendicular skeleton diagram by LadyofHats Mariana Ruiz
1. What bones are included in the axial skeleton? Villarreal, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
2. Identify the two main parts of the skull. How many bones does each 8. Arm bones by BruceBlaus, CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
part contain? 9. Bones of the wrist and hand by LadyofHats Mariana Ruiz
3. Describe the vertebral column. Villarreal, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
4. What are the advantages of an S-shaped vertebral column? 10. Leg bones by Jecowa, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
5. What is the rib cage, and what is its function? 11. Foot bones by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
6. What bones are included in the appendicular skeleton? Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
7. How many bones are found in each upper limb? What are they? DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY
8. Identify the bones in each of the lower limbs. 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
9. What is the shoulder girdle, and why does it allow considerable 12. Shoulder bones by LadyofHats Mariana Ruiz Villarreal, public
upper limb mobility? domain via Wikimedia Commons
10. Describe the pelvic girdle and the bones it contains. 13. Pelvis diagram by Je at uwo, public domain via Wikimedia
11. True or False. False ribs are made of cartilage and are not true rib Commons
bones. 14. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
12. True or False. The jaw contains two maxillae and one mandible. 3.0

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14.4: STRUCTURE OF BONE
ROASTED BONE MARROW containing an irregular network of spaces. This makes spongy bone
Do you recognize the food item in the top left of this photo in much less dense than compact bone. Spongy bone has a greater surface
Figure 14.4.1? It’s roasted bone marrow, still inside the bones. It’s area than cortical bone but makes up only 20 percent of bone mass.
considered a delicacy in some cuisines. Marrow is a type of tissue Both compact and spongy bone tissues have the same types of cells,
found inside many animal bones, including our own. It’s a soft but they differ in how the cells are arranged. The cells in the compact
tissue that in adults may be mostly fat. You’ll learn more about bone are arranged in multiple microscopic columns, whereas the cells
bone marrow and other tissues that make up bones when you read in the spongy bone are arranged in a looser, more open network. These
this concept. cellular differences explain why cortical and spongy bone tissues have
such different structures.

OTHER TISSUES IN BONES

Besides cortical and spongy bone tissues, bones contain several other
tissues, including blood vessels and nerves. In addition, bones contain
bone marrow and periosteum. You can see these tissues in Figure
14.4.2.

Bone marrow is a soft connective tissue that is found inside a

cavity, called the marrow cavity. There are two types of marrow in
Figure 14.4.1 :Roasted Bone Marrow
adults, yellow bone marrow, which consists mostly of fat, and red
Bones are organs that consist primarily of bone tissue, also called bone marrow. All marrow is red in newborns, but by adulthood,
osseous tissue. Bone tissue is a type of connective tissue consisting much of the red marrow has changed to yellow marrow. In adults,
mainly of a collagen matrix that is mineralized with calcium and red marrow is found mainly in the femur, ribs, vertebrae, and pelvic
phosphorus crystals. The combination of flexible collagen and hard bones. Red bone marrow contains hematopoietic stem cells that
mineral crystals makes bone tissue hard without making it brittle. give rise to red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in the
process of hematopoiesis.
BONE ANATOMY Periosteum is a tough, fibrous membrane that covers the outer
There are several different types of tissues in bones, including two surface of bones. It provides a protective covering for cortical bone
types of osseous tissues. tissue. It is also the source of new bone cells.

TYPES OF OSSEOUS TISSUE BONE CELLS

The two different types of osseous tissue are compact bone tissue (also As shown in Figure 14.4.3, bone tissues are composed of four different
called hard or cortical bone) tissue and spongy bone tissue (also called types of bone cells: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts, and osteogenic
cancellous or trabecular bone). cells.
Osteoblasts are bone cells with a single nucleus that make and
mineralize bone matrix. They make a protein mixture that is
composed primarily of collagen and creates the organic part of the
matrix. They also release calcium and phosphate ions that form
mineral crystals within the matrix. In addition, they produce
hormones that also play a role in the mineralization of the matrix.
Osteocytes are mainly inactive bone cells that form from
osteoblasts that have become entrapped within their own bone
matrix. Osteocytes help regulate the formation and breakdown of
bone tissue. They have multiple cell projections that are thought to
be involved in communication with other bone cells.
Osteoclasts are bone cells with multiple nuclei that resorb bone
tissue and break down bone. They dissolve the minerals in bone and
Figure 14.4.2 : Bones are more complex on the inside than you would release them into the blood.
expect from their outer appearance. There is bone marrow in the Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated stem cells. They are the only
hollow part of the long bone. The outer boundary of bone is composed bone cells that can divide. When they do, they differentiate and
of compact bone tissue, and from the ends, and the rest of the bone develop into osteoblasts.
interior is composed of cancellous or spongy bone tissue. The bone is
covered in connecting tissue called the periosteum. Bone is a very active tissue. It is constantly remodeled by the work of
Compact bone tissue forms the extremely hard outside layer of bones. osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts continuously make new bone,
Cortical bone tissue gives bone its smooth, dense, solid appearance. It and osteoclasts keep breaking down bone. This allows for minor repair
accounts for about 80 percent of the total bone mass of the adult of bones as well as homeostasis of mineral ions in the blood.
skeleton. Spongy bone tissue fills part or all of the interior of many
bones. As its name suggests, spongy bone is porous like a sponge,

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 Short bones are roughly cube-shaped and have only a thin layer of
cortical bone surrounding a spongy bone interior. The bones of the
wrists and ankles are short bones.
Flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of
compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Most of the
bones of the skull are flat bones, as is the sternum (breast bone).
Sesamoid bones are embedded in tendons, the connective tissues
that bind muscles to bones. Sesamoid bones hold tendons farther
away from joints so the angle of the tendons is increased, thus
increasing the leverage of muscles. The patella (knee cap) is an
example of a sesamoid bone.
Sutural bones are very small bones that are located between the
major bones of the skull, within the joints (sutures) between the
larger bones. They are not always present.
Irregular bones are those that do not fit into any of the above
Figure 14.4.3 : Different types of bones cells have different functions. categories. They generally consist of thin layers of cortical bone
surrounding a spongy bone interior. Their shapes are irregular and
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF THE COMPACT complicated. Examples of irregular bones include the vertebrae and
BONE the bones of the pelvis.

Figure 14.4.4 : Macroscopic and microscopic structures of the compact

bone tissue.
The basic microscopic unit of bone is an osteon (or Haversian system).
Osteons are roughly cylindrical structures that can measure several
millimeters long and around 0.2 mm in diameter. Each osteon consists
of lamellae of compact bone tissue that surround a central canal
(Haversian canal). The Haversian canal contains the bone's blood
supplies. The boundary of an osteon is called the cement line. Osteons
Figure 14.4.5 : six types of bones classified by shape or location.
can be arranged into woven bone or lamellar bone. Osteoblasts make
the matrix of bone which calcifies hardens. This entraps the mature
bone cells, osteocytes, in a little chamber called lacunae. The FEATURE: RELIABLE SOURCES
osteocytes receive their nutrition from the central (Haversian) canal via Diseased or damaged bone marrow can be replaced by donated
little canals called canaliculi. All of these structures plus more are bone marrow cells, which help treat and often cure many life-
visible in Figure 14.4.4. threatening conditions, including leukemia, lymphoma, sickle cell
anemia, and thalassemia. If a bone marrow transplant is successful,
TYPES OF BONES the new bone marrow will start making healthy blood cells and
There are six types of bones in the human body based on their shape or improve the patient’s condition.
location: long, short, flat, sesamoid, sutural, and irregular bones. You Learn more about bone marrow donation, and consider whether you
can see an example of each type of bone in Figure 14.4.5. might want to do it yourself. Find reliable sources to answer the
Long bones are characterized by a shaft that is much longer than it following questions:
is wide and by a rounded head at each end of the shaft. Long bones 1. How does one become a potential bone marrow donor?
are made mostly of compact bone, with lesser amounts of spongy 2. Who can and who cannot donate bone marrow?
bone and marrow. Most bones of the limbs, including those of the 3. How is a bone marrow donation made?
fingers and toes, are long bones. 4. What risks are there in donating bone marrow?

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REVIEW 13. Which type of bone is embedded in tendons?
1. Describe osseous tissue. 14. True or False. Calcium is the only mineral in bones.
2. Why are bones hard but not brittle?
3. Compare and contrast the two main types of osseous tissue. EXPLORE MORE
4. What non-osseous tissues are found in bones? https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16805#Explore_More
5. List four types of bone cells and their functions.
6. Identify six types of bones, and give an example of each type.
ATTRIBUTIONS
7. True or False. Spongy bone tissue is another name for bone 1. Roast Bone Marrow by Simon Doggett, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
marrow. Commons
8. True or False. Periosteum covers osseous tissue. 2. Bone structure by Christopher Auyeung via CK-12 licensed CC
9. Compare and contrast yellow bone marrow and red bone marrow. BY-NC 3.0
10. Which bone is mostly made of cortical bone tissue? 3. Bone cells by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
Commons
A. Pelvis
4. Compact bone by OpenStax Anatomy and Physiology, CC BY 3.0
B. Vertebrae via Wikimedia Commons
C. Femur 5. Types of bone by BruceBlaus, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
D. Carpal Commons
6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
11. a. Which type of bone cell divides to produce new bone cells?
3.0
b. Where is this cell type located?
12. Where do osteoblasts and osteocytes come from, and how are they
related to each other?

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14.5: BONE GROWTH, REMODELING, AND REPAIR
BREAK A LEG
Did you ever break a leg or other bone, like the man looking BONE GROWTH
longingly at the water in this swimming pool? Having a broken Early in the development of a human fetus, the skeleton is made almost
bone can really restrict your activity. Bones are very hard, but they entirely of cartilage. The relatively soft cartilage gradually turns into
will break, or fracture if enough force is applied to them. hard bone through ossification. Ossification is a process in which bone
Fortunately, bones are highly active organs that can repair tissue is created from cartilage. The steps in which bones of the
themselves if they break. Bones can also remodel themselves and skeleton form from cartilage are illustrated in Figure 14.5.2. The steps
grow. You’ll learn how bones can do all of these things in this include the following:
concept. 1. Cartilage “model” of bone forms; this model continues to grow as
ossification takes place.
2. Ossification begins at a primary ossification center in the middle of
the bone.
3. Ossification then starts to occur at secondary ossification centers at
the ends of the bone.
4. The medullary cavity forms and will contain red bone marrow.
5. Areas of ossification meet at epiphyseal plates, and articular
cartilage forms. Bone growth ends.

Figure 14.5.1 : Broken leg

Figure 14.5.2 : The ossification of cartilage in the human skeleton is a process that lasts throughout childhood in some bones.
The use of anabolic steroids by teens can speed up the process of
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OSSIFICATION CENTERS skeletal maturity, resulting in a shorter period of cartilage growth
When bone forms from cartilage, ossification begins with a point in the before fusion takes place. This means that teens who use steroids are
cartilage called the primary ossification center. This generally appears likely to end up shorter as adults than they would otherwise have been.
during fetal development, although a few short bones begin their
primary ossification after birth. Ossification occurs toward both ends of BONE REMODELING
the bone from the primary ossification center, and it eventually forms Even after skeletal maturity has been attained, bone is constantly being
the shaft of the bone in the case of long bones. resorbed and replaced with new bone in a process known as bone
Secondary ossification centers form after birth. Ossification from remodeling. In this lifelong process, mature bone tissue is continually
secondary centers eventually forms the ends of the bones. The shaft turned over, with about 10 percent of the skeletal mass of an adult
and ends of the bone are separated by a growing zone of cartilage until being remodeled each year. Bone remodeling is carried out through the
the individual reaches skeletal maturity. work of osteoclasts, which are bone cells that resorb bone and dissolve
its minerals; and osteoblasts, which are bone cells that make the new
SKELETAL MATURITY
bone matrix.
Throughout childhood, the cartilage remaining in the skeleton keeps
Bones remodeling serves several functions. It shapes the bones of the
growing and allows for bones to grow in size. However, once all of the
skeleton as a child grows, and it repairs tiny flaws in the bone that
cartilage has been replaced by bone and fusion has taken place at
result from everyday movements. Remodeling also makes bones
epiphyseal plates, bones can no longer keep growing in length. This is
thicker at points where muscles place the most stress on them. In
the point at which skeletal maturity has been reached. It generally takes
addition, remodeling helps regulate mineral homeostasis because it
place by age 18 to 25.
either releases minerals from bones into the blood or absorbs minerals

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from the blood into bones. The figure below shows how osteoclasts in likely to be more successful with adequate nutrient intake. Age, bone
bones are involved in calcium regulation. type, drug therapy, and pre-existing bone disease are additional factors
The action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts in bone remodeling and that may affect healing. Bones that are weakened by diseases, such as
calcium homeostasis is controlled by a number of enzymes, hormones, osteoporosis or bone cancer, are not only likely to heal more slowly but
and other substances that either promote or inhibit the activity of the are also more likely to fracture in the first place.
cells. In this way, these substances control the rate at which bone is
made, destroyed, and changed in shape. For example, the rate at which
osteoclasts resorb bone and release calcium into the blood is promoted
by parathyroid hormone (PTH) and inhibited by calcitonin, which is
produced by the thyroid gland (Figure 14.5.3). The rate at which
osteoblasts create new bone is stimulated by growth hormone, which is
produced by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Thyroid hormone
and sex hormones (estrogens and androgens) also stimulate osteoblasts
to create new bone.

Figure 14.5.4 : A bone fracture does not always involve a complete

break in the bone, as in this X-ray. Sometimes a fracture is just a crack
in the bone. In other cases, the bone not only breaks all the way
through, as here but also breaks through the soft tissues around it so it
protrudes from the skin. This is called an open fracture.
FEATURE: MYTH VS. REALITY
Bone fractures are fairly common, and there are many myths about
them. Knowing the facts is important because fractures generally
require emergency medical treatment.
Myth: A bone fracture is a milder injury than a broken bone.
Reality: A bone fracture is the same thing as a broken bone.
Figure 14.5.3 : Keeping the calcium level in homeostasis includes the Myth: If you still have a full range of motion in a limb, then it must
work of osteoclasts, the bone cells that resorb bone and release calcium not be fractured.
into the blood. If calcium levels increase, the thyroid releases calcitonin
which inhibits osteoclast activity. This results in less calcium be Reality: Even if a bone is fractured, the muscles and tendons
reabsorbed in the kidneys which results in the lowering of calcium in attached to it may still be able to move the bone normally. This is
the blood. If calcium levels decrease below homeostasis, the especially likely if the bone is cracked but not broken into two
parathyroid gland releases PTH. This causes osteoclasts to release
calcium from bones and increases calcium absorption in the kidney and pieces. Even if a bone is broken all the way through, the range of
small intestines. This brings calcium back to homeostasis. motion may not be much affected if the bones on either side of the
fracture remain properly aligned.
BONE REPAIR Myth: A fracture always produces a bruise.
Bone repair, or healing, is the process in which a bone repairs itself
Reality: Many but not all fractures produce a bruise. If a fracture
following a bone fracture. You can see an X-ray of bone fracture in
does produce a bruise, it may take several hours or even a day or
Figure 14.5.4. In this fracture, the humerus in the upper arm has been
more for the bruise to appear.
completely broken through its shaft. Before this fracture heals, a
physician must push the displaced bone parts back into their correct Myth: Fractures are so painful that you will immediately know if
positions. Then the bone must be stabilized — for example, with a cast you break a bone.
and/or pins surgically inserted into the bone — until the bone’s natural Reality: Ligament sprains and muscle strains are also very painful,
healing process is completed. This process may take several weeks. sometimes more painful than fractures. Additionally, every person
The process of bone repair is mainly determined by the periosteum, has a different pain tolerance. People with high pain tolerance may
which is the connective tissue membrane covering the bone. The continue using a broken bone in spite of the pain.
periosteum is the primary source of precursor cells that develop into Myth: You can tell when a bone is fractured because there will be
osteoblasts, which are essential to the healing process. Bones heal as very localized pain over the break.
osteoblasts form new bone tissue. Reality: A broken bone is often accompanied by injuries to
Although bone repair is a natural physiological process, it may be surrounding muscles or ligaments. As a result, the pain may extend
promoted or inhibited by several factors. For example, fracture repair is far beyond the location of the fracture. The pain may be greater

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 directly over the fracture, but the intensity of the pain may make it your answer.
difficult to pinpoint exactly where the pain originates. 9. The region where the primary and secondary ossification centers
meet is called the ________________.
REVIEW 10. True or False. Most bones are made entirely of cartilage at birth.
1. Outline how bone develops from early in the fetal stage through the 11. True or False. A broken bone is the same as a bone fracture.
age of skeletal maturity. 12. If bones can repair themselves, why are casts and pins sometimes
2. Describe the process of bone remodeling. When does it occur? needed?
3. What purposes does bone remodeling serve? 13. Which bone cell type causes the release of calcium to the
4. Define bone repair. How long does this process take? bloodstream when calcium levels are low?
5. Explain how bone repair occurs. 14. Which tissue and bone cell type are mainly involved in bone repair
6. Identify factors that may affect bone repair. after a fracture?
7. Parts of bone that have not yet become ossified are made of 15. Describe one way in which hormones are involved in bone
_________. remodeling.
8. If there is a large region between the primary and secondary
EXPLORE MORE
ossification centers in a bone, is the person young or old? Explain
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ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Orthopedic cast by 4x4king10, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
2. Ossification by OpenStax Biology, CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
3. Calcium homeostasis by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
4. Communitive midshaft humeral fracture with callus formation by Bill Rhodes, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0

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14.6: JOINTS
DOUBLE JOINTED?
Is this person double jointed? No; there is no such thing, at least as
far as humans are concerned. However, some people, like the
individual pictured here, are much more flexible than others,
generally because they have looser ligaments. Physicians call the
condition joint hypermobility. Regardless of what it’s called, the
feats of people with highly mobile joints can be quite impressive.

Figure 14.6.1: Yoga

WHAT ARE JOINTS?

Joints are locations at which bones of the skeleton connect with one
another. A joint is also called an articulation. The majority of joints are
structured in such a way that they allow movement. However, not all
joints allow movement. Of joints that do allow movement, the extent,
and direction of the movements they allow also vary.

CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS Figure 14.6.2 : The synovial membrane, articular capsule, joint cavity
with synovial fluid, articular cartilage, and bone ends are the main
Joints can be classified as structurally or functionally. The structural components of a typical synovial joint.
classification of joints depends on the manner in which the bones
connect to each other. The functional classification of joints depends on FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
the nature of the movement the joints allow. There is significant The functional classification of joints is based on the type and degree
overlap between the two types of classifications because function of movement that they allow. There are three types of joints in the
depends largely on the structure. functional classification: immovable, partly movable, and movable
joints.
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
1. Immovable joints allow little or no movement at the joint. Most
The structural classification of joints is based on the type of tissue that immovable joints are fibrous joints. Besides the bones of the
binds the bones to each other at the joint. There are three types of joints cranium, immovable joints include joints between the tibia and
in the structural classification: fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial fibula in the lower leg and between the radius and ulna in the lower
joints. arm.
1. Fibrous joints are joints in which bones are joined by dense 2. Partly movable joints permit slight movement. Most partly movable
connective tissue that is rich in collagen fibers. These joints are also joints are cartilaginous joints. Besides the joints between vertebrae,
called sutures. The joints between bones of the cranium are fibrous they include the joints between the ribs and sternum (breast bone).
joints. 3. Movable joints allow bones to move freely. All movable joints are
2. Cartilaginous joints are joints in which bones are joined by synovial joints. Besides the knee, they include the shoulder, hip,
cartilage. The joints between most of the vertebrae in the spine are and elbow. Movable joints are the most common type of joints in
cartilaginous joints. the body.
3. Synovial joints are characterized by a fluid-filled space, called a
synovial cavity, between the bones of the joints. You can see a TYPES OF MOVABLE JOINTS
drawing of a typical synovial joint in Figure 14.6.2. The cavity is Movable joints can be classified further according to the type of
enclosed by a membrane and filled with a fluid, called the synovial movement they allow. There are six classes of movable joints: pivot,
fluid, which provides extra cushioning to the ends of the bones. hinge, saddle, plane, condyloid, and ball-and-socket joints. An example
Cartilage covers the articulating surfaces of the two bones, but the of each class, as well as the type of movement it allows, is shown in
bones are actually held together by ligaments. The knee is a Figure 14.6.3.
synovial joint.

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 bones at joints wears away, it does not grow back. Eventually, all of
the cartilage may wear away. This is the cause of osteoarthritis,
which can be both painful and debilitating. In serious cases, people
may lose the ability to climb stairs, walk long distances, perform
routine daily activities, or participate in activities they love such as
gardening or playing sports. If you protect your joints, you can
reduce your chances of joint damage, pain, and disability. If you
already have joint damage, it is equally important to protect your
joints and limit further damage. Follow these five tips:
1. Maintain a normal, healthy weight. The higher your weight is,
the more force you exert on your joints. When you walk, each
knee has to bear a force equal to as much as six times your body
weight. If a person weighs 200 pounds, each knee bears more
than half a ton of weight with every step. Seven in ten knee
replacement surgeries for osteoarthritis can be attributed to
obesity.
2. Avoid too much high-impact exercise. Examples of high-impact
activities include volleyball, basketball, and tennis. These
activities generally involve running or jumping on hard
surfaces, which puts tremendous stress on weight-bearing joints,
especially the knees. Replace some or all of your high-impact
activities with low-impact activities, such as biking, swimming,
yoga, or lifting light weights.
3. Reduce your risk of injury. Don’t be a weekend warrior, sitting
at a desk all week and then crowding all your physical activity
Figure 14.6.3 : This diagram shows the six classes of movable joints in into two days. Get involved in a regular, daily exercise routine
the human body. All of these joints are synovial joints. that keeps your body fit and your muscles toned. Building up
A pivot joint allows one bone to rotate around another. An example muscles will make your joints more stable and spread stress
of a pivot joint is the joint between the first two vertebrae in the across them. Be sure to do some stretching every day to keep
spine. This joint allows the head to rotate from left to right and back the muscles around joints flexible and less prone to injury.
again. 4. Distribute work over your body, and use your largest, strongest
A hinge joint allows back and forth movement like the hinge of a joints. Use your shoulder, elbow, and wrist to lift heavy objects,
door. An example of a hinge joint is the elbow. This joint allows the not just your fingers. Hold small items in the palm of your hand,
arm to bend back and forth. rather than by the fingers. Carry heavy items in a backpack
A saddle joint allows two different types of movement. An example rather than in your hands. Hold weighty objects close to your
of a saddle joint is the joint between the first metacarpal bone in the body rather than at arms’ length. Lift with your hips and knees,
hand and one of the carpal bones in the wrist. This joint allows the not your back.
thumb to move toward and away from the index finger and also to 5. Respect pain. If it hurts, stop doing it. Take a break from the
cross over the palm toward the little finger. activity at least until the pain stops. Try to use joints only to the
A plane joint also called a gliding joint, allows two bones that glide point of mild fatigue, not pain.
over one another. The joints between the tarsals in the ankles and
between the carpals in the wrists are mainly gliding joints. In the REVIEW
wrist, this type of joint allows the hand to bend upward at the wrist 1. What are the joints?
and also to wave from side to side while the lower arm is held 2. What are the two ways that joints are commonly classified?
steady. 3. How are joints classified structurally?
A condyloid joint is one in which an oval-shaped head on one bone 4. Describe the functional classification of joints.
moves in an elliptical cavity in another bone, allowing movement in 5. How are movable joints classified?
all directions except rotation around an axis. The joint between the 6. Name the six classes of movable joints, and describe how they
radius in the lower arm and carpal bones of the wrist is a condyloid move.
joint as is the joint at the base of the index finger. 7. Give an example of a joint in each of the classes of movable joints.
A ball-and-socket joint allows the greatest range of movement of 8. True or False. The skull is one smooth bone and has no joints.
any movable joint. It allows forward and backward as well as 9. True or False. A plane joint is a type of synovial joint.
upward and downward motions. It also allows rotation in a circle. 10. Which specific type of moveable joint do you think your knee joint
The hip and shoulder are the only two ball-and-socket joints in the is? Explain your reasoning.
human body. 11. Explain the difference between cartilage in a cartilaginous joint and
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY cartilage in a synovial joint.
Of all the parts of the skeletal system, the joints are generally the 12. Why are fibrous joints immovable?
most fragile and subject to damage. If the cartilage that cushions 13. Which type of joint has ligaments?

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 A. Ball-and-socket ATTRIBUTIONS
B. Fibrous 1. Yoga by YogawithAmit,Pixabay license
C. Cartilaginous 2. Synovial joint byOpenStax College,CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
D. None of the above Commons
14. Which type of joint allows for the greatest range of motion? 3. Types of joints by OpenStax College,CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
15. What is the function of synovial fluid? Commons
4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
EXPLORE MORE 3.0
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14.7: DISORDERS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
DOWAGER'S HUMP often include those in the wrist, hip, shoulder, and spine. When the
The individual on the right in Figure 14.7.1 has a deformity in her thoracic vertebrae are affected, there can be a gradual collapse of the
back commonly called dowager’s hump because it occurs most vertebrae due to compression fractures, as shown in Figure 14.7.2.
often in elderly women. Its medical name is kyphosis, and it is This is what causes kyphosis, as pictured in Figure 14.7.1.
defined as excessive curvature of the spinal column in the thoracic CHANGES IN BONE MASS WITH AGE
region. The curvature generally results from fractures of thoracic
As shown in the graph below, bone mass in both males and females
vertebrae. As the inset drawings suggest, these fractures may occur
generally peaks when people are in their thirties. Bone mass usually
due to a significant decrease in bone mass, which is called
decreases after that, and this tends to occur more rapidly in individuals
osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is one of the most prevalent disorders of
with XX chromosomes, especially after menopause. This is generally
the skeletal system.
attributable to low levels of estrogen in the post-menopausal years.

Figure 14.7.1 : Kyphosis

Figure 14.7.3 : Bone mass is a measure of the total mass of calcium in

COMMON SKELETAL SYSTEM DISORDERS the bones of the skeleton. The chart shows that the bone mass peaks
A number of disorders affect the skeletal system, including bone around age 30 in males and females. Then it starts to decrease.
fractures and bone cancers. However, the two most common disorders
WHAT CAUSES OSTEOPOROSIS?
of the skeletal system are osteoporosis and osteoarthritis. At least ten
Osteoporosis is due to an imbalance between bone formation by
million people in the United States have osteoporosis, and more than 8
osteoblasts and bone resorption by osteoclasts. Normally, bones are
million of them are women. Osteoarthritis is even more common,
constantly being remodeled by these two processes, with up to ten
affecting almost 30 million people in the United States. Because
percent of all bone mass undergoing remodeling at any point in time. If
osteoporosis and osteoarthritis are so common, they are the focus of
these two processes are in balance, no net loss of bone occurs. There
this concept. These two disorders are also good examples to illustrate
are three main ways that an imbalance between bone formation and
the structure and function of the skeletal system.
bone resorption can occur and lead to a net loss of bone.
OSTEOPOROSIS 1. An individual never develops normal peak bone mass during
the young adult years: If the peak level is lower than normal, then
there is less bone mass, to begin with, making osteoporosis more
likely to develop.
2. There is greater than normal bone resorption: Bone resorption
normally increases after peak bone mass is reached, but age-related
bone resorption may be greater than normal for a variety of reasons.
One possible reason is calcium or vitamin D deficiency, which
causes the parathyroid gland to release PTH, the hormone that
promotes resorption by osteoclasts.
3. There is the inadequate formation of new bone by osteoblasts
during remodeling: Lack of estrogen may decrease the normal
deposition of new bone. Inadequate levels of calcium and vitamin
Figure 14.7.2 : Compression fractures of thoracic vertebrae are
D also lead to the impaired bone formation by osteoblasts.
relatively common in people with osteoporosis.
Osteoporosis is an age-related disorder in which bones lose mass, An imbalance between bone building and bone destruction leading to
weaken, and break more easily than normal bones. Bones may weaken bone loss may also occur as a side effect of other disorders. For
so much that a fracture can occur with minor stress — or even example, people with alcoholism, anorexia nervosa, or
spontaneously, without any stress at all. Osteoporosis is the most hyperthyroidism have an increased rate of bone loss. Some medications
common cause of broken bones in the elderly, but until a bone fracture — including anti-seizure medications, chemotherapy drugs, steroid
occurs, it typically causes no symptoms. The bones that break most

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medications, and some antidepressants — also increase the rate of bone Preventing osteoporosis includes eliminating any risk factors that can
loss. be controlled through changes of behavior. If you smoke, stop. If you
drink, reduce your alcohol consumption — or cut it out altogether. Eat
OSTEOPOROTIC FRACTURES a nutritious diet and make sure you are getting adequate amounts of
Fractures are the most dangerous aspect of osteoporosis, and vitamin D. You should also avoid drinking carbonated beverages.
osteoporosis is responsible for millions of fractures annually.
If you’re a couch potato, get involved in regular exercise. Aerobic,
Debilitating pain among the elderly is often caused by fractures from
weight-bearing and resistance exercises can all help maintain or
osteoporosis, and it can lead to further disability and early mortality.
increase bone mineral density. Exercise puts stress on bones, which
Fractures of the long bones (such as the femur) can impair mobility and
stimulates bone building. Good weight-bearing exercises for bone-
may require surgery. A hip fracture usually requires immediate surgery,
building include weight training, dancing, stair climbing, running, and
as well. The immobility associated with fractures — especially of the
hiking (Figure 14.7.4). Biking and swimming are less beneficial
hip — increases the risk of deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary
because they don’t stress the bones. Ideally, you should exercise for at
embolism, and pneumonia. Osteoporosis is rarely fatal, but these
least 30 minutes a day on most days of the week.
complications of fractures often are. Older people tend to have more
falls than younger people, due to such factors as poor eyesight and OSTEOARTHRITIS
balance problems, increasing their risk of fractures even more. The
likelihood of falls can be reduced by removing obstacles and loose
carpets or rugs in the living environment.

RISK FACTORS FOR OSTEOPOROSIS

There are a number of factors that increase the risk of osteoporosis.
Eleven of them are listed below. The first five factors cannot be
controlled, but the remaining factors generally can be controlled by
changing behaviors.
1. older age
2. XX chromosome
3. European or Asian ancestry
4. family history of osteoporosis
5. short stature and small bones
6. smoking
7. alcohol consumption
8. lack of exercise
9. vitamin D deficiency Figure 14.7.5 : The areas shaded in blue indicate the joints most
10. poor nutrition commonly affected by OA.
11. consumption of soft drinks Osteoarthritis (OA) is a joint disease that results from the breakdown
of joint cartilage and bone. The most common symptoms are joint pain
TREATMENT AND PREVENTION OF OSTEOPOROSIS
and stiffness. Other symptoms may include joint swelling and
Osteoporosis is often treated with medications that may slow or even decreased range of motion. Initially, symptoms may occur only after
reverse bone loss. Medications called bisphosphonates, for example, exercise or prolonged activity, but over time, they may become
are commonly prescribed. Bisphosphonates slow down the breakdown constant, negatively affecting work and normal daily activities. As
of bone, allowing bone rebuilding during remodeling to keep pace. shown in Figure 14.7.5, the most commonly involved joints are those
This helps maintain bone density and decreases the risk of fractures. near the ends of the fingers, at the bases of the thumbs, and in the neck,
The medications may be more effective in patients who have already lower back, hips, and knees. Often, joints on one side of the body are
broken bones than in those who have not, significantly reducing their affected more than those on the other side.
risk of another fracture. Generally, patients are not recommended to
stay on bisphosphonates for more than three or four years. There is no WHAT CAUSES OSTEOARTHRITIS?
evidence for continued benefit after this time — in fact, there is a OA is thought to be caused by mechanical stress on the joints with
potential for adverse side effects. insufficient self-repair of cartilage. The stress may be exacerbated by
low-grade inflammation of the joints, as cells lining the joint attempt to
remove breakdown products from cartilage in the synovial space. OA
develops over decades as stress and inflammation cause an increasing
loss of articular cartilage. Eventually, bones may have no cartilage to
separate them, so bones rub against one another at joints. This damages
the articular surfaces of the bones and contributes to the pain and other
symptoms of OA. Because of the pain, movement may be curtailed,
leading to loss of muscle, as well.
Figure 14.7.4 : Hiking is an enjoyable way to help keep bones strong DIAGNOSING OSTEOARTHRITIS
and reduce the risk of osteoporosis.

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Diagnosis of OA is typically made on the basis of signs and symptoms. aligned, and this can reduce joint stress. Good exercises for OA include
Signs include joint deformities, such as bony nodules on the finger swimming, water aerobics (see Figure 14.7.7), and biking. These
joints or bunions on the feet (Figure 14.7.6). Symptoms include joint activities are recommended for OA because they put relatively little
pain and stiffness. The pain is usually described as a sharp ache or stress on the joints.
burning sensation, which may be in the muscles and tendons around
the affected joints, as well as in the joints themselves. The pain is
usually made worse by prolonged activity, and it typically improves
with rest. Stiffness is most common when first arising in the morning,
and it usually improves quickly as daily activities are undertaken.

Figure 14.7.7 : Exercising in water provides buoyancy that places less

stress on joints than the same exercises would on the ground or other
hard surfaces.
PAIN MEDICATIONS
The first type of pain medication likely to be prescribed for OA is
acetaminophen (e.g., Tylenol). When taken as prescribed, it has a
Figure 14.7.6 . A bunion is a common sign of osteoarthritis. It is relatively low risk of serious side effects. If this medication is
typically located at the base of the big toe.
inadequate to relieve the pain, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
X-rays or other tests are sometimes used to either support the diagnosis (NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen) may be prescribed. NSAIDs, however,
of OA or to rule out other disorders. Blood tests might be done, for are more likely to cause serious side effects, such as gastrointestinal
example, to look for factors that indicate rheumatoid arthritis (RA), an bleeding, elevated blood pressure, and increased risk of stroke. Opioids
autoimmune disease in which the immune system attacks the body’s usually are reserved for patients who have suffered serious side effects
joints. If these factors are not present in the blood, then RA is unlikely, or for whom other medications have failed to relieve pain. Due to the
and a diagnosis of OA is more likely to be correct. risk of addiction, the short-term use of opioids is generally
RISK FACTORS FOR OSTEOARTHRITIS recommended.
Age is the chief risk factor for osteoarthritis. By age 65, as many as 80 SURGERY
percent of all people have evidence of osteoarthritis. However, people Joint replacement surgery is the most common treatment for serious
are more likely to develop OA — especially at younger ages — if they OA in the knee or hip. In fact, knee and hip replacement surgeries are
have had a joint injury. A high school football player might have a bad among the most common of all surgeries. Although they require a long
knee injury that damages the joint, leading to OA in the knee by the period of healing and physical rehabilitation, the results are usually
time he is in his thirties. If people have joints that are misaligned due to worth it. The replacement “parts” are usually pain-free and fully
congenital malformations or disease, they are also more likely to functional for at least a couple of decades. Quality, durability, and
develop OA. Excess body weight is another factor that increases the customization of artificial joints are constantly improving.
risk of OA, because of the added stress it places on weight-bearing FEATURE: MYTH VS. REALITY
joints.
About one out of every two Americans will develop osteoarthritis
Researchers have found that people with a family history of OA have a in his or her lifetime. The more you know about this disease, the
heightened risk of developing the disorder, which suggests that genetic more you can do to avoid it or slow its progression. That means
factors are also involved in OA. It is likely that many different genes knowing the facts, rather than believing the myths about
are needed for normal cartilage and cartilage repair. If such genes are osteoarthritis.
defective and cartilage is abnormal or not normally repaired, OA is
Myth: Cracking my knuckles will cause osteoarthritis.
more likely to result.
Reality: Cracking your knuckles may lead to inflammation of your
TREATMENT AND PREVENTION OF OSTEOARTHRITIS tendons, but it will not cause osteoarthritis.
OA cannot be cured, but the symptoms — especially the pain — can Myth: My diet has no effect on my joints.
often be treated successfully to maintain a good quality of life for Reality: What and how much you eat does affect your body weight,
people with OA. Treatments include exercise, efforts to decrease stress and every pound you gain translates into an additional four pounds
on joints, pain medications, and surgery. (or more!) of stress on your knees. Being overweight, therefore,
DESTRESSING JOINTS increases the chances of developing osteoarthritis — and also the
Efforts to decrease stress on joints include resting and using mobility rate at which it progresses.
devices such as canes, which reduce the weight placed on weight- Myth: Exercise causes osteoarthritis or makes it worse, so I should
bearing joints and also improve stability. In people who are avoid it.
overweight, losing weight may also reduce joint stress. Reality: This is one of the biggest myths about osteoarthritis. Low-
EXERCISE impact exercise can actually lessen the pain and improve other
symptoms of osteoarthritis. If you don’t have osteoarthritis,
Exercise helps maintain joint mobility and also increases muscle
exercise can reduce your risk of developing it. Low-impact exercise
strength. Stronger muscles may help keep the bones in joints correctly

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 helps keep the muscles around joints strong and flexible, so they 6. How is osteoporosis treated? What can be done to prevent it?
can help stabilize and protect the joints. 7. What is OA? What are its chief symptoms?
Myth: If my mom or dad has osteoarthritis, I will also develop it. 8. What causes OA?
Reality: It is true that you are more likely to develop osteoarthritis 9. Describe how OA is diagnosed.
if a parent has it, but it isn’t a sure thing. There are several things
10. Identify risk factors for OA.
you can do to decrease your risk, such as getting regular exercise
and maintaining a healthy weight. 11. How is OA treated?

Myth: Bad weather causes osteoarthritis. 12. Why is it important to build sufficient bone mass in your young
adult years?
Reality: Weather conditions do not cause osteoarthritis, although,
in some people who already have osteoarthritis, bad weather seems 13. Explain the difference in the cause of rheumatoid arthritis and
to make the symptoms worse. It is primarily low barometric osteoarthritis.
pressure that increases osteoarthritis pain, probably because it leads 14. True or False: Osteoarthritis is caused by physical activity, so
to greater pressure inside the joints relative to the outside air people who are equally active are equally susceptible to it.
pressure. Some people think their osteoarthritis pain is worse in 15. True or False: Estrogen generally promotes the production of new
cold weather, but systematic studies have not found convincing bone.
evidence for this.
Myth: Joint pain is unavoidable as you get older, so there is no EXPLORE MORE
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17112#Explore_More
need to see a doctor for it.
Reality: Many people with osteoarthritis think there is nothing that ATTRIBUTIONS
can be done for the pain of osteoarthritis, or that surgery is the only
1. Osteoporosis by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
treatment option. In reality, osteoarthritis symptoms often can be
Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
improved with a combination of exercise, weight loss, pain
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY
management techniques, and pain medications. If osteoarthritis pain
3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
interferes with daily life and lasts more than a few days, you should
2. Osteoporosis of spine by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via
see your doctor.
Wikimedia Commons
Myth: Osteoarthritis is inevitable in seniors. 3. Age and bone mass by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via
Reality: Although many people over 65 develop osteoarthritis, Wikimedia Commons
there are many people who never develop it, no matter how old 4. Hikers enjoying a wild trail by Hillebrand Steve, U.S. Fish and
they live to be. You can reduce your risk of developing Wildlife Service, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
osteoarthritis in later life by protecting your joints throughout life. 5. Areas affected by osteoarthritis by US Federal Government, public
domain via Wikimedia Commons
REVIEW 6. Hallux valgus by Malmstajn, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
7. Water aerobics by Tim Ross, public domain via Wikimedia
1. Name the two most common disorders of the skeletal system.
Commons
2. What is osteoporosis? What causes it?
8. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3. How is osteoporosis diagnosed? 3.0
4. Why is osteoporosis dangerous?
5. Identify risk factors for osteoporosis.

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14.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: HEELS AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
fractures. As you have learned, tiny fractures that accrue over time are
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: A PAIN IN THE the cause of dowager’s hump, or kyphosis, which is often seen in
FOOT women with osteoporosis.
You may have seen signs such as the one in Figure 14.8.1 indicating Don’t think you are immune to stress fractures just because you don’t
that high-heeled shoes are not allowed on certain walking surfaces wear high heels! This injury also commonly occurs in people who
because of the risk of injury. High heels affect a person’s balance, and participate in sports that involve repetitive striking of the foot on the
wearers can easily twist their ankle on uneven or slippery surfaces, ground, such as running, tennis, basketball, or gymnastics. Stress
causing a sprain or even a fracture. Besides twisting an ankle, wearing fractures may be avoided by taking preventative measures such
high heels on a regular basis can cause a variety of other negative as ramping up any increase in activity slowly, cross-training by
health consequences—some of which may be long-lasting. engaging in a variety of different sports or activities, resting if you
experience pain, and wearing well-cushioned and supportive running
shoes.
Amari learned through their online research that wearing high heels
can also lead to foot deformities such as bunions and hammertoes. As
you saw in the section Disorders of the Skeletal System, a bunion is a
protrusion on the side of the foot, most often at the base of the big toe.
It can be caused by wearing shoes with a narrow, pointed toe box — a
common shape for high heels (see Figure 14.8.3). The pressure of the
shoes on the side of the foot causes an enlargement of bone or
inflammation of other tissues in the region, which pushes the big toe
towards the other toes.

Figure 14.8.1 : No heels

As Amari discovered at the beginning of the chapter, wearing high
heels can result in a condition called metatarsalgia. Metatarsalgia is
named for the metatarsal bones, which are the five bones that run
through the ball of the foot just behind the toes (highlighted in Figure
14.8.2 ) Wearing high heels causes excessive pressure on the ball of Figure 14.8.3 : High heels with a narrow, pointed toe box and thin
the foot, as described at the beginning of this chapter. Additionally, the stiletto heels.
toes are forced to pull upwards in high heels, which moves the fleshy Hammertoes are abnormal bend in the middle joint of the second, third,
padding away from the ball of the foot, adding to the overall pressure or fourth toe (with the big toe being the first toe), causing the toe to be
placed on this region. Over time, this can cause inflammation and shaped similar to a hammer as seen in Figure 14.8.4. The narrow,
direct stress on the bones, resulting in pain in the ball of the foot known pointed toe box of many high heels, combined with the way the toes
as metatarsalgia. The pain particularly occurs in weight-bearing are squished into the front of the shoe as a result of the height of the
positions such as standing, walking, or running—which is what Amari heel, can cause the toes to become deformed in this manner.
was experiencing. There may also be pain, numbness, or tingling in the Treatments for bunions and hammertoe include wearing shoes with a
toes associated with metatarsalgia. roomy toe box, padding or taping the toes, and toe exercises and
stretches. If the bunion or hammertoe does not respond to these
treatments, surgery may be necessary to correct the deformity.

Figure 14.8.2 : Illustration of the bones of the foot, with the metatarsal
bones highlighted in pink.
Wearing high heels can also cause stress fractures in the feet, which are
tiny breaks in the bone that occur due to repeated mechanical stress.
This is due to the excessive pressure that high heels put on some of the
bones of the feet. These fractures are somewhat similar to what occurs Figure 14.8.4 : X-ray of a hammer toe.
in osteoporosis when the bone mass decreases to the point where bones
Because the bones of the skeleton are connected and work together
can fracture easily as people go about their daily activities. In both
with other systems to support the body, wearing high heels can also
cases, a major, noticeable injury is not necessary to create tiny

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cause physical problems in areas other than the feet. Wearing high ossicles in the middle ear and the hyoid bone in the throat.
heels shifts a person’s posture and alignment and can put a strain on The skull provides a bony framework for the head. It consists of
tendons, muscles, and other joints in the body. For instance, research 22 different bones: eight in the cranium, which encloses the
from a team at Stanford University published in 2014 suggests that brain, and 14 in the face, which includes the upper and lower
wearing high heels, particularly if the person is overweight or the heels jaw.
are very high, may increase the risk of osteoarthritis (OA) in the knee The vertebral column is a flexible, S-shaped column of 33
due to added stress on the knee joint as the person walks. As you have vertebrae that connects the trunk with the skull and encloses the
learned, OA results from the breakdown of cartilage and bone at the spinal cord. The vertebrae are divided into five regions:
joint. Because it can only be treated to minimize symptoms, not cured, cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions. The S
OA could be an unfortunate long-term consequence of wearing high shape of the vertebral column allows it to absorb shocks and
heels. distribute the weight of the body.
Amari has decided that wearing high heels regularly is not worth the The rib cage holds and protects the organs of the upper part of
pain and potential long-term damage to their body. After consulting the trunk, including the heart and lungs. It includes the 12
with their doctor, who confirmed they have metatarsalgia, Amari was thoracic vertebrae, the sternum, and 12 pairs of ribs.
able to successfully treat it with ice, rest, and wearing comfortable, The appendicular skeleton consists of a total of 126 bones. It
supportive shoes instead of heels. includes the bones of the four limbs, shoulder girdle, and pelvic
High heels are not the only kind of shoes that can cause problems. Flip- girdle. The girdles attach the appendages to the axial skeleton.
flops, worn-out sneakers, and shoes that are too tight can all cause foot Each upper limb consists of 30 bones. There is one bone, called
issues. To prevent future problems from shoe choices, Amari is the humerus, in the upper arm, and two bones, called the ulna
following guidelines recommended by medical experts, which include: and radius, in the lower arm. The wrist contains eight carpal
Wearing shoes that fit well, have plenty of room in the toe box, are bones, the hand contains five metacarpals, and the fingers
supportive, and are comfortable right away. There should be no consist of 14 phalanges. The thumb is opposable to the palm and
“break-in” period needed for shoes. fingers of the same hand.
Avoiding shoes that have high heels, especially ones over two Each lower limb also consists of 30 bones. There is one bone,
inches in height; narrow, pointed toe boxes; or very thin heels. The called the femur, in the upper leg, and two bones, called the tibia
shoes in Figure 14.8.3 are an example of a type that should be and fibula, in the lower leg. The patella covers the knee joint.
avoided! The ankle contains seven tarsal bones, and the foot contains five
If high heels must be worn, they should be worn for only a limited metatarsals. The tarsals and metatarsals form the heel and arch
period of time. of the foot. The bones in the toes consist of 14 phalanges.
The shoulder girdle attaches the upper limbs to the trunk of the
As you have learned in this chapter, your skeletal system carries out a
body. It is connected to the axial skeleton only by muscles,
variety of important functions in your body, including physical support.
allowing mobility of the upper limbs. Bones of the shoulder
But even though it is strong, your skeletal system can become damaged
girdle include a right and left clavicle and a right and left
and deformed—even through such a seemingly innocuous act as
scapula.
wearing a certain type of shoe. Taking good care of your skeletal
The pelvic girdle attaches the legs to the trunk of the body and
system is necessary to help it continue to take good care of the rest of
supports the organs of the abdomen. It is connected to the axial
you.
skeleton by ligaments. The pelvic girdle consists of two halves
that are fused together in adults. Each half consists of three
CHAPTER SUMMARY
bones: the ilium, pubis, and ischium.
In this chapter, you learned about the skeletal system. Specifically, you
learned that: Bones are organs that consist mainly of bone, or osseous, tissue.
Osseous tissue is a type of connective tissue consisting of a
The skeletal system is the organ system that provides an internal
collagen matrix that is mineralized with calcium and phosphorus
framework for the human body. In adults, the skeletal system
crystals. The combination of flexible collagen and minerals makes
contains 206 bones.
bone hard without making it brittle.
Bones are organs made of dense connective tissues, mainly the
tough protein collagen. Bones also contain blood vessels, nerves, There are two types of osseous tissues: cortical bone tissue and
and other tissues. Bones are hard and rigid due to deposits of spongy bone tissue. Cortical bone tissue is smooth and dense. It
calcium and other mineral salts within their living tissues. Besides forms the outer layer of bones. Spongy bone tissue is porous and
bones, the skeletal system includes cartilage and ligaments. light. It is found inside many bones.
The skeletal system has many different functions, including Besides osseous tissues, bones also contain nerves, blood vessels,
supporting the body and giving it shape, protecting internal organs, bone marrow, and periosteum.
providing attachment surfaces for skeletal muscles, allowing body Bone tissue is composed of four different types of bone cells:
movements, producing blood cells, storing minerals, helping to osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts, and osteogenic cells.
maintain mineral homeostasis, and producing endocrine hormones. Osteoblasts form new collagen matrix and mineralize it, osteoclasts
The skeleton is traditionally divided into two major parts: the axial break down bone, osteocytes regulate the formation and breakdown
skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. of bone, and osteogenic cells divide and differentiate to form new
The axial skeleton consists of a total of 80 bones. It includes the osteoblasts. Bone is a very active tissue, constantly being
skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. It also includes the three tiny remodeled by the work of osteoblasts and osteoclasts.

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 There are six types of bones in the human body: long bones such as Osteoporosis is often treated with medications such as
the limb bones, short bones such as the wrist bones, sesamoid bones bisphosphonates that may slow or even reverse bone loss.
such as the patella, sutural bones in the skull, and irregular bones Preventing osteoporosis includes eliminating any risk factors
such as the vertebrae. that can be controlled through changes of behavior, such as
Early in the development of a human fetus, the skeleton is made undertaking weight-bearing exercise.
almost entirely of cartilage. The relatively soft cartilage gradually Osteoarthritis (OA) is a joint disease that results from the
turns into hard bone. This is called ossification. It begins at a breakdown of joint cartilage and bone. The most common
primary ossification center in the middle of the bone and later also symptoms are joint pain and stiffness. OA is thought to be caused
occurs at secondary ossification centers in the ends of the bone. The by mechanical stress on the joints with insufficient self-repair of
bone can no longer grow in length after the areas of ossification cartilage, coupled with low-grade inflammation of the joints.
meet and fuse at the time of skeletal maturity.
Diagnosis of OA is typically made on the basis of signs and
Throughout life, bone is constantly being replaced in the process of
symptoms, such as joint deformities, pain, and stiffness. X-rays
bone remodeling. In this process, osteoclasts resorb bone and
or other tests are sometimes used to either support the diagnosis
osteoblasts make new bone to replace it. Bone remodeling shapes
or rule out other disorders. Age is the chief risk factor for OA.
the skeleton, repairs tiny flaws in bones, and helps maintain mineral
Other risk factors include joint injury, excess body weight, and a
homeostasis in the blood.
family history of OA.
Bone repair is the natural process in which a bone repairs itself
OA cannot be cured, but the symptoms can often be treated
following a bone fracture. This process may take several weeks. In
successfully. Treatments may include exercise, efforts to
the process, periosteum produces cells that develop into osteoblasts,
decrease stress on joints, pain medications, and surgery to
and the osteoblasts form a new bone matrix to heal the fracture.
replace affected hip or knee joints.
Bone repair may be affected by diet, age, pre-existing bone disease,
or other factors. As you have learned in this chapter, one of the important functions of
Joints are locations at which bones of the skeleton connect with one the skeletal system is to allow movement of the body. But it doesn’t do
another. it alone. Movement is caused by the contraction of muscles, which pull
Joints can be classified structurally or functionally, and there is on the bones, causing them to move. Read the next chapter to learn
significant overlap between the two types of classifications. about this and other important functions of the muscular system.
The structural classification of joints depends on the type of tissue
that binds the bones to each other at the joint. There are three types
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW
of joints in the structural classification: fibrous, cartilaginous, and 1. Hematopoiesis is carried out by:
synovial joints. A. spongy bone tissue
The functional classification of joints is based on the type and B. periosteum
degree of movement that they allow. There are three types of joints C. yellow bone marrow
in the functional classification: immovable, partly movable, and D. red bone marrow
movable joints. 2. True or False. Osteocalcin is a hormone produced by bone cells.
Movable joints can be classified further according to the type of 3. True or False. Vertebrae make up part of the rib cage.
movement they allow. There are six classes of movable joints: 4. For each of the following bones, indicate whether they are part of
pivot, hinge, saddle, plane, condyloid, and ball-and-socket the axial or appendicular skeleton.
joints. A. The ossicles of the middle ear
A number of disorders affect the skeletal system, including bone B. The femur
fractures and bone cancers. The two most common disorders of the C. The phalanges
skeletal system are osteoporosis and osteoarthritis. D. The bones of the cranium
Osteoporosis is an age-related disorder in which bones lose mass, E. The ilium
weaken, and break more easily than normal bones. The underlying 5. Why does the rib cage need to be flexible and why is it able to be
mechanism in all cases of osteoporosis is an imbalance between flexible?
bone formation and bone resorption in bone remodeling. 6. In general, what do “girdles” in the skeletal system do?
Osteoporosis may also occur as a side effect of other disorders or 7. Which protein does bone mainly consist of?
certain medications. A. Keratin
Osteoporosis is diagnosed by measuring a patient’s bone density B. Collagen
and comparing it with the normal level of peak bone density. C. Cellulose
Fractures are the most dangerous aspect of osteoporosis. D. Elastin
Osteoporosis is rarely fatal, but complications of fractures often 8. For each of the descriptions below, identify which process best fits
are. the description. Use each process only once. Processes: bone
Risk factors for osteoporosis include older age, female sex, growth; bone repair; bone remodeling
European or Asian ancestry, family history of osteoporosis,
A. New osteoblasts form from the periosteum and produce new
short stature and small bones, smoking, alcohol consumption,
bone tissue.
lack of exercise, vitamin D deficiency, poor nutrition, and
B. Cartilage grows, and the primary and secondary ossification
consumption of soft drinks.
centers move towards each other.

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 C. Osteoclasts break down bone tissue and osteoblasts build new bone cell types that carry out these processes, respectively?
bone tissue. 17. True or False. Bone mass does not decrease as men age.
9. For each of the following processes, describe when it occurs. 18. True or False. Ideally, a person’s spine would be perfectly straight
and rigid.
A. Bone growth
19. Compare and contrast a tendon and a ligament.
B. Bone repair
20. Describe two roles that calcium plays in the bones of the body.
C. Bone remodeling
21. How many bones are in the adult human skeleton?
10. Would swimming likely be more effective as an exercise for
preventing osteoporosis or as a treatment for osteoarthritis? Explain A. 80
your answer. B. 126
11. True or False. Use of anabolic steroids in the teenage years C. 206
generally makes people taller. D. 270
12. True or False. The largest joint in the human body is the knee joint.
13. How much of an adult’s skeletal mass is broken down and rebuilt
ATTRIBUTIONS
each year? 1. No Heels by Sam Howzit, CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
2. Mratatarsus by Henry Gray, public domain via Wikimedia
A. None
Commons
B. 5 percent
3. Stiletto heels by berthovanrhee, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
C. 10 percent
Commons
D. 30 percent
4. Hammer Toe by Mikael Häggström, M.D., CC0 via Wikimedia
14. Explain why some of the vertebrae become misshapen in the Commons
condition called dowager’s hump, or kyphosis. 5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
15. Explain why osteoarthritis often involves inflammation in the 3.0
joints.
16. Osteoporosis can involve both excess bone resorption as well as
insufficient production of new bone tissue. What are the two main

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
15: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
This chapter describes the structure and functions of the muscular system. It compares and contrasts
the three major types of muscle tissue and explains in detail how muscles contract according to the
sliding filament theory. The chapter also relates physical exercise to fitness and health and describes
several musculoskeletal and neuromuscular disorders.

15.1: CASE STUDY: MUSCLES AND MOVEMENT

Forty-three-year-old Nasir has a rare condition called cervical dystonia, which is also called
spasmodic torticollis. In this condition, the muscles in the neck contract involuntarily, often
causing the person’s head to twist to one side. Fortunately for Nasir and other cervical dystonia
sufferers, there is a treatment that can significantly reduce symptoms in many people—and it
might surprise you!

15.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The largest percentage of muscles in the muscular system consists of skeletal muscles, which are attached to bones and enable
voluntary body movements. There are almost 650 skeletal muscles in the human body, many of them shown in the figure below.
Besides skeletal muscles, the muscular system also includes cardiac muscle - which makes up the walls of the heart - and smooth
muscles, which control movement in other internal organs and structures.

15.3: TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE

Muscle tissue is a soft tissue that makes up most of the tissues in the muscles of the human muscular system. Other tissues in muscles
are connective tissues, such as tendons that attach skeletal muscles to bones and sheaths of connective tissues that cover or line
muscle tissues. Only muscle tissue per se, however, has cells with the ability to contract.

15.4: MUSCLE CONTRACTION

A muscle contraction is an increase in the tension or a decrease in the length of a muscle. Muscle tension is the force exerted by the
muscle on a bone or other object. A muscle contraction is isometric if muscle tension changes, but muscle length remains the same.
An example of isometric muscle contraction is holding a book in the same position. A muscle contraction is isotonic if muscle length
changes, but muscle tension remains the same.

15.5: PHYSICAL EXERCISE

Physical exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness. We generally think
of physical exercise as activities that are undertaken for the main purpose of improving physical fitness and health. However, physical
activities that are undertaken for other purposes may also count as physical exercise. Scrubbing a floor, raking a lawn, or playing
active games with young children or a dog are all activities that can have fitness and health b

15.6: DISORDERS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Musculoskeletal disorders are injuries that occur in muscles or associated tissues (such as tendons) because of biomechanical stresses.
They may be caused by sudden exertion, over-exertion, repetitive motions, or long periods maintaining awkward positions.
Musculoskeletal disorders are often work- or sports-related, and generally just one or a few muscles are affected. They can often be
treated successfully, and full recovery can be very likely.

15.7: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: NEEDING TO RELAX AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

As you learned in the beginning of this chapter, botulinum toxin—one form of which is sold under the brand name Botox - does much
more than smooth out wrinkles. It can be used to treat a number of disorders involving excessive muscle contraction, including
cervical dystonia. You also learned that cervical dystonia, which Nasir suffers from, causes abnormal, involuntary muscle contractions
of the neck. This results in jerky movements of the head and neck.

1 4/25/2021
15.1: CASE STUDY: MUSCLES AND MOVEMENT
case, they can no longer drive a car, because their uncontrollable head
CASE STUDY: NEEDING TO RELAX and neck movements and abnormal head positioning prevent
The dog in Figure 15.1.3 is expressing his interest in something— them from navigating the road safely. Nasir also has severe neck and
perhaps a piece of food—by using the neck muscles to tilt its head in shoulder pain much of the time.
an adorable fashion. Humans also sometimes tilt their heads to express Although it can be caused by an injury, there is no known cause of
interest. But imagine how disturbing and painful it would be if your cervical dystonia—and there is also no cure. Fortunately for Nasir and
neck tilted involuntarily, without you being able to control it! Forty- other cervical dystonia sufferers, though, there is a treatment that can
three-year-old Nasir, unfortunately, knows just how debilitating this significantly reduce symptoms in many people. You may be surprised
can be. Nasir uses they, them, and their pronouns. to learn that this treatment is the same substance that, when injected
into the face, is used for cosmetic purposes to reduce wrinkles!
The substance is botulinum toxin, one preparation of which may be
familiar to you by its brand name: Botox. It is a neurotoxin produced
by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, and can cause a life-
threatening illness called botulism. However, when injected in very
small amounts by a skilled medical professional, botulinum toxins have
some safe and effective uses. In addition to cervical dystonia,
botulinum toxins can be used to treat other disorders involving the
muscular system, such as strabismus (misalignment of the eyes), eye
twitches, excessive muscle contraction due to neurological conditions
like cerebral palsy; and even overactive bladder.
Botulinum toxin has its effect on the muscular system by inhibiting
muscle contractions. When used to treat wrinkles, it relaxes the
muscles of the face, lessening the appearance of wrinkles. When used
to treat cervical dystonia and other disorders involving excessive
muscle contraction, it reduces abnormal contractions.
In this chapter, you will learn about the muscles of the body, how they
Figure 15.1.1 : Curious dog contract to produce movements and carry out their functions, and some
Nasir has a rare condition called cervical dystonia, which is also called disorders that affect the muscular system. At the end of the chapter,
spasmodic torticollis. In this condition, the muscles in the neck contract you will find out if botulinum toxin helped relieve Nasir’s cervical
involuntarily, often causing the person’s head to twist to one side. The dystonia, and how this toxin works to inhibit muscle contraction.
illustration in Figure 15.1.2 shows one type of abnormal head
positioning that can be caused by cervical dystonia. The muscles may CHAPTER OVERVIEW: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
contract in a sustained fashion, holding the head and neck in one In this chapter, you will learn about the muscular system, which carries
position, or they may spasm repeatedly, causing jerky movements of out both voluntary body movements and involuntary contractions of
the head and neck. internal organs and structures. Specifically, you will learn about:
The different types of muscle tissue—skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
muscle—and their different characteristics and functions
How muscle cells are specialized to contract and cause voluntary
and involuntary movements
The ways in which muscle contraction is controlled
How skeletal muscles can grow or shrink, causing changes in
strength
The structure and organization of skeletal muscles (including the
different types of muscle fibers) and how actin and myosin
filaments move across each other, according to the sliding filament
theory, to cause muscle contraction
How cardiac muscle tissue in the heart contracts to pump blood
through the body
Smooth muscle tissue that makes up internal organs and structures,
such as the digestive system, blood vessels, and uterus
Figure 15.1.2 : Illustration from a medical book written around 1910, The physical and mental health benefits of aerobic and anaerobic
showing a person identified as having spasmodic torticollis. The exercise, such as running and weight lifting
person's neck is permanently tilted to the side. How individuals vary in their response to exercise
Cervical dystonia is painful and can significantly interfere with Disorders of the muscular system, including musculoskeletal
individuals' ability to carry out their usual daily activities. In Nasir’s disorders (such as strains and carpal tunnel syndrome) and

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 neuromuscular disorders (such as muscular dystrophy, myasthenia 3. What is one disorder involving a lack of sufficient muscle
gravis, and Parkinson’s disease) contraction? Why does it occur?
As you read the chapter, think about the following questions:
ATTRIBUTIONS
1. How is the contraction of skeletal muscles controlled?
1. Whisky's 2nd Birthday by Kelly Hunter, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
2. Botulinum toxin works on the cellular and molecular levels to
2. Gray 1194 by Henry Gray, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
inhibit muscle contraction. Based on what you learn about how
3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
muscle contraction works, can you think of some ways it could
3.0
potentially be inhibited?

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15.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
MARVELOUS MUSCLES MUSCLE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Does the word muscle make you think of the well-developed Muscles are organs composed mainly of muscle cells, which are also
muscles of a weightlifter, like a woman in Figure 15.2.1? Her name called muscle fibers (mainly in skeletal and cardiac muscle) or
is Natalia Zabolotnaya, and she’s a Russian Olympian. The muscles myocytes (mainly in smooth muscle). Muscle cells are long and thin
that are used to lift weights are easy to feel and see, but they aren’t cells that are specialized for the function of contracting. They contain
the only muscles in the human body. Many muscles are deep within protein filaments that slide over one another using energy in ATP. The
the body, where they form the walls of internal organs and other sliding filaments increase the tension in — or shorten the length of —
structures. You can flex your biceps at will, but you can’t control muscle cells, causing a contraction. Muscle contractions are
internal muscles like these. It’s a good thing that these internal responsible for virtually all the movements of the body, both inside and
muscles work without any conscious effort on your part because the out.
movement of these muscles is essential for survival. Muscles are Skeletal muscles are attached to the bones of the skeleton. When these
the organs of the muscular system. muscles contract, they move the body. They allow us to use our limbs
in a variety of ways, from walking to turning cartwheels. Skeletal
muscles also maintain posture and help keep balance.
Smooth muscles in the walls of blood vessels contract to cause
vasoconstriction, which may help conserve body heat. Relaxation of
these muscles causes vasodilation, which may help the body lose heat.
In the organs of the digestive system, smooth muscles squeeze food
through the gastrointestinal tract by contracting in sequence to form a
wave of muscle contractions called peristalsis. Think of squirting
toothpaste through a tube by applying pressure in sequence from the
bottom of the tube to the top, and you have a good idea of how food is
moved by muscles through the digestive system. Peristalsis of smooth
muscles also moves urine through the urinary tract.
Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the walls of the heart. When
Figure 15.2.1 : weightlifter lifting weight over her head. cardiac muscle contracts, it makes the heartbeat. The pumping action
of the beating heart keeps blood flowing through the cardiovascular
WHAT IS THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM? system.

MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY AND ATROPHY

Muscles can grow larger, or hypertrophy. This generally occurs
through increased use, although hormonal or other influences can also
play a role. The increase in testosterone during puberty, for example,
causes a significant increase in muscle size. Physical exercise that
involves weight-bearing or resistance training can increase the size of
skeletal muscles in virtually everyone. Exercises (such as running) that
increase the heart rate may also increase the size and strength of
cardiac muscle. The size of a muscle, in turn, is the main determinant
of muscle strength, which may be measured by the amount of force a
muscle can exert.
Muscles can also grow smaller, or atrophy, which can occur through
lack of physical activity or from starvation. People who are
immobilized for any length of time — for example, because of a
broken bone or surgery — lose muscle mass relatively quickly. People
Figure 15.2.2 : Many of the skeletal muscles in the human muscular in concentration or famine camps may be so malnourished that they
system are shown in this drawing of the human body. lose much of their muscle mass, becoming almost literally just “skin
The muscular system consists of all the muscles of the body. The and bones.” Astronauts on the International Space Station may also
largest percentage of muscles in the muscular system consists of lose significant muscle mass because of weightlessness in space
skeletal muscles, which are attached to bones and enable voluntary (Figure 15.2.3).
body movements. There are almost 650 skeletal muscles in the human Many diseases, including cancer and AIDS, are often associated with
body, many of them shown in Figure 15.2.2. Besides skeletal muscles, muscle atrophy. Atrophy of muscles also happens with age. As people
the muscular system also includes cardiac muscle — which makes up grow older, there is a gradual decrease in the ability to maintain
the walls of the heart — and smooth muscles, which control movement skeletal muscle mass, known as sarcopenia. The exact cause of
in other internal organs and structures. sarcopenia is not known, but one possible cause is a decrease in
sensitivity to growth factors that are needed to maintain muscle mass.

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Because muscle size determines strength, muscle atrophy causes a system provides a system of levers that allow body movement. The
corresponding decline in muscle strength. muscular system provides the force that moves the levers.
In both hypertrophy and atrophy, the number of muscle fibers does not
change. What changes the size of the muscle fibers? When muscle REVIEW
hypertrophy happens, the individual fibers become wider. When 1. What is the muscular system?
muscle atrophy happens, the fibers become narrower. 2. Describe muscle cells and their function.
3. Identify three types of muscle tissue and where each type is found.
4. Define muscle hypertrophy and muscle atrophy.
5. What are the possible causes of muscle hypertrophy?
6. Give three reasons that muscle atrophy may occur.
7. How do muscles change when they increase or decrease in size?
8. How do changes in muscle size affect strength?
9. Explain why astronauts can easily lose muscle mass in space.
10. Describe how the terms muscle cells, muscle fibers, and myocytes
relate to each other.
11. Muscle tissue in the stomach is considered ___________________.
Figure 15.2.3 : An astronaut exercising in space. It is important for A. cardiac muscle
astronauts to exercise onboard the International Space Station to help
counter the loss of muscle mass that occurs because they are weightless B. skeletal muscle
without Earth’s gravity. C. smooth muscle

INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER BODY SYSTEMS D. voluntary muscle

Muscles cannot contract on their own. Skeletal muscles need 12. Muscle contraction is the __________ of muscle fibers.
stimulation from motor neurons in order to contract. The point where a A. hypertrophy
motor neuron attaches to a muscle is called a neuromuscular B. atrophy
junction. Let’s say you decide to raise your hand in class. Your brain
C. lengthening
sends electrical messages through motor neurons to your arm and
shoulder. The motor neurons, in turn, stimulate muscle fibers in your D. shortening
arm and shoulder to contract, causing your arm to rise. 13. True or False: Smooth muscle does not contract.
Involuntary contractions of smooth and cardiac muscles are also 14. Name two systems in the body that work together with the
controlled by electrical impulses, but in the case of these muscles, the muscular system to carry out movements.
impulses come from the autonomic nervous system (smooth muscle) or 15. Describe one way in which the muscular system is involved in
specialized cells in the heart (cardiac muscle). Hormones and some regulating body temperature.
other factors also influence involuntary contractions of cardiac and
smooth muscles. For example, the fight-or-flight hormone adrenaline EXPLORE MORE
increases the rate at which cardiac muscle contracts, thereby speeding https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16810#Explore_More
up the heartbeat.
ATTRIBUTIONS
Muscles cannot move the body on their own. They need the skeletal
1. Natalia Zabolotnaya by Simon Q, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
system to act upon. The two systems together are often referred to as
Commons
the musculoskeletal system. Skeletal muscles are attached to the
2. Bougle whole2 retouched by Bouglé, Julien, public domain via
skeleton by tough connective tissues called tendons. Many skeletal
Wikimedia Commons
muscles are attached to the ends of bones that meet at a joint. The
3. Daniel Tani by NASA, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
muscles span the joint and connect the bones. When the muscles
4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
contract, they pull on the bones, causing them to move. The skeletal
3.0

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15.3: TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
WORK THOSE EYE MUSCLES! connective tissues, such as tendons that attach skeletal muscles to
Turn your eyes—a tiny movement, considering the conspicuously bones and sheaths of connective tissues that cover or line muscle
large and strong external eye muscles that control eyeball tissues. Only muscle tissue per se, however, has cells with the ability to
movements. These muscles have been called the strongest muscles contract.
in the human body relative to the work they do. However, the There are three major types of muscle tissues in the human body:
external eye muscles actually do a surprising amount of work. Eye skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle tissues. Figure 15.3.2 shows how
movements occur almost constantly during waking hours, the three types of muscle tissues appear under a microscope. When you
especially when we are scanning faces or reading. Eye muscles are read about each type below, you will learn why the three types appear
also exercised nightly during the phase of sleep called rapid eye as they do.
movement sleep. External eye muscles can move the eyes because
they are made mainly of muscle tissue. SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
Skeletal muscle is muscle tissue attached to bones by tendons, which
are bundles of collagen fibers. Whether you are moving your eyes or
running a marathon, you are using skeletal muscles. Contractions of
skeletal muscles are voluntary or under the conscious control of the
central nervous system via the somatic nervous system. Skeletal
muscle tissue is the most common type of muscle tissue in the human
body. By weight, an average adult male is about 42 percent skeletal
muscles, and the average adult female is about 36 percent skeletal
muscles. Some of the major skeletal muscles in the human body are
labeled in Figures 15.3.3 and Figure 15.3.4.
Figure 15.3.1: Eyes

WHAT IS MUSCLE TISSUE?

Figure 15.3.2 : Muscle type 1) Skeletal muscle cells are long tubular
cells with striations (3) and multiple nuclei (4). The nuclei are Figure 15.3.3 : This figure shows major skeletal muscles in the front
embedded in the cell membrane (5) to be just inside the cell. This type (anterior) of the body.
of tissue occurs in the muscles that are attached to the skeleton.
Skeletal muscles function for the voluntary movements of the body.
Muscle type 2) Smooth muscle cells are spindle-shaped (6), and each
cell has a single nucleus (7). Unlike skeletal muscle, there are no
striations. The smooth muscle acts involuntarily and functions in the
movement of substances in the lumens. They are primarily found in
blood vessel walls and walls along the digestive tract. Muscle type 3)
Cardiac muscle cells branch off from each other, rather than remaining,
like the cells in the skeletal and smooth muscle tissues. Because of this,
there are junctions between adjacent cells (9). The cells have striations
(8), and each cell has a single nucleus (10). This type of tissue occurs
in the heart wall, and its primary function is for pumping blood. This is
an involuntary action.
Muscle tissue is a soft tissue that makes up most of the tissues in the
muscles of the human muscular system. Other tissues in muscles are

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 SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE
Each skeletal muscle consists of hundreds — or even thousands — of
skeletal muscle fibers, which are long, string-like cells. As shown in
Figure 15.3.6, skeletal muscle fibers are individually wrapped in
connective tissue called endomysium. The skeletal muscle fibers are
bundled together in units called muscle fascicles, surrounded by
sheaths of connective tissue called perimysium. Each fascicle contains
between ten and 100 (or even more!) skeletal muscle fibers. Fascicles,
in turn, are bundled together to form individual skeletal muscles, which
are wrapped in connective tissue called epimysium. The connective
tissues in skeletal muscles have a variety of functions. They support
and protect muscle fibers, allowing them to withstand contraction
forces by distributing the forces applied to the muscle. They also
provide pathways for nerves and blood vessels to reach the muscles.
Also, the epimysium anchors the muscles to tendons.

Figure 15.3.4 : This figure shows major skeletal muscles in the back
(posterior) of the body. Figure 15.3.6 : Each skeletal muscle has a structure of bundles within
bundles. Bundles of muscle fibers make up a muscle fascicle, and
SKELETAL MUSCLE PAIRS fascicles' bundles make up a skeletal muscle. At each level of bundling,
a connective tissue membrane surrounds the bundle. The muscle cells,
To move bones in opposite directions, skeletal muscles often consist of fascicle, and the whole muscle are surrounded by Endomysium,
muscle pairs that work in opposition to one another. For example, when perimysium, and epimysium, respectively. All connective tissues merge
the biceps muscle (on the front of the upper arm) contracts, it can cause together to make a tendon that attaches the muscle to bones.
the elbow joint to flex or bend the arm, as shown in Figure 15.3.5. The same bundles-within-bundles structure is replicated within each
When the triceps muscle (on the back of the upper arm) contracts, it muscle fiber. As shown in Figure 15.3.7, a muscle fiber consists of a
can cause the elbow to extend or straighten the arm. The biceps and bundle of myofibrils, which are themselves bundles of protein
triceps muscles are examples of a muscle pair where the muscles work filaments. These protein filaments consist of thin filaments of the
in opposition to each other. protein actin, anchored to structures called Z discs — and thick
filaments of the protein myosin. The filaments are arranged together
within a myofibril in repeating units called sarcomeres, which run
from one Z disc to the next. The sarcomere is the basic functional unit
of skeletal (and cardiac) muscles. It contracts as actin and myosin
filaments slide over one another. Skeletal muscle tissue is said to be
striated because it appears striped. It has this appearance because of the
regular, alternating A (dark) and I (light) bands of filaments arranged in
sarcomeres inside the muscle fibers. Other components of a skeletal
muscle fiber include multiple nuclei and mitochondria.

Figure 15.3.5 : Triceps and biceps muscles in the upper arm are
opposing muscles that move the arm at the elbow in opposite
directions.

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 of smooth muscles are involuntary, so they are not under conscious
control. Instead, they are controlled by the autonomic nervous system,
hormones, neurotransmitters, and other physiological factors.

STRUCTURE OF SMOOTH MUSCLE

Figure 15.3.8 : The smooth muscle cell is composed of actin and

myosin filaments, but they are not arranged in the sarcomere. The
arrangement of these filaments is alternate and staggered.
Figure 15.3.7 : Bundles of protein filaments form a myofibril, and The cells that make up smooth muscle are generally called myocytes.
bundles of myofibrils make up a single muscle fiber. I and A bands Unlike the muscle fibers of striated muscle tissue, the myocytes of
refer to the positioning of myosin and actin fibers in a myofibril. smooth muscle tissue do not have their filaments arranged in
Sarcoplasmic reticulum is a specialized type of endoplasmic reticulum
that forms a network around each myofibril. It serves as a reservoir for sarcomeres. Therefore, smooth tissue is not striated. However, the
calcium ions, which are needed for muscle contractions. H zones and Z myocytes of smooth muscle contain myofibrils, which contain bundles
discs are also involved in muscle contractions, which you can read of myosin and actin filaments. The filaments cause contractions when
about in the concept of Muscle Contraction. they slide over each other, as shown in Figure 15.3.8.
SLOW- AND FAST-TWITCH SKELETAL MUSCLE FUNCTIONS OF SMOOTH MUSCLE
FIBERS
Skeletal muscle fibers can be divided into two types, called slow-twitch
(or type I) muscle fibers and fast-twitch (or type II) muscle fibers.
Slow-twitch muscle fibers are dense with capillaries and rich in
mitochondria and myoglobin, a protein that stores oxygen until
needed for muscle activity. Relative to fast-twitch fibers, slow-
twitch fibers can carry more oxygen and sustain aerobic (oxygen-
using) activity. Slow-twitch fibers can contract for long periods of
time, but not with very much force. They are relied upon primarily
in endurance events, such as distance running or cycling.
Fast-twitch muscle fibers contain fewer capillaries and
mitochondria and less myoglobin. This type of muscle fiber can
contract rapidly and powerfully, but it fatigues very quickly. Fast-
twitch fibers can sustain only short, anaerobic (non-oxygen-using)
bursts of activity. Relative to slow-twitch fibers, fast-twitch fibers
contribute more to muscle strength and have a greater potential for
Figure 15.3.9 : The muscular uterine wall stretches to a great extent to
increasing mass. They are relied upon primarily in short, strenuous accommodate a growing fetus, yet it can still contract with great force
events, such as sprinting or weight lifting. during the labor that precedes childbirth. At that time, it can exert up to
100 pounds of force.
Proportions of fiber types vary considerably from muscle to muscle
and from person to person. Individuals may be genetically predisposed Unlike striated muscle, smooth muscle can sustain very long-term
to have a larger percentage of one type of muscle fiber than the other. contractions. Smooth muscle can also stretch and still maintain its
Generally, an individual who has more slow-twitch fibers is better contractile function, which striated muscle cannot. An extracellular
suited for activities requiring endurance. In contrast, an individual who matrix secreted by myocytes enhances the elasticity of smooth muscle.
has more fast-twitch fibers is better suited for activities requiring short The matrix consists of elastin, collagen, and other stretchy fibers. The
bursts of power. ability to stretch and still contract is an important attribute of smooth
muscle in organs such as the stomach and uterus (Figure 15.3.9), both
SMOOTH MUSCLE of which must stretch considerably as they perform their normal
Smooth muscle is muscle tissue in the walls of internal organs and functions.
other internal structures such as blood vessels. When smooth muscles The following list indicates where many smooth muscles are found,
contract, they help the organs and vessels carry out their functions. along with some of their specific functions.
When smooth muscles in the stomach wall contract, they squeeze the Walls of the gastrointestinal tract (such as the esophagus, stomach,
food inside the stomach, helping to mix and churn the food and break it and intestines), moving food through the tract by peristalsis.
into smaller pieces. This is an important part of digestion. Contractions

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 Walls of air passages of the respiratory tract (such as the bronchi), The heart is the muscle that performs the greatest amount of physical
controlling the diameter of the passages and the volume of air that work in a lifetime. Although the heart's power output is much less than
can pass through them the maximum power output of some other muscles in the human body,
Walls of organs of the male and female reproductive tracts; in the the heart does its work continuously over an entire lifetime without
uterus, for example, pushing a baby out of the uterus and into the rest. The cardiac muscle contains many mitochondria, which produce
birth canal ATP for energy and help the heart resist fatigue.
Walls of the urinary system structures, including the urinary FEATURE: HUMAN BODY IN THE NEWS
bladder, allow the bladder to expand so it can hold more urine and The human heart develops in a sequence of events that are
then contract as urine is released. controlled by communication among different types of cells,
Walls of blood vessels, controlling the diameter of the vessels and including cells that will become myocardium (the cardiac muscle
thereby affecting blood flow and blood pressure that forms the wall of the heart) and cells that will become
Walls of lymphatic vessels, squeezing the fluid called lymph endocardium (the connective tissue that covers the inside surface of
through the vessels. the myocardium). If communication among the cells is abnormal, it
Iris of the eyes, controlling the size of the pupils and thereby the can lead to various heart defects, such as cardiac hypertrophy or
amount of light entering the eyes abnormal enlargement of the heart muscle. Cardiac hypertrophy
Arrector pili in the skin, raising hairs in hair follicles in the dermis. causes the heart to thicken and weaken over time, so it is less able
to pump blood. Eventually, heart failure may develop, causing fluid
CARDIAC MUSCLE
to build up in the lungs and extremities.
Abnormal cell communication is the mechanism by which a
mutation called PTPN11 leads to cardiac hypertrophy in disorder
referred to as NSML (Noonan Syndrome with Multiple Lentigines).
New research by scientists at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center
in Boston has determined which type of cell abnormalities occur
that lead to NSML. In the research, the scientists engineered mouse
models to express the PTPN11 mutation as they developed. The
researchers manipulated the mouse models so that the mutation was
expressed only in cells that would develop into the myocardium in
some of the mice. In contrast, in other mice, the mutation was
expressed only in cells that would develop into endocardium.
Unexpectedly, the heart's hypertrophy occurred only in the mice
that expressed the mutation in endocardial cells, not in myocardial
cells, which had long been assumed to be the cells affected. The
Figure 15.3.10: The thick wall of the heart consists mainly of cardiac results of the research suggest potential targets for the treatment of
muscle tissue called myocardium. The thin epithelial tissue NSML. They may also help scientists understand the causes of
endocardium covers the chambers of the heart and the other cardiac disorders that are much more common than NSML.
epicardium covers the myocardium. The heart is located in the
pericardial cavity of the chest. The covering of the pericardial cavity is
composed of fibrous and serous layers. REVIEW
Cardiac muscle is found only in the wall of the heart. It is also called 1. What is muscle tissue?
myocardium. As shown in Figure 15.3.10, the myocardium is enclosed 2. Where is the skeletal muscle found, and what is its general function?
within connective tissues, including the endocardium on the inside of
3. Why do many skeletal muscles work in pairs?
the heart and pericardium on the outside of the heart. When cardiac
muscle contracts, the heart beats and pumps blood. Contractions of 4. Describe the structure of a skeletal muscle.
cardiac muscle are involuntary, like those of smooth muscles. They are 5. Relate muscle fiber structure to the functional units of muscles.
controlled by electrical impulses from specialized cardiac muscle cells 6. Why is skeletal muscle tissue striated?
in the heart muscle area called the sinoatrial node.
7. Compare and contrast slow-twitch and fast-twitch skeletal muscle
Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is striated because its filaments fibers.
are arranged in sarcomeres inside the muscle fibers. However, in
8. Where is the smooth muscle found? What controls the contraction of
cardiac muscle, the myofibrils are branched at irregular angles rather
smooth muscle?
than arranged in parallel rows (as they are in skeletal muscle). This
9. Compare and contrast smooth muscle and striated muscle (such as
explains why cardiac and skeletal muscle tissues look different from
skeletal muscle).
one another.
10. Where is the cardiac muscle found? What controls its contractions?
The cells of cardiac muscle tissue are arranged in interconnected
networks. This arrangement allows rapid transmission of electrical 11. Both cardiac and skeletal muscle tissues are striated, but they look
impulses, which stimulate virtually simultaneous contractions of the different from one another. Why?
cells. This enables the cells to coordinate contractions of the heart 12. The heart muscle is smaller and less powerful than some other
muscle. muscles in the body. Why is the heart the muscle that performs the

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greatest amount of physical work in a lifetime? How does the heart DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.008. ISSN 2002-4436. Public Domain.
resist fatigue? via Wikimedia Commons
13. Arrange the following units within a skeletal muscle in order, from 4. Muscles posterior labeled by Häggström, Mikael (2014). "Medical
smallest to largest: fascicle; sarcomere; muscle fiber; myofibril gallery of Mikael Häggström 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.008. ISSN 2002-4436. Public Domain.
14. Give one example of connective tissue that is found in muscles.
via Wikimedia Commons
Describe one of its functions.
5. Muscle movement by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
15. True or False: skeletal muscle fibers are cells with multiple nuclei. 6. Muscle structure by National Cancer Institute, public domain via
Wikimedia Commons
EXPLORE MORE
7. Muscle fibers by OpenStax, CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
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8. Actin-myosin filament by Boumphreyfr, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
ATTRIBUTIONS Commons
9. Placenta by Gray38, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
1. Eyes by Nappy; public domain
10. Heart Wall by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
2. Muscle tissue by Mdunning13, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
Commons
Commons
11. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3. Muscles anterior labeled by Häggström, Mikael (2014). "Medical
3.0
gallery of Mikael Häggström 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).

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15.4: MUSCLE CONTRACTION
ARM WRESTLING
A sport like arm-wrestling depends on muscle contractions. Arm
wrestlers must contract muscles in their hands and arms and keep
them contracted to resist their opponent's opposing force. The
wrestler whose muscles can contract with greater force wins the
match.

Figure 15.4.1: Arm wrestling

MUSCLE CONTRACTION
HOW A SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION BEGINS
Excluding reflexes, all skeletal muscle contractions occur as a result of
conscious effort originating in the brain. The brain sends
electrochemical signals through the somatic nervous system to motor Figure 15.4.2 : This diagram represents the sequence of events that
neurons that innervate muscle fibers (to review how the brain and occurs when a motor neuron stimulates a muscle fiber to contract. The
neurons function, see the chapter Nervous System). A single motor action potential travels down the t-tubules and excites the sarcoplasmic
neuron with multiple axon terminals can innervate multiple muscle reticulum which releases calcium. Calcium when bound to troponin
causes conformational changes in the sarcomere. Consequently, the
fibers, thereby causing them to contract at the same time. The interaction of thick and thin filaments of the sarcomere leads to muscle
connection between a motor neuron axon terminal and a muscle fiber contraction.
occurs at a neuromuscular junction site. This is a chemical synapse Things happen very quickly in the world of excitable membranes
where a motor neuron transmits a signal to muscle fiber to initiate a (think about how quickly you can snap your fingers as soon as you
muscle contraction. decide to do it). Immediately following depolarization of the
The process by which a signal is transmitted at a neuromuscular membrane, it repolarizes, re-establishing the negative membrane
junction is illustrated in Figure 15.4.2. The sequence of events begins potential. Meanwhile, the ACh in the synaptic cleft is degraded by the
when an action potential is initiated in the cell body of a motor neuron, enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE). The ACh cannot rebind to a
and the action potential is propagated along the neuron’s axon to the receptor and reopen its channel, which would cause unwanted extended
neuromuscular junction. Once the action potential reaches the end of muscle excitation and contraction.
the axon terminal, it causes the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) Propagation of an action potential along the sarcolemma enters the T-
from synaptic vesicles in the axon terminal. The ACh molecules tubules. For the action potential to reach the membrane of the SR,
diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to the muscle fiber receptors, there are periodic invaginations in the sarcolemma, called T-tubules
thereby initiating a muscle contraction. Muscle contraction is initiated (“T” stands for “transverse”). The arrangement of a T-tubule with the
with the depolarization of the sarcolemma caused by the sodium ions' membranes of SR on either side is called a triad (Figure 15.4.3). The
entrance through the sodium channels associated with the ACh triad surrounds the cylindrical structure called a myofibril, which
receptors. contains actin and myosin. The T-tubules carry the action potential into
the interior of the cell, which triggers the opening of calcium channels
in the membrane of the adjacent SR, causing Ca ++
to diffuse out of
the SR and into the sarcoplasm. It is the arrival of Ca ++
in the
sarcoplasm that initiates contraction of the muscle fiber by its
contractile units, or sarcomeres.

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 step in skeletal muscles is always triggered by signaling from the
nervous system.

SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY OF MUSCLE

CONTRACTION
Once the muscle fiber is stimulated by the motor neuron, actin, and
myosin protein filaments within the skeletal muscle fiber slide past
each other to produce a contraction. The sliding filament theory is the
most widely accepted explanation for how this occurs. According to
this theory, muscle contraction is a cycle of molecular events in which
thick myosin filaments repeatedly attach to and pull on thin actin
filaments, so they slide over one another. The actin filaments are
attached to Z discs, each of which marks the end of a sarcomere. The
sliding of the filaments pulls the Z discs of a sarcomere closer together,
thus shortening the sarcomere. As this occurs, the muscle contracts.

Figure 15.4.3 : Narrow T-tubules permit the conduction of electrical

impulses. The SR functions to regulate intracellular levels of calcium.
Two terminal cisternae (where enlarged SR connects to the T-tubule)
and one T-tubule comprise a triad—a “threesome” of membranes, with
those of SR on two sides and the T-tubule sandwiched between them.

EXCITATION-CONTRACTION COUPLING
Although the term excitation-contraction coupling confuses or scares
some students, it comes down to this: for a skeletal muscle fiber to
contract, its membrane must first be “excited”—in other words, it must
be stimulated to fire an action potential. The muscle fiber action
potential, which sweeps along the sarcolemma as a wave, is “coupled”
to the actual contraction through the release of calcium ions (Ca ) ++

from the SR. Once released, the Ca ++

interacts with the shielding Figure 15.4.5 : The top diagram shows a relaxed sarcomere, and the
proteins, troponin and tropomyosin complex, forcing them to move bottom diagram shows a contracted sarcomere. Please note the z discs,
h zone, and M line. In a contracted sarcomere the H zone reduces as
aside so that the actin-binding sites are available for attachment by compared to relaxed sarcomere because actin fibers (greenish-yellow
myosin heads. The myosin then pulls the actin filaments toward the double helix) move towards the M line.
center, shortening the muscle fiber.
CROSSBRIDGE CYCLING
Crossbridge cycling is a sequence of molecular events that underlies
the sliding filament theory. There are many projections from the thick
myosin filaments, each of which consists of two myosin heads (you
can see the projections and heads in Figures 15.4.5 and 15.4.3). Each
myosin head has binding sites for ATP (or ATP hydrolysis products:
ADP and Pi) and actin. The thin actin filaments also have binding sites
for the myosin heads—a cross-bridge forms when a myosin head binds
with an actin filament.
The process of cross-bridge cycling is shown in Figure 15.4.6. A cross-
bridge cycle begins when the myosin head binds to an actin filament.
ADP and Pi are also bound to the myosin head at this stage. Next, a
power stroke moves the actin filament inward toward the sarcomere
center, thereby shortening the sarcomere. At the end of the power
stroke, ADP and Pi are released from the myosin head, leaving the
myosin head attached to the thin filament until another ATP binds to
the myosin head. When ATP binds to the myosin head, it causes the
Figure 15.4.4 : Tropomyosin Troponin complex shields the cross-bridge myosin head to detach from the actin filament. ATP is again split into
sites on actin. Myosin can only bind with actin when this complex is ADP and Pi and the energy released is used to move the myosin head
removed with the help of Calcium ions. into a "cocked" position. Once in this position, the myosin head can
In skeletal muscle, this sequence begins with signals from the somatic bind to the actin filament again, and another cross-bridge cycle begins.
motor division of the nervous system. In other words, the “excitation”

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 A stroke occurs when a blood clot lodges in an artery in the
brain and cuts off blood flow to part of the brain. Damage from
the clot would be reduced if the smooth muscles lining brain
arteries relaxed following a stroke because the arteries would
dilate and allow greater blood flow to the brain. In a recent
study undertaken at the Yale University School of Medicine,
researchers determined that the muscles lining blood vessels in
the brain actually contract after a stroke. This constricts the
vessels, reduces blood flow to the brain, and appears to
contribute to permanent brain damage. The hopeful takeaway of
this finding is that it suggests a new target for stroke therapy.

REVIEW
1. What is skeletal muscle contraction?
2. Distinguish between isometric and isotonic contractions of skeletal
muscle.
3. How does a motor neuron stimulate a skeletal muscle contraction?
4. What is the sliding filament theory?
5. Describe cross-bridge cycling.
6. Where does the ATP needed for a muscle contraction come from?
7. Explain why an action potential in a single motor neuron can cause
multiple muscle fibers to contract.
8. The name of the synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber
is the _______________ _________.
9. If a drug blocks the acetylcholine receptors on muscle fibers, what
do you think this would do to muscle contraction? Explain your
answer.
10. True or False: According to the sliding filament theory, actin
filaments actively attach to and pull on myosin filaments.
11. True or False: When a motor neuron produces an action potential,
the sarcomeres in the muscle fiber that it innervates become shorter as
Figure 15.4.6 : Crossbridge cycling
a result.
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS
12. Explain how cross-bridge cycling and sliding filament theory are
Interesting and hopeful basic research on muscle contraction is
related to each other.
often in the news because muscle contractions are involved in so
many different body processes and disorders, including heart failure 13. When does anaerobic respiration typically occur in human muscle
and stroke. cells?

Heart failure is a chronic condition in which cardiac muscle 14. Which process produces more ATP: aerobic respiration or
cells cannot contract forcefully enough to keep body cells anaerobic respiration?
adequately supplied with oxygen. In 2016, researchers at the 15. If there were no ATP available in a muscle, how would this affect
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center identified a cross-bridge cycling? What would this do to muscle contraction?
potential new target for developing drugs to increase the
strength of cardiac muscle contractions in patients with heart EXPLORE MORE
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16812#Explore_More
failure. The UT researchers found a previously unidentified
protein involved in muscle contraction. The minimal protein
ATTRIBUTIONS
turns off the “brake” on the heart, so it pumps blood more
1. Arm wrestling by U.S. Navy photo by Lt. Kenneth Honek, public
vigorously. At the molecular level, the protein affects the
domain via Wikimedia Commons
calcium-ion pump that controls muscle contraction. The
2. Motor End Plate and Innervation by OpenStax, CC BY 4.0 via
scientists also found the same protein in slow-twitch skeletal
Wikimedia Commons
muscle fibers. Interestingly, the protein is encoded by a stretch
3. Skeletal muscle by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
of mRNA dismissed by scientists as non-coding RNA,
Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
commonly referred to as “junk” RNA. According to one of the
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY
researchers, “We dipped into the RNA ‘junk’ pile and came up
3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
with a hidden treasure.” This result is likely to lead to searches
4. Actin-tropomyosin-toponin by Daniel Walsh and Alan Sved, CC
for additional treasures hiding in the RNA junk pile.
BY 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons

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5. Sliding filament model by OpenStax, CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia 7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
Commons 3.0
6. Crossbridge cycling by OpenStax, CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia
Commons

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15.5: PHYSICAL EXERCISE
STROLLERS goals of anaerobic exercise include building and strengthening muscles
These caregivers are setting a great example for their children by and improving bone strength, balance, and coordination. Examples of
engaging in physical exercise. Adopting a regular physical exercise anaerobic exercise include push-ups, lunges, sprinting, interval
habit is one of the most important ways to maintain fitness and training, resistance training, and weight training (such as biceps curls
good health. From higher self-esteem to a healthier heart, physical with a dumbbell, as pictured Figure 15.5.2).
exercise can positively affect virtually all aspects of health,
including physical, mental, and emotional health.

Figure 15.5.1 : Jogging with strollers

Figure 15.5.2 : Pitting the biceps muscle in the upper arm against a
WHAT IS PHYSICAL EXERCISE? heavyweight helps build and strengthen this muscle.
Physical exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains FLEXIBILITY EXERCISE
physical fitness and overall health and wellness. We generally think of
Flexibility exercise is any physical activity that stretches and lengthens
physical exercise as activities that are undertaken for the main purpose
muscles. The goals of flexibility exercise include increasing joint
of improving physical fitness and health. However, physical activities
flexibility, keeping muscles limber, and improving the range of motion,
that are undertaken for other purposes may also count as physical
all of which can reduce the risk of injury. Examples of flexibility
exercise. Scrubbing a floor, raking a lawn, or playing active games
exercises include stretching, yoga, and tai chi.
with young children or a dog are all activities that can have fitness and
health benefits, even though they generally are not done mainly for this HEALTH BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE
purpose.
How much physical exercise should people get? In the United States,
both the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Surgeon
General have recommended that every adult participates in moderate
exercise for a minimum of 30 minutes a day. This might include
walking, swimming, and/or household or yard work.

TYPES OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE

Physical exercise can be classified into three types, depending on the
effects it has on the body: aerobic exercise, anaerobic exercise, and
flexibility exercise. Many specific physical exercise examples
(including playing soccer and rock climbing) can be classified as more
than one type.
Figure 15.5.3 : The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
(HHS) recommends that adults aged 18 to 64 engage in regular aerobic
AEROBIC EXERCISE physical activity for 2.5 hours at moderate intensity (1.25 hours at
Aerobic exercise is any physical activity in which muscles are used vigorous intensity) each week. Moderate activities are those during
below their maximum contraction strength, but for long periods of which a person could talk but not sing. Vigorous activities are those
time. Aerobic exercise uses a relatively high percentage of slow-twitch during which a person could say only a few words without stopping to
breathe. When people exercise at 50 percent of the HHS guidelines,
muscle fibers that consume a large amount of oxygen. The main goal they gain an average of 1.5 years of life. Exercising at 100 percent of
of aerobic exercise is to increase cardiovascular endurance, although it the HHS guidelines results in a gain of almost four years of life. The
can have many other benefits, including muscle toning. Examples of gain in life expectancy starts to level off at about 300 percent of the
aerobic exercise include cycling, swimming, brisk walking, jumping HHS guidelines.
rope, rowing, hiking, and tennis. Many studies have shown that physical exercise is positively correlated
with a diversity of health benefits. Some of these benefits include
ANAEROBIC EXERCISE maintaining physical fitness, losing weight and maintaining a healthy
Anaerobic exercise is any physical activity in which muscles are used weight, regulating digestive health, building and maintaining healthy
close to their maximum contraction strength but for relatively short bone density, increasing muscle strength, improving joint mobility,
periods of time. Anaerobic exercise uses a relatively high percentage of strengthening the immune system, boosting cognitive ability, and
fast-twitch muscle fibers that consume a small amount of oxygen. The promoting psychological well-being. Some studies have also found a

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significant positive correlation between exercise and quality of life and
life expectancy. People who participate in moderate to high levels of
physical activity have been shown to have lower mortality rates than
people of the same ages who are not physically active. The years of life
gained with different amounts of physical activity are shown in the
graph in Figure 15.5.3.
The underlying physiological mechanisms explaining why exercise has
these positive health benefits are not completely understood. However,
developing research suggests that many of the benefits of exercise may
come about because of skeletal muscles' role as endocrine organs.
Contracting muscles release hormones called myokines, which Figure 15.5.4 : This crew team is competing for the U.S. Army in the
promote tissue repair and the growth of new tissue. Myokines also lightweight division of the world championships in 2003. They are
clearly exerting themselves — and no doubt increasing their euphoriant
have anti-inflammatory effects, which, in turn, reduce the risk of
neurochemicals in the process.
developing inflammatory diseases. Exercise also reduces cortisol
levels, the adrenal cortex stress hormone that may cause many health Additional mental health benefits of physical exercise include reducing
problems — both physical and mental — at sustained high levels. stress, improving body image, and promoting positive self-esteem.
Conversely, there is evidence to suggest that being sedentary is
CARDIOVASCULAR BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL associated with an increased risk of anxiety.
EXERCISE
The beneficial effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system are well SLEEP BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE
documented. Physical inactivity has been identified as a risk factor for A recent review of published scientific research suggests that exercise
the development of coronary artery disease. There is also a direct generally improves sleep for most people and helps sleep disorders,
correlation between physical inactivity and cardiovascular disease such as insomnia. Exercise is the most recommended alternative to
mortality. Physical exercise, in contrast, has been demonstrated to sleeping pills for people with insomnia. For sleep benefits, the
reduce several risk factors for cardiovascular disease, including optimum time to exercise is four to eight hours before bedtime,
hypertension (high blood pressure), “bad” cholesterol (low-density although exercise at any time of day seems to be beneficial. The only
lipoproteins), high total cholesterol, and excess body weight. Physical possible exception is a heavy exercise undertaken shortly before
exercise has also been shown to increase “good” cholesterol (high- bedtime, which may actually interfere with sleep.
density lipoproteins), insulin sensitivity, the mechanical efficiency of
the heart, and exercise tolerance, which can perform physical activity OTHER BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE
without undue stress and fatigue. Some studies suggest that physical activity may benefit the immune
system. For example, moderate excise is associated with a decreased
COGNITIVE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE incidence of upper respiratory tract infections. Evidence from many
Physical exercise has been shown to help protect people from studies has found a correlation between physical exercise and reduced
developing neurodegenerative disorders, such as dementia. A 30-year death rates from cancer, specifically breast cancer and colon cancer.
study of almost 2,400 men found that those who exercised regularly Physical exercise has also been shown to reduce the risk of type 2
had a 59 percent reduction in dementia when compared with those who diabetes and obesity.
did not exercise. Similarly, a review of cognitive enrichment therapies
for the elderly found that physical activity — in particular, aerobic VARIATION IN RESPONSES TO PHYSICAL
exercise — can enhance the cognitive function of older adults. EXERCISE
Anecdotal evidence suggests that frequent exercise may even help Not everyone benefits equally from physical exercise. When
reverse alcohol-induced brain damage. There are several possible participating in aerobic exercise, most people will have a moderate
reasons why exercise is so beneficial for the brain. Physical exercise: increase in their endurance, but some will double their endurance. On
increases blood flow and oxygen availability to the brain the other hand, some people will show little or no increase in
increases growth factors that promote new brain cells and new endurance from aerobic exercise. Genetic differences in slow-twitch
neuronal pathways in the brain and fast-twitch skeletal muscle fibers may play a role in these different
increases levels of neurotransmitters (such as serotonin), which results. People with more slow-twitch fibers may develop greater
increase memory retention, information processing, and cognition endurance because these muscle fibers have more capillaries,
mitochondria, and myoglobin than fast-twitch fibers. As a result, slow-
MENTAL HEALTH BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE twitch fibers can carry more oxygen and sustain aerobic activity for a
Numerous studies suggest that regular aerobic exercise works as well longer period of time than fast-twitch fibers. Studies show that
as pharmaceutical antidepressants in treating mild-to-moderate endurance athletes (like the marathoner in Figure 15.5.5) generally
depression. A possible reason for this effect is that exercise increases tend to have a higher proportion of slow-twitch fibers than other
the biosynthesis of at least three neurochemicals that may act as people.
euphoriants. The euphoric effect of exercise is well known. Distance
runners may refer to it as “runner’s high,” and people who participate
in the crew (Figure 15.5.4) may refer to it as “rower’s high.” Because
of these effects, health care providers often promote aerobic exercise as
a treatment for depression.

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 acid is a product of anaerobic respiration in muscle tissues. However,
lactic acid disperses fairly rapidly, so it is unlikely to explain pain
experienced several days after exercise. The current theory is that
DOMS is caused by tiny tears in muscle fibers, which occur when
muscles are used at too high a level of intensity.
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY
Most people know that exercise is important for good health, and
it’s easy to find endless advice about exercise programs and fitness
plans. What is not so easy to find is the motivation to start
exercising and stick with it. This is the main reason why so many
people fail to get regular exercise. Practical concerns like a busy
schedule and bad weather can certainly make exercising more of a
challenge, but the biggest barriers to adopting a regular exercise
Figure 15.5.5 : This winning marathoner is likely to have a relatively routine are mental. If you want to exercise but find yourself making
high proportion of slow-twitch muscle fibers that increase his excuses or getting discouraged and giving up, here are some tips
endurance. that may help you get started and stay moving:
There is also great variation in individual responses to muscle building Avoid an all-or-nothing point of view. Don’t think you need to
as a result of anaerobic exercise. Some people have a much greater spend hours sweating at the gym or training for a marathon to
capacity to increase muscle size and strength, whereas other people get healthy. Even a little bit of exercise is better than nothing at
never develop large muscles, no matter how much they exercise them. all. Start with ten or 15 minutes of moderate activity each day.
People who have more fast-twitch than slow-twitch muscle fibers may Taking a walk around your neighborhood is a great way to
develop bigger, stronger muscles because fast-twitch muscle fibers begin! From there, gradually increase the amount of time until
contribute more to muscle strength and have greater potential to you exercise to at least 30 minutes a day, five days a week.
increase in mass. Evidence suggests that athletes who excel at power Be kind to yourself, and reinforce positive behaviors with
activities (such as throwing and jumping) tend to have a higher rewards. Don’t be down on yourself because you are
proportion of fast-twitch fibers than endurance athletes. overweight or out of shape. Don’t beat yourself up because of a
supposed lack of willpower. Instead, look at any past failures as
CAN YOU “OVERDOSE” ON PHYSICAL opportunities to learn and do better. When you do achieve even
EXERCISE? small exercise goals, treat yourself to something special. Did
you complete your first workout? Reward yourself with a
relaxing bath or other treats.
Don’t make excuses for not exercising. Common complaints
include being too busy or tired or not athletic enough. Such
excuses are not valid reasons to avoid exercising, and they will
sabotage any plans to improve your fitness. If you can’t find a
30-minute period to work out, try to find ten minutes, three
times a day. If you’re feeling tired, know that exercise can
actually reduce fatigue and boost your energy level. If you feel
clumsy and uncoordinated, remind yourself that you don’t need
Figure 15.5.6 : New military recruits may suffer muscle damage from to be athletic to take a walk or engage in vigorous house or yard
overexertion of unconditioned muscles. The drill instructor pictured work.
here (in an orange shirt) is doing his best to encourage these marine Find an activity that you truly enjoy doing. Don’t think you
recruits to expend their maximum effort.
have to lift weights or run on a treadmill to exercise your
Is it possible to exercise too much? Can too much exercise be harmful? muscles. If you find such activities boring or unpleasant, you
Evidence suggests that some adverse effects may occur if exercise is won’t stick with them. Any activity that increases your heart
extremely intense and the body is not given proper rest between rate and uses large muscles can provide a workout, especially if
exercise sessions. Athletes who train for multiple marathons have been you’re not in the habit of exercising, so find something you like
shown to develop scarring of the heart and heart rhythm abnormalities. to do. Do you like to dance? Put on some music and dance up a
Doing too much exercise without prior conditioning also increases the sweat! Do you enjoy gardening? Get out in the yard and dig up
risk of injuries to muscles and joints. Damage to muscles due to some dirt! Still not interested? Try an activity-based video
overexertion is often seen in new military recruits (Figure 15.5.6). Too game, such as Wii or Kinect. You may find it so much fun that it
much exercise in females may cause amenorrhea, which is a cessation doesn’t seem like exercise until you realize you’ve worked up a
of menstrual periods. When this occurs, it generally indicates that a sweat.
woman is pushing her body too hard. Make yourself accountable. Tell friends and family members
Many people develop delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), which that you’re going to start exercising. You’ll be letting them — as
is pain or discomfort in muscles felt one to three days after exercising well as yourself — down if you don’t follow through. Some
and generally subsides two or three days later. DOMS was once people find that keeping an exercise log to track their progress is
thought to be caused by the buildup of lactic acid in the muscles. Lactic a good way to be accountable and stick to an exercise program.

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 Perhaps the best way to keep at it is to find an exercise partner. 12. Explain how genetics may influence the way individuals respond to
If you’ve got someone waiting to exercise with you, you will be physical exercise.
less likely to make excuses for not exercising. 13. Can too much physical exercise be harmful?
Add more physical activity to your daily life. You don’t need 14. Lifting hefty weights for a short period of time is likely to:
to follow a structured exercise program to increase your activity A. use a relatively high percentage of fast-twitch muscle fibers
level. Do your house or yard work briskly for a workout. Park
B. use a relatively high percentage of slow-twitch muscle fibers
your car further than necessary from work or the mall, and walk
the extra distance. If you live close enough, leave the car at C. be an aerobic exercise
home and walk to and from your destination. Rather than taking D. use a large amount of oxygen
elevators or escalators, walk up and downstairs. When you take 15. Walking quickly for an extended period of time is likely to:
breaks at work, take a walk instead of sitting. Every time a A. use a relatively high percentage of fast-twitch muscle fibers
commercial comes on while you’re watching TV, take a quick
B. use a relatively high percentage of slow-twitch muscle fibers
exercise break — run in place or do some curls with hand
weights.Review C. use muscles at close to their maximum contraction
D. cause the muscles to use only a small amount of oxygen
1. How is physical exercise defined?
2. What are the current recommendations for physical exercise for EXPLORE MORE
adults? https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16813#Explore_More
3. Describe aerobic exercise, and give examples of aerobic exercises.
4. How does anaerobic exercise differ from aerobic exercise, and what ATTRIBUTIONS
are some examples of anaerobic exercises? 1. Stroller Moms by Serge Melki, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
5. Define flexibility exercise, and state its benefits. What are two Commons
examples of flexibility exercises? 2. Man lifting weights by Spirit-Fire, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
6. In general, how does physical exercise affect health, quality of life, 3. Life expectancy gains from physical exercise by NIH, public
and longevity? domain
7. What mechanism may underlie many of the general health benefits 4. Rowing Team by Carlie Horigan Via Pixy license
of physical exercise? 5. Gashaw Asfaw by Walknboston, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
8. Relate physical exercise to cardiovascular disease risk. Commons
9. What may explain the positive benefits of physical exercise on 6. Drill Instructors by US Marines, public domain via Wikimedia
cognition? Commons
10. How does physical exercise compare with antidepressant drugs in 7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
the treatment of depression? 3.0
11. Identify several other health benefits of physical exercise.

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15.6: DISORDERS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
PAIN IN THE NECK
Spending hours each day looking down at hand-held devices is a
pain in the neck — literally. The weight of the head bending
forward can put a lot of strain on neck muscles, and muscle injuries
can be excruciating. Neck pain is one of the most common
complaints that bring people to the doctor’s office. In any given
year, about one in five adults will suffer from neck pain. That’s a lot
of pain in the neck! Not all of them are due to muscular disorders,
but many of them are. Muscular disorders, in turn, generally fall Figure 15.6.2 : Bleeding in muscle tissue may cause a muscle strain to
into two general categories: musculoskeletal disorders and produce a bruise over the affected muscle, as in this hamstring bruise.
neuromuscular disorders. The photos show two images of the same leg, both taken four days
after the injury occurred.
Proper first aid for a muscle strain includes five steps, which are
represented by the acronym PRICE. The PRICE steps should be
followed for several days after the injury. The five steps are:
1. Protection: Apply soft padding to the strained muscle to minimize
impact with objects that might cause further damage.
2. Rest: Rest the muscle to accelerate healing and reduce the potential
for re-injury.
3. Ice: Apply ice for 20 minutes at a time every two hours to reduce
swelling and pain.
4. Compression: Apply a stretchy bandage to the strained muscle to
reduce swelling.
5. Elevation: Keep the strained muscle elevated to reduce the chance
of blood pooling in the muscle.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen)
Figure 15.6.1: On the phone
can help reduce inflammation and relieve pain. However, because such
drugs interfere with blood clotting, they should be taken only after
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS bleeding in the muscle has stopped — not immediately after the injury
Musculoskeletal disorders are injuries in muscles or associated occurs. For severe muscle strains, professional medical care may be
tissues (such as tendons) because of biomechanical stresses. They may needed.
be caused by sudden exertion, over-exertion, repetitive motions, or
long periods of maintaining awkward positions. Musculoskeletal TENDINITIS
disorders often work- or sports-related, and generally, just one or a few Tendinitis is inflammation of a tendon that occurs when it is over-
muscles are affected. They can often be treated successfully, and full extended or worked too hard without rest. Tendons that are commonly
recovery can be very likely. The disorders include muscle strains, affected include those in the ankle, knee, shoulder, and elbow. The
tendonitis, and carpal tunnel syndrome. affected tendon depends on the type of use that causes inflammation.
Rock climbers tend to develop tendinitis in their fingers, while
MUSCLE STRAIN basketball players are more likely to develop tendonitis in the knees, to
A muscle strain is an injury in which muscle fibers tear as a result of name a few examples.
overstretching. A muscle strain is also commonly called a pulled Symptoms of tendinitis may include aching, sharp pain, a burning
muscle or torn muscle. (Strains are often confused with sprains, which sensation, or joint stiffness. In some cases, swelling occurs around the
are similar injuries to ligaments.) Depending on the degree of injury to inflamed tendon, and the area feels hot and looks red. Treatment
muscle fibers, a muscle strain can range from mildly to extremely includes the PRICE guidelines listed above and the use of NSAIDs to
painful. Besides pain, typical symptoms include stiffness and bruising reduce inflammation and pain further. Although symptoms should
in the area of the strained muscle. Figure 15.6.2 shows a large bruise show improvement within a few days of treatment, full recovery may
caused by a hamstring muscle strain. Hamstring strains are prevalent in take several months. A gradual return to exercise or other use of the
track and field athletes. In sprinters, for example, about one-third of affected tendon is recommended. Physical or occupational therapy may
injuries are hamstring injuries. Having a previous hamstring injury puts speed the return to normal activity levels.
an athlete at increased risk of having another one.
CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME
Carpal tunnel syndrome is a common biomechanical problem in the
wrist when the median nerve becomes compressed between carpal
bones (Figure 15.6.3). This may occur due to repetitive use of the
wrist, a tumor, or trauma to the wrist. Two-thirds of the cases are work-
related. Computer work, work with vibrating tools, and work requiring

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a strong grip all increase one's risk of developing this problem. Carpal childhood. By the time a child is ten, braces may be needed for walking
tunnel syndrome occurs more often in women than in men. Other risk — and walking may no longer even be possible by age 12. The lifespan
factors include obesity, pregnancy, and arthritis. Genetics may also of someone with muscular dystrophy is likely to be shorter than normal
play a role. because of the disease, ranging from 15 to 45 years.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a progressive weakening of
the skeletal muscles. It is one of several diseases collectively referred
to as “muscular dystrophy.” DMD is caused by a lack of the protein
dystrophin, which helps the thin filaments of myofibrils bind to the
sarcolemma. Without sufficient dystrophin, muscle contractions cause
the sarcolemma to tear, causing an influx of Ca++, leading to cellular
damage and muscle fiber degradation. Over time, as muscle damage
accumulates, muscle mass is lost, and greater functional impairments
develop.
In some cases, physical therapy, drug therapy, or orthopedic surgery
may improve muscular dystrophy signs and symptoms. However, at
Figure 15.6.3 : Carpal tunnel syndrome occurs when the median nerve present, there is no known cure for the disorder. Research is ongoing to
in the wrist becomes compressed. find a cure, with financial support from such sources as the Muscular
Compression of the median nerve results in the muscles' inadequate Dystrophy Association (MDA) (see photo below). MDA is a non-profit
nervous stimulation in the thumb and first two fingers of the hand. The organization dedicated to curing muscular dystrophy by funding
main symptoms are pain, numbness, and tingling in these digits. worldwide research.
Sometimes, symptoms can be improved by wearing a wrist splint or
receiving corticosteroid injections. Surgery to cut the carpal ligament
reduces pressure on the median nerve and is generally more effective
than nonsurgical treatment. Recurrence of carpal tunnel syndrome after
surgery is rare. On the other hand, without treatment, the lack of
nervous stimulation by the median nerve may eventually cause the
affected muscles of the hand to weaken and waste away.

NEUROMUSCULAR DISORDERS
Neuromuscular disorders are systemic disorders that occur because Figure 15.6.4 : A firefighters from Camp Pendleton, California, who
collected donations during their off hours for the Muscular Dystrophy
of problems with the nervous control of muscle contractions or muscle
Association (MDA) in 2010.
cells themselves. These disorders are often due to faulty genes and not
due to biomechanical stresses. Other system-wide problems, such as MYASTHENIA GRAVIS
abnormal immune system responses, may also be involved in Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disorder in which circulating
neuromuscular disorders. antibodies block the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the
Unlike musculoskeletal disorders, neuromuscular disorders generally neuromuscular junction's motor endplate. This blockage of
affect most or all of the muscles in the body. The disorders also tend to acetylcholine receptors causes muscle weakness, often first exhibiting
be progressive and incurable. However, in most cases, treatment is drooping eyelids and expanding to include overall muscle weakness
available to slow the disease progression or lessen symptoms. and fatigue. It occurs more commonly in women and generally begins
Examples of neuromuscular disorders include muscular dystrophy, between the ages of 20 and 40. The initial symptom of myasthenia
myasthenia gravis, and Parkinson’s disease. gravis is painless muscle weakness, generally in muscles around the
eye (Figure 15.6.5). The disease then progresses to muscles elsewhere
MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY in the body, eventually involving most of the muscles. Swallowing and
Muscular dystrophy is a genetic disorder caused by defective proteins chewing may become difficult as the disease progresses, and speech
in muscle cells. It is characterized by progressive skeletal muscle may become slow and slur. In more advanced cases, myasthenia crises
weakness and death of muscle cells and tissues. Muscles become may occur, during which the muscles that control breathing may be
increasingly unable to contract in response to nervous stimulation. affected. Emergency medical care to provide assisted ventilation is
There are at least nine major types of muscular dystrophy caused by required to sustain life. A myasthenia gravis crisis may be triggered by
different gene mutations. Some of the mutations cause autosomal various stressors, such as infection, fever, or stress. Treatment of
recessive or autosomal dominant disorders, and some cause X-linked myasthenia gravis may include medications to counter the mutant
disorders. The most common type of childhood muscular dystrophy is gene's effects or suppress the immune system.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) due to a mutation in a recessive
gene on the X chromosome. As an X-linked recessive disorder,
Duchenne muscular dystrophy occurs almost exclusively in males.
Different types of muscular dystrophy affect different major muscle
groups. In Duchenne muscular dystrophy, the lower limbs are affected.
Signs of the disorder usually first become apparent when a child starts
walking. Difficulty walking becomes progressively worse through

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 feet by his wife to stand before the flag he was supposed to carry
into the stadium. He was unable to carry it because of the ravages
of Parkinson’s disease.
Muhammad Ali retired from boxing in 1981 at 39, but he didn’t
retire from fighting. Until the final year of his life, Ali was a
Figure 15.6.5 : The photograph on the left shows a myasthenia gravis passionate activist for peace and justice and against war and racism.
patient with a drooping eyelid. The photo on the right shows the same In 1998, he joined Michael J. Fox, who also has Parkinson’s
patient after administering a drug that blocks the breakdown of
acetylcholine. disease, to raise awareness and fund research on Parkinson’s
disease. In 2002, Fox and Ali made a joint appearance before
PARKINSON’S DISEASE Congress to present their case. In 2005, Ali received the
Presidential Medal of Freedom from George W. Bush (Figure
15.6.7) for the many achievements and contributions he made

throughout his amazing life, despite Parkinson’s disease.

Figure 15.6.6 : The awkward, stooped gait of this person is typical of Figure 15.6.7 : President George W. Bush gives a congratulatory
people with advanced Parkinson’s disease. hug to Muhammad Ali after awarding him a Presidential Medal of
Freedom in 2005 as Ali’s wife, Lonnie Ali, looks on.
Parkinson’s disease is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous
system that mainly affects the muscular system and movement. Four
motor signs and symptoms are considered defining Parkinson’s
REVIEW
disease: muscle tremor (shaking), muscle rigidity, slowness of 1. What are musculoskeletal disorders? What causes them?
movement, and postural instability. Tremor is the most common and 2. How does a muscle strain occur?
obvious symptom, and it most often occurs in a limb at rest, so it 3. Define tendinitis. Why does it occur?
disappears during sleep or when the patient moves the limb voluntarily. 4. Identify first-aid steps for treating musculoskeletal disorders such
Difficulty walking eventually develops, and dementia is common in the as muscle strains and tendinitis.
advanced stages of the disease. Depression is common, as well. 5. Describe carpal tunnel syndrome and how it may be treated.
6. Define neuromuscular disorders.
Parkinson’s disease is more common in older people, with most cases
7. Identify the cause and symptoms of muscular dystrophy.
being diagnosed after 50. Often, the disease occurs for no known
8. Outline the cause and progression of myasthenia gravis.
reason. Cases like this are called primary Parkinson’s disease.
9. What is Parkinson’s disease? List four characteristic signs of the
Sometimes, the disease has a known or suspected cause, such as
disorder.
exposure to toxins in pesticides or repeated head trauma. In this case, it
10. What are the main differences between musculoskeletal disorders
is called secondary Parkinson’s disease. Regardless of the cause, the
and neuromuscular disorders?
disease's motor symptoms result from the death of neurons in the
11. Why is the padding of a strained muscle part of the typical
midbrain. The cause of cell death is not fully understood, but it appears
treatment?
to involve the buildup in the brain of protein structures called Lewy
12. Which disorder would be the most likely to be caused by repeated
bodies. Early in the course of the illness, medications can be prescribed
use of a jackhammer?
to help reduce the motor disturbances. As the disease progresses,
however, the medications become ineffective. They also cause a A. Parkinson’s disease
negative side effect of involuntary writhing movements. B. Muscular dystrophy
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS C. Carpal tunnel syndrome
On June 3, 2016, media worldwide exploded with news of the death D. A neuromuscular disorder
of Muhammad Ali at the age of 74. The world champion boxer and 13. True or False. Participation in some sports may cause Parkinson’s
Olympic gold medalist died that day of a respiratory infection disease.
complication, but the underlying cause was Parkinson’s disease. Ali
14. True or False. Myasthenia gravis occurs because the body stops
was diagnosed with Parkinson’s in 1984 when he was only 42 years
making acetylcholine.
old. Doctors attributed his disease to repeated head trauma from
boxing. 15. What are two tissues, other than muscle tissue, that can experience
problems that result in muscular system disorders?
In the days following Ali’s death, the news was full of stories and
images from milestones in the athlete’s life, both before and after
EXPLORE MORE
his diagnosis with Parkinson’s disease. Sadly, the news coverage https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16814#Explore_More
also provided an overview of his gradual decline as the disease
progressed. Ali was pictured in 1996, lighting the flame at the ATTRIBUTIONS
Summer Olympics in Atlanta. In 2012, Ali had to be helped to his

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1. Meet and Tweet by Alliance Internationale, CC BY 2.0 via 5. Myasthenia gravis by Mohankumar Kurukumbi, Roger L Weir,
Wikimedia Commons Janaki Kalyanam, Mansoor Nasim, Annapurni Jayam-Trouth. CC
2. Pulled Hamstring by Daniel.Cardenas, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
Commons 6. Paralysis agitans by Albert Londe, public domain via Wikimedia
3. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical Commons
gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). 7. Muhammad Ali and President Bush, White House photo by Paul
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY Morse, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
3.0 via Wikimedia Commons 8. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
4. Fill the boot by USMC, public domain via Wikimedia Commons 3.0

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15.7: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: NEEDING TO RELAX AND CHAPTER
SUMMARY
How does botulinum toxin inhibit muscle contraction? First, recall how
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: NEEDING TO skeletal muscle contraction works. A motor neuron instructs skeletal
RELAX muscle fibers to contract at a synapse between them called the
As you learned at the beginning of this chapter, botulinum toxin—one neuromuscular junction. A nerve impulse called an action potential
form sold under the brand name Botox—does much more than smooth travels down to the motor neuron's axon terminal, where it causes the
out wrinkles. It can be used to treat several disorders involving release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) from synaptic
excessive muscle contraction, including cervical dystonia. You also vesicles. The ACh travels across the synaptic cleft and binds to ACh
learned that cervical dystonia, from which Nasir suffers, causes receptors on the muscle fiber, signaling the muscle fiber to contract.
abnormal, involuntary muscle contractions of the neck. This results in According to the sliding filament theory, muscle fibers' contraction
the head and neck's jerky movements and/or a sustained abnormal tilt occurs due to the sliding of myosin and actin filaments across each
to the head. It is often painful and can significantly interfere with a other. This causes the Z discs of the sarcomeres to close together,
person’s life. shortening the sarcomeres and causing the muscle fiber to contract.

Figure 15.7.1 : Botox, he whispered.

How could a toxin actually help treat a muscular disorder? The soil
bacterium Clostridium botulinum produces the botulinum toxin, and it
is the cause of the potentially deadly disease called botulism. Botulism
is often a foodborne illness, commonly caused by improperly canned
foods. Other forms of botulism are caused by wound infections or
occur when infants consume the bacteria's spores from soil or honey.
Figure 15.7.3 : Botulinum toxins cleave (break down) proteins
Botulism can be life-threatening because it paralyzes muscles
(depicted here as red, blue, and green lines) that normally allow
throughout the body, including those involved in breathing. When a synaptic vesicles to bind to the membrane of the motor neuron’s axon
minimal amount of botulinum toxin is injected carefully into specific terminal to release the neurotransmitter ACh. Cleavage of these
muscles by a trained medical professional, however, it can inhibit proteins prevents the synaptic vesicles from fusing to the membrane,
and therefore ACh release is inhibited. In this illustration, BTX A-G
unwanted muscle contractions.
refers to different subtypes of botulinum toxins.
If you wanted to inhibit muscle contraction, at what points could you
theoretically interfere with this process? Inhibiting the action potential
in the motor neuron, the release of ACh, the activity of ACh receptors,
or the sliding filament process in the muscle fiber would all
theoretically impair this process and inhibit muscle contraction. For
example, in the disease myasthenia gravis, the ACh receptors'
function is impaired, causing a lack of sufficient muscle contraction.
As you have learned, this results in muscle weakness that can
eventually become life-threatening. Botulinum toxin works by
inhibiting the release of ACh from the motor neurons, thereby
removing the signal instructing the muscles to contract (Figure 15.7.3).
Figure 15.7.2 : These pickles are jokingly labeled "botulism," but actual
botulism is really no joke. Fortunately, Nasir’s excessive muscle contractions and associated pain
improved significantly, thanks to botulinum toxin injections. Although
For cosmetic purposes, botulinum toxin injected into the facial
cervical dystonia cannot currently be cured, botulinum toxin injections
muscles relaxes them to reduce wrinkles' appearance. When used to
have improved many patients' quality of life with this and other
treat cervical dystonia, it is injected into the neck muscles to inhibit
disorders involving excessive involuntary muscle contractions.
excessive muscle contractions. For many patients, this helps relieve the
abnormal positioning, movements, and pain associated with the As you have learned in this chapter, our muscular system allows us to
disorder. The effect is temporary, so the injections must be repeated make voluntary movements, digest our food, and pump blood through
every three to four months to keep the symptoms under control. our bodies. Whether in your arm, heart, stomach, or blood vessels,
muscle tissue works by contracting. But as you have seen here, too

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much contraction can be a terrible thing. Fortunately, scientists and sustain very long-term contractions and maintain its contractile
physicians have found a way to put a potentially deadly toxin—and function, even when stretched.
wrinkle-reducing treatment—to excellent use as a medical treatment Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the wall of the heart. When
for some muscular system disorders. cardiac muscle contracts, the heart beats and pumps blood.
Contractions of cardiac muscle are involuntary, like those of
CHAPTER SUMMARY smooth muscles. Electrical impulses from specialized cardiac cells
In this chapter, you learned about the muscular system. Specifically, control them.
you learned that: Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is striated because its
The muscular system consists of all the muscles of the body. There filaments are arranged in sarcomeres. However, the exact
are three types of muscle: skeletal muscle (which is attached to arrangement differs, making cardiac and skeletal muscle tissues
bones by tendons and enables voluntary body movements), cardiac look different from one another.
muscle (which makes up the walls of the heart and makes it beat), The heart is the muscle that performs the greatest amount of
and smooth muscle (which is found in the walls of internal organs physical work in a lifetime. Its cells contain many mitochondria
and other internal structures and controls their movements). to produce ATP for energy and help the heart resist fatigue.
Muscles are organs composed mainly of muscle cells, which may A muscle contraction is an increase in tension or a decrease in the
also be called muscle fibers or myocytes. Muscle cells are length of a muscle. A muscle contraction is isometric if muscle
specialized for contracting, which occurs when protein filaments tension changes, but muscle length remains the same. It is isotonic
inside the cells slide over one another using energy from ATP. if muscle length changes, but muscle tension remains the same.
Muscle tissue is the only type of tissue that has cells with the ability
A skeletal muscle contraction begins with the electrochemical
to contract.
stimulation of a muscle fiber by a motor neuron. This occurs at
Muscles can grow larger or hypertrophy. This generally occurs
a chemical synapse called a neuromuscular junction. The
through increased use, although hormonal or other influences can
neurotransmitter acetylcholine diffuses across the synaptic cleft
also play a role. Muscles can also grow smaller or atrophy. This
and binds to receptors on the muscle fiber. This initiates a
may occur through lack of use, starvation, certain diseases, or
muscle contraction.
aging. In both hypertrophy and atrophy, the size—but not the
Once stimulated, the skeletal muscle fibers' protein filaments
number—of muscle fibers changes. The size of the muscles is the
slide past each other to produce a contraction. The sliding
main determinant of muscle strength.
filament theory is the most widely accepted explanation for how
Skeletal muscles need the stimulus of motor neurons to contract and
this occurs. According to this theory, thick myosin filaments
to move the body; they need the skeletal system to act upon.
repeatedly attach to and pull on thin actin filaments, thus
Skeletal muscle is the most common type of muscle tissue in the
shortening sarcomeres.
human body. To move bones in opposite directions, skeletal
Crossbridge cycling is a cycle of molecular events that underlies
muscles often consist of pairs of muscles that work in opposition to
the sliding filament theory. Using energy in ATP, myosin heads
move bones in different directions at joints.
repeatedly bind with and pull on actin filaments. This moves the
Skeletal muscle fibers are bundled together in muscle fascicles,
actin filaments toward the center of a sarcomere, shortening the
which are bundled together to form individual skeletal muscles.
sarcomere and causing a muscle contraction.
Skeletal muscles also have connective tissue supporting and
The ATP needed for a muscle contraction comes first from ATP
protecting the muscle tissue.
already available in the cell, and more is generated from
Each skeletal muscle fiber consists of a bundle of myofibrils, creatine phosphate. These sources are quickly used up. Glucose
which are bundles of protein filaments. The filaments are and glycogen can be broken down to form ATP and pyruvate.
arranged in repeating units called sarcomeres, which are the Pyruvate can then be used to produce ATP in aerobic respiration
skeletal muscles' basic functional units. Skeletal muscle tissue is if oxygen is available or used in anaerobic respiration if oxygen
striated because of the pattern of sarcomeres in its fibers. is not available.
Skeletal muscle fibers can be divided into two types, called
Physical exercise is defined as any bodily activity that enhances or
slow-twitch and fast-twitch fibers. Slow-twitch fibers are used
maintains physical fitness and overall health. Activities such as
mainly in aerobic endurance activities (such as long-distance
household chores may even count as physical exercise! Current
running). Fast-twitch fibers are used mainly for non-aerobic,
recommendations for adults are 30 minutes of moderate exercise a
strenuous activities (such as sprinting). Proportions of the two
day.
types of fibers vary from muscle to muscle and person to
Aerobic exercise is any physical activity that uses muscles at less
person.
than their maximum contraction strength but for long periods of
Smooth muscle tissue is found in the walls of internal organs and time. This type of exercise uses a relatively high percentage of
vessels. When smooth muscles contract, they help the organs and slow-twitch muscle fibers that consume large amounts of oxygen.
vessels carry out their functions. Contractions of smooth muscles Aerobic exercises increase cardiovascular endurance and include
are involuntary and controlled by the autonomic nervous system, cycling and brisk walking.
hormones, and other substances. Anaerobic exercise is any physical activity that uses muscles at
Cells of smooth muscle tissue are not striated because they lack close to their maximum contraction strength, but for short periods
sarcomeres, but the cells contract in the same basic way as of time. This type of exercise uses a relatively high percentage of
striated muscle cells. Unlike striated muscle, smooth muscle can fast-twitch muscle fibers that consume small amounts of oxygen.

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 Anaerobic exercises increase muscle and bone mass and strength, Neuromuscular disorders are systemic disorders that occur because
and they include push-ups and sprinting. of problems with the nervous control of muscle contractions or
Flexibility exercise is any physical activity that stretches and muscle cells themselves.
lengthens muscles, thereby improving the range of motion and Muscular dystrophy is a genetic disorder caused by defective
reducing injury risk. Examples include stretching and yoga. proteins in muscle cells. It is characterized by progressive
Many studies have shown that physical exercise is positively skeletal muscle weakness and death of muscle tissues.
correlated with a diversity of physical, mental, and emotional health Myasthenia gravis is a genetic neuromuscular disorder
benefits. Physical exercise also increases the quality of life and life characterized by fluctuating muscle weakness and fatigue. More
expectancy. muscles are affected, and muscles become increasingly
Many of the exercise benefits may come about because weakened, as the disorder progresses. Myasthenia gravis most
contracting muscles release hormones called myokines, which often occurs because immune system antibodies block
promote tissue repair and growth and have anti-inflammatory acetylcholine receptors on muscle cells because of the actual
effects. loss of acetylcholine receptors.
Physical exercise can reduce risk factors for cardiovascular Parkinson’s disease is a degenerative disorder of the central
disease, including hypertension and excess body weight. nervous system that mainly affects the muscular system and
Physical exercise can also increase cardiovascular health movement. It occurs because of the death of neurons in the
factors, such as the mechanical efficiency of the heart. midbrain. Characteristic signs of the disorder are muscle tremor,
Physical exercise has been shown to offer protection from muscle rigidity, slowness of movement, and postural instability.
dementia and other cognitive problems, perhaps because it Dementia and depression also often characterize advanced
increases blood flow or neurotransmitters in the brain, among stages of the disease.
other potential effects. As you saw in this chapter, muscles need oxygen to provide enough
Numerous studies suggest that regular aerobic exercise works ATP for most of their activities. In fact, all of the body’s systems
and pharmaceutical antidepressants in treating mild-to-moderate require oxygen and remove waste products, such as carbon dioxide. In
depression, possibly because it increases the synthesis of natural the next chapter, you will learn about how the respiratory system
euphoriants in the brain. obtains and distributes oxygen throughout the body and how it removes
Research shows that physical exercise generally improves sleep wastes, such as carbon dioxide.
for most people and helps sleep disorders, such as insomnia.
Other health benefits of physical exercise include better immune CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW
system function and reduced risk of type 2 diabetes and obesity.
1. True or False. Each motor neuron controls one muscle fiber.
There is great variation in individual responses to exercise, partly 2. True or False. Peristalsis is a pattern of muscle contraction in
due to genetic differences in proportions of slow-twitch and fast- smooth muscle tissue.
twitch muscle fibers. People with more slow-twitch fibers may be 3. When muscles atrophy:
able to develop greater endurance from aerobic exercise. In
A. muscle fibers become narrower
contrast, people with more fast-twitch fibers may develop greater
B. muscle fibers turn into fat cells
muscle size and strength from anaerobic exercise.
C. muscle fibers are lost
Some adverse effects may occur if exercise is extremely intense,
D. muscle fibers become shorter
and the body is not given proper rest between exercise sessions.
4. What are tendons?
Many people who overwork their muscles develop delayed onset
5. What is a muscular system disorder involving tendons?
muscle soreness (DOMS), caused by tiny tears in muscle fibers.
6. Which of the main types of muscle tissue is used when you make a
Musculoskeletal disorders are injuries in muscles or associated
voluntary movement of one of your limbs?
tissues (such as tendons) because of biomechanical stresses. The
7. Which main types of muscle tissue function independently of
disorders may be caused by sudden exertion, over-exertion,
conscious control by the brain?
repetitive motions, and similar stresses.
8. Describe the relationship between muscles, muscle fibers, and
A muscle strain is an injury in which muscle fibers tear as a
fascicles.
result of overstretching. First aid for a muscle strain includes the
9. Choose one. The (autonomic; somatic) nervous system controls the
five steps represented by the acronym PRICE (protection, rest,
skeletal muscles.
ice, compression, and elevation). Medications for inflammation
10. True or False. Sarcomeres are the cells of the muscular system.
and pain (such as NSAIDs) may also be used.
11. True or False. Muscles contain connective tissue as well as muscle
Tendinitis is inflammation of a tendon that occurs when it is
tissue.
over-extended or worked too hard without rest. Tendinitis may
12. The biceps and triceps muscles are shown in Figure 15.7.4. Answer
also be treated with PRICE and NSAIDs.
the following questions about these arm muscles.
Carpal tunnel syndrome is a biomechanical problem in the wrist
A. When the biceps contract and become shorter, as in the
when the median nerve becomes compressed between carpal
illustration, what kind of motion does this produce in the arm?
bones. It may occur with repetitive use, a tumor, or trauma to
B. Is the situation described in part more likely to be an isometric
the wrist. It may cause pain, numbness, and eventually—if
or isotonic contraction? Explain your answer.
untreated—muscle wasting in the thumb and first two fingers of
C. If the triceps were to then contract, which way would help the
the hand.
arm move?

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 C. cardiac
D. B and C
20. Myoglobin:
A. Stores oxygen for anaerobic respiration
B. Stores oxygen for aerobic respiration
C. Is present in higher amounts in fast-twitch fibers than slow-
twitch fibers
D. Is where ATP is produced
Figure 15.7.4 : biceps 21. True or False. All people have the same proportion of slow-twitch
to fast-twitch muscle fibers.
13. Put the following events in order of when they occur during the 22. True or False. A sprain is a tear in the muscle fibers.
process of skeletal muscle contraction, from earliest to latest: 23. Which condition directly damages neurons, not muscles?
A. Acetylcholine binds to receptors on the muscle fiber A. Myasthenia gravis
B. Actin filaments slide, shortening the sarcomere B. Muscular dystrophy
C. An action potential is initiated in a motor neuron C. Musculoskeletal disorder
D. Acetylcholine is released from synaptic vesicles D. Parkinson’s disease
14. What are Z discs, and what happens to them during muscle 24. What is the difference between primary and secondary Parkinson’s
contraction? disease?
15. True or False. Synapses only exist between neurons. 25. Why can carpal tunnel syndrome cause muscle weakness in the
16. True or False. Muscles can produce hormones. hands?
17. Which have been called the strongest muscles in the human body, 26. True or False. The heart consists of smooth muscle tissue.
relative to their work? 27. True or False. Sprinting is considered an anaerobic exercise
A. The heart muscles
B. The hamstring muscles
ATTRIBUTION
C. The external eye muscles 1. Botox comic by Michael Reuter, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
D. The stomach muscles 2. Botulism by Jason Wilson, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
3. Botulinum Toxin Mechanism by Rysin, public domain via
18. What is the function of mitochondria in muscle cells? Which type
Wikimedia Commons
of muscle fiber has more mitochondria—slow-twitch or fast-
4. Biceps by Pearson Scott Foresman, public domain via Wikimedia
twitch?
Commons
19. Fast-twitch and slow-twitch are types of which kind of muscle
5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
fibers?
3.0
A. skeletal
B. smooth

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
16: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
This chapter describes the structure and function of the respiratory system, including how breathing
occurs and what controls it, as well as how the process of gas exchange takes place in the lungs. The
chapter also describes several disorders of the respiratory system and details the adverse health
effects of smoking.

16.1: CASE STUDY: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND GAS EXCHANGE

Three weeks ago, 20-year-old Sacheen had a runny nose, fatigue, and a mild cough. Her symptoms
had been starting to improve, but recently her cough has been getting worse. Her doctor diagnoses
her with acute bronchitis, which you will better understand as you read this chapter on the
respiratory system, along with the treatment recommendations for this disease.

16.2: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiration is the life-sustaining process in which gases are exchanged between the body and the outside atmosphere. Specifically,
oxygen moves from the outside air into the body; and water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other waste gases move from inside the body
into the outside air. Respiration is carried out mainly by the respiratory system. Respiration by the respiratory system is not the same
process as cellular respiration that occurs inside cells, although they are closely connected.

16.3: BREATHING
The swimmer in this photo is doing the butterfly stroke. This swimming style requires the swimmer to carefully control his breathing
so it is coordinated with his swimming movements. Breathing is the process of moving air into and out of the lungs, which are the
organs in which gas exchange takes place between the atmosphere and the body. Breathing is also called ventilation, and it is one of
two parts of the life-sustaining process of respiration, the other part being gas exchange.

16.4: DISORDERS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways in the lungs, in which the airways periodically become inflamed. Another
common inflammatory disease of the respiratory tract is pneumonia. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a lung disease
characterized by chronic poor airflow. Lung cancer is a malignant tumor characterized by uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the
lung.

16.5: SMOKING AND HEALTH

tobacco smoking has adverse effects on just about every bodily system and organ. The detrimental health effects of smoking depend
on the number of years that a person smokes and how much the person smokes. Contrary to popular belief, all forms of tobacco
smoke - including smoke from cigars and tobacco pipes - have similar health risks as those of cigarette smoke. Smokeless tobacco
may be less of a danger to the lungs and heart, but it too has serious health effects.

16.6: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: BRONCHITIS AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

As you have learned in this chapter, the respiratory system is critical to carry out the gas exchange necessary for life’s functions and to
protect the body from pathogens and other potentially harmful substances in the air. But this ability to interface with the outside air
has a cost. The respiratory system is prone to infections, as well as damage and other negative effects from allergens, mold, air
pollution, and cigarette smoke.

1 4/25/2021
16.1: CASE STUDY: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND GAS EXCHANGE
term. She explains that smoking can make people more susceptible to
CASE STUDY: COUGH THAT WON'T QUIT bronchitis and can hinder recovery. She also advises Sacheen not to
Three weeks ago, 20-year-old Sacheen came down with symptoms take over-the-counter cough suppressant medication.
typical of the common cold. She had a runny nose, fatigue, and a mild As you read this chapter on the respiratory system, you will better
cough. Her symptoms had been starting to improve, but recently her understand what bronchitis is and why Dr. Tsosie made the treatment
cough has been getting worse. She coughs up a lot of thick mucus, her recommendations that she did. At the end of the chapter, you will learn
throat is sore from frequent coughing, and her chest feels very more about acute bronchitis, which is the type that Sacheen has. This
congested. According to her wife, Sacheen has a “chest cold.” Sacheen information may come in handy to you personally because the chances
is a smoker and wonders if her habit is making her cough worse. She are high that you will get this common infection at some point in your
decides that it is time to see a doctor. life—there are millions of bronchitis cases every year!

CHAPTER OVERVIEW: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

In this chapter, you will learn about the respiratory system, the system
that exchanges gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide between the
body and the outside air. Specifically, you will learn about:
The process of respiration, in which oxygen moves from the outside
air into the body and carbon dioxide and other waste gases move
from inside the body into the outside air.
The organs of the respiratory system, including the lungs, bronchial
tubes, and the rest of the respiratory tract.
How the respiratory tract protects itself from pathogens and other
potentially harmful substances in the air.
How the rate of breathing is regulated to maintain homeostasis of
blood gases and pH.
How ventilation, or breathing, allows us to inhale air into the body
Figure 16.1.1: Coughing and exhale air out of the body.
Dr. Tsosie examines Sacheen and asks about her symptoms and health The conscious and unconscious control of breathing.
history. She checks the level of oxygen in Sacheen’s blood by attaching Nasal breathing compared to mouth breathing.
a device called a pulse oximeter to Sacheen’s finger (Figure 16.1.2). What happens when a person is drowning.
Dr. Tsosie concludes that Sacheen has bronchitis, an infection that How gas exchange occurs between the air and blood in the alveoli
commonly occurs after a person has a cold or flu. Bronchitis is of the lungs, and between the blood and cells throughout the body.
sometimes referred to as a “chest cold,” so Sacheen’s wife was right! Disorders of the respiratory system, including asthma, pneumonia,
Bronchitis causes inflammation and a build-up of mucus in the chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and lung cancer.
bronchial tubes in the chest. The negative health effects of smoking.
As you read the chapter, think about the following questions:
1. Where are the bronchial tubes, and what is their function?
2. What is the function of mucus, and why can too much mucus be a
bad thing?
3. Why did Dr. Tsosie check Sacheen’s blood oxygen level?
4. Why do you think Dr. Tsosie warned Sacheen not to take cough
suppressant medications?
5. How does acute bronchitis compare to chronic bronchitis, and how
do they both relate to smoking?
Figure 16.1.2 : A pulse oximeter, used to measure blood oxygen levels.
Because viruses, and not bacteria, usually cause bronchitis, Dr. Tsosie
ATTRIBUTIONS
tells Sacheen that antibiotics are not likely to help. Instead, she 1. Coughing by GabboT, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons
recommends that Sacheen try to thin and remove the mucus by 2. Wrist oximeter by UusiAjaja, public domain via
drinking plenty of fluids and using a humidifier, or spending time in a Wikimedia Commons
steamy shower. She also recommends that Sacheen get plenty of rest. 3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
Dr. Tsosie also tells Sacheen some things not to do—most importantly, 3.0
not to smoke while she is sick and to try to quit smoking in the long

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16.2: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
SEEING YOUR BREATH ribs also play a role in breathing. You can learn more about breathing
Why can you “see your breath” on a cold day? The air you exhale muscles in the concept of Breathing.
through your nose and mouth is warm, like the inside of your body.
Exhaled air also contains a lot of water vapor because it passes over
moist surfaces from the lungs to the nose or mouth. The water
vapor in your breath cools suddenly when it reaches the much
colder outside air. This causes the water vapor to condense into a
fog of tiny droplets of liquid water. You release water vapor and
other gases from your body through the process of respiration.

Figure 16.2.2 : During breathing, inhaled air enters the body through
the nose and passes through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and
then enters the lungs. Exhaled air travels from the lungs in the opposite
Figure 16.2.1 : Breath on a cold day direction.

WHAT IS RESPIRATION? UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT

Respiration is the life-sustaining process in which gases are All of the organs and other structures of the upper respiratory tract are
exchanged between the body and the outside atmosphere. Specifically, involved in conduction or the movement of air into and out of the body.
oxygen moves from the outside air into the body; and water vapor, Upper respiratory tract organs provide a route for air to move between
carbon dioxide, and other waste gases move from inside the body into the outside atmosphere and the lungs. They also clean, humidity, and
the outside air. Respiration is carried out mainly by the respiratory warm the incoming air. However, no gas exchange occurs in these
system. It is important to note that respiration by the respiratory system organs.
is not the same process as cellular respiration that occurs inside cells, NASAL CAVITY
although the two processes are closely connected. Cellular respiration The nasal cavity is a large, air-filled space in the skull above and
is the metabolic process in which cells obtain energy, usually by behind the nose in the middle of the face. It is a continuation of the two
“burning” glucose in the presence of oxygen. When cellular respiration nostrils. As inhaled air flows through the nasal cavity, it is warmed and
is aerobic, it uses oxygen and releases carbon dioxide as a waste humidified. Hairs in the nose help trap larger foreign particles in the air
product. Respiration by the respiratory system supplies the oxygen before they go deeper into the respiratory tract. In addition to its
needed by cells for aerobic cellular respiration and removes the carbon respiratory functions, the nasal cavity also contains chemoreceptors
dioxide produced by cells during cellular respiration. that are needed for the sense of smell and that contribute importantly to
Respiration by the respiratory system actually involves two subsidiary the sense of taste.
processes. One process is ventilation or breathing. This is the physical
PHARYNX
process of conducting air to and from the lungs. The other process is
The pharynx is a tube-like structure that connects the nasal cavity and
gas exchange. This is the biochemical process in which oxygen
the back of the mouth to other structures lower in the throat, including
diffuses out of the air and into the blood while carbon dioxide and
the larynx. The pharynx has dual functions: both air and food (or other
other waste gases diffuse out of the blood and into the air. All of the
swallowed substances) pass through it, so it is part of both the
organs of the respiratory system are involved in breathing, but only the
respiratory and the digestive systems. Air passes from the nasal cavity
lungs are involved in gas exchange.
through the pharynx to the larynx (as well as in the opposite direction).
RESPIRATORY ORGANS Food passes from the mouth through the pharynx to the esophagus.
The organs of the respiratory system form a continuous system of LARYNX
passages called the respiratory tract, through which air flows into and The larynx connects the pharynx and trachea and helps to conduct air
out of the body. The respiratory tract has two major divisions: the through the respiratory tract. The larynx is also called the voice box
upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. The organs in because it contains the vocal cords, which vibrate when air flows over
each division are shown in Figure 16.2.2. In addition to these organs, them, thereby producing sound. You can see the vocal cords in the
certain muscles of the thorax (the body cavity that fills the chest) are larynx in Figure 16.2.3. Certain muscles in the larynx move the vocal
also involved in respiration by enabling breathing. Most important is a cords apart to allow breathing. Other muscles in the larynx move the
large muscle called the diaphragm, which lies below the lungs and
separates the thorax from the abdomen. Smaller muscles between the

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vocal cords together to allow the production of vocal sounds. The latter The trachea, or windpipe, is the widest passageway in the respiratory
muscles also control the pitch of sounds and help control their volume. tract. It is about 2.5 cm (1 in.) wide and 10-15 cm (4-6 in.) long. It is
formed by rings of cartilage, which make it relatively strong and
resilient. The trachea connects the larynx to the lungs for the passage of
air through the respiratory tract. The trachea branches at the bottom to
form two bronchial tubes.
BRONCHI AND BRONCHIOLES
There are two main bronchial tubes, or bronchi (singular, bronchus),
called the right and left bronchi. The bronchi carry air between the
trachea and lungs. Each bronchus branches into smaller, secondary
bronchi; and secondary bronchi branch into still smaller tertiary
bronchi. The smallest bronchi branch into very small tubules called
bronchioles. The tiniest bronchioles end in alveolar ducts, which
terminate in clusters of minuscule air sacs, called alveoli (singular,
alveolus), in the lungs.
LUNGS

Figure 16.2.3 : The larynx is viewed from the top. opening to the
trachea is closed by epiglottis during swallowing. Cartilage and vocal
cords are also visible.

A very important function of the larynx is protecting the trachea from

aspirated food. When swallowing occurs, the backward motion of the
tongue forces a flap called the epiglottis to close over the entrance to
the larynx. You can see the epiglottis in Figure 16.2.3. This prevents
swallowed material from entering the larynx and moving deeper into
the respiratory tract. If swallowed material does start to enter the
larynx, it irritates the larynx and stimulates a strong cough reflex. This
generally expels the material out of the larynx and into the throat.

LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT

Figure 16.2.5 : The cross-section of lung tissue on the right shows the
alveoli in which gas exchange takes place with the capillary network
that surrounds them. Neuroendocrine cells lining the bronchioles
control their diameter and the flow of air through them. A surfactant is
a liquid that covers the inside of the alveoli and prevents them from
collapsing and sticking together when air empties out of them during
exhalation.

Blood In

Alveoli
CO2 Out O2 In

Figure 16.2.4 : This diagram illustrates the tree-like branching of the

Blood Out
passages of the lower respiratory tract within the lungs.
Figure 16.2.6 : The gaseous exchange between blood and outside air
The trachea and other passages of the lower respiratory tract conduct
inside the lung alveoli.
air between the upper respiratory tract and the lungs. These passages
The lungs are the largest organs of the respiratory tract. They are
form an inverted tree-like shape (Figure 16.2.4), with repeated
suspended within the pleural cavity of the thorax. The lungs are
branching as they move deeper into the lungs. All told, there are an
surrounded by two thin membranes called pleura, which secrete a fluid
astonishing 1,500 miles of airways conducting air through the human
that allows the lungs to move freely within the pleural cavity. This is
respiratory tract! It is only in the lungs, however, that gas exchange
necessary so the lungs can expand and contract during breathing. In
occurs between the air and the bloodstream.
Figure 16.2.5, you can see that each of the two lungs is divided into
TRACHEA sections. These are called lobes, and they are separated from each other

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by connective tissues. The right lung is larger and contains three lobes.
The left lung is smaller and contains only two lobes. The smaller left
lung allows room for the heart, which is just left of the center of the
chest.
Lung tissue consists mainly of alveoli (Figure 16.2.6). These tiny air
sacs are the functional units of the lungs where gas exchange takes
place. The two lungs may contain as many as 700 million alveoli,
providing a huge total surface area for gas exchange to take place. In
fact, alveoli in the two lungs provide as much surface area as half a
tennis court! Each time you breathe in, the alveoli fill with air, making
the lungs expand. Oxygen in the air inside the alveoli is absorbed by
the blood in the mesh-like network of tiny capillaries that surrounds
each alveolus. The blood in these capillaries also releases carbon
dioxide into the air inside the alveoli. Each time you breathe out, air
leaves the alveoli and rushes into the outside atmosphere, carrying
waste gases with it.
The lungs receive blood from two major sources. They receive
deoxygenated blood from the heart. This blood absorbs oxygen in the
lungs and carries it back to the heart to be pumped to cells throughout
the body. The lungs also receive oxygenated blood from the heart that
provides oxygen to the cells of the lungs for cellular respiration.

PROTECTING THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Figure 16.2.7 : The upward sweeping motion of cilia lining the
You may be able to survive for weeks without food and for days respiratory tract helps keep it free from dust, pathogens, and other
without water, but you can survive without oxygen for only a matter of harmful substances.
minutes except under exceptional circumstances. Therefore, protecting Sneezing is a similar involuntary response that occurs when nerves
the respiratory system is vital. That’s why making sure a patient has an lining the nasal passage are irritated. It results in forceful expulsion of
open airway is the first step in treating many medical emergencies. air from the mouth, which sprays millions of tiny droplets of mucus
Fortunately, the respiratory system is well protected by the ribcage of and other debris out of the mouth and into the air, as shown in Figure
the skeletal system. However, the extensive surface area of the 16.2.8. This explains why it is so important to sneeze into a sleeve

respiratory system is directly exposed to the outside world and all its rather than the air to help prevent the transmission of respiratory
potential dangers in inhaled air. Therefore, it should come as no pathogens.
surprise that the respiratory system has a variety of ways to protect
itself from harmful substances such as dust and pathogens in the air.
The main way the respiratory system protects itself is called the
mucociliary escalator. From the nose through the bronchi, the
respiratory tract is covered in the epithelium that contains mucus-
secreting goblet cells. The mucus traps particles and pathogens in the
incoming air. The epithelium of the respiratory tract is also covered
with tiny cell projections called cilia (singular, cilium), as shown in
Figure 16.2.7. The cilia constantly move in a sweeping motion upward
toward the throat, moving the mucus and trapped particles and
pathogens away from the lungs and toward the outside of the body. Figure 16.2.8: Sneezing results in tiny particles from the mouth being
forcefully ejected into the air.
What happens to the material that moves up the mucociliary escalator
to the throat? It is generally removed from the respiratory tract by
clearing the throat or coughing. Coughing is a largely involuntary
HOW THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM WORKS
response of the respiratory system that occurs when nerves lining the
WITH OTHER ORGAN SYSTEMS
airways are irritated. The response causes air to be expelled forcefully The amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood must be
from the trachea, helping to remove mucus and any debris it contains maintained within a limited range for the survival of the organism.
(called phlegm) from the upper respiratory tract to the mouth. The Cells cannot survive for long without oxygen, and if there is too much
phlegm may spit out (expectorated), or it may be swallowed and carbon dioxide in the blood, the blood becomes dangerously acidic (pH
destroyed by stomach acids. is too low). Conversely, if there is too little carbon dioxide in the blood,
the blood becomes too basic (pH is too high). The respiratory system
works hand-in-hand with the nervous and cardiovascular systems to
maintain homeostasis in blood gases and pH.
It is the level of carbon dioxide rather than the level of oxygen that is
most closely monitored to maintain blood gas and pH homeostasis. The
level of carbon dioxide in the blood is detected by cells in the brain,

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which speed up or slow down the rate of breathing through the
autonomic nervous system as needed to bring the carbon dioxide level
within the normal range. Faster breathing lowers the carbon dioxide
level (and raises the oxygen level and pH); slower breathing has the
opposite effects. In this way, the levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen,
as well as pH, are maintained within normal limits.
The respiratory system also works closely with the cardiovascular
system to maintain homeostasis. The respiratory system exchanges
gases between the blood and the outside air, but it needs the
cardiovascular system to carry them to and from body cells. Oxygen is
absorbed by the blood in the lungs and then transported through a vast Figure 16.2.9 : The Heimlich maneuver may be needed to help
force an aspirated object out of the respiratory tract.
network of blood vessels to cells throughout the body where it is
needed for aerobic cellular respiration. The same system absorbs
carbon dioxide from cells and carries it to the respiratory system for REVIEW
removal from the body. 1. What is respiration, as carried out by the respiratory system? Name
the two subsidiary processes it involves.
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY
2. Describe the respiratory tract.
Choking due to a foreign object becoming lodged in the airway
3. Identify the organs of the upper respiratory tract, and state their
results in close to 200,000 deaths each year. For the sake of your
functions.
own human body, as well as those of loved ones, you should be
4. List the organs of the lower respiratory tract. Which organs are
aware of choking risks, signs, and treatments.
involved only in conduction?
Choking is the mechanical obstruction of the flow of air from the 5. Where does gas exchange take place?
atmosphere into the lungs. It prevents breathing and may be partial 6. How does the respiratory system protect itself from potentially
or complete. Partial choking allows some though inadequate harmful substances in the air?
airflow into the lung—prolonged or complete choking results in 7. Explain how the rate of breathing is controlled.
asphyxia, or suffocation, which is potentially fatal. 8. Why does the respiratory system need the cardiovascular system to
Obstruction of the airway typically occurs in the pharynx or help it perform its main function of gas exchange?
trachea. Young children are more prone to choking than are older 9. Place the following organs or structures of the respiratory system in
people, in part because they often put small objects in their mouths order of when they are encountered by air entering the body —
and do not appreciate the risk of choking that they pose. Young from earliest to latest.
children may choke on small toys or parts of toys or on household trachea; nasal cavity; alveoli; bronchioles; larynx; bronchi; pharynx
objects in addition to food. Foods that can adapt their shape to that
10. Which organ is part of both the digestive and respiratory systems?
of the pharynx, such as bananas and marshmallows, are especially
dangerous and may cause choking in adults as well as children. A. Larynx

How can you tell if a loved one is choking? The person cannot B. Trachea
speak or cry out or has great difficulty doing so. Breathing, if C. Pharynx
possible, is labored, producing gasping or wheezing. The person D. Bronchus
may desperately clutch at his or her throat or mouth. If breathing is 11. Describe two ways in which the body prevents food from entering
not soon restored, the person’s face will start to turn blue from lack the lungs.
of oxygen. This will be followed by unconsciousness if oxygen
12. True or False. The lungs receive some oxygenated blood.
deprivation continues beyond a few minutes.
13. True or False. Gas exchange occurs in both the upper and lower
If an infant is choking, turning the baby upside down and slapping
respiratory tracts.
on the back may dislodge the obstructing object. To help an older
person who is choking, first, encourage the person to cough. Give 14. Coughing can expel ___________ from the body.
them a few hardback slaps to help force the lodged object out of the A. mucus
airway. If these steps fail, perform the Heimlich maneuver on the B. food particles
person. You can easily find instructional videos online to learn how
C. phlegm
to do it. If the Heimlich maneuver also fails, call for emergency
medical care immediately. D. All of the above
15. What is the relationship between respiration and cellular
respiration?

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ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Snowboarders breath on a cold day by Alain Wong via Unsplash
License

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2. Conducting Passages by Lord Akryl, Jmarchn, public domain via 7. Ciliated Epithelium by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery
Wikimedia Commons of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
3. Larynx by Alan Hoofring, National Cancer Institute, public domain DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY
via Wikimedia Commons 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
4. Lung Diagram by Patrick J. Lynch; CC BY 2.5 via Wikimedia 8. Sneeze by James Gathany, CDC, public domain via Wikimedia
Commons Commons
5. Lung Structure by National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, public 9. Abdominal Thrusts by Amanda M. Woodhead, public domain via
domain via Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons
6. Alveoli by helix84 licensed CC BY 2.5, via Wikimedia Commons 10. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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16.3: BREATHING
DOING THE ‘FLY inside the lungs than outside the body, so outside air flows into the
The swimmer in this photo is doing the butterfly stroke. This lungs via the respiratory tract.
swimming style requires the swimmer to carefully control his EXHALING
breathing so it is coordinated with his swimming movements.
Exhaling involves the opposite series of events. The diaphragm relaxes,
Breathing is the process of moving air into and out of the lungs,
so it moves upward and decreases the volume of the thorax ( Figure
which are the organs in which gas exchange takes place between
16.3.2. Air pressure inside the lungs increases so it is higher than the
the atmosphere and the body. Breathing is also called ventilation,
air pressure outside the lungs. Exhaling, unlike inhaling, is typically a
and it is one of two parts of the life-sustaining process of
passive process that occurs mainly due to the elasticity of the lungs.
respiration, the other part being gas exchange. Before you can
With the change in air pressure, the lungs contract to their pre-inflated
understand how breathing is controlled, you need to know how
size, forcing out the air they contain in the process. Air flows out of the
breathing occurs.
lungs, similar to the way air rushes out of a balloon when it is released.
If exhalation is forced, internal intercostal and abdominal muscles may
help move the air out of the lungs.

CONTROL OF BREATHING
Breathing is one of the few vital bodily functions that can be controlled
consciously as well as unconsciously. Think about using your breath to
blow up a balloon. You take a long, deep breath, and then you exhale
the air as forcibly as you can into the balloon. Both the inhalation and
exhalation are consciously controlled.

CONSCIOUS CONTROL OF BREATHING

Figure 16.3.1 : Butterfly stroke You can control your breathing by holding your breath, slowing your
breathing, or hyperventilating, which is breathing more quickly and
HOW BREATHING OCCURS shallowly than necessary. You can also exhale or inhale more forcefully
Breathing is a two-step process that includes drawing air into the lungs, or deeply than usual. Conscious control of breathing is common in
or inhaling, and letting the air out of the lungs, or exhaling. Both many activities besides blowing up balloons, including swimming,
processes are illustrated in Figure 16.3.2 . speech training, singing, playing many different musical instruments (
Figure 16.3.3), and doing yoga, to name just a few.

Figure 16.3.2 : Inhalation and exhalation during breathing depend Figure 16.3.3 : Playing the oboe is hard work. Exhaled air must be
mainly on repeated contractions of the diaphragm. forced through a tiny opening between two very small wooden reeds.
There are limits on the conscious control of breathing. For example, it
INHALING is not possible for a healthy person to voluntarily stop breathing
Inhaling is an active process that results mainly from the contraction of indefinitely. Before long, there is an irrepressible urge to breathe. If
a muscle called the diaphragm, shown in Figure 16.3.2. The you were able to stop breathing for a long enough time, you would lose
diaphragm is a large, dome-shaped muscle below the lungs that consciousness. The same thing would happen if you were to
separates the thoracic (chest) and abdominal cavities. When the hyperventilate for too long. Once you lose consciousness so you can no
diaphragm contracts, the thoracic cavity expands and the contents of longer exert conscious control over your breathing, involuntary control
the abdomen are pushed downward. Other muscles, such as external of breathing takes over.
intercostal muscles between the ribs, also contribute to the process of
inhalation, especially when inhalation is forced, as when taking a deep UNCONSCIOUS CONTROL OF BREATHING
breath. These muscles help increase thoracic volume by expanding the Unconscious breathing is controlled by respiratory centers in the
ribs outward. With the chest expanded, there is lower air pressure medulla and pons of the brainstem ( Figure 16.3.4). The respiratory
centers automatically and continuously regulate the rate of breathing

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depending on the body’s needs. These are determined mainly by blood pressure in the lungs during exhalation. This slows the emptying of the
acidity or pH. When you exercise, for example, carbon dioxide levels lungs, giving them more time to extract oxygen from the air.
increase in the blood because of increased cellular respiration by FEATURE: MYTH VS. REALITY
muscle cells. The carbon dioxide reacts with water in the blood to Drowning is defined as respiratory impairment from being in or
produce carbonic acid, making the blood more acidic, so pH falls. The under a liquid. It is further classified according to its outcome into
drop in pH is detected by chemoreceptors in the medulla. Blood levels death, ongoing health problems, or no ongoing health problems
of oxygen and carbon dioxide, in addition to pH, are also detected by (full recovery). In the United States, accidental drowning is the
chemoreceptors in major arteries, which send the “data” to the second leading cause of death (after motor vehicle crashes) in
respiratory centers. The respiratory center responds by sending nerve children aged 12 years and younger. There are some potentially
impulses to the diaphragm, “telling” it to contract more quickly so the dangerous myths about drowning. Knowing what they are might
rate of breathing speeds up. With faster breathing, more carbon dioxide save your life or the life of a loved one, especially a child.
is released into the air from the blood, and blood pH returns to the
Myth: People drown when they aspirate water into their lungs.
normal range.
alt Reality: Generally, in the early stages of drowning, very little water
enters the lungs. A small amount of water entering the trachea
causes a muscular spasm in the larynx that seals the airway and
prevents the passage of water into the lungs. This spasm is likely to
last until unconsciousness occurs.
Myth: You can tell when someone is drowning because they will
shout for help and wave their arms to attract attention.
Reality: The muscular spasm that seals the airway prevents the
passage of air as well as water, so a person who is drowning is
unable to shout or call for help. In addition, instinctive reactions
that occur in the final minute or so before a drowning person sinks
under the water may look similar to calm, safe behavior. The head
is likely to be low in the water, tilted back with the mouth open.
The person may have uncontrolled movements of the arms and
legs, but they are unlikely to be visible above the water.
Myth: It is too late to save a person who is unconscious in the
water.
Reality: An unconscious person rescued with an airway still sealed
from the muscular spasm of the larynx stands a good chance of full
recovery if they start receiving CPR within minutes. Without water
in the lungs, CPR is much more effective. Even if the cardiac arrest
has occurred so the heart is no longer beating, there is still a chance
of recovery. However, the longer the brain goes without oxygen, the
more likely brain cells will die. Brain death is likely after about six
minutes without oxygen, except in exceptional circumstances, such
Figure 16.3.4 : Clusters of cells in the pons and medulla of the brain as young people drowning in very cold water. There are examples
stem are the respiratory centers of the brain that have involuntary of children surviving, apparently without lasting ill effects, for as
control over breathing muscles, such as the diaphragm and external and long as an hour in cold water (see Explore More below for an
internal intercostal. example). Therefore, rescuers retrieving a child from cold water
The opposite events occur when the level of carbon dioxide in the should attempt resuscitation even after a protracted period of
blood becomes too low and blood pH rises. This may occur with immersion.
involuntary hyperventilation, which can happen in panic attacks,
Myth: If someone is drowning, you should start administering CPR
episodes of severe pain, asthma attacks, and many other situations.
immediately, even before you try to get the person out of the water.
When you hyperventilate, you blow off a lot of carbon dioxide, leading
to a drop in blood levels of carbon dioxide. The blood becomes more Reality: Removing a drowning person from the water is the first
basic (alkaline), causing its pH to rise. priority because CPR is ineffective in the water. The goal should be
to bring the person to stable ground as quickly as possible and then
NASAL VS. MOUTH BREATHING to start CPR.
Nasal breathing is breathing through the nose rather than the mouth, Myth: You are unlikely to drown unless you are in water over your
and it is generally considered to be superior to mouth breathing. The head.
hair-lined nasal passages do a better job of filtering particles out of the Reality: Depending on circumstances, people have drowned in as
air before it moves deeper into the respiratory tract. The nasal passages little as 30 mm (about 1 ½ in.) of water. For example, inebriated
are also better at warning and moistening the air, so nasal breathing is people or those under the influence of drugs have been known to
especially advantageous in the winter when the air is cold and dry. In have drowned in puddles. Hundreds of children have drowned in
addition, the smaller diameter of the nasal passages creates greater

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 the water in toilets, bathtubs, basins, showers, pails, and buckets b. The diaphragm relaxes.
(see figure below). c. The thoracic cavity becomes smaller.
d. The air pressure in the lungs is lower than outside the body.
8. Give one example of a situation that would cause blood pH to rise
excessively and explain why this occurs.
9. Blood levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide and pH are detected by:
A. Mechanoreceptors
B. Chemoreceptors
C. Lung receptors
D. Carbon receptors
10. True or False. The diaphragm can contract due to conscious
control.
11. True or False. Hypoventilating is breathing that is fast and shallow.
Figure 16.3.5 : Young children should never be left unattended
around sources of water that pose a risk of drowning, including 12. The process of breathing is also called ____________ .
water in toilets, bathtubs, and buckets.
EXPLORE MORE
REVIEW https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16818#Explore_More
1. Define breathing. ATTRIBUTIONS
2. What is the main difference between the processes of inhaling and
1. Butterfly stroke by Cpl. Jasper Schwartz,public domain via
exhaling?
Wikimedia Commons
3. Give examples of activities in which breathing is consciously
2. Breathing by Zachary Wilson from CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
controlled.
3. Ivan Podyomov by Alexei Zoubov, public domain via Wikimedia
4. Young children sometimes threaten to hold their breath until they
Commons
get something they want. Why is this an idle threat?
4. Respiratory Centers of the Brain by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0,
5. Explain how unconscious breathing is controlled.
via Wikimedia Commons
6. Why is nasal breathing generally considered to be superior to
5. Drowning Situations by U.S. Consumer Product Safety
mouth breathing?
Commission, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
7. For each of the following, indicate whether it occurs during the
6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
process of inhalation (I) or exhalation (E).
3.0
a. The diaphragm moves downward.

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16.4: DISORDERS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
A “MITEY” MONSTER Symptoms tend to be worse at night and early in the morning. They
The scary beast in Figure 16.4.1 is likely to be lurking in your own may also worsen during upper respiratory tract infections, strenuous
home, where it feeds on organic debris, including human skin. exercise, or when the airways are exposed to cold air.
What is it? It’s the common dust mite, a close relative of spiders. There is no cure for asthma at present, but the symptoms of asthma
The dust mite is so small that it is barely visible with the unaided attacks usually can be reversed with the use of inhaled medications
eye, so it’s obviously shown above greatly enlarged. If you think called bronchodilators. These medications soothe the constricted air
you can get rid of dust mites in your home by frequent and passages and help to re-expand them, making breathing easier. The
thorough cleaning, think again. There may be thousands of dust medications usually start to take effect almost immediately. Other
mites in just one gram of dust! Regardless of how clean you keep medications can be taken for long-term control of the disease. These
your house, you can't eliminate dust mites entirely. So why even medications help prevent asthma attacks from occurring.
bother trying? The feces of dust mites contain proteins that are a Corticosteroids are generally considered the most effective treatment
common trigger of asthma attacks. for long-term control. Another way to prevent asthma attacks is by
avoiding triggers whenever possible.

PNEUMONIA

Figure 16.4.1 : Dust mite

ASTHMA

Figure 16.4.2 : During an asthma attack, airways narrow and may

become clogged with mucus, making breathing difficult.
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways in the lungs,
in which the airways periodically become inflamed. As you can see in Figure 16.4.3 : Fluid-filled alveoli characteristic of pneumonia inhibit
Figure 16.4.2, this causes swelling and narrowing of the airways, often normal gas exchange with the blood.
accompanied by excessive mucus production. Symptoms of asthma Another common inflammatory disease of the respiratory tract is
include difficulty breathing, coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, pneumonia. In pneumonia, the inflammation affects primarily the
and chest tightness. Some people with asthma rarely experience alveoli, which are the tiny air sacs of the lungs. Inflammation causes
symptoms, and then usually only in response to certain triggers in the some of the alveoli to become filled with fluid so that gas exchange
environment. Other people may have symptoms almost all of the time. cannot occur. This is illustrated in Figure 16.4.3. Symptoms of
pneumonia typically include coughing, chest pain, difficulty breathing,
Asthma is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic and
and fever.
environmental factors. A person with a family history of asthma is
more likely to develop the disease. Dozens of genes have been found to Pneumonia often develops as a consequence of an upper respiratory
be associated with asthma, many of which are related to the immune tract infection such as the common cold or flu, especially in the very
system. Additional risk factors include obesity and sleep apnea (see the young and the elderly. It is usually caused by bacteria or viruses,
feature My Human Body below). Environmental factors trigger asthma although some cases may be caused by other microorganisms such as
attacks in people who have a genetic predisposition to the disease. fungi. The majority of cases are caused by just a few pathogens, the
Besides dust mite feces, triggers may include other allergens (such as most common being the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae.
pet dander, cockroaches, and mold), certain medications including Pneumonia is more likely to develop in people who have other lung
aspirin, air pollution, and stress, among other possible factors.

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diseases such as asthma, a history of smoking, heart failure, or a cancer increases. The most common symptoms of lung cancer include
weakened immune system. coughing (especially coughing up blood), wheezing, shortness of
Vaccines are available to prevent certain types of bacterial and viral breath, chest pain, and weight loss.
pneumonia, including pneumonia caused by Streptococcus The major cause of primary lung cancer is tobacco smoking, which
pneumoniae. Treatment of pneumonia depends on the cause. For accounts for about 85 percent of cases. Cigarette smoke contains
example, if it is caused by bacteria, antibiotics are generally prescribed. numerous cancer-causing chemicals. Besides smoking, other potential
In cases of severe pneumonia, hospitalization and supplemental oxygen causes of lung cancer include exposure to radon gas, asbestos,
may be required. secondhand smoke, or other air pollutants. When tobacco smoking is
combined with other risk factors such as exposure to radon or asbestos,
CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY the risk of lung cancer is heightened. People who have close biological
DISEASE relatives with lung cancer are also at increased risk of developing the
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a lung disease disease.
characterized by chronic poor airflow. The main symptoms include Most cases of lung cancer cannot be cured. In many people, cancer has
shortness of breath and a cough that produces phlegm. These already spread beyond the original site by the time they have symptoms
symptoms are usually present for a long period of time and typically and seek medical attention. About 10 percent of people with lung
become worse over time. Eventually, walking upstairs and similar cancer do not have symptoms when they are diagnosed, and the
activities become difficult because of shortness of breath. cancers are found when they have a chest X-ray for another problem.
COPD formerly was referred to as chronic bronchitis or emphysema. In part because of its typically late diagnosis, lung cancer is the most
Now, the term chronic bronchitis is used to refer to the symptoms of common cause of cancer-related death in men and the second most
COPD, and the term emphysema is used to refer to the lung changes common cause in women (after breast cancer). Common treatments for
that occur with COPD. Some of these lung changes are shown in lung cancer include surgical removal of the tumor, radiation therapy,
Figure 16.4.4. They include a breakdown of connective tissues that chemotherapy, or some combination of these three types of treatment.
reduces the number and elasticity of alveoli. As a result, the patient can FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY
no longer fully exhale air from the lungs, so the air becomes trapped in Do you — or someone you love — snore? Snoring may be more
the lungs. Gas exchange is hampered and may lead to low oxygen than just an annoyance. It may also be a sign of a potentially
levels and too much carbon dioxide in the blood. dangerous and common disorder known as sleep apnea. Sleep
apnea is characterized by pauses in breathing that occur most often
because of physical blockage to airflow during sleep. When
breathing is paused, carbon dioxide builds up in the bloodstream.
The higher-than-normal level of carbon dioxide in the blood causes
the respiratory centers in the brain to wake the person enough to
start breathing normally. This reduces the carbon dioxide level, and
the person falls back asleep. This occurs repeatedly throughout the
night, causing serious disruption in sleep. Most people with sleep
Figure 16.4.4 : The physiological changes that occur with COPD apnea are unaware that they have the disorder because they don’t
include a breakdown of alveolar walls, reducing the surface area for awake fully enough to remember the repeated awakenings
gas exchange.
throughout the night. Instead, sleep apnea is more commonly
Tobacco smoking is the major cause of COPD, with a number of other recognized by other people who witness the episodes.
factors such as air pollution and genetics playing smaller roles. Of
Figure 16.4.5shows how sleep apnea typically occurs. The muscle
people who are life-long smokers, about half will eventually develop
tone of the body normally relaxes during sleep, allowing the soft
COPD. Exposure to secondhand smoke in nonsmokers also increases
tissues in the throat to collapse and block the airway. The relaxation
the risk of COPD and accounts for about 20 percent of cases. Most
of muscles may be exacerbated by the use of alcohol, tranquilizers,
cases of COPD could have been prevented by never smoking. In
or muscle relaxants. The risk of sleep apnea is greater in people
people who have already been diagnosed with COPD, cessation of
who are overweight, smoke tobacco, or have diabetes. The disorder
smoking can slow down the rate at which COPD worsens. People with
is also more likely to occur in older people and males. Common
COPD may be treated with supplemental oxygen and inhaled
symptoms of sleep apnea include loud snoring, restless sleep, and
bronchodilators. These treatments may reduce the symptoms but there
daytime sleepiness and fatigue. Daytime sleepiness, in turn,
is no cure for COPD except, in very severe cases, lung transplantation
increases the risk of driving and work-related accidents. Continued
(see the Explore More video below).
sleep deprivation may cause moodiness and belligerence. Lack of
adequate oxygen to the body because of sleep apnea may also lead
LUNG CANCER
to other health problems including fatty liver diseases and high
Lung cancer is a malignant tumor characterized by uncontrolled cell
blood pressure. Symptoms of sleep apnea may be present for years
growth in tissues of the lung. The tumor may arise directly from lung
or even decades until (and if) a diagnosis is finally made.
tissue (primary lung cancer) or as a result of metastasis from cancer in
another part of the body (secondary lung cancer). Primary lung cancer
may also metastasize and spread to other parts of the body. Lung
cancer develops following genetic damage to DNA that affects the
normal functions of the cell. As more damage accumulates, the risk of

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 1. What is asthma, and what are its symptoms and causes?
2. Identify common risk factors and triggers of asthma attacks.
3. How can asthma attacks be prevented or controlled?
4. What are the causes and symptoms of pneumonia?
5. How can pneumonia be prevented? How is it treated?
6. Define COPD. How is it related to chronic bronchitis and
emphysema?
7. Relate COPD to tobacco smoking.
8. What is the difference between primary and secondary lung cancer?
9. What is the major cause of primary lung cancer?
Figure 16.4.5 : Sleeping on one’s back may increase the risk of the 10. Discuss lung cancer as a cause of death.
airway becoming temporarily blocked during sleep, resulting in 11. How is lung cancer treated?
sleep apnea.
12. Define sleep apnea.
Treatment of sleep apnea may include avoiding alcohol, quitting 13. What is the difference between how COPD and pneumonia affect
smoking, or losing weight. Elevating the upper body during sleep the alveoli?
or sleeping on one’s side may help prevent airway collapse in many
people with sleep apnea. Another type of treatment is the use of an EXPLORE MORE
oral device during sleep that shifts the lower jaw forward to help https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16820#Explore_More
keep the airway open. The most common treatment for moderate to
severe sleep apnea is the use during sleep of CPAP (continuous ATTRIBUTIONS
positive airway pressure), which keeps the airway open by means 1. Dust mite by FDA, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
of pressurized air. In this treatment, the person typically wears a 2. Asthma attach by United States-National Institute of Health:
plastic facial mask that is connected by a flexible tube to a small National Heart, Lung, Blood Institute, public domain via
bedside CPAP machine. Although CPAP is effective, long-term Wikimedia Commons
compliance is often poor because patients find the mask 3. New Pneumonia cartoon public domain via Wikimedia Commons
uncomfortable or they experience unpleasant side effects such as 4. COPD by National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, public domain
dry mouth and nose. A more extreme form of treatment is surgery via Wikimedia Commons
to remove some of the tissues — such as the tonsils or part of the 5. Obstruction of ventilation by Habib M’henni via Wikimedia
soft palate — that tend to collapse and block the airway in people Commons
with sleep apnea. 6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0
REVIEW

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16.5: SMOKING AND HEALTH
SURE DEATH example, by one year after quitting, the risk of heart disease drops to
The anti-smoking cartoon in Figure 16.5.1 clearly makes the point only half of that of a continuing smoker.
that smoking causes death. The cartoon is not using hyperbole,
because smoking actually is deadly. It causes about six million
deaths each year and is the single greatest cause of preventable
death worldwide. As many as half of all people who smoke tobacco
die from it. As a result of smoking’s deadly effects, the life
expectancy of long-term smokers is significantly less than that of
non-smokers. In fact, long-term smokers can expect their lifespan
to be reduced by as much as 18 years, and they are three times as
likely to die before the age of 70 as non-smokers.

Figure 16.5.2 : Smoking is known to cause many different cancers and

chronic diseases such as stroke, blindness, gum infection, aortic
rupture, heart disease, pneumonia, hardening of the arteries, chronic
lung diseases, reduced fertility, and hip fracture.
Figure 16.5.1 : Have another! Sure death
SMOKING AND CANCER
WHY IS SMOKING DEADLY?
As shown in Figure 16.5.2, tobacco smoking has adverse effects on
just about every bodily system and organ. The detrimental health
effects of smoking depend on the number of years that a person smokes
and how much the person smokes. Contrary to popular belief, all forms
of tobacco smoke — including smoke from cigars and tobacco pipes —
have similar health risks as those of cigarette smoke. Smokeless
tobacco may be less of a danger to the lungs and heart, but it too has
serious health effects. It significantly increases the risk of cancers of
the mouth and throat, among other health problems.
Even non-smokers may not be spared the deadly risks of tobacco
smoke. If you spend time around smokers either at home or on the job,
then you are at risk of the dangers of secondhand smoke. Secondhand
smoke enters the air directly from burning cigarettes (and cigars and
pipes) and indirectly from the lungs of smokers. This smoke may linger
in indoor air for hours and increase the risk of a wide range of adverse
health effects. For example, non-smokers who are exposed to
secondhand smoke may have as much as a 30 percent increase in their Figure 16.5.3 : Cigarette smoking by men in the U.S. began to decline
risk of lung cancer and heart disease. The 2014 U.S. Surgeon General’s in the 1950s, but it wasn’t until the 1970s — roughly 20 years later —
that this was reflected by a concomitant decline in lung cancer deaths
Report concluded that there is no established risk-free level of
in men.
exposure to secondhand smoke.
One of the main health risks of smoking is cancer, particularly cancer
Tobacco contains nicotine, which is a psychoactive drug. Although of the lung. Because of the increased risk of lung cancer with smoking,
nicotine in tobacco smoke does not directly cause cancer or most of the the risk of dying from lung cancer before age 85 is more than 20 times
other health risks of smoking, it is a highly addictive drug. In fact, higher for a male smoker than for a male non-smoker. As the rate of
nicotine is even more addictive than cocaine or heroin. The addictive smoking increases, so does the rate of lung cancer deaths, although the
nature of nicotine explains why it is so difficult for smokers to quit the effects of smoking on lung cancer deaths can take up to 20 years to
habit even when they know the health risks and really want to stop manifest themselves, as shown in Figure 16.5.3.
smoking. The good news is that if someone does stop smoking, his or
Besides lung cancer, several other forms of cancer are also
her risks of smoking-related diseases and death soon start to fall. For
significantly more likely in smokers than non-smokers, including
cancers of the kidney, larynx, mouth, lip, tongue, throat, bladder,

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esophagus, pancreas, and stomach. Unfortunately, many of these In addition to oral cancer, smoking causes other oral problems
cancers have extremely low cure rates. including periodontitis (gum disease). Roughly half of the cases of
When you consider the composition of tobacco smoke, it’s not gum inflammation are attributable to current or former smoking.
surprising that it increases the risk of cancer. Tobacco smoke contains Such inflammation increases the risk of tooth loss, which is also
dozens of chemicals that have been proven to be carcinogens or causes higher in smokers than non-smokers. In addition, smoking stains
of cancer. Many of these chemicals bind to DNA in a smoker’s cells the teeth and causes halitosis (bad breath).
and may either kill the cells or cause mutations. If the mutations inhibit Smoking is a key cause of erectile dysfunction (ED), probably
programmed cell death, the cells can survive to become cancer cells. because it leads to narrowing of arteries in the penis as it does
Some of the most potent carcinogens in tobacco smoke include elsewhere in the body. The incidence of ED is about 85 percent
benzopyrene, acrolein, and nitrosamines. Other carcinogens in tobacco higher in males who smoke than it is in non-smokers.
smoke are radioactive isotopes, including lead-210 and polonium-210. Smoking also has adverse effects on the female reproductive
system, potentially causing infertility, in part because it interferes
RESPIRATORY EFFECTS OF SMOKING with the body’s ability to produce estrogen. Female smokers are
Long-term exposure to the compounds found in cigarette smoke, such about 60 percent more likely to be infertile than non-smokers.
as carbon monoxide and cyanide, is thought to be responsible for much Pregnant women who smoke or are exposed to secondhand smoke
of the lung damage caused by smoking. These chemicals reduce the have a higher risk of miscarriages and low-birth-weight infants.
elasticity of alveoli, leading to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Certain therapeutic drugs, including some antidepressants and
(COPD). COPD is a permanent, incurable, and often fatal reduction in anticonvulsants, are less effective in smokers than in non-smokers.
the capacity of the lungs, reducing the ability of the lungs to fully This occurs because smoking increases levels of liver enzymes that
exhale air. The chronic inflammation that is also present in COPD is break down the drugs.
exacerbated by the tobacco smoke carcinogen acrolein and its Smoking causes an estimated 10 percent of all deaths due to fires
derivatives. COPD is almost completely preventable simply by not worldwide. Smokers are also at greater risk of dying in motor
smoking and by also avoiding secondhand smoke. vehicle crashes and other accidents.
Smoking leads to an increased risk of bone fractures, especially of
CARDIOVASCULAR EFFECTS OF SMOKING the hip. It also leads to slower wound healing after surgery and an
Inhalation of tobacco smoke causes several immediate responses in the increased rate of postoperative complications.
heart and blood vessels. Within one minute of inhalation of smoke, the FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS
heart rate begins to rise, increasing by as much as 30 percent during the The item in Figure 16.5.4 looks like a regular cigarette, but it’s
first 10 minutes of smoking. Carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke binds actually an electronic cigarette or e-cigarette. E-cigarettes are
with hemoglobin in red blood cells, thereby reducing the blood’s ability battery-powered devices that change flavored liquids and nicotine
to carry oxygen. Hemoglobin bound to carbon monoxide forms such a into a vapor that is inhaled by the user. E-cigarettes are often
stable complex that it may result in a permanent loss of red blood cell promoted as being safer than traditional tobacco products and their
function. Several other chemicals in tobacco smoke lead to the use is touted as a good way to quit smoking. They are often not
narrowing and weakening of blood vessels and an increase in banned in smoke-free areas where it is illegal to smoke tobacco
substances that contribute to blood clotting. These changes increase cigarettes.
blood pressure and the chances of a blood clot forming and blocking a
vessel, thereby elevating the risk of heart attack and stroke. A recent
study found that smokers are five times more likely than non-smokers
to have a heart attack before the age of 40.
Smoking has also been shown to have a negative impact on the levels
of blood lipids. Total cholesterol levels tend to be higher in smokers
than non-smokers. Ratios of “good” cholesterol to “bad” cholesterol
tend to be lower in smokers than in non-smokers.

ADDITIONAL ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECTS OF

SMOKING
A wide diversity of additional adverse health effects are attributable to
smoking. Here are just a few of them:
Figure 16.5.4 : e-cigarette
Smokers are at significantly increased risk of developing chronic
kidney disease (in addition to kidney cancer). For example, A study completed in 2015 by researchers at the Harvard School of
smoking hastens the progression of kidney damage in people with Public Health and widely reported in the mass media found that e-
diabetes. cigarettes may in fact be very harmful to the user’s health. E-
People who smoke, especially the elderly, have a greater risk of cigarettes contain nicotine and cancer-causing chemicals such as
influenza and other infectious diseases than non-smokers. Smoking formaldehyde. According to the study, about three-quarters of
more than 20 cigarettes a day has been found to increase the risk of flavored e-cigarettes also contain a chemical named diacetyl that
infectious diseases by as much as four times the risk in non- causes an incurable and potentially fatal disorder of the lungs,
smokers. These effects occur because of damage to both the commonly called “popcorn lung” (bronchiolitis obliterans). In this
respiratory system and the immune system. disorder, the bronchioles compress and narrow due to the formation

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 of scar tissue. This greatly diminishes the breathing capacity of 7. Why does smoking cause cancer?
people with the disorder. Popcorn lung gained its common name in 8. Explain how smoking causes COPD.
2004 when it was diagnosed in workers at popcorn factories. The 9. Identify some of the adverse effects of smoking on the
buttery flavoring used in the factories contained diacetyl. cardiovascular system.
Some manufacturers of e-cigarettes and flavorings advertise that 10. Give three examples of additional adverse health effects that are
their products are now free of diacetyl. However, because e- more likely with smoking.
cigarettes are not currently regulated by the FDA, there is no way 11. Do you think e-cigarettes can be addictive? Explain your reasoning.
of knowing for sure whether the products are actually safe. Equally 12. People who smoke are more likely to get ___________ than people
disturbing is the appeal of flavored e-cigarettes to teens and the who do not smoke.
attempts of producers to specifically market their products to this A. lung cancer
age group. Flavors such as “cotton candy,” “Katy Perry’s cherry,” B. influenza
and “alien blood” are obviously marketed to youth. Not
C. kidney disease
surprisingly, the use of e-cigarettes is on the rise in middle and high
school students, who are more likely to use them than regular D. All of the above
cigarettes. Public health officials fear that e-cigarettes will be a 13. Name three toxic chemicals present in tobacco smoke.
gateway for teens to move on to smoking tobacco cigarettes. Some 14. True or False. Nicotine is more addictive than heroin.
states have recently passed laws prohibiting minors from buying e- 15. True or False. Smoking has many negative effects on the
cigarettes. As more questions are raised about their potential respiratory and cardiovascular systems, but not on other systems of
negative health effects, it is likely that more laws will be passed to the body.
regulate them. Watch the news for updates on this issue.
EXPLORE MORE
REVIEW https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16821#Explore_More
1. What percentage of people who smoke are likely to die from it? Attributions
2. Contrast the life expectancy of long-term smokers and non- 1. Have another by Wellcome Images, CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia
smokers. Commons
3. What factors related to smoking determine how smoking affects a 2. Risks from smoking by CDC, public domain via Wikimedia
smoker’s health? Commons
4. What are the two sources of secondhand cigarette smoke? How 3. Smoking lung cancer correlation by Sakurambo, public domain via
does exposure to secondhand smoke affect non-smokers? Wikimedia Commons
5. Why is it so difficult for smokers to quit the habit? How is their 4. e-cigarette, public domain via pixy.org
health likely to be affected by quitting? 5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
6. List five types of cancer that are significantly more likely in 3.0
smokers than non-smokers.

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16.6: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: BRONCHITIS AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
However, when too much mucus is produced in response to an
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: COUGH THAT infection (as in the case of bronchitis), it can interfere with normal
WON'T QUIT airflow. The body responds by coughing as it tries to rid itself of the
The little child shown in Figure 16.6.1 seems to be enjoying the air pathogen-laden mucus.
coming out of a humidifier. Inhaling the moist air from a humidifier or The treatment for most cases of bronchitis involves thinning and
steamy shower can feel particularly good if you have a respiratory loosening the mucus so that it can be effectively coughed out of the
system infection, such as bronchitis. The moist air helps to loosen and airways. This can be done by drinking plenty of fluids, using
thin mucus in the respiratory system, allowing you to breathe easier. humidifiers or steam, and in some cases, using over-the-counter
medications such as expectorants that are found in some cough
medicines. This is why Dr. Tsosie recommended some of these
treatments to Sacheen and also warned against using cough
suppressants. Cough suppressants work on the nervous system to
suppress the cough reflex. When a patient has a “productive” cough—
i.e. they are coughing up mucus—doctors generally advise them to not
take cough suppressants so that they can cough the mucus out of their
bodies.
When Dr. Tsosie was examining Sacheen, she used a pulse oximeter to
measure the oxygen level in her blood. Why did she do this? As you
Figure 16.6.1 : Enjoying the Humidifier have learned, the bronchial tubes branch into bronchioles, which
ultimately branch into the alveoli of the lungs. The alveoli are where
At the beginning of this chapter, you learned about Sacheen, who
gas exchange occurs between the air and the blood to take in oxygen
developed acute bronchitis after getting a cold. She had a worsening
and remove carbon dioxide and other wastes. By checking Sacheen’s
cough, sore throat due to coughing, and chest congestion. She was also
blood oxygen level, Dr. Tsosie was making sure that her clogged
coughing up thick mucus.
airways were not impacting her level of much-needed oxygen.
Acute bronchitis usually occurs after a cold or flu, usually due to the
Sacheen has acute bronchitis, but you may recall that chronic
same viruses that cause cold or flu. Because bronchitis is not usually
bronchitis was discussed earlier in this chapter as a term that describes
caused by bacteria (although it can be), antibiotics are not an effective
the symptoms of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
treatment in most cases.
COPD is often due to tobacco smoking and causes damage to the walls
of the alveoli, whereas acute bronchitis typically occurs after a cold or
flu and involves inflammation and mucus build-up in the bronchial
tubes. As implied by the difference in their names, chronic bronchitis is
an ongoing, long-term condition, while acute bronchitis is likely to
resolve relatively quickly with proper rest and treatment.
However, Sacheen smokes cigarettes, so she is more likely to develop
chronic respiratory conditions such as COPD. As you have learned,
smoking damages the respiratory system as well as many other systems
of the body. Smoking increases the risk of respiratory infections,
including bronchitis and flu, due to its damaging effects on the
respiratory and immune systems. Dr. Tsosie strongly encouraged
Sacheen to quit smoking, not only so that her acute bronchitis resolves,
but so that she can avoid future infections and other negative health
outcomes associated with smoking, including COPD and lung cancer.
As you have learned in this chapter, the respiratory system is critical to
carry out the gas exchange necessary for life’s functions and to protect
Figure 16.6.2 : Acute Bronchitis the body from pathogens and other potentially harmful substances in
Bronchitis affects the bronchial tubes, which, as you have learned, are the air. But this ability to interface with the outside air has a cost. The
air passages in the lower respiratory tract. The main bronchi branch off respiratory system is prone to infections, as well as damage and other
of the trachea and then branch into smaller bronchi and then negative effects from allergens, mold, air pollution, and cigarette
bronchioles. In bronchitis, the walls of the bronchi become inflamed, smoke. Although exposure to most of these things cannot be avoided,
which makes them narrower. Also, there is excessive production of not smoking is an important step you can take to protect this organ
mucus in the bronchi, which further narrows the pathway through system—as well as many other systems of your body.
which can flow. Figure 16.6.2 shows how bronchitis affects the
bronchial tubes. CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this chapter, you learned about the respiratory system. Specifically,
The function of mucus is to trap pathogens and other potentially
you learned that:
dangerous particles that enter the respiratory system from the air.

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 Respiration is the process in which oxygen moves from the outside throughout the body and also between the blood and the air inside
air into the body and carbon dioxide and other waste gases move the lungs.
from inside the body into the outside air. It involves two subsidiary Gas exchange in the lungs takes place in alveoli. The pulmonary
processes: ventilation and gas exchange. artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs,
The organs of the respiratory system form a continuous system of where it travels through pulmonary capillaries, picking up
passages called the respiratory tract. It has two major divisions: the oxygen, and releasing carbon dioxide. The oxygenated blood
upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. then leaves the lungs through pulmonary veins.
The upper respiratory tract includes the nasal cavity, pharynx, Gas exchange occurs by diffusion across cell membranes. Gas
and larynx. All of these organs are involved in conduction or the molecules naturally move down a concentration gradient from
movement of air into and out of the body. Incoming air is also an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
cleaned, humidified, and warmed as it passes through the upper concentration. This is a passive process that requires no energy.
respiratory tract. The larynx is also called the voice box because Gas exchange by diffusion depends on the large surface area
it contains the vocal cords, which are needed to produce vocal provided by the hundreds of millions of alveoli in the lungs. It
sounds. also depends on a steep concentration gradient for oxygen and
The lower respiratory tract includes the trachea, bronchi and carbon dioxide. This gradient is maintained by continuous blood
bronchioles, and the lungs. The trachea, bronchi, and flow and constant breathing.
bronchioles are involved in conduction. Gas exchange takes Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways in the
place only in the lungs, which are the largest organs of the lungs, in which the airways periodically become inflamed. This
respiratory tract. Lung tissue consists mainly of tiny air sacs causes swelling and narrowing of the airways, often with excessive
called alveoli, which is where gas exchange takes place between mucus production, leading to difficulty breathing and other
the air in the alveoli and the blood in capillaries surrounding symptoms. Asthma is thought to be caused by a combination of
them. genetic and environmental factors. Asthma attacks are triggered by
The respiratory system protects itself from potentially harmful allergens, air pollution, or other factors.
substances in the air by the mucociliary escalator. This includes Pneumonia is a common inflammatory disease of the respiratory
mucus-producing cells, which trap particles and pathogens in the tract in which inflammation affects primarily the alveoli, which
incoming air. It also includes tiny hair-like cilia that continually become filled with fluid that inhibits gas exchange. Most cases of
move to sweep the mucus and trapped debris away from the lungs pneumonia are caused by viral or bacterial infections. Vaccines are
and toward the outside of the body. available to prevent pneumonia; treatment often includes
The level of carbon dioxide in the blood is monitored by cells in the prescription antibiotics.
brain. If the level becomes too high, it triggers a faster rate of Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a lung disease
breathing, which lowers the level to the normal range. The opposite characterized by chronic poor airflow, which causes shortness of
occurs if the level becomes too low. The respiratory system breath and a productive cough. It is caused most often by tobacco
exchanges gases with the outside air, but it needs the cardiovascular smoking, which leads to the breakdown of connective tissues in the
system to carry the gases to and from cells throughout the body. lungs. Alveoli are reduced in number and elasticity, making it
Breathing, or ventilation, is the two-step process of drawing air into impossible to fully exhale air from the lungs. There is no cure for
the lungs (inhaling) and letting the air out of the lungs (exhaling). COPD, but stopping smoking may reduce the rate at which COPD
Inhaling is an active process that results mainly from the worsens.
contraction of a muscle called the diaphragm. Exhaling is typically Lung cancer is a malignant tumor characterized by uncontrolled
a passive process that occurs mainly due to the elasticity of the cell growth in tissues of the lung. It results from accumulated DNA
lungs when the diaphragm relaxes. damage, most often caused by tobacco smoking. Lung cancer is
Breathing is one of the few vital bodily functions that can be typically diagnosed late, so most cases cannot be cured. It may be
controlled consciously as well as unconsciously. Conscious treated with surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation therapy.
control of breathing is common in many activities, including Smoking is the single greatest cause of preventable death
swimming and singing. However, there are limits on the worldwide. It has adverse effects on just about every body system
conscious control of breathing. If you try to hold your breath, and organ. Tobacco smoke affects not only smokers but also non-
for example, you will soon have an irrepressible urge to breathe. smokers who are exposed to secondhand smoke. The nicotine in
Unconscious breathing is controlled by respiratory centers in the tobacco is highly addictive, making it very difficult to quit
medulla and pons of the brainstem. They respond to variations smoking.
in blood pH by either increasing or decreasing the rate of The major health risk of smoking is cancer of the lungs.
breathing as needed to return the pH level to the normal range. Smoking also increases the risk of many other types of cancer.
Nasal breathing is generally considered to be superior to mouth Tobacco smoke contains dozens of chemicals that are known
breathing because it does a better job of filtering, warming, and carcinogens.
moistening incoming air. It also results in slower emptying of Smoking is the primary cause of COPD. Chemicals such as
the lungs, which allows more oxygen to be extracted from the carbon monoxide and cyanide in tobacco smoke reduce the
air. elasticity of alveoli so the lungs can no longer fully exhale air.
Gas exchange is the biological process through which gases are Smoking damages the cardiovascular system and increases the
transferred across cell membranes to either enter or leave the blood. risk of high blood pressure, blood clots, heart attack, and stroke.
Gas exchange takes place continuously between the blood and cells Smoking also has a negative impact on levels of blood lipids.

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 A wide diversity of additional adverse health effects are B. What does this do to the blood pH?
attributable to smoking, such as erectile dysfunction, female C. How does the body respond to this change in blood pH?
infertility, and slow wound healing. 14. From the following list of diseases, choose which one best fits each
description. Each disease is used only once. Diseases: asthma,
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW pneumonia, COPD, lung cancer
1. Describe the relationship between the bronchi, secondary bronchi, A. Alveoli become inflamed and fill with fluid
tertiary bronchi, and bronchioles. B. Can be caused by exposure to inhaled carcinogens
2. What is the uppermost structure in the lower respiratory tract? C. There is a reduction in the number of alveoli
A. Bronchus D. Airways periodically narrow and fill with mucus
B. Lung 15. True or False. Pneumonia can be caused by fungi.
C. Alveolus 16. True or False. The diaphragm contracts during exhalation.
D. Trachea 17. What are three different types of things that can enter the
3. Deoxygenated and oxygenated blood both travel to the lungs. respiratory system and cause illness or injury? Describe the
Describe what happens to each there. negative health effects of each in your answer.
4. True or False. There are radioactive isotopes in cigarette smoke. 18. Where are the respiratory centers of the brain located? What is the
5. True or False. The right and left lungs are identical in structure. main function of the respiratory centers of the brain?
6. Explain the difference between ventilation and gas exchange. 19. Smoking increases the risk of getting influenza, commonly known
7. Which way do oxygen and carbon dioxide flow during a gas as the flu. Explain why this could lead to a greater risk of getting
exchange in the lungs? pneumonia.
A. Why does this happen? 20. If people had a gene that caused them to get asthma, could changes
B. Which way do oxygen and carbon dioxide flow during the gas to their environment (such as more frequent cleaning) help their
exchange between the blood and the body’s cells? asthma? Why or why not?
C. Why does this happen? 21. What does the term bronchodilator refer to?
8. Why does the body require oxygen and give off carbon dioxide as a A. The largest bronchial tube
waste product? B. An area of the brain that increases breathing rate
9. True or False. Conduction refers to the movement of gases across C. A medication that opens constricted airways
cell membranes. D. A medication that clears the nasal cavity
10. True or False. Gas exchange does not require energy. 22. Explain why nasal breathing generally stops particles from entering
11. What do coughing and sneezing have in common? the body at an earlier stage than mouth breathing.
12. What is the name of the escalator that protects the respiratory
system? ATTRIBUTIONS
A. phlegmociliary 1. Enjoying the Humidifier by Eden, Janine and Jim, CC BY 2.0 via
B. mucociliary Flickr.com
C. mucoflagellar 2. Acute Bronchitis by National Heart Lung and Blood
D. surfactociliary Institute, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
13. COPD can lead to too much carbon dioxide in the blood. Answer 3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
the following questions about this. 3.0
A. Why can COPD cause there to be too much carbon dioxide in
the blood?

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
17: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
This chapter provides a detailed description of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. It explains how
they function together to transport substances throughout the body and maintain homeostasis. The
chapter also describes several diseases of the cardiovascular system and lifestyle choices that can
help prevent most of them.

17.1: CASE STUDY: YOUR BODY'S TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

Nineteen-year-old Antônio is on his first plane flight when his seatmate, 60-year-old Ahaya,
begins pacing the aisles and doing leg and foot exercises at regular intervals. Ahaya explains that
he has chronic heart failure, which, although well-managed, puts him at greater risk for certain
complications of flying, like deep vein thrombosis (DVT). In this chapter, you will learn about the
heart, blood vessels, and blood that make up the cardiovascular system, as well as its potential disorders.

17.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

The cardiovascular system, also called the circulatory system, is the organ system that transports materials to and from all the cells of
the body. The materials carried by the cardiovascular system include oxygen from the lungs, nutrients from the digestive system,
hormones from glands of the endocrine system, and waste materials from cells throughout the body. Transport of these and many
other materials is necessary to maintain homeostasis of the body.

17.3: HEART
The heart is a muscular organ behind the sternum (breastbone), slightly to the left of the center of the chest. A normal adult heart is
about the size of a fist. The function of the heart is to pump blood through blood vessels of the cardiovascular system. The continuous
flow of blood through the system is necessary to provide all the cells of the body with oxygen and nutrients and to remove their
metabolic wastes.

17.4: BLOOD VESSELS

Blood vessels are the part of the cardiovascular system that transports blood throughout the human body. There are three major types
of blood vessels. Besides veins, they include arteries and capillaries.

17.5: BLOOD
Blood is a fluid connective tissue that circulates throughout the body through blood vessels of the cardiovascular system. What makes
blood so special that it features in widespread myths? Although blood accounts for less than 10 percent of human body weight, it is
quite literally the elixir of life. As blood travels through the vessels of the cardiovascular system, it delivers vital substances such as
nutrients and oxygen to all of the cells and carries away their metabolic wastes.

17.6: BLOOD TYPES

Blood type (or blood group) is a genetic characteristic associated with the presence or absence of certain molecules, called antigens,
on the surface of red blood cells. These molecules may help maintain the integrity of the cell membrane, act as receptors, or have
other biological functions. A blood group system refers to all of the gene(s), alleles, and possible genotypes and phenotypes that exist
for a particular set of blood type antigens.

17.7: CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE

Cardiovascular disease is a class of diseases that involve the cardiovascular system. They include diseases of the coronary arteries that
supply the heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients; diseases of arteries such as the carotid artery that provide blood flow to the brain;
and diseases of the peripheral arteries that carry blood throughout the body. Worldwide, cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of
death, causing about a third of all deaths each year.

17.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: FLIGHT AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

At the beginning of this chapter, you learned about Antônio and Ahaya, who met while sitting next to each other on a plane. During
the flight, Ahaya got up to take frequent walks and was doing leg exercises to try to avoid the medical condition DVT. DVT occurs
when a blood clot forms in a deep vein, usually in the leg. It can be very dangerous—even deadly.

1 4/25/2021
17.1: CASE STUDY: YOUR BODY'S TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
CASE STUDY: FLIGHT RISK CHAPTER OVERVIEW: CARDIOVASCULAR
Nineteen-year-old Antônio is about to take his first plane flight. SYSTEM
Shortly after he boards the plane and sits down, a man in his late In this chapter, you will learn about the cardiovascular system, which
sixties sits next to him in the aisle seat. About half an hour after the transports substances throughout the body. Specifically, you will learn
plane takes off, the pilot announces that she is turning the seat belt about:
light off and that “it is now safe to move about the cabin.” The major components of the cardiovascular system: the heart,
blood vessels, and blood.
The functions of the cardiovascular system, including transporting
needed substances such as oxygen and nutrients to the cells of the
body and picking up waste products.
How blood is oxygenated through the pulmonary circulation, which
transports blood between the heart and lungs.
How blood is circulated throughout the body through the systemic
circulation.
The components of blood, including plasma, red blood cells, white
Figure 17.1.1 : Airplane aisle
blood cells, and platelets, and their specific functions.
The man in the aisle seat, who has introduced himself to Antônio as
Types of blood vessels, including arteries, veins, and
Ahaya, immediately unbuckles his seat belt and paces up and down
capillaries, and their functions, similarities, and differences.
the aisle a few times before returning to his seat. After about forty-
The structure of the heart, how it pumps blood, and how
five minutes, Ahaya gets up again, walks some more, then sits back
contractions of the heart are controlled.
down and does some foot and leg exercises. After the third time,
What blood pressure is and how it is regulated.
Ahaya gets up and paces the aisles, Antônio asks him whether he is
Blood types: A, B, AB, and O
walking so much to accumulate steps on a pedometer or fitness
Blood disorders, including anemia, HIV, and leukemia.
tracking device. Ahaya laughs and says no, he is trying to do
Cardiovascular diseases including heart attack, stroke, and
something even more important for his health—prevent a blood clot
angina, and the risk factors and precursors, such as high blood
from forming in his legs.
pressure and atherosclerosis, which contribute to them.
Ahaya explains that he has a chronic condition called heart failure.
As you read the chapter, think about the following questions:
Although it sounds scary, his condition is currently well-managed
and he is able to lead a relatively normal lifestyle. However, it does 1. What is heart failure? How do you think it increases the risk of
put him at risk of developing other serious health conditions such as DVT?
deep vein thrombosis (DVT), which is when a blood clot occurs in 2. What is a blood clot? What are the possible health consequences of
the deep veins, usually in the legs. Air travel, or other situations blood clots?
where a person has to sit for a long period of time, increases the 3. Why do you think sitting for long periods of time increases the risk
risk of DVT. Ahaya’s doctor said that he was healthy enough to fly, of DVT and why does walking and exercising the legs help reduce
but that he should walk frequently and do leg exercises to help this risk?
avoid a blood clot.
ATTRIBUTIONS
As you read this chapter, you will learn about the heart, blood
vessels, and blood that make up the cardiovascular system, as well 1. Aisle by David Day, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr.com
as disorders of the cardiovascular system such as heart failure. At 2. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
the end of the chapter, you will learn more about why DVT occurs, 3.0
why Ahaya has to take extra precautions when he flies, and what
can be done to lower the risk of DVT and its potentially deadly
consequences.

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17.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
ANT HILL OR PLUMBING SYSTEM? also contains several valves that allow blood to flow only in the proper
What do you think Figure 17.2.1 shows? Does it show a maze of direction through the heart.
underground passageways in an anthill? A network of
interconnected pipes in a complex plumbing system? The picture
actually shows something that, like ant tunnels and plumbing pipes,
functions as a transportation system. It shows a network of blood
vessels. Blood vessels are part of the cardiovascular system.

Figure 17.2.1 : Blood Vessels

WHAT IS THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM? Figure 17.2.3 : The right side of the heart includes the right atrium and
The cardiovascular system, also called the circulatory system, is the right ventricle. The left side includes the left atrium and left ventricle.
organ system that transports materials to and from all the cells of the The valves between the chambers and the major vessels are also visible
body. The materials carried by the cardiovascular system include Unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle routinely contracts without
oxygen from the lungs, nutrients from the digestive system, hormones stimulation by the nervous system. Specialized cardiac muscle cells
from glands of the endocrine system, and waste materials from cells send out electrical impulses that stimulate the contractions. As a result,
throughout the body. Transport of these and many other materials is the atria and ventricles normally contract with just the right timing to
necessary to maintain homeostasis of the body. The main components keep blood pumping efficiently through the heart.
of the cardiovascular system are the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
Each of these components is shown in Figure 17.2.2 and introduced in BLOOD VESSELS
the text.

Figure 17.2.2 : This simplified drawing of the cardiovascular system

shows its main structures. The heart is shown in the chest in red. Blood
vessels called arteries are also shown in red, and blood vessels called Figure 17.2.4 : This diagram represents the structure and functions of
veins are shown in blue. the different types of blood vessels in the cardiovascular system.
Arteries carry blood from the heart and to capillaries. Veins carry blood
HEART from the capillaries back to the heart.
The heart is a muscular organ in the chest. It consists mainly of cardiac The blood vessels of the cardiovascular system are like a network of
muscle tissue and pumps blood through blood vessels by repeated, interconnected, one-way roads that range from superhighways to back
rhythmic contractions. As shown in Figure 17.2.3, the heart has four alleys. Like a network of roads, the blood vessels have the job of
inner chambers: a right atrium and ventricle and a left atrium and allowing the transport of materials from one place to another. There are
ventricle. On each side of the heart, blood is pumped from the atrium to three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries. They
the ventricle below it and from the ventricle out of the heart. The heart are illustrated in Figure 17.2.4.

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 Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart
(except for the arteries that actually supply blood to the heart
muscle). Most arteries carry oxygen-rich blood, and one of their
main functions is distributing oxygen to tissues throughout the
body. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.
Veins are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most
veins carry deoxygenated blood. The smallest veins are called
venules.
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels. They connect arterioles
and venules. As they pass through tissues, they exchange
substances including oxygen with cells.

TWO CIRCULATIONS
Cells throughout the body need a constant supply of oxygen. They get Figure 17.2.6 : This diagram illustrates clusters of alveoli in the lungs
oxygen from capillaries in the systemic circulation. The systemic where gas exchange takes place with blood in capillaries as it passes
through the pulmonary circulation.
circulation is just one of two interconnected circulations that make up
the human cardiovascular system. The other circulation is the SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
pulmonary system. This is where the blood picks up oxygen to carry to The oxygenated blood that enters the left atrium of the heart in the
cells. It takes blood about 20 seconds to make one complete transit pulmonary circulation then passes into the systemic circulation. This
through both circulations. is the part of the cardiovascular system that transports blood to and
PULMONARY CIRCULATION from all of the tissues of the body to provide oxygen and nutrients and
pick up wastes. It consists of the heart and blood vessels that supply the
The pulmonary circulation involves only the heart and lungs and the
metabolic needs of all the cells in the body, including those of the heart
major blood vessels that connect them. It is illustrated in Figure 17.2.5.
and lungs.
Blood moves through the pulmonary circulation from the heart to the
lungs, and back to the heart again, becoming oxygenated in the
process. Specifically, the right ventricle of the heart pumps
deoxygenated blood into the right and left pulmonary arteries. These
arteries carry the blood to the right and left lungs, respectively.
Oxygenated blood then returns from the right and left lungs through the
two right and two left pulmonary veins. All four pulmonary veins enter
the left atrium of the heart.

Figure 17.2.7 : The systemic circulation includes the aorta (red), which
carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the rest of the body;
and the inferior and superior venae cavae (blue), which return
Figure 17.2.5 : This diagram shows the heart, lungs, and major vessels deoxygenated blood to the heart from the body. The colored arrows in
that make up the pulmonary circulation. The colored arrows indicate the diagram indicate the direction of blood flow, red for oxygenated
the direction of blood flow. Oxygenated blood (in red) flows from the and blue for deoxygenated.
lungs to the left side of the heart. Deoxygenated blood (in blue) flowsAs shown in Figure 17.2.7, in the systemic circulation, the left atrium
from the right side of the heart to the lungs. pumps oxygenated blood to the left ventricle, which pumps the blood
What happens to the blood while it is in the lungs? It passes through directly into the aorta, the body’s largest artery. Major arteries
increasingly smaller arteries and finally through capillary networks branching off the aorta carry the blood to the head and upper
surrounding the alveoli (Figure 17.2.6). This is where gas exchange extremities. The aorta continues down through the abdomen and carries
takes place. The deoxygenated blood in the capillaries picks up oxygen blood to the abdomen and lower extremities. The blood then returns to
from the alveoli and gives up carbon dioxide to the alveoli. As a result, the heart through the network of increasingly larger veins of the
the blood returning to the heart in the pulmonary veins is almost systemic circulation. All of the returning blood eventually collects in
completely saturated with oxygen. the superior vena cava (upper body) and inferior vena cava (lower
body), which empty directly into the right atrium of the heart.

BLOOD
Blood is a fluid connective tissue that circulates throughout the body in
blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. Blood carries oxygen

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and nutrients to all the body’s cells, and it carries carbon dioxide and 10. Which of the following carries blood to the lungs? Choose all that
other wastes away from the cells to be excreted. Blood also transports apply.
many other substances, defends the body against infection, repairs A. Left pulmonary artery
body tissues, and controls the body’s pH, among other functions.
B. Left pulmonary vein
The fluid part of blood is called plasma. It is a yellowish, watery liquid
C. Right pulmonary artery
that contains many dissolved substances and blood cells. Types of
blood cells in plasma include red blood cells, white blood cells, and D. Right pulmonary vein
platelets, all of which are illustrated in Figure 17.2.8 and explained in 11. Put the following structures in order of how blood flows from the
the text. heart out to the body and back again.
capillaries; venules; aorta; veins; arteries
12. Explain why the heart and lungs need blood from the systemic
circulation.
13. Choose one. Blood vessels carrying deoxygenated blood from the
body back to the heart get increasingly (larger/smaller).
14. Blood becomes oxygenated in the lungs through gas exchange into:
A. Arterioles
B. Capillaries
Figure 17.2.8 : The three types of cells in the blood are pictured here: C. Venules
red blood cell (left), platelet (center), and white blood cell (right).
D. Bronchioles
Red blood cells have the main function of carrying oxygen in the
blood. Red blood cells consist mostly of hemoglobin, a protein 15. Which type of blood cell carries oxygen?
containing iron that binds with oxygen.
White blood cells are far fewer in number than red blood cells.
EXPLORE MORE
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They defend the body in various ways. For example, white blood
cells called phagocytes swallow and destroy pathogens, dead cells, ATTRIBUTIONS
and other debris in the blood.
1. Blood Vessels by Jiulin Du from CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
Platelets are cell fragments involved in blood clotting. They stick to
2. Circulatory System by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats),
tears in blood vessels and to each other, forming a plug at the site of
public domain via Wikimedia Commons
injury. They also release chemicals that are needed for clotting to
3. Heart Anatomy by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
occur.
Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY
REVIEW
3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
1. What is the cardiovascular system? What are its main components?
4. Blood Vessels by Rupali Raju from CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
2. Describe the heart and how it functions.
5. Pulmonary circuit by Arcadian public domain via Wikimedia
3. List the three major types of blood vessels and their basic functions.
Commons
4. Compare and contrast the pulmonary and systemic circulations.
6. Pulmonary blood circulation by Holly Fisher, CC BY 3.0 via
5. What is blood? What are its chief constituents?
Wikimedia Commons
6. True or False. The circulatory system brings blood to and from the
7. Systemic Circuit by US Government, public domain via Wikimedia
body, while the cardiovascular system brings blood to and from the
Commons
lungs only.
8. Red White Blood Cells by Electron Microscopy Facility at The
7. True or False. Arteries carry mainly oxygenated blood.
National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick), public
8. Name three different types of substances that are transported by the
domain via Wikimedia Commons
cardiovascular system.
9. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
9. Describe where and how the pulmonary and systemic circulation
3.0
systems meet.

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17.3: HEART
LUB DUB called epicardium and parietal pericardium), between which there is
Lub dub, lub dub, lub dub... That’s how the sound of a beating heart a fluid-filled cavity. The fluid helps to cushion the heart and also
is typically described. In a normal, healthy heart, those are the only lubricates its outer surface.
two sounds that should be audible when listening to the heart
through a stethoscope. If a physician assistant hears something
different from the normal lub dub sounds, it’s a sign of a possible
heart abnormality. What causes the heart to produce the
characteristic lub dub sounds? Read on to find out.

Figure 17.3.1: Listening to a heartbeat

The heart is a muscular organ behind the sternum (breastbone), Figure 17.3.2 : The wall of the heart is made up mainly of the
slightly to the left of the center of the chest. A normal adult heart is myocardium, which consists largely of cardiac muscle.
about the size of a fist. The function of the heart is to pump blood
HEART CHAMBERS
through the blood vessels of the cardiovascular system. The continuous
flow of blood through the system is necessary to provide all the cells of
the body with oxygen and nutrients and to remove their metabolic
wastes.

STRUCTURE OF THE HEART

The heart has a thick muscular wall that consists of several layers of
tissue. Internally, the heart is divided into four chambers through which
blood flows. Blood flows in just one direction through the chambers
due to heart valves.

HEART WALL
As shown in Figure 17.3.2, the wall of the heart is made up of three
layers, called the endocardium, myocardium, and pericardium.
The endocardium is the innermost layer of the heart wall. It is made
up primarily of simple epithelial cells. It covers the heart chambers
and valves. A thin layer of connective tissue joins the endocardium
to the myocardium.
The myocardium is the middle and thickest layer of the heart wall.
It consists of cardiac muscle surrounded by a framework of
collagen. There are two types of cardiac muscle cells in the
myocardium: pacemaker cells, which have the ability to contract Figure 17.3.3 : This cross-sectional diagram of the heart shows its four
easily; and pacemaker cells, which conduct electrical impulses that chambers and four valves. The red arrows indicate the direction of
cause the cardiomyocytes to contract. About 99 percent of cardiac blood flow through the heart chambers.
muscle cells are cardiomyocytes, and the remaining 1 percent are As shown in Figure 17.3.3, the four chambers of the heart include two
pacemaker cells. The myocardium is supplied with blood vessels upper chambers called atria (singular, atrium) and two lower
and nerve fibers via the pericardium. chambers called ventricles. The atria are also referred to as receiving
The epicardium is the third layer which is a part of the pericardium, chambers because blood coming into the heart first enters these two
a protective sac that encloses and protects the heart. The chambers. The right atrium receives blood from the upper and lower
pericardium consists of two membranes (visceral pericardium body through the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava,
respectively; and the left atrium receives blood from the lungs through

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the pulmonary veins. The ventricles are also referred to as discharging pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery carries the blood to the lungs,
chambers because the blood leaving the heart passes out through these where it enters the pulmonary circulation, gives up carbon dioxide, and
two chambers. The right ventricle discharges blood to the lungs picks up oxygen. The oxygenated blood travels back from the lungs
through the pulmonary artery, and the left ventricle discharges blood to through the pulmonary veins (of which there are four) and enters the
the rest of the body through the aorta. The four chambers are separated left atrium of the heart. From the left atrium, the blood is pumped
from each other by dense connective tissue consisting mainly of through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. From the left ventricle,
collagen. the blood is pumped through the aortic valve into the aorta, which
subsequently branches into smaller arteries that carry the blood
HEART VALVES throughout the rest of the body. After passing through capillaries and
Figure 17.3.3 also shows the location of the four valves of the heart. exchanging substances with cells, the blood returns to the right atrium
The heart valves allow blood to flow from the atria to the ventricles via the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava, and the process
and from the ventricles to the pulmonary artery and aorta. The valves begins anew.
are constructed in such a way that blood can flow through them in only
one direction, thus preventing the backflow of blood. The four valves
are the:
1. tricuspid valve, which allows blood to flow from the right atrium to
the right ventricle.
2. the mitral valve, which allows blood to flow from the left atrium to
the left ventricle.
3. pulmonary valve, which allows blood to flow from the right
ventricle to the pulmonary artery.
4. the aortic valve, which allows blood to flow from the left ventricle
to the aorta.
The tricuspid and mitral valves are also called atrioventricular (or AV)
valves because they are found between the atrium and the ventricle.
The pulmonary and aortic valves are also called semilunar valves
because they are shaped like half-moons.
Figure 17.3.4 : The flow chart in this diagram summarizes the pathway
CORONARY CIRCULATION blood takes as it flows into, through, and out of the heart. Trace the
The cardiomyocytes of the muscular walls of the heart are very active path of blood flow in the diagram of the heart as you follow it through
cells because they are responsible for the constant beating of the heart. the flow chart.
These cells need a continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients. The
CARDIAC CYCLE
carbon dioxide and waste products they produce also must be
continuously removed. The blood vessels that carry blood to and from
the heart muscle cells make up the coronary circulation. Note that the
blood vessels of the coronary circulation supply heart tissues with
blood and are different from the blood vessels that carry blood to and
from the chambers of the heart as part of the general circulation.
Coronary arteries supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle cells.
Coronary veins remove deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle
cells.
There are two coronary arteries: a right coronary artery that
supplies the right side of the heart and a left coronary artery that
supplies the left side of the heart. These arteries branch repeatedly
into smaller and smaller arteries and finally into capillaries, which
exchange gases, nutrients, and waste products with cardiomyocytes.
At the back of the heart, small cardiac veins drain into larger veins
Figure 17.3.5 : Diastole is referred to as the filling stage because this is
and finally into the great cardiac vein, which empties into the right when the ventricles fill with blood. Systole is referred to as the
atrium. At the front of the heart, small cardiac veins drain directly pumping stage because this is when the ventricles pump blood out of
into the right atrium. the heart.
The cardiac cycle refers to a single complete heartbeat, which includes
BLOOD CIRCULATION THROUGH THE HEART one iteration of the lub and dub sounds heard through a stethoscope.
Figure 17.3.4 shows how blood circulates through the chambers of the During the cardiac cycle, the atria and ventricles work in a coordinated
heart. The right atrium collects blood from two large veins, the superior fashion so that blood is pumped efficiently through and out of the
vena cava (from the upper body) and the inferior vena cava (from the heart. The cardiac cycle includes two parts, called diastole and systole,
lower body). The blood that collects in the right atrium is pumped which are illustrated in Figure 17.3.5.
through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. From the right During diastole, the atria contract and pump blood into the
ventricle, the blood is pumped through the pulmonary valve into the ventricles, while the ventricles relax and fill with blood from the

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 atria. When a patient’s heart is too diseased or damaged to sustain life, a
During systole, the atria relax and collect blood from the lungs and heart transplant is likely to be the only long-term solution. The first
body, while the ventricles contract and pump blood out of the heart. successful heart transplant was undertaken in South Africa in 1967.
For the past two decades in the United States, about 2,400 hearts
ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE HEART were transplanted each year. The problem is that far too few hearts
are available for transplant, and many patients die each year waiting
for a life-saving heart to become available.
Hearts for transplant have to be used within four hours of the death
of the donor. In addition, hearts can only come from brain-dead
individuals whose hearts are removed while they are still healthy.
Then the hearts are placed on ice inside picnic coolers to be
transported to a waiting recipient. The four-hour window means
that traffic jams, bad weather, or other unforeseen delays often
result in a heart being in less than optimal condition by the time it
arrives at its destination. Unfortunately, there is no way to know if
the heart will start up again after it is transplanted until it is actually
placed in the recipient’s body. In up to seven percent of cases, a
transplanted heart does not work and has to be removed.
A medical device company in Massachusetts named TransMedic
Figure 17.3.6 : In this drawing of the heart, the numbers refer to (1) the
was featured in many news stories when it developed the Organ
sinoatrial node and (2) the atrioventricular node. The blue lines in the
drawing indicate the path of transmission of electrical signals through Care System, commonly referred to as “heart in a box.” The system
the heart. takes a new approach to maintain donated hearts until they are
The normal, rhythmical beating of the heart is called sinus rhythm. It transplanted. The box is heated and contains a device that pumps
is established by the heart’s pacemaker cells, which are located in an oxygenated blood through the heart while it is being transported to
area of the heart called the sinoatrial node (Figure 17.3.6). The the recipient. This extends the time up to 12 hours that the heart can
pacemaker cells create electrical signals by the movement of remain healthy and usable. It also allows the heart to be monitored
electrolytes (sodium, potassium, and calcium ions) into and out of the so it is kept in optimal condition while it is on the route. The end
cells. For each cardiac cycle, an electrical signal rapidly travels first result, ideally, is that the recipient gets a healthier heart with less
from the sinoatrial node to the right and left atria so they contract chance of failure of the new organ and a lower risk of death.
together. Then the signal travels to another node, called the As of mid-2016, the heart-in-a-box system had already been used
atrioventricular node (also shown in Figure 17.3.6), and from there to for several successful heart transplants in other countries. At that
the right and left ventricles, which also contract together, just a split time, the system was also undergoing clinical trials in the United
second after the atria contract. States to assess its effectiveness in promoting positive recipient
The normal sinus rhythm of the heart is influenced by the autonomic outcomes. Developers of the heart-in-a-box predict that the system
nervous system through sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. could increase the number of usable donor hearts by as much as 30
These nerves arise from two paired cardiovascular centers in the percent, thus greatly increasing the number of patients who are
medulla of the brainstem. The parasympathetic nerves act to decrease saved from death due to heart failure.
the heart rate, and the sympathetic nerves act to increase the heart rate.
Parasympathetic input normally predominates. Without it, the REVIEW
pacemaker cells of the heart would generate a resting heart rate of 1. What is the heart, where is located, and what is its function?
about 100 beats per minute, instead of a normal resting heart rate of 2. Outline the structure of the heart.
about 72 beats per minute. The cardiovascular centers receive input 3. Describe the coronary circulation.
from receptors throughout the body and act through the sympathetic 4. Summarize how blood flows into, through, and out of the heart.
nerves to increase the heart rate as needed. For example, increased 5. Define the cardiac cycle, and identify its two parts.
physical activity is detected by receptors in muscles, joints, and 6. Explain what controls the beating of the heart.
tendons. These receptors send nerve impulses to the cardiovascular 7. a. What are the two types of cardiac muscle cells in the
centers, causing sympathetic nerves to increase the heart rate. This myocardium?
allows more blood to flow to the muscles. b. What are the differences between these two types of cells?
Besides the autonomic nervous system, other factors can also affect the
8. Match each of the three layers of the walls of the heart
heart rate. For example, thyroid hormones and adrenal hormones such
(endocardium, myocardium, and pericardium) with the description
as epinephrine can stimulate the heart to beat faster. The heart rate also
that best matches it below.
increases when blood pressure drops or the body is dehydrated or
a. Protects the heart
overheated. On the other hand, cooling of the body and relaxation,
among other factors, can contribute to a decrease in the heart rate. b. Covers the heart valves
c. Responsible for the beating of the heart
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS 9. Is the blood flowing through the mitral valve oxygenated or
deoxygenated? Explain your reasoning.

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10. True or False. The coronary arteries carry blood to the heart. Africa is licensed under CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
11. True or False. Systole is when the heart is contracting, diastole is 2. Heart Wall by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
when the heart is fully relaxed. Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY
12. Explain why the blood from the cardiac veins empties into the right
3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.
atrium of the heart. Focus on function rather than anatomy in your
3. Heart by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
answer.
4. Circulation of Blood Through the Heart by Emibitch, public
EXPLORE MORE domain via Wikimedia Commons
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16825#Explore_More 5. Human healthy pumping heart by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal
(LadyofHats), public domain via Wikimedia Commons
ATTRIBUTIONS 6. Heart conduction system by J. Heuser, CC BY 2.5 via Wikimedia
1. "MEDCAP - Natural Fire 10 - Palabek Kal Health Clinic - US Commons
Army Africa - AFRICOM - 091018-F-8314S-229" by US Army 7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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17.4: BLOOD VESSELS
BULGING VEINS Arteries are defined as blood vessels that carry blood away from the
Why do bodybuilders have such prominent veins? Bulging muscles heart. Blood flows through arteries largely because it is under pressure
push surface veins closer to the skin. Couple that with a virtual lack from the pumping action of the heart. It should be noted that coronary
of subcutaneous fat, and you have bulging veins as well as bulging arteries, which supply heart muscle cells with blood, travel toward the
muscles. Veins are one of three major types of blood vessels in the heart but not as part of the blood flow that travels through the chambers
cardiovascular system. of the heart. Most arteries, including coronary arteries, carry
oxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions, most notably the
pulmonary artery. This artery carries deoxygenated blood from the
heart to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon
dioxide. In virtually all other arteries, the hemoglobin in red blood cells
is highly saturated with oxygen (95-100 percent). These arteries
distribute oxygenated blood to tissues throughout the body.
The largest artery in the body is the aorta, which is connected to the
heart and extends down into the abdomen (Figure 17.4.2). The aorta
has high-pressure, oxygenated blood pumped directly into it from the
Figure 17.4.1 : 2012 Hong Kong Bodybuilding Championship left ventricle of the heart. The aorta has many branches, and the
participant branches subdivide repeatedly, with the subdivisions growing smaller
and smaller in diameter. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.
TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS
Blood vessels are part of the cardiovascular system that transports VEINS
blood throughout the human body. There are three major types of blood Veins are defined as blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart.
vessels: veins, arteries, and capillaries. Blood traveling through veins is not under pressure from the beating
heart. It gets help moving along by the squeezing action of skeletal
muscles, for example, when you walk or breathe. It is also prevented
from flowing backward by valves in the larger veins, as illustrated in
Figure 17.4.3. Veins are called capacitance blood vessels because the
majority (about 60 percent) of the body’s total volume of blood is
contained within veins.

Figure 17.4.3 : The two flaps that make up a venous valve can open in
just one direction, so blood can flow in only one direction through the
vein.
Most veins carry deoxygenated blood, but there are a few exceptions,
including the four pulmonary veins. These veins carry oxygenated
blood from the lungs to the heart, which then pumps the blood to the
rest of the body. In virtually all other veins, hemoglobin is relatively
unsaturated with oxygen (about 75 percent).
The two largest veins in the body are the superior vena cava, which
carries blood from the upper body directly to the right atrium of the
heart, and the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the lower
body directly to the right atrium. The inferior vena cava is labeled in
the figure below. The superior vena cava is not labeled in Figure 17.4.4
but is clearly visible entering the right atrium of the heart. Like arteries,
veins form a complex, branching system of larger and smaller vessels.
Figure 17.4.2 : This figure shows the heart and the major arteries of the The smallest veins are called venules. They receive blood from
cardiovascular system. The pulmonary veins are included in the capillaries and transport it to larger veins. Each venule receives blood
diagram because, like arteries, they carry oxygenated blood.
from multiple capillaries.

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 All blood vessels are basically hollow tubes with an internal space,
called a lumen, through which blood flows. The lumen of an artery is
shown in cross-section in the photomicrograph below. The width of
blood vessels varies, but they all have a lumen. The walls of blood
vessels differ depending on the type of vessel. In general, arteries and
veins are more similar to one another than capillaries in the structure of
their walls.

Figure 17.4.6 : The lumen is the white space in the center of this cross-
sectional slice of an artery. You can see that the walls of the artery have
multiple layers.

WALLS OF ARTERIES AND VEINS

The walls of both arteries and veins have three layers: the tunica
intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia. You can see the three layers
for an artery in Figure 17.4.7.
1. The tunica intima is the inner layer of arteries and veins. It is also
the thinnest layer, consisting of a single layer of endothelial cells
surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissues. It reduces friction
between the blood and the inside of the blood vessel walls.
2. The tunica media is the middle layer of arteries and veins. In
Figure 17.4.4 : This diagram shows the heart and major veins of the arteries, this is the thickest layer. It consists mainly of elastic fibers
cardiovascular system. The pulmonary arteries are included in the and connective tissues. In arteries, this is the thickest layer because
diagram because, like veins, they carry deoxygenated blood.
it also contains smooth muscle tissues, which control the diameter
of the vessels.
CAPILLARIES 3. The tunica externa (also called tunica adventitia) is the outer layer
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in the cardiovascular system. of arteries and veins. It consists of connective tissue and also
They are so small that only one red blood cell at a time can squeeze contains nerves. In veins, this is the thickest layer. In general, the
through a capillary, and then only if the red blood cell deforms. tunica externa protects and strengthens vessels and attaches them to
Capillaries connect arterioles and venules, as shown in Figure 17.4.5. surrounding structures.
Capillaries generally form a branching network of vessels, called a
capillary bed, that provides a large surface area for the exchange of
substances between the blood and surrounding tissues.

Figure 17.4.5 : Capillaries form beds of tiny blood vessels that

exchange substances with the cells of tissues.

STRUCTURE OF BLOOD VESSELS

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 vasodilation (widening of the lumen of blood vessels). This allows the
arteries — especially the arterioles — to contract or relax as needed to
help regulate blood pressure. In this regard, the arterioles act like an
adjustable nozzle on a garden hose. When they narrow, the increased
friction with the arterial walls causes less blood to flow downstream
from the narrowing, resulting in a drop in blood pressure. These actions
are controlled by the autonomic nervous system in response to
pressure-sensitive sensory receptors in the walls of larger arteries.
Arteries can also dilate or constrict to help regulate body temperature
by allowing more or less blood to flow from the warm body core to the
body’s surface. In addition, vasoconstriction and vasodilation play
roles in the fight-or-flight response, under the control of the
sympathetic nervous system. For example, vasodilation allows more
blood to flow to skeletal muscles and vasoconstriction reduces blood
flow to digestive organs.
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY
The lumpy appearance of this man’s leg is caused by varicose
Figure 17.4.7 : The wall of an artery is made of three layers: tunica veins. Do you have varicose veins? If you do, you may wonder
intima, tunica media, and tunica externa. A vein has the same three whether they are a sign of a significant health problem. You may
layers as the artery shown here, but the middle layer (tunica media) of a
vein is thinner and lacks smooth muscle tissue. also wonder whether you should have them treated, and if so, what
treatments are available. As is usually the case, when it comes to
CAPILLARY WALLS your health, “knowledge is power.”
The walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of
epithelial cells. Being just one cell thick, the walls are well suited for
the exchange of substances between the blood inside them and the cells
of surrounding tissues. Substances including water, oxygen, glucose,
and other nutrients as well as waste products such as carbon dioxide
can pass quickly and easily through the extremely thin walls of
capillaries.

BLOOD PRESSURE
The blood in arteries is normally under pressure because of the beating
of the heart. The pressure is highest when the heart contracts and
pumps out blood, and lowest when the heart relaxes and refills with
blood. (You can feel this variation in pressure in your wrist or neck
when you count your pulse.) Blood pressure is a measure of the force
that blood exerts on the walls of arteries. It is generally measured in
millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) and expressed as a double number: a
higher number for systolic pressure when the ventricles contract; and a
lower number for diastolic pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal
blood pressure is generally defined as less than 120 mm Hg
(systolic)/80 mm Hg (diastolic) when measured in the arm at the level
of the heart. It decreases as blood flows farther away from the heart
and into smaller arteries.
As arteries grow smaller, there is increasing resistance to blood flow
through them because of the friction of the blood against the arterial
walls. This resistance restricts blood flow so less blood reaches smaller,
downstream vessels, thus reducing blood pressure before the blood
flows into the tiniest vessels, the capillaries. Without this reduction in
blood pressure, capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure
of the blood without bursting. By the time blood flows through the
veins, it is under very little pressure. The pressure of blood against the
walls of veins is always about the same and normally no more than 10 Figure 17.4.8 : Varicose veins form when a deformed valve allows
blood to pool creating a bulge in the vein.
mm Hg.
First, the “back story:” varicose veins are veins that have become
VASOCONSTRICTION AND VASODILATION enlarged and twisted because their valves have become ineffective
Smooth muscles in the walls of arteries can contract or relax to cause (see Figure 17.4.8). As a consequence, blood pools in the veins and
vasoconstriction (narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels) or stretches them out. Varicose veins occur most frequently in the

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 superficial veins of the legs, but they may also occur in other parts 7. What is blood pressure, and how is it expressed? What blood
of the body. They are most common in older adults, females, and pressure is considered normal?
people who have a family history of the condition. Obesity and 8. Identify the functions of vasoconstriction and vasodilation of
pregnancy also increase the risk of developing varicose veins. A job arteries.
that requires standing for long periods of time, chronic constipation, 9. Does the blood in most veins have any oxygen at all? Explain your
and long-term alcohol consumption are additional risk factors. answer.
Varicose veins usually are not serious. In many people, they are 10. True or False. Only one red blood cell can pass through the lumen
only a cosmetic issue. However, in severe cases, varicose veins of a capillary at a given time.
may cause pain and other problems. For example, the affected 11. True or False. The pulmonary artery carries oxygenated blood.
leg(s) may feel heavy and achy, especially after long periods of 12. Which tissue in blood vessels is responsible for vasodilation and
standing. Ankles may become swollen by the end of the day. Minor vasoconstriction? Where is it located?
injuries may bleed more than normal. The skin over varicosity may 13. The blood pressure at the arterioles is generally _________ the
become red, dry, and itchy. In very severe cases, skin ulcers may blood pressure at the aorta.
develop. A. lower than
If you are concerned about varicose veins, call them to the attention B. higher than
of your doctor, who can determine the best course of action for C. the same as
your case. There are many potential treatments for varicose veins.
D. not related to
Some of the treatments have potential adverse side effects; and with
many of the treatments, varicose veins may return. Which treatment 14. Explain why it is important that the walls of capillaries are very
is best for a given patient depends in part on the severity of the thin.
condition. 15. Most of the blood in the body is in the:
If varicose veins are not serious, then conservative treatment A. Capillaries
options may be recommended. These include avoiding standing B. Arteries
or sitting for long periods, frequently elevating the legs, and C. Heart
wearing graduated compression stockings.
D. Veins
For more serious cases, less conservative but non-surgical
options may be advised. These include sclerotherapy, in which
EXPLORE MORE
medicine is injected into the veins to make them shrink. Another https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16826#Explore_More
non-surgical approach is endovenous thermal ablation. In this
type of treatment, laser light, radio-frequency energy, or steam ATTRIBUTIONS
is used to heat the walls of the veins, causing them to shrink and 1. Fist Pump by istolethetv licensed CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
collapse. Commons
For the most serious cases, surgery may be the best option. The 2. Arterial System by LadyofHats; public domain via Wikimedia
most invasive surgery is vein stripping, in which all or part of Commons
the main trunk of a vein is tied off and removed from the leg 3. Venous valve by Was a bee; Vectorized by ZooFari; Public domain
while the patient is under general anesthesia. In a less invasive via Wikimedia Commons
surgery, called ambulatory phlebectomy, short segments of a 4. Venous system by LadyofHats, Mariana Ruiz Villarreal; Public
vein are removed through tiny incisions under local anesthesia. domain via Wikimedia Commons
5. Capillaries by National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of
REVIEW Health; Public domain via Wikimedia Commons
1. What are the blood vessels? Name the three major types of blood 6. Artery by Lord of Konrad licensed CC0 via Wikimedia Commons
vessels. 7. Structure of artery wall by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical
2. Describe arteries. Identify the largest artery in the body. gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
3. How are veins defined? What are the two largest veins in the body? DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY
4. Compare and contrast how blood moves through arteries and veins. 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
5. What are capillaries, and what is their function? 8. Leg before; public domain via Wikimedia Commons
6. Compare and contrast the structure of the walls of arteries, veins, 9. Varicose Veins by National Heart Lung and Blood Institute; Public
and capillaries. domain via Wikimedia Commons
10. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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17.5: BLOOD
VAMPIRES
From Bram Stoker’s famous novel about Count Dracula to the
campy TV series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, fantasies featuring
vampires, like the one in Figure 17.5.1, have been popular for
decades. In fact, vampires are found in centuries-old myths from
many cultures. In such myths, vampires are generally described as
creatures that drink blood, preferably of the human variety, for
sustenance. Dracula, for example, is based on Eastern European
folklore about a human who attains immortality (and eternal
damnation) by drinking the blood of others.

Figure 17.5.2 : If blood is centrifuged (spun at high speed), it separates

into its major components based on density, as shown here: plasma,
leukocytes (white blood cells) and platelets, and erythrocytes (red
blood cells). Plasma makes up about 55% of the blood. Leukocytes and
platelets make up less than 1%. Erythrocytes make up about 45%.

The average adult body contains between 4.7 and 5.7 liters (5-6 quarts)
Figure 17.5.1 : Dracula of blood. More than half of that amount is fluid. Most of the rest of that
amount consists of cells. The relative amounts of the various
components in the blood are illustrated in Figure 17.5.2. The
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
components are also described in the text.
Blood performs many important functions in the body. Major functions
of blood include: BLOOD PLASMA
supplying tissues with oxygen, which is needed by all cells for Plasma is the liquid component of human blood and makes up about
aerobic cellular respiration. 55 percent of blood by volume. It is about 92 percent water and
supplying cells with nutrients, including glucose, amino acids, and contains many dissolved substances. Most of these substances are
fatty acids. proteins, but plasma also contains trace amounts of glucose, mineral
removing metabolic wastes from cells, including carbon dioxide, ions, hormones, carbon dioxide, and other substances.
urea, and lactic acid.
helping to defend the body from pathogens and other foreign FORMED ELEMENTS
substances. The formed elements in the blood include red blood cells, white blood
forming clots to seal broken blood vessels and stop bleeding. cells, and platelets. These different types of elements are pictured in
transporting hormones and other messenger molecules. Figure 17.5.3 and described in the sections that follow.
regulating the pH of the body, which must be kept within a narrow
range (7.35 to 7.45).
helping to regulate body temperature (through vasoconstriction and
vasodilation).

WHAT IS BLOOD?
Blood is a fluid connective tissue that circulates throughout the body
through blood vessels of the cardiovascular system. What makes blood
so special that it features in widespread myths? Although blood
accounts for less than 10 percent of human body weight, it is quite
literally the elixir of life. As blood travels through the vessels of the
cardiovascular system, it delivers vital substances such as nutrients and
oxygen to all of the cells and carries away their metabolic wastes. It is
no exaggeration to say that without blood, cells could not survive.
Indeed, without the oxygen carried in the blood, cells of the brain start
to die within just a matter of minutes. Figure 17.5.3 : Highly magnified blood cells in this image include
donut-shaped red blood cells, rough-surfaced white blood cells, and
small disc-shaped platelets.

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 especially the protein fibrin. You can see a scanning electron
Red Blood Cells microscope micrograph of a blood clot in Figure 17.5.4.
The most numerous cells in the blood are red blood cells, also called
erythrocytes. One microliter of blood contains between 4.2 and 6.1
million red blood cells, and red blood cells make up about a quarter of
all the cells in the human body. The cytoplasm of a mature red blood
cell is almost completely filled with hemoglobin, the iron-containing
protein that binds with oxygen and gives the cell its red color. Mature
red blood cells lack a cell nucleus and most organelles in order to
provide maximum space for hemoglobin. They are little more than
sacks of hemoglobin.
Red blood cells also carry proteins called antigens that determine blood
type. Blood type is a genetic characteristic. The best known human
blood type systems are the ABO and Rhesus systems. These are Figure 17.5.4 : Red blood cells become trapped in a coagulating clot so
they cannot escape through a break in a blood vessel.
described in the next section.
Coagulation begins almost instantly after an injury to the endothelium
WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBC) of a blood vessel occurs. Platelets become activated and change their
White blood cells are cells in the blood that defend the body against shape from spherical to star-shaped, as shown in Figure 17.5.5. This
invading microorganisms and other threats. There are far fewer white helps them aggregate with one another at the site of injury to start
blood cells (also called leukocytes) than red blood cells in the blood. forming a plug in the vessel wall. Activated platelets also release
There are normally only about 1,000 to 11,000 white blood cells per substances into the blood that activate additional platelets and start a
microliter of blood. Unlike red blood cells, white blood cells have a sequence of reactions leading to fibrin formation. Strands of fibrin
nucleus. White blood cells are part of the body’s immune system. They crisscross the platelet plug and strengthen it, much as rebar strengthens
destroy and remove old or abnormal cells and cellular debris, as well as concrete.
attack pathogens and foreign substances. There are two categories of
WBCs, granulocytes (contain visible granules in the cytoplasm) and
agranulocytes (do not contain granules). The Granulocytes include
neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. The agranulocytes include
lymphocytes and monocytes. The five types differ in their specific
immune functions. The relative percent and functions of WBCs are
summarized in Table17.5.1:
Table17.5.1 : Major Types of White Blood Cells
Type of Percent of All
Main Function(s)
Leukocyte Leukocytes
Phagocytize (engulf and destroy) bacteria and fungi in
e Neutrophil 62
the blood
Attack and kill large parasites; carry out allergic
e Eosinophil 2
responses
e Basophil <1 Release histamines in inflammatory responses
Attack and destroy virus-infected and tumor cells; create Figure 17.5.5 : The shape of platelets after they are activated helps
e Lymphocyte 30 them to stick together and form a plug for a damaged blood vessel.
lasting immunity to specific pathogens
e Monocyte 5 Phagocytize pathogens and debris in tissues
FORMATION AND DEGRADATION OF BLOOD CELLS
PLATELETS Blood is considered to be a connective tissue because blood cells form
Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are actually cell fragments. Like inside bones. All three types of blood cells are made in the red
red blood cells, they lack a nucleus and are more numerous than white marrow of bones in a process called hematopoiesis. The formation of
blood cells. There are about 150,000 to 400,000 platelets per microliter blood cells occurs by the proliferation of stem cells in the marrow.
of blood. These stem cells are self-renewing: when they divide, some of the
daughter cells remain stem cells, so the pool of stem cells is not used
The main function of platelets is blood clotting or coagulation. This is
up. Other daughter cells follow various pathways to differentiate into a
the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a
variety of types of blood cells. Once the cells have differentiated, they
plug in a damaged blood vessel. If blood clotting is successful, it
cannot divide to form copies of themselves.
results in hemostasis, which is the cessation of blood loss from the
damaged vessel. A blood clot consists of both platelets and proteins,
Eventually, blood cells die and must be replaced through the formation BLOOD DISORDERS
of new blood cells from proliferating stem cells. After blood cells die, Many human disorders primarily affect the blood. They include
the dead cells are phagocytized (engulfed and destroyed) by white cancers, genetic disorders, poisoning by toxins, infections, and
blood cells and removed from the circulation. This most often takes nutritional deficiencies.
place in the spleen and liver. Leukemia is a group of cancers of the blood-forming tissues in the
bone marrow. It is the most common type of cancer in children,

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 although most cases occur in adults. Leukemia is generally Donating blood saves lives. In fact, with each blood donation, as
characterized by large numbers of abnormal white blood cells. many as three lives may be saved. The feeling that comes from
Symptoms may include excessive bleeding and bruising, fatigue, knowing you have saved lives is well worth the short amount of
fever, and an increased risk of infections. Leukemia is thought to be time it takes to make a blood donation. Nonetheless, only a
caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. minority of potential donors actually donate blood. There are many
Hemophilia refers to any of several genetic disorders that cause myths about blood donation that contribute to the small percentage
dysfunction in the blood clotting process. People with hemophilia of donors. Knowing the facts may reaffirm your decision to donate
are prone to potentially uncontrollable bleeding even with if you are already a donor. If you aren’t a donor already, getting the
otherwise inconsequential injuries. They also commonly suffer facts may help you decide to become one.
bleeding into the spaces between joints, which can cause crippling. Myth: Your blood might become contaminated with an infection
Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs when inhaled carbon monoxide during the donation.
(for example, in fumes from a faulty home furnace) binds
Reality: There is no risk of contamination because only single-use,
irreversibly to the hemoglobin in red blood cells. As a result,
disposable catheters, tubing, and other equipment are used to
oxygen cannot bind to the red cells for transport throughout the
collect blood for a donation.
body, and this can quickly lead to suffocation. Carbon monoxide is
extremely dangerous because it is colorless and odorless so it Myth: You are too old (or too young) to donate blood.
cannot be detected in the air by human senses. Reality: There is no upper age limit on donating blood as long as
HIV is a virus that infects certain types of white blood cells and you are healthy. The lower age limit is 16 years.
interferes with the body’s ability to defend itself from pathogens Myth: You can’t donate blood if you have high blood pressure.
and other causes of illness. HIV infection may eventually lead to Reality: As long as your blood pressure is below 180/100 at the
AIDS or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. AIDS is time of donation, you can give blood. Even if you take blood
characterized by rare infections and cancers that people with a pressure medication to keep your blood pressure below this level,
healthy immune system almost never acquire. you can donate.
Myth: You can’t give blood if you have high cholesterol.
Reality: Having high cholesterol does not affect your ability to
donate blood. Taking cholesterol-lowering medication also does not
disqualify you.
Myth: You can’t donate blood if you have had a flu shot.
Reality: Having a flu shot has no effect on your ability to donate
blood. You can even donate on the same day that you receive a flu
shot.
Myth: You can’t donate blood if you take medication.
Reality: As long as you are healthy, in most cases taking
medication does not preclude you from donating blood.
Myth: Your blood isn’t needed if it’s a common blood type.
Reality: All types of blood are in constant demand.

REVIEW
1. What is blood? Why is blood considered to be a connective tissue?
2. Identify four physiological roles of blood in the body.
3. Describe plasma and its components.
Figure 17.5.6 : Anemia has wide-ranging effects on the human body 4. Identify red blood cells and their major function.
because oxygen is essential for the normal functioning of cells in every 5. What are white blood cells? Which body system besides the
organ system. The most severe symptoms include fainting, chest pain, cardiovascular system includes white blood cells?
angina, and heart attack.
6. Explain how platelets cause coagulation.
Anemia is a disorder in which the blood has an inadequate volume
7. Summarize the formation and degradation of blood cells.
of red blood cells. This reduces the amount of oxygen that the
8. Identify three disorders of the blood.
blood can carry and may cause weakness and fatigue. These and
9. For each of the descriptions below, choose the blood cell that best
other signs and symptoms of anemia are shown in the figure below.
fits the description.
Anemia has many possible causes, including excessive bleeding,
Blood cells: red blood cells; white blood cells; platelets
inherited disorders such as sickle cell hemoglobin, or nutritional
deficiencies (iron, folate, or B12). Severe anemia may require a. Has a nucleus
transfusions of donated blood. b. Responsible for blood clotting
c. Carbon monoxide binds to a protein in these cells
FEATURE: MYTH VS. REALITY 10. a. What is another name for erythrocytes?
b. What is another name for leukocytes?

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11. True or False. Plasma refers to the cytoplasm within blood cells. 4. Blood clot in scanning electron microscopy by Janice Carr; CDC;
12. True or False. Platelets are cell fragments. public domain via Wikimedia Commons
5. Platelets by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen
EXPLORE MORE Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16827#Explore_More DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.licensed CC BY
3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
ATTRIBUTIONS 6. Symptoms of anemia by Mikael Häggström; Public domain via
1. Dracula by Clifton Chu; public domain via Pixy.org Wikimedia Commons
2. Blood Centrifugation by KnuteKnudsen licensed CC BY 3.0 via 7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-
Wikimedia Commons
3. Formed elements by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY
3.0 via Wikimedia Commons

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17.6: BLOOD TYPES
GIVING THE GIFT OF LIFE is often used to represent how an antibody and antigen fit together, as
Did you ever donate blood as the individual in Figure 17.6.1 is shown in Figure 17.6.2. When antibodies bind to antigens, it marks
doing? If you did, then you probably know that your blood type is them for destruction by other immune system cells. Nonself antigens
an important factor in blood transfusions. People vary in the type of may enter your body on pathogens such as bacteria or viruses, on
blood they inherit, and this determines which type(s) of blood they foods, or on red blood cells in a blood transfusion from someone with a
can safely receive in a transfusion. Do you know your blood type? different blood type than your own. The last way is virtually
impossible nowadays because of effective blood typing and screening
protocols.

GENETICS OF BLOOD TYPE

An individual’s blood type depends on which alleles for a blood group
system were inherited from their parents. Generally, blood type is
controlled by alleles for a single gene or for two or more very closely
linked genes. Closely linked genes are almost always inherited together
because there is little or no recombination between them. Like other
genetic traits, a person’s blood type is generally fixed for life, but there
are rare instances in which blood type can change. This could happen,
for example, if an individual receives a bone marrow transplant to treat
a disease such as leukemia. If the bone marrow comes from a donor
who has a different blood type, the patient’s blood type may eventually
Figure 17.6.1 : Donating Blood convert to the donor’s blood type because red blood cells are produced
in the bone marrow.
WHAT ARE BLOOD TYPES?
ABO BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM
Blood type (or blood group) is a genetic characteristic associated with
the presence or absence of certain molecules, called antigens, on the
surface of red blood cells. These molecules may help maintain the
integrity of the cell membrane, act as receptors, or have other
biological functions. A blood group system refers to all of the gene(s),
alleles, and possible genotypes and phenotypes that exist for a
particular set of blood type antigens. Human blood group systems
include the well-known ABO and Rhesus (Rh) systems, as well as at
least 33 others that are less well known.

ANTIGENS AND ANTIBODIES

Figure 17.6.3 : ABO antigen molecules

The ABO blood group system is the best known human blood group
system. Antigens in this system are glycoproteins. These antigen
compounds are shown in Figure 17.6.3. There are four common blood
types for the ABO system:
Figure 17.6.2 : Model of antigen and matching antibody
1. Type A, in which only the A antigen is present
Antigens such as those on the red blood cells are molecules that the 2. Type B, in which only the B antigen is present
immune system identifies as either self (produced by your own body) 3. Type AB, in which both the A and B antigens are present
or non-self (not produced by your own body). Blood group antigens 4. Type O, in which neither the A nor the B antigen is present
may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins (proteins attached to
chains of sugars), or glycolipids (lipids attached to chains of sugars), GENETICS OF THE ABO SYSTEM
depending on the particular blood group system. If antigens are The ABO blood group system is controlled by a single gene on
identified as nonself, the immune system responds by forming chromosome 9. There are three common alleles for the gene, often
antibodies that are specific to the non-self antigens. Antibodies are represented by the letters IA (or A), IB (or B), and i (or O). With three
large, Y-shaped proteins produced by the immune system that alleles, there are six possible genotypes for the ABO blood group.
recognize and bind to non-self antigens. The analogy of a lock and key However, alleles IA and IB are both dominant to allele i and

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codominant to each other. This results in just four possible phenotypes originate from an immune response to an antigen on the influenza
(blood types) for the ABO system. These genotypes and phenotypes virus, and anti-B antibodies are thought to originate from an immune
are shown in Table 17.6.1. response to an antigen found on bacteria such as E. coli. Once the
Table 17.6.1: ABO Blood Group System antibodies have been produced, they circulate in the plasma. The
relationship between ABO red blood cell antigens and plasma
Genotype Phenotype (Blood Type, or Group)
antibodies is shown in Table 17.6.2.
I
A
i A
I
A
I
A
A Table 17.6.2 : The antibodies that circulate in the plasma are for different
antigens than those on red blood cells, which are recognized as self-antigens.
I
A
I
B
AB
Blood group A B AB O
I
B
i B
Blood group Antibodies in plasma Anti-B Anti-A None Anti-A and Anti-B
I
B
I
B
B
Blood group Antigens on the red blood A B A and B
ii O None
cell antigen antigen antigen

The diagram in Figure 17.6.4 shows an example of how ABO blood

Which blood types are compatible and which are not? Type O blood
type is inherited. In this particular example, the father has blood type A
contains both anti-A and anti-B antibodies, so people with type O
(genotype AO) and the mother has blood type B (genotype BO). This
blood can only receive type O blood. However, they can donate blood
mating type can produce children with each of the four possible ABO
to people of any ABO blood type. That’s why individuals with type O
phenotypes, although in any given family not all phenotypes may be
blood are called universal donors. Type AB blood contains neither
present in the children.
anti-A nor anti-B antibodies, so people with type AB blood can receive
blood from people of any ABO blood type. That’s why individuals
with type AB blood are called universal recipients. However, they can
donate blood only to people who also have type AB blood. These and
other relationships between blood types of donors and recipients are
summarized in Figure 17.6.5.

Figure 17.6.5 : You can always donate blood to someone who has the
same blood type as yours, but you may or may not be able to donate to
people who have other blood types, as indicated in this diagram.

Figure 17.6.4 : Example of ABO blood group inheritance. A male who ABO blood type antigens are found not only on red blood cells but also
is type A (genotype of AO) and a female who is type B (genotype BO) on platelets, in other body fluids such as tears and urine, and on cells of
can have children with blood types: A, AB, B, and O. other types of tissues. Blood type compatibility is important to consider
for successful organ transplantation. If a transplanted organ has nonself
MEDICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ABO BLOOD TYPE
antigens for ABO, it may be attacked by antibodies and rejected by the
The ABO system is the most important blood group system in blood body.
transfusions. If red blood cells containing a particular ABO antigen are
transfused into a person who lacks that antigen, the person’s immune RHESUS BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM
system will recognize the antigen on the red blood cells as non-self.
Another well-known blood group system is the Rhesus (Rh) blood
Antibodies specific to that antigen will attack the red blood cells,
group system. The Rhesus system has dozens of different antigens but
causing them to agglutinate, or clump and break apart. If a unit of
only five main antigens (named D, C, c, E, and e). The major Rhesus
incompatible blood were to be accidentally transfused into a patient, a
antigen is the D antigen. People with the D antigen are called Rh-
severe reaction (called acute hemolytic transfusion reaction) is likely to
positive (Rh+), and people who lack the D antigen are called Rh
occur in which many red blood cells are destroyed. This may result in
negative (Rh-). Rhesus antigens are thought to play a role in
kidney failure, shock, and even death. Fortunately, such medical
transporting ions across cell membranes by acting as channel proteins.
accidents virtually never occur today.
The Rhesus blood group system is controlled by two linked genes on
ABO antibodies are likely to already be present in a recipient’s blood
chromosome 1. One gene, called RHD, produces a single antigen,
for antigens that the person lacks. These antibodies are produced in the
antigen D. The other gene, called RHCE, produces the other four
first years of life by sensitization to similar antigens commonly
relatively common Rhesus antigens (C, c, E, and e), depending on
occurring in the environment. Anti-A antibodies are thought to
which alleles for this gene are inherited.

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RHESUS BLOOD GROUP AND TRANSFUSIONS potential mate’s blood type should be taken into account to ensure
After the ABO system, the Rhesus system is the second most important the compatibility of your personality.
blood group system in blood transfusions. The D antigen is the one Reality: The belief that blood type is correlated with personality is
most likely to provoke an immune response in people who lack the widely held in Japan and other East Asian countries (the Japanese
antigen. People who have the D antigen (Rh+) can be safely transfused booth pictured below offers fortunes based on blood type). The idea
with either Rh+ or Rh- blood, whereas people who lack the D antigen was originally introduced in the 1920s in a study commissioned by
(Rh-) can be safely transfused only with Rh- blood. the Japanese government but later shown to have no scientific
Unlike anti-A and anti-B antibodies to ABO antigens, anti-D support. The idea was revived in the 1970s by a Japanese
antibodies for the Rhesus system are not usually produced by broadcaster who wrote popular books about it. There is no scientific
sensitization to environmental substances. However, people who lack basis for the idea, and it is generally dismissed as pseudoscience by
the D antigen (Rh-) may produce anti-D antibodies if exposed to Rh+ the scientific community. Nonetheless, it remains popular in East
blood. This may happen accidentally in a blood transfusion, although Asian countries, like astrology in many other countries.
this is extremely unlikely today. It may also happen during pregnancy
with an Rh+ fetus if some of the fetal blood cells pass into the mother’s REVIEW
blood circulation. 1. Define blood type and blood group system.
2. Explain the relationship between antigens and antibodies.
HEMOLYTIC DISEASE OF THE NEWBORN
3. Identify the alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes in the ABO blood
If a woman who is Rh- is carrying an Rh+ fetus, the fetus may be at group system.
risk. This is especially likely if the mother has formed anti-D 4. Discuss the medical significance of the ABO blood group system.
antibodies during a prior pregnancy because of a mixing of maternal 5. Give examples of how different ABO blood types vary in their
and fetal blood during childbirth. Unlike antibodies against ABO susceptibility to diseases.
antigens, antibodies against the Rhesus D antigen can cross the 6. Describe the Rhesus blood group system.
placenta and enter the blood of the fetus. This may cause hemolytic 7. Relate Rhesus blood groups to blood transfusions.
disease of the newborn (HDN), also called erythroblastosis fetalis, an 8. What causes hemolytic disease of the newborn?
illness in which fetal red blood cells are destroyed by maternal 9. A woman is blood type O and Rh- and her husband is blood type
antibodies, causing anemia. This illness may range from mild to severe. AB and Rh+. Answer the following questions about this couple and
If it is severe, it may cause brain damage and is sometimes fatal for the their offspring.
fetus or newborn. Fortunately, HDN can be prevented by preventing
a. What are the possible genotypes of their offspring in terms of
the formation of anti-D antibodies in the Rh- mother. This is achieved
ABO blood group?
through an injection into the mother of a medication called Rho(D)
immune globulin. b. What are the possible phenotypes of their offspring in terms of
ABO blood group?
FEATURE: MYTH VS. REALITY
Myth: Your nutritional needs can be determined by your ABO c. Can the woman donate blood to her husband? Explain your
blood type. Knowing your blood type allows you to choose the answer.
appropriate foods that will help you lose weight, increase your d. Can the man donate blood to his wife? Explain your answer.
energy, and live a longer, healthier life. 10. True or False. The D antigen is part of the ABO blood group
Reality: This idea was proposed in 1996 in a New York Times system.
bestseller Eat Right for Your Type, by Peter D’Adamo, a naturopath. 11. Explain why hemolytic disease of the newborn may be more likely
Naturopathy is a method of treating disorders that involve the use to occur in a second pregnancy than in a first.
of herbs, sunlight, fresh air, and other natural substances. Some
medical doctors consider naturopathy a pseudoscience. A major EXPLORE MORE
scientific review of the blood type diet could find no evidence to https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16828#Explore_More
support it. In one study, adults eating the diet designed for blood
type A showed improved health, but this occurred in everyone ATTRIBUTIONS
regardless of their blood type. Because the blood type diet is based 1. Offutt blood drive by Charles Haymond; public domain via
solely on blood type, it fails to account for other factors that might Wikimedia Commons
require dietary adjustments or restrictions. For example, people 2. Antibody by Fvasconcellos; public domain via Wikimedia
with diabetes but different blood types would follow different diets, Commons
and one or both of the diets might conflict with standard diabetes 3. ABO blood group diagram by InvictaHOG; public domain via
dietary recommendations and be dangerous. Wikimedia Commons
4. ABO system codominance by NIH; public domain via Wikimedia
Myth: ABO blood type is associated with certain personality traits.
Commons
For example, people with blood type A are patient and responsible
5. Blood compatibility by InvictaHOG; public domain via Wikimedia
but may also be stubborn and tense, whereas people with blood
Commons
type B are energetic and creative but may also be irresponsible and
6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
unforgiving. In selecting a spouse, both your own and your
3.0

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17.7: CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
HEART ATTACK ON A PLATE 17.7.1 . Hypertension usually does not cause symptoms, so more than
Eating this greasy cheeseburger smothered in bacon may not half of the people with high blood pressure are unaware of their
literally cause a heart attack. However, regularly eating high-fat, condition. Hypertension is typically diagnosed when blood pressure is
low-fiber foods such as this may increase the risk of a heart attack routinely measured during a medical visit for some other health
or other type of cardiovascular disease. In fact, unhealthy lifestyle problem.
choices such as this may account for as many as 90 percent of cases Table 17.7.1 : Classification of Blood Pressure (in Adults)
of cardiovascular disease. Category Systolic (mm Hg) Diastolic (mm Hg)
Normal blood pressure 90-119 60-79
Prehypertension 120-139 80-89
Hypertension 140 or higher 90 or higher

High blood pressure is classified as either primary or secondary high

blood pressure. At least 90% of cases are primary high blood pressure,
which is caused by some combination of genetic and lifestyle factors.
Numerous genes have been identified as having small effects on blood
Figure 17.7.1 : Bacon Cheeseburger
pressure. Lifestyle factors that increase the risk of high blood pressure
include excess dietary salt and alcohol consumption in addition to the
WHAT IS CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE? risk factors for cardiovascular disease stated above. Secondary high
Cardiovascular disease is a class of diseases that involve the blood pressure, which makes up the remaining 10% of cases of
cardiovascular system. They include diseases of the coronary arteries hypertension, is attributable to chronic kidney disease or an endocrine
that supply the heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients; diseases of disorder such as Cushing’s disease.
arteries such as the carotid artery that provide blood flow to the brain;
Treating hypertension is important for reducing the risk of all types of
and diseases of the peripheral arteries that carry blood throughout the
cardiovascular disease, especially stroke. These and other
body. Worldwide, cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death,
complications of persistent high blood pressure are shown in Figure
causing about a third of all deaths each year.
17.7.2. Lifestyle changes, such as reducing salt intake and adopting a

Most cases of the cardiovascular disease occur in people over the age healthier diet may be all that is needed to lower blood pressure to the
of 60, with disease onset typically being about a decade earlier in males normal range. In many cases, however, medications are also required.
than females. The LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender)
community belongs to almost every race, ethnicity, religion, age, and
socioeconomic group. The LGBT youth are at a higher risk
for cardiovascular diseases, obesity, anxiety, and depression as
compared to the general population. LGBT youth receive poor quality
of care due to stigma, lack of healthcare providers’ awareness, and
insensitivity to the unique needs of this community. Young LGBT
individuals find it difficult to report their sexual identity to their
clinicians. Some clinicians are not well trained in addressing the
concerns of members of this community.
You can’t control your age or sex, but you can control other factors that
increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. Not smoking, maintaining a
healthy weight, eating a healthy diet, taking medications as needed to
control diabetes and cholesterol, and getting regular exercise are all
ways to prevent cardiovascular disease or keep it from progressing. It
should be noted that high blood lipid levels are definitely risk factors
for cardiovascular disease. High levels of cholesterol in the diet do not
appear to lead directly to high levels of cholesterol in the blood. Figure 17.7.2 : If high blood pressure is not brought under control, it
can eventually cause hypertensive retinopathy, myocardial infarction,
Clearly, cardiovascular disease is multifactorial in terms of its causes. heart failure, nephropathy, stokes, confusion, headache, convulsion,
and elevated sugar levels.
PRECURSORS OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
There are two very common conditions that are precursors to virtually ATHEROSCLEROSIS
all cases of cardiovascular disease: hypertension (hypertension) and Atherosclerosis is a condition in which artery walls thicken and stiffen
atherosclerosis (hardening of blood wall). Both conditions affect the as a result of the buildup of plaques inside the arteries. Plaques consist
arteries and their ability to maintain normal blood flow. of white blood cells, cholesterol, and other fats. Typically, there is also
a proliferation of smooth muscle cells that make the plaque fibrous as
HYPERTENSION well as fatty. Over time, the plaques may harden with the addition of
Hypertension is a chronic medical condition in which the blood calcium crystals. This reduces the elasticity of the artery walls. As
pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated, as defined in Table plaques increase in size, the artery walls dilate to compensate so blood

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flow is not affected. Eventually, however, the lumen of the arteries is ANGINA
likely to become so narrowed by plaque buildup that blood flow is Angina is chest pain or pressure that occurs when heart muscle cells do
reduced or even blocked entirely. Figure 17.7.3 illustrates the not receive adequate blood flow and become starved of oxygen (a
formation of a plaque in a coronary artery. condition called ischemia). It is illustrated in Figure 17.7.4. There may
also be a pain in the back, neck, shoulders, or jaw; and in some cases,
the pain may be accompanied by shortness of breath, sweating, or
nausea. The main goals of the treatment of angina are relieving the
symptoms and slowing the progression of underlying atherosclerosis.

Figure 17.7.3 : Plaque accumulation in a coronary artery may reduce

blood flow to cardiac muscle cells.
In most people, plaques start to form in arteries during childhood and
progress throughout life. Individuals may develop just a few plaques or
dozens of them. Plaques typically remain asymptomatic for decades.
Signs and symptoms appear only after there is severe narrowing Figure 17.7.4 : Angina is a pain in the chest due to reduced blood flow
(stenosis) or complete blockage of arteries. As plaques increase in size in coronary arteries so the heart muscle does not receive adequate
oxygen.
and interfere with blood flow, they commonly lead to the formation of
blood clots. These may plug arteries at the site of the plaque or travel Angina may be classified as either stable angina or unstable angina:
elsewhere in the circulation. Sometimes plaques rupture or become Stable angina is angina in which pain is precipitated by exertion
detached from an arterial wall and become lodged in a smaller, (say, from brisk walking or running) and improves quickly with rest
downstream artery. Blockage of arteries by plaques or clots may cause or the administration of nitroglycerin, which dilates coronary
a heart attack, stroke, or other potentially life-threatening arteries and improves blood flow. Stable angina may develop into
cardiovascular events. If blood flow to the kidneys is affected, it may unstable angina.
lead to chronic kidney disease. Unstable angina is angina in which pain occurs during rest, lasts
The process in which plaques form is not yet fully understood, but it is more than 15 minutes, and is of new onset. This type of angina is
thought that it begins when low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) more dangerous and may be a sign of an imminent heart attack. It
accumulate inside endothelial cells in artery walls, causing requires urgent medical attention.
inflammation. The inflammation attracts white blood cells that start to MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION
form a plaque. Continued inflammation and a cascade of other immune
A myocardial infarction (MI), commonly known as a heart attack,
responses cause the plaque to keep growing. Risk factors for the
occurs when blood flow stops to a part of the heart causing damage to
development of atherosclerosis include hypertension, high cholesterol
the heart muscle and the death of myocardial cells. An MI usually
(especially LDL cholesterol), diabetes, and smoking. The chance of
occurs because of complete blockage of a coronary artery, often due to
developing atherosclerosis also increases with age, male sex, and a
a blood clot or the rupture of a plaque (Figure 17.7.5). An MI typically
family history of cardiovascular disease.
causes chest pain and pressure, among other possible symptoms, but at
Treatment of atherosclerosis often includes both lifestyle changes and least one-quarter of MIs do not cause any symptoms.
medications to lower cholesterol, control blood pressure, and reduce
In the worst case, an MI may cause sudden death. Even if the patient
the risk of blood clot formation. In extreme cases or when other
survives, an MI often causes permanent damage to the heart. This puts
treatments are inadequate, surgery may be recommended. Surgery may
the heart at risk of heart arrhythmias, heart failure, and cardiac arrest.
involve the placement of stents in arteries to keep them open and
improve blood flow or the use of grafts to divert blood flow around Heart arrhythmias are abnormal heart rhythms, which are
blocked arteries. potentially life-threatening. Heart arrhythmias often can be
interrupted with a cardiac defibrillator, which delivers an electrical
CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE shock to the heart, in effect “rebooting” it.
Coronary artery diseases are a group of diseases that result from Heart failure occurs when the pumping action of the heart is
atherosclerosis of coronary arteries. Treatment of the diseases mainly impaired so tissues do not get adequate oxygen. This is a chronic
involves treating underlying atherosclerosis. Two of the most common condition that tends to get worse over time, although it can be
coronary artery diseases are angina and myocardial infarction. managed with medications.

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 Cardiac arrest occurs when the heart no longer pumps blood or The main risk factor for stroke is high blood pressure. Therefore,
pumps blood so poorly that vital organs can no longer function. keeping blood pressure within the normal range, whether with lifestyle
This is a medical emergency requiring immediate intervention. changes or medications, is the best way to reduce the risk of stroke.
Another possible cause of stroke is the use of illicit drugs such as
amphetamines or cocaine. Having had a stroke in the past greatly
increases one’s risk of future strokes. Men are also more likely than
women to have strokes.

Figure 17.7.5 : A myocardial infarction occurs when cardiac muscle

cells die due to blockage of a coronary artery.

OTHER CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES

Hypertension and atherosclerosis often cause other cardiovascular
diseases. These commonly include stroke and peripheral artery disease.
Figure 17.7.6 : In an ischemic stroke, brain cells die due to a blocked
STROKE artery in the brain. The blockage happens when a blood clot breaks
A stroke, also known as a cerebrovascular accident or brain attack, from a buildup in the carotid artery and blocks blood flow to part of the
occurs when blocked or broken arteries in the brain result in the death brain. As a result, the brain tissue dies. The traveling clot is called
of brain cells. There are two main types of stroke: ischemic stroke and embolus.
hemorrhagic stroke. Ischemic storke is illustrated in Figure 17.7.6. PERIPHERAL ARTERY DISEASE
1. An ischemic stroke occurs when an embolus (blood clot) breaks off Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is the narrowing of the arteries other
from a plaque or forms in the heart because of arrhythmia and than those that supply the heart or brain due to atherosclerosis. Figure
travels to the brain where it becomes lodged in an artery. This 17.7.7 shows how the PAD occurs. PAD most commonly affects the

blocks blood flow to the part of the brain that is served by arteries legs, but other arteries may also be involved. The classic symptom is
downstream from the blockage. Lack of oxygen causes the death of leg pain when walking, which usually resolves with rest. This symptom
brain cells. Treatment with a clot-busting drug within a few hours is known as intermittent claudication. Other symptoms may include
of the stroke may prevent permanent damage. Almost 90 percent of skin ulcers, bluish skin, cold skin, or poor nail and hair growth in the
strokes are ischemic strokes. affected leg(s). However, up to half of all cases of PAD do not have
2. A hemorrhagic stroke occurs when an artery in the brain ruptures any symptoms.
and causes bleeding in the brain. This deprives downstream tissues
of adequate blood flow and also puts pressure on brain tissue. Both
factors can lead to the death of brain cells. Surgery to temporarily
open the cranium may be required to relieve the pressure. Only
about 10 percent of strokes are hemorrhagic strokes, but they are
more likely to be fatal than ischemic strokes.
In both types of stroke, the part of the brain that is damaged loses is the
ability to function normally. Signs and symptoms of stroke may include
an inability to move, feel, or see on one side of the body; problems
understanding speech or difficulty speaking; memory problems;
confusion; and dizziness. Hemorrhagic strokes may also cause a severe
headache. The symptoms of a stroke usually occur within seconds or
minutes of the brain injury. Depending on the severity of the stroke and
how quickly treatment is provided, the symptoms may be temporary or
permanent. If the symptoms of a stroke go away on their own in less
than an hour or two, the stroke is called a transient ischemic attack.
Stroke is the leading cause of disability in the United States, but
rehabilitation with physical, occupational, speech, or other types of
therapy may significantly improve functioning.

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 Figure 17.7.8 : This personal blood pressure monitor is worn on the
wrist.

REVIEW
1. What is cardiovascular disease? How much mortality do
cardiovascular diseases cause?
2. List risk factors for cardiovascular disease.
3. What is hypertension?
4. Define atherosclerosis.
Figure 17.7.7 : Peripheral artery disease (PAD) develops when plaque
accumulates in the wall of the leg artery. PAD typically causes pain and 5. What is coronary artery disease?
other symptoms because of decreased blood flow in the leg or other 6. Identify two specific coronary artery diseases.
areas of the body served by peripheral arteries. 7. Explain how a stroke occurs and how it affects the patient.
The main risk factor for PAD is smoking. Other risk factors include 8. Describe the cause of peripheral artery disease.
diabetes, high blood pressure, and high blood cholesterol. The 9. What are two cardiovascular diseases that can be caused by
underlying mechanism is usually atherosclerosis. PAD is typically atherosclerosis? Explain specifically how atherosclerosis
diagnosed when blood pressure readings taken at the ankle are lower contributes to each of them.
than blood pressure readings taken at the upper arm. It is important to 10. True or False. A heart attack is the same thing as cardiac arrest.
diagnose PAD and treat underlying atherosclerosis because people with 11. True or False. Plaques in arteries can cause blood clots.
this disorder have a four to five times higher risk of myocardial 12. What are the similarities between angina and ischemic stroke?
infarction or stroke. Surgery to expand the affected arteries or to graft 13. How can kidney disease be caused by problems in the
vessels in order to bypass blockages may be recommended in some cardiovascular system?
cases. 14. In peripheral artery disease, the blood pressure at the ankle is
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY typically ________ the blood pressure at the upper arm.
You read in this concept about the many dangers of hypertension. A. erratic compared to B. the same as
Do you know whether you have hypertension? The only way to C. higher than D. lower than
know for sure is to have your blood pressure measured. Measuring
15. Name three components of the plaque that can build up in arteries.
blood pressure is quick and painless, but several measurements are
needed to accurately diagnose hypertension. Some people have EXPLORE MORE
what is called “white coat disease.” Their blood pressure rises just https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17137#Explore_More
because they are being examined by a physician (in a white coat).
Blood pressure also fluctuates from time to time due to factors such ATTRIBUTIONS
as hydration, stress, and time of day. Repeatedly measuring and 1. Bacon Cheeseburger by Like_the_Grand_Canyon licensed CC-BY
recording your own blood pressure at home can provide your 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
doctor with valuable diagnostic data. Digital blood pressure 2. Main complications of persistent high blood pressure Häggström,
monitors for home use, like the one pictured in Figure 17.7.8, are Mikael (2014). "Medical gallery of Mikael Häggström 2014".
relatively inexpensive, easy to use, and available at most WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.008. ISSN
pharmacies. 2002-4436. Public Domain. via Wikimedia Commons
3. Coronary heart disease-atherosclerosis by NIH: National Heart,
Lung and Blood Institute. Public Domain.
4. Angina by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen
Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY
3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.
5. Heart Attack by NIH: National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute;
public domain via Wikimedia Commons.
6. Stroke Ischemic by National Heart Lung and Blood Insitute (NIH);
Public domain via Wikimedia Commons

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7. Peripheral Arterial Disease by National Heart Lung and Blood 10. Some text is adapted from Health Care Disparities Among Lesbian,
Institute; public domain via Wikimedia Commons Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Youth: A Literature
8. Wrist style blood pressure monitor by Weeksgo licensed Review; Hudaisa Hafeez, Muhammad Zeshan, Muhammad A
https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.enCC0 Tahir, Nusrat Jahan, and Sadiq Naveed; Cureus. 2017 Apr; 9(4):
via Wikimedia commons. e1184. Published online 2017 Apr 20. doi: 10.7759/cureus.1184;
9. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC CC By 4.0.
3.0

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17.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: FLIGHT AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: FLIGHT RISK
At the beginning of this chapter, you learned about Antônio and
Ahaya, who met while sitting next to each other on a plane. During
the flight, Ahaya got up to take frequent walks and was doing leg
exercises to try to avoid the medical condition depicted in Figure
17.8.1—deep vein thrombosis (DVT). DVT occurs when a blood

clot forms in a deep vein, usually in the leg. It can be very

dangerous—even deadly.

Figure 17.8.2 : Illustration of how a moving blood clot can get stuck
in a blood vessel. When this occurs in a pulmonary artery, it is
called a pulmonary embolism (PE).
Ahaya has a higher risk of DVT and its consequences because he
has heart failure. As you have learned, heart failure is a chronic
condition in which the pumping action of the heart is impaired. One
reason that heart failure is thought to increase the risk of DVT is
that the blood is not being pushed strongly enough through the
cardiovascular system, allowing blood clots to form more easily.
Ahaya needs to be particularly concerned about DVT while on a
long plane flight. Why do you think this is? Think about how blood
Figure 17.8.1 : Illustration of a blood clot in a deep vein in the leg, flows through arteries and veins. Blood is pushed through arteries
which is called deep vein thrombosis (DVT). mainly due to the pumping action of the heart. Veins, on the other
As you learned in this chapter, a blood clot is an aggregation of hand, rely on the movement of the surrounding skeletal muscles to
platelets and proteins. Blood clots are helpful to prevent blood loss help push blood through them. Sitting still for long periods of time
when a blood vessel is damaged. But in some situations, they can in cramped quarters, such as on a plane, can cause blood to pool in
be extremely dangerous. For example, blood clots can cause heart the deep veins of the legs. This can lead to the formation of a blood
attacks or strokes by blocking the flow of blood to the heart or clot.
brain, respectively.
When DVT occurs, one of the major risks is pulmonary embolism CHAPTER SUMMARY
(PE). PE is when the blood clot breaks off, travels through the In this chapter, you learned about the structure, functions, and disorders
blood vessels, and lodges in a pulmonary artery, like the blood clot of the cardiovascular system. Specifically, you learned that:
shown in Figure 17.8.2. Recall what the pulmonary arteries
The cardiovascular system is the organ system that transports
do: they carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs,
materials to and from all the cells of the body. The main
where the blood picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide due
components of the cardiovascular system are the heart, blood
to gas exchange between the capillaries and the alveoli of the lungs.
vessels, and blood.
Imagine what would happen if this flow of blood to the lungs was
The cardiovascular system has two interconnected circulations. The
partially or completely blocked by a blood clot. Depending on the
pulmonary circulation carries blood between the heart and lungs,
size of the blood clot and where it is lodged, a PE can cause a
where blood is oxygenated. The systemic circulation carries blood
variety of serious consequences ranging from lung damage to
between the heart and the rest of the body, where it delivers oxygen.
instant death, because of the disruption of the pulmonary
The heart is a muscular organ in the chest that consists mainly of
circulation.
cardiac muscle and pumps blood through blood vessels by repeated,
rhythmic contractions.
The wall of the heart consists of three layers. The middle layer,
the myocardium, is the thickest layer and consists mainly of
cardiac muscle.
The interior of the heart consists of four chambers, with an
upper atrium and lower ventricle on each side of the heart.
Blood enters the heart through the atria, which pump it to the

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 ventricles. Then the ventricles pump blood out of the heart. Four temperature or to change blood flow as part of the fight-or-flight
valves in the heart keep blood flowing in the correct direction response.
and prevent backflow. Blood is a fluid connective tissue that circulates throughout the
Deoxygenated blood flows into the right atrium through veins body in blood vessels. Blood supplies tissues with oxygen and
from the upper and lower body (superior and inferior vena cava, nutrients and removes their metabolic wastes. Blood helps defend
respectively), and oxygenated blood flows into the left atrium the body from pathogens and other threats, transports hormones and
through four pulmonary veins from the lungs. Each atrium other substances, and helps to keep the body’s pH and temperature
pumps the blood to the ventricle below it. From the right in homeostasis. Blood consists of a liquid part, called plasma, and
ventricle, deoxygenated blood is pumped to the lungs through cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
the two pulmonary arteries. From the left ventricle, oxygenated
Plasma makes up more than half of blood by volume. It consists
blood is pumped to the rest of the body through the aorta.
of water and many dissolved substances. Blood also contains
The coronary circulation consists of blood vessels that carry
blood cells and platelets.
blood to and from the heart muscle cells. There are two
Red blood cells are the most numerous cells in the blood and
coronary arteries that supply the two sides of the heart with
consist mostly of hemoglobin, which carries oxygen. Red blood
oxygenated blood. Cardiac veins drain deoxygenated blood back
cells also carry antigens that determine blood types. White
into the heart.
blood cells are less numerous than red blood cells and are part
The cardiac cycle refers to a single complete heartbeat. It
of the body’s immune system. They protect the body from
includes diastole when the atria contract; and systole when the
abnormal cells, microorganisms, and other harmful substances.
ventricles contract.
There are several different types of white blood cells that differ
The normal, rhythmic beating of the heart is called sinus
in their specific immune functions.
rhythm. It is established by the heart’s pacemaker cells in the
Platelets are cell fragments that play important roles in blood
sinoatrial node. Electrical signals from the pacemaker cells
clotting or coagulation. They stick together at breaks in blood
travel to the atria and cause them to contract. Then the signals
vessels to form a clot and stimulate the production of fibrin,
travel to the atrioventricular node and from there to the
which strengthens the clot.
ventricles, causing them to contract. Electrical stimulation from
All blood cells form by the proliferation of stem cells in red
the autonomic nervous system and hormones from the endocrine
bone marrow in a process called hematopoiesis. When blood
system can also influence heartbeat.
cells die, they are phagocytized by white blood cells and
Blood vessels carry blood throughout the body. Major types of removed from circulation.
blood vessels are arteries, veins, and capillaries. Disorders of the blood include leukemia, which is a cancer of
Arteries are blood vessels that usually carry blood away from the bone-forming cells; hemophilia, which is any of several
the heart (except for coronary arteries that supply the heart genetic blood-clotting disorders; carbon monoxide poisoning,
muscle with blood). Most arteries carry oxygenated blood. The which prevents red blood cells from binding with oxygen and
largest artery is the aorta, which is connected to the heart and causes suffocation; HIV infection, which destroys certain white
extends into the abdomen. Blood moves through arteries due to blood cells and can cause AIDS; and anemia, in which there are
pressure from the beating of the heart. not enough red blood cells to carry adequate oxygen to body
Veins are blood vessels that usually carry blood toward the tissues.
heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood. The largest veins Blood type (or blood group) is a genetic characteristic associated
are the superior and inferior venae cavae. Blood moves through with the presence or absence of antigens on the surface of red blood
veins by the squeezing action of surrounding skeletal muscles. cells. A blood group system refers to all of the gene(s), alleles, and
Valves in veins prevent the backflow of blood. possible genotypes and phenotypes that exist for a particular set of
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels. They connect blood type antigens.
arterioles and venules. They form capillary beds where Cardiovascular disease is a class of diseases that involve the
substances are exchanged between the blood and surrounding cardiovascular system. Worldwide, it is the leading cause of
tissues. death. Most cases occur in people over age 60, and onset is
The walls of arteries and veins have three layers. The middle typically about a decade earlier in males than females. Other
layer is thickest in arteries, in which it contains smooth muscle risk factors include smoking, obesity, diabetes, high blood
tissue that controls the diameter of the vessels. The outer layer is cholesterol, and lack of exercise.
thickest in veins and consists mainly of connective tissue. The Antigens are molecules that the immune system identifies as
walls of capillaries consist of little more than a single layer of either self or nonself. If antigens are identified as nonself, the
epithelial cells. immune system responds by forming antibodies that are specific
Blood pressure is a measure of the force that blood exerts on the to the nonself antigens, leading to the destruction of cells
walls of arteries. It is expressed as a double number, with the bearing the antigens.
higher number representing systolic pressure when the The ABO blood group system is a system of red blood cell
ventricles contract and the lower number representing diastolic antigens controlled by a single gene with three common alleles
pressure when the ventricles relax. Normal blood pressure is on chromosome 9. There are four possible ABO blood types: A,
generally defined as a pressure of 120/80 mm Hg or less. B, AB, and O. The ABO system is the most important blood
Vasoconstriction (narrowing) and vasodilation (widening) of group system in blood transfusions. People with type O blood
arteries can occur to help regulate blood pressure or body

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 are universal donors, and people with type AB blood are C. Right atrium and right ventricle
universal recipients. D. Left atrium and left ventricle
The Rhesus blood group system is a system of red blood cell 6. What are two different places in the cardiovascular system where
antigens controlled by two genes with many alleles on valves are located?
chromosome 1. There are five common Rhesus antigens, of 7. Valves prevent blood from flowing backward in the cardiovascular
which antigen D is most significant. Individuals who have system. Why do you think this is important?
antigen D are called Rh+, and individuals who lack antigen D 8. Explain how pacemaker cells in the heart work together with the
are called Rh-. Rh- mothers of Rh+ fetuses may produce nervous system to regulate the beating of the heart.
antibodies against the D antigen in the fetal blood, causing 9. True or False. Red marrow is the source of white blood cells.
hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN). 10. True or False. Plaques that build up in arteries are made completely
Two common conditions that lead to most cases of cardiovascular of fats.
disease are hypertension and atherosclerosis. Hypertension is blood 11. The aorta is:
pressure that is persistently at or above 140/90 mm Hg. A. An artery
Atherosclerosis is a buildup of fatty, fibrous plaques in arteries that B. A chamber of the heart
may reduce or block blood flow. Treating these conditions is C. A vein
important for preventing cardiovascular disease. D. A valve
Coronary artery disease is a group of diseases that result from 12. Compare the coronary arteries, pulmonary arteries, and arteries
atherosclerosis of coronary arteries. Two of the most common elsewhere in the body in terms of their target tissues (i.e. where
are angina and myocardial infarction (heart attack). In angina, they bring blood to) and whether they are carrying oxygenated or
cardiac cells receive inadequate oxygen, which causes chest deoxygenated blood.
pain. In a heart attack, cardiac cells die because blood flow to 13. The superior vena cava empties into which structure of the heart?
part of the heart is blocked. A heart attack may cause death or The inferior vena cava empties into which structure of the heart?
lead to heart arrhythmias, heart failure, or cardiac arrest. A. right atrium; left atrium
A stroke occurs when blocked or broken arteries in the brain B. right atrium; right atrium
result in the death of brain cells. This may occur when an artery C. right atrium; right ventricle
is blocked by a clot or plaque or when an artery ruptures and D. right ventricle; left ventricle
bleeds in the brain. In both cases, part of the brain is damaged
14. Venules receive blood from what?
and functions such as speech and controlled movements may be
15. Define blood type and blood group system. Explain the relationship
impaired, either temporarily or permanently.
between antigens and antibodies.
Peripheral artery disease occurs when atherosclerosis narrows
16. Identify the alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes in the ABO blood
peripheral arteries, usually in the legs, often causing pain when
group system.
walking. It is important to diagnose this disease so underlying
17. Discuss the medical significance of the ABO blood group system.
atherosclerosis can be treated before it causes a heart attack or
18. Give examples of how different ABO blood types vary in their
stroke.
susceptibility to diseases.
In this chapter, you learned that the cardiovascular system carries 19. Describe the Rhesus blood group system.
nutrients to the cells of the body. Read the next chapter about the 20. Relate Rhesus blood groups to blood transfusions.
Digestive System to learn about how your body transforms your meals 21. What causes hemolytic disease of the newborn?
into the nutrients that cells need to function. 22. A woman is blood type O and Rh- and her husband is blood type
AB and Rh+. Answer the following questions about this couple and
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW QUESTIONS their offspring.
1. Alex goes to the doctor and learns that his blood pressure is 135/90 A. What are the possible genotypes of their offspring in terms of
mm Hg. Answer the following questions about his blood pressure. ABO blood group?
A. Is this normal blood pressure? Why or why not? B. What are the possible phenotypes of their offspring in terms of
B. Which number refers to the systolic pressure and which number ABO blood group?
refers to the diastolic pressure? C. Can the woman donate blood to her husband? Explain your
C. Describe what the atria and ventricles of Alex’s heart are doing answer.
when the pressure is at 135 mm Hg. D. Can the man donate blood to his wife? Explain your answer.
D. Alex’s doctor would like him to lower his blood pressure. Why 23. True or False. The D antigen is part of the ABO blood group
do you think he would like Alex to do this and what are some system.
ways in which he may be able to lower his blood pressure? 24. Explain why hemolytic disease of the newborn may be more likely
2. What are the three functions of the cardiovascular system? to occur in a second pregnancy than in a first.
3. What is the watery part of the blood called? 25. Anemia causes weakness and fatigue due to a reduction in the
4. Which are the chambers of the heart that receive blood? Which are amount of oxygen that gets to the cells of the body. Explain how
the chambers of the heart that pump blood out of the heart? oxygen is transported to the cells of the body and which blood cells
5. Which chambers of the heart contain deoxygenated blood? are affected in anemia.
A. Right and left atria 26. What are the two conditions that are precursors to virtually all cases
B. Right and left ventricles of cardiovascular disease?

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27. What is another name for a heart attack? A. Blood flow to the muscle cells of the heart is impaired.
A. Heart arrhythmia B. Blood pressure is too high.
B. Myocardial infarction C. Arteries in the legs specifically become more narrow.
C. Angina D. Plaque builds up in arteries (in general).
D. Heart failure
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artery.
29. True or False. After an injury to a blood vessel, platelets respond ATTRIBUTIONS
by losing their nuclei. 1. Deep vein thrombosis by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical
30. What are the main differences between coronary circulation, gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
pulmonary circulation, and systemic circulation? DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. CC BY 3.0 via
31. Define the term sinus rhythm. Wikimedia Commons.
32. Which is generally a more serious and immediately life-threatening 2. Blood clot by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
condition: heart failure or cardiac arrest? Explain your answer. Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
33. Match each of the following descriptions to the disease or disorder DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.CC BY 3.0 via
from the list below that best matches it. Use each disease or Wikimedia Commons.
disorder only once. Diseases and disorders: hypertension; 3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
atherosclerosis; coronary artery disease; peripheral artery disease 3.0

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
18: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
This chapter outlines the structure and function of the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs of
digestion. It explains the processes of peristalsis, mechanical and chemical digestion of food, and
absorption of nutrients. The chapter also describes several disorders of the gastrointestinal tract.

18.1: CASE STUDY: FOOD PROCESSING

Rania can't eat gluten, because she has celiac disease. For her and others with the disease, eating
even very small amounts of gluten causes an autoimmune reaction that results in damage to the
small, finger-like villi lining the small intestine, causing them to become inflamed and flattened.
As you read this chapter and learn about how the digestive system works, you will see just how
important the villi of the small intestine are to the body as a whole. At the end of the chapter, you
will lear

18.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system consists of organs that break down food, absorb its nutrients, and expel any remaining waste. Organs of the
digestive system are shown in the following figure. Most of these organs make up the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Food actually passes
through these organs. The rest of the organs of the digestive system are called accessory organs. These organs secrete enzymes and
other substances into the GI tract, but food does not actually pass through them.

18.3: DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

Digestion of food is a form of catabolism, in which the food is broken down into small molecules that the body can absorb and use for
energy, growth, and repair. Digestion occurs when food is moved through the digestive system. It begins in the mouth and ends in the
small intestine. The final products of digestion are absorbed from the digestive tract, primarily in the small intestine. There are two
different types of digestion that occur in the digestive system: mechanical digestion and chemica

18.4: UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

Besides the esophagus, organs of the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract include the mouth, pharynx, and stomach. These hollow organs
are all connected to form a tube through which food passes during digestion. The only role in digestion played by the pharynx and
esophagus is to move food through the GI tract. The mouth and stomach, in contrast, are organs where digestion, or the breakdown of
food, also occurs. In both of these organs, food is broken into smaller pieces and broken down chemically.

18.5: LOWER GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

Most of the bacteria that normally live in the lower gastrointestinal (GI) tract live in the large intestine. They have important and
mutually beneficial relationships with the human organism. We provide them with a great place to live, and they provide us with
many benefits, some of which you can read about below. Besides the large intestine and its complement of helpful bacteria, the lower
GI tract also includes the small intestine. The latter is arguably the most important organ of the digest

18.6: ACCESSORY ORGANS OF DIGESTION

Accessory organs of digestion are organs that secrete substances needed for the chemical digestion of food but through which food
does not actually pass as it is digested. Besides the liver, the major accessory organs of digestion are the gallbladder and pancreas.
These organs secrete or store substances that are needed for digestion in the first part of the small intestine, the duodenum, where
most chemical digestion takes place.

18.7: DISORDERS OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

Inflammatory bowel disease is a collection of inflammatory conditions primarily affecting the intestines. The two principal
inflammatory bowel diseases are Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Unlike Crohn's disease, which may affect any part of the GI
tract and the joints as well as the skin, ulcerative colitis mainly affects just the colon and rectum. Both diseases occur when the body's
own immune system attacks the digestive system.

18.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: CELIAC AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

Bread and pasta are traditionally made with wheat, which contains proteins called gluten. As you learned in the beginning of the
chapter, even trace amounts of gluten can damage the digestive system of people with celiac disease. When Rania and Tui met for
lunch, Rania chose a restaurant that she knew could provide her with gluten-free options. Gluten is clearly dangerous for people with
celiac disease, but should people who do not have celiac disease or other diagnosed medical problems with glu

1 4/25/2021
18.1: CASE STUDY: FOOD PROCESSING
How can celiac disease cause so many different types of symptoms and
CASE STUDY: PLEASE DON’T PASS THE have such significant negative health consequences? As you read this
BREAD chapter and learn about how the digestive system works, you will see
Rania and Tui are college students who met in physics class. They just how important the villi of the small intestine are to the body as a
decide to study together for their upcoming midterm, but first, they whole. At the end of the chapter, you will learn more about celiac
want to grab some lunch. Rania says there is a particular restaurant she disease, why it can be so serious, and whether it is worth avoiding
would like to go to because they are able to accommodate her dietary gluten for people who do not have a diagnosed medical issue with it.
restrictions. Tui agrees and they head to the restaurant.
At lunch, Tui asks Rania what is special about her diet. Rania tells her
CHAPTER OVERVIEW: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
that she can’t eat gluten. Tui says, “Oh yeah, my cousin did that for a In this chapter, you will learn about the digestive system, which
while because she heard that gluten is bad for you. But it was too hard processes food so that our bodies can obtain nutrients. Specifically, you
for her to not eat bread and pasta, so she gave it up.” Rania tells Tui will learn about:
that avoiding gluten isn’t optional for her—she has celiac disease. The structures and organs of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract through
Eating even very small amounts of gluten could damage her digestive which food directly passes. This includes the mouth, pharynx,
system. esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
The functions of the GI tract, including mechanical and chemical
digestion, absorption of nutrients, and the elimination of solid
waste.
The accessory organs of digestion—the liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas—secrete substances needed for digestion into the GI tract,
in addition to other important functions.
Specializations of the tissues of the digestive system that allow it to
carry out its functions.
How different types of nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins,
and fats are digested and absorbed by the body.
Beneficial bacteria that live in the GI tract and help us digest food,
produce vitamins, and protect us from harmful pathogens and toxic
Figure 18.1.1 : Gluten Free (Pizzaberg sign) substances.
You have probably heard of gluten—but what is it and why is it Disorders of the digestive system, including inflammatory bowel
harmful to people with celiac disease? Gluten is a protein found in diseases, ulcers, diverticulitis, and gastroenteritis (commonly
wheat and some other grains such as barley, rye, and oats. Therefore, it known as “stomach flu”).
is commonly found in foods such as bread, pasta, baked goods, and
As you read this chapter, think about the following questions related to
many packaged foods. In people with celiac disease, eating gluten
celiac disease:
causes an autoimmune reaction that results in damage to the small,
finger-like villi lining the small intestine, causing them to become 1. What are the general functions of the small intestine? What do the
inflamed and flattened. This damage interferes with the digestive villi in the small intestine do?
process, which can result in a wide variety of symptoms including 2. Why do you think celiac disease causes so many different types of
diarrhea, anemia, skin rash, bone pain, depression, and anxiety, among symptoms and potentially serious complications?
others. The degree of damage to the villi can vary from mild to severe, 3. What are some other autoimmune diseases that involve the body
with more severe damage generally resulting in more significant attacking its own digestive system?
symptoms and complications. Celiac disease can have serious long-
term consequences, such as osteoporosis, problems in the nervous and
ATTRIBUTIONS
reproductive systems, and the development of certain types of cancers. 1. Pizzaberg sign by JMacPherson CC BY 2.0 via Flickr.com

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18.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
YUMMY!
Mouth
If you’re a dessert lover, then just the sight of this flan dish may
Palate
make your mouth water. The “water” in your mouth is actually Uvula
saliva, a fluid released by glands that are part of the digestive Tongue
Teeth
system. Saliva contains digestive enzymes among other substances Pharynx
important for digestion. When your mouth waters at the sight of a Salivary Esophagus
glands
tasty treat, it’s a sign that your digestive system is preparing to
Sublingual
digest food.
Submandibular
Parotid

Liver
Figure 18.2.1: Caramel Cream Flan Stomach
Gallbladder Pancreas
Common Pancreatic
bile duct duct
WHAT IS THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM?
Small Large
The digestive system consists of organs that break down food, absorb intestine intestine
its nutrients, and expel any remaining waste. Organs of the digestive Duodenum Transverse
colon
system are shown in Figure 18.2.2. Most of these organs make up the Jejunum Ascending
gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Food actually passes through these organs. Ileum colon
Cecum
The rest of the organs of the digestive system are called accessory
Descending
organs. These organs secrete enzymes and other substances into the GI colon
tract, but food does not actually pass through them. Appendix Sigmoid
colon
Anus Rectum
FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive system has three main functions relating to food:
Figure 18.2.2 : The components of the digestive system include the
digestion of food, absorption of nutrients from food, and elimination of gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs of digestion. Find the organs
solid food waste. Digestion is the process of breaking down food into of the digestive system in this diagram as you read about them in the
components the body can absorb. It consists of two types of processes: text.
mechanical digestion and chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion is
the physical breakdown of chunks of food into smaller pieces. This GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
type of digestion takes place mainly in the mouth and stomach. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is basically a long, continuous tube
Chemical digestion is the chemical breakdown (bonds are broken) of that connects the mouth with the anus. If it were fully extended, it
large, complex food molecules into smaller, simpler nutrient molecules would be about 9 meters (30 feet) long in adults. It includes the mouth,
that can be absorbed by body fluids (blood or lymph). This type of pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines. Food
digestion begins in the mouth and continues in the stomach but occurs enters the mouth and then passes through the other organs of the GI
mainly in the small intestine. tract where it is digested and/or absorbed. Finally, any remaining food
waste leaves the body through the anus at the end of the large intestine.
After food is digested, the resulting nutrients are absorbed. Absorption
It takes up to 50 hours for food or food waste to make the complete trip
is the process in which substances pass into the bloodstream or lymph
through the GI tract.
system to circulate throughout the body. The absorption of nutrients
occurs mainly in the small intestine. Any remaining matter from food TISSUES OF THE GI TRACT
that is not digested and absorbed passes out of the body through the
The walls of the organs of the GI tract consist of four different tissue
anus in the process of elimination.
layers, which are illustrated in Figure 18.2.3: mucosa, submucosa,
muscularis externa, and serosa.
1. The mucosa is the innermost layer surrounding the lumen, or open
space within the organs of the GI tract. This layer consists mainly
of the epithelium with the capacity to secrete and absorb
substances. For example, the epithelium can secrete digestive
enzymes and mucus, and it can absorb nutrients and water.
2. The submucosa layer consists of connective tissue that contains
blood and lymph vessels and also nerves. The vessels are needed to
absorb and carry away nutrients after food is digested, and nerves
help control the muscles of the GI tract organs.

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 3. The muscularis externa layer contains two types of smooth muscle: gland enzyme is amylase. It begins the chemical digestion of
longitudinal muscle and circular muscle. The longitudinal muscle carbohydrates by breaking down starches into sugar. The mouth also
runs the length of the GI tract organs and circular muscle encircles begins the mechanical digestion of food. When you chew, your teeth
the organs. Both types of muscles contract to keep food moving break, crush, and grind food into increasingly smaller pieces. Your
through the track by the process of peristalsis (Figure 18.2.4. tongue helps to mix the food with saliva and also helps you swallow.
4. The serosa layer is the outermost layer of the walls of GI tract A lump of swallowed food is called a bolus. The bolus passes from the
organs. This is a thin layer that consists of connective tissue and mouth into the pharynx and from the pharynx into the esophagus. The
separates the organs from surrounding cavities and tissues. esophagus is a long, narrow tube that carries food from the pharynx to
the stomach. It has no other digestive functions. Peristalsis starts at the
top of the esophagus when food is swallowed and continues down the
esophagus in a single wave, pushing the bolus of food ahead of it.
From the esophagus, food passes into the stomach, where both
mechanical and chemical digestion continue. The muscular walls of the
stomach churn and mix the food, thus completing mechanical digestion
as well as mixing the food with digestive fluids secreted by the
stomach. One of these fluids is hydrochloric acid. As well as killing
pathogens in food, it gives the stomach the low pH needed by digestive
enzymes that work in the stomach. One of these enzymes is pepsin,
which chemically digests proteins. The stomach stores the partially
digested food until the small intestine is ready to receive it. Food that
enters the small intestine from the stomach is in the form of a thick
slurry (semi-liquid) called chyme.
LOWER GI TRACT
The small intestine is a narrow but very long tubular organ. It may be
almost 7 meters (23 feet) long in adults. It is the site of most chemical
Figure 18.2.3 : This cross-sectional diagram of the wall of a typical GI digestion and virtually all absorption of nutrients. Many digestive
tract organ shows the layers that comprise it. enzymes are active in the small intestine, some of which are produced
by the small intestine itself, and some of which are produced by the
PERISTALSIS IN THE GI TRACT pancreas, an accessory organ of the digestive system. Much of the
The muscles in the walls of GI tract organs enable peristalsis, which is inner lining of the small intestine is covered by tiny finger-like
illustrated in Figure 18.2.4. Peristalsis is a continuous sequence of projections called villi, each of which in turn is covered by even tinier
involuntary muscle contraction and relaxation that moves rapidly along projections called microvilli. These projections, shown in Figure
an organ like a wave, similar to the way a wave moves through a spring 18.2.5, greatly increase the surface area through which nutrients can be
toy. Peristalsis in organs of the GI tract propels food through the tract. absorbed from the small intestine.

Figure 18.2.4 : Peristalsis pushes food through the GI tract.

DIVISIONS OF THE GI TRACT

The GI tract is often divided into an upper GI tract and a lower GI
tract. For medical purposes, the upper GI tract is typically considered
to include all the organs from the mouth through the first part of the
small intestine, called the duodenum. For instructional purposes, it
makes more sense to include the mouth through the stomach in the
upper GI tract and all of the small intestine as well as the large intestine Figure 18.2.5 : The figure above shows three hierarchical small
in the lower GI tract. The latter approach is followed here. All organs intestine wall modifications that increase the absorptive surface area.
of GI which are discussed in the text are illustrated in Figure 18.2.2. The broadest and most gross modification is the projection of mucosa
and submucosa called circular folds (b); then, there are projections of
UPPER GI TRACT mucosa called villi (c); and, finally, the projections of the plasma
membrane of absorptive cells called microvilli (d). Microvilli are also
The mouth is the first digestive organ that food enters. The sight, smell, referred to as brush border where enzymes reside.
or taste of food stimulates the release of digestive enzymes and other
The small intestine is made up of three parts:
secretions by salivary glands inside the mouth. The major salivary

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 1. The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. It is also the
shortest part. This is where most chemical digestion takes place.
2. The jejunum is the second part of the small intestine. This is where
most nutrients are absorbed into the blood.
3. The ileum is the last part of the small intestine. A few remaining
nutrients are absorbed in the ileum. From the ileum, any remaining
food waste passes into the large intestine.
From the small intestine, any remaining nutrients and food waste pass
into the large intestine. The large intestine is another tubular organ like
the small intestine, but it is wider and shorter than the small intestine. It
connects the small intestine and the anus. Waste that enters the large
intestine is in a liquid state. As it passes through the large intestine,
excess water is absorbed from it. The remaining solid waste, called
feces, is eventually eliminated from the body through the anus.

ACCESSORY ORGANS OF THE DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM
Accessory organs of the digestive system are not part of the GI tract, so Figure 18.2.6 : This diagram shows the locations of the accessory
they are not sites where digestion or absorption take place. Instead, organs of digestion: the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
these organs secrete or store substances that are needed for the
chemical digestion of food. The accessory organs include the liver, REVIEW
gallbladder, and pancreas. They are shown in Figure 18.2.6 and 1. What is the digestive system?
described in the text: 2. What are the three main functions of the digestive system? Define
The liver is an organ that has a multitude of functions. Its main each function.
digestive function is producing and secreting a fluid called bile, 3. Describe the GI tract.
which reaches the small intestine through a duct. Bile breaks down 4. Distinguish between the upper and lower GI tracts.
large globules of lipids into smaller ones that are easier for enzymes 5. Relate the tissues in the walls of GI tract organs to the functions the
to chemically digest. Bile is also needed to reduce the acidity of organs perform.
food entering the small intestine from the highly acidic stomach 6. Identify accessory organs of digestion and their general function in
because enzymes in the small intestine require a less acidic digestion.
environment in order to work. 7. Identify the points in the GI tract where food becomes a bolus,
The gallbladder is a small sac below the liver that stores some of chyme, and feces, respectively.
the bile from the liver. The gallbladder also concentrates the bile by 8. Does food pass through the pancreas? Why or why not?
removing some of the water from it. It then secretes the 9. True or False. Absorption mainly occurs in the stomach.
concentrated bile into the small intestine as needed for fat digestion 10. True or False. Some chemical digestion occurs in the mouth.
following a meal. 11. Most chemical digestion occurs in the _____________ .
The pancreas secretes many digestive enzymes and releases them A. Gall bladder
into the small intestine for the chemical digestion of carbohydrates, B. Stomach
proteins, and lipids. The pancreas also helps to lessen the acidity of
C. Small intestine
the small intestine by secreting bicarbonate, a basic substance that
neutralizes the acid. D. Large intestine
12. a. Describe one way in which proteins are at least partially
chemically digested in the digestive system.
b. Describe one way in which carbohydrates are at least partially
chemically digested in the digestive system.
13. If the villi in your small intestine were damaged and could not
function normally, what effect might this have on your body?
Explain your reasoning.
14. The esophagus is considered:
A. An accessory organ of the digestive system
B. Part of the upper GI tract
C. Part of the lower GI tract
D. The longitudinal muscle

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ATTRIBUTIONS 5. Small Intestines from Microbiology by Open Stax CC BY 3.0
1. Caramel cream flan by RitaE via Pixabay license 6. Gallbladder-Liver-Pancreas Location by Blausen.com staff (2014).
2. Digestive system diagram by Mariana Ruiz, Public Domain via "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of
Wikimedia Commons Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.
3. Mucosa by National Institute of Health, Public Domain via licensed CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
Wikimedia Commons 7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
4. Peristalsis by Zachary Wilson, CC BY NC 3.0 via CK12.org 3.0

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18.3: DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
INDIGESTION
The process of digestion does not always go as it should. Many
people suffer from indigestion, or dyspepsia, a condition of
impaired digestion. Symptoms may include upper abdominal
fullness or pain, heartburn, nausea, belching, or some combination
of these symptoms. The majority of cases of indigestion occur
without evidence of an organic disease that is likely to explain the
symptoms. Anxiety or certain foods or medications (such as
aspirin) may be contributing factors in these cases. In other cases,
indigestion is a symptom of an organic disease, most often
gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) or gastritis. In a small
minority of cases, indigestion is a symptom of a peptic ulcer of the
stomach or duodenum, usually caused by a bacterial infection. Very
rarely, indigestion is a sign of cancer.
An occasional bout of indigestion is usually nothing to worry about,
especially in people less than 55 years of age. However, if you
suffer frequent or chronic indigestion, it’s a good idea to see a
doctor. If an underlying disorder such as GERD or an ulcer is
causing indigestion, this can and should be treated. If no organic
disease is discovered, the doctor can recommend lifestyle changes
or treatments to help prevent or soothe the symptoms of acute
indigestion. Lifestyle changes might include modifications in eating
habits, such as eating more slowly, eating smaller meals, or
avoiding fatty foods. You also might be advised to refrain from
taking certain medications, especially on an empty stomach. The
use of antacids or other medications to relieve symptoms may also Figure 18.3.2: Both, mechanical and chemical digestion take place
be recommended throughout the gastrointestinal tract as indicated in this diagram, but
absorption takes place only in the stomach and small and large
intestines.

Digestion of food is a form of catabolism, in which the food is broken

down into small molecules that the body can absorb and use for energy,
growth, and repair. Digestion occurs when food is moved through the
digestive system. It begins in the mouth and ends in the small intestine.
The final products of digestion are absorbed from the digestive tract,
primarily in the small intestine. There are two different types of
digestion that occur in the digestive system: mechanical digestion and
Figure 18.3.1 : Add for heartburn medicine from 1882. chemical digestion. Figure 18.3.2 summarizes the roles played by
different digestive organs in mechanical and chemical digestion, both
DIGESTION of which are described in detail in the text.

MECHANICAL DIGESTION
Mechanical digestion is a physical process in which food is broken
into smaller pieces without becoming changed chemically. It begins
with your first bite of food and continues as you chew food with your
teeth into smaller pieces. The process of mechanical digestion
continues in the stomach. This muscular organ churns and mixes the
food it contains, an action that breaks any solid food into still smaller
pieces.
Although some mechanical digestion also occurs in the intestines, it is
mostly completed by the time food leaves the stomach. At that stage,
food in the GI tract has been changed to the thick semi-fluid called
chyme. Mechanical digestion is necessary so that chemical digestion
can be effective. Mechanical digestion tremendously increases the
surface area of food particles so they can be acted upon more
effectively by digestive enzymes.

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CHEMICAL DIGESTION glucose and fructose, which are readily absorbed by the small intestine.
Chemical digestion is the biochemical process in which Digestion of the sugar lactose, which is found in milk, requires the
macromolecules in food are changed into smaller molecules that can be enzyme lactase, which breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose,
absorbed into body fluids and transported to cells throughout the body. which are then absorbed by the small intestine. Fewer than half of all
Substances in food that must be chemically digested include adults produce sufficient lactase to be able to digest lactose. Those who
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates must cannot are said to be lactose intolerant.
be broken down into simple sugars, proteins into amino acids, lipids CHEMICAL DIGESTION OF PROTEINS
into fatty acids and glycerol, and nucleic acids into nitrogen bases and
Proteins consist of polypeptides, which must be broken down into their
sugars. Some chemical digestion takes place in the mouth and stomach,
constituent amino acids before they can be absorbed. Protein digestion
but most of it occurs in the first part of the small intestine (duodenum).
occurs in the stomach and small intestine through the action of three
DIGESTIVE ENZYMES primary enzymes: pepsin, secreted by the stomach; and trypsin and
Chemical digestion could not occur without the help of many different chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas. The stomach also secretes
digestive enzymes. Enzymes are proteins that catalyze or speed hydrochloric acid, making the contents highly acidic, which is required
up biochemical reactions. Digestive enzymes are secreted by exocrine for pepsin to work. Trypsin and chymotrypsin in the small intestine
glands or by the mucosal layer of the epithelium lining the require an alkaline environment to work. Bile from the liver and
gastrointestinal tract. In the mouth, digestive enzymes are secreted by bicarbonate from the pancreas neutralize the acidic chyme as it empties
salivary glands. The lining of the stomach secretes enzymes, as does into the small intestine. After pepsin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin break
the lining of the small intestine. Many more digestive enzymes are down proteins into peptides, these are further broken down into amino
secreted by exocrine cells in the pancreas and carried by ducts to the acids by other enzymes called peptidases, also secreted by the
small intestine. Table 18.3.1 lists several important digestive enzymes, pancreas.
the organs and/or glands that secrete them, and the compounds they CHEMICAL DIGESTION OF LIPIDS
digest. You can read more about them in the text.
The chemical digestion of lipids begins in the mouth. The salivary
Table 18.3.1 : Digestive Enzymes glands secrete the digestive enzyme lipase, which breaks down short-
Digestive Enzyme Organ, Glands That Secretes It Compound It Digests
chain lipids into molecules consisting of two fatty acids. A tiny amount
Amylase Salivary Glands, Pancreas Amylose (Polysaccharide)
of lipid digestion may take place in the stomach, but most lipid
Sucrase Small Intestine Sucrose (Disaccharide)
digestion occurs in the small intestine.
Lactase Small Intestine Lactose (Disaccharide)
Lipase Salivary Glands, Pancreas Lipid
Digestion of lipids in the small intestine occurs with the help of another
Pepsin Stomach Protein lipase enzyme from the pancreas as well as bile secreted by the liver.
Trypsin Pancreas Protein Bile is required for the digestion of lipids because lipids are oily and do
Chymotrypsin Pancreas Protein not dissolve in the watery chyme. Bile emulsifies, or breaks up, large
Deoxyribonuclease Pancreas DNA globules of food lipids into much smaller ones, called micelles, much
Ribonuclease Pancreas RNA as dish detergent breaks up grease. The micelles provide a great deal
Nuclease Small Intestine Small Nucleic Acids more surface area to be acted upon by lipase and also point the
hydrophilic (“water-loving”) heads of the fatty acids outward into the
CHEMICAL DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
watery chyme. Lipase can then access and break down the micelles
About 80 percent of digestible carbohydrates in a typical Western diet into individual fatty acid molecules.
are in the form of the plant polysaccharide amylose, which consists
mainly of long chains of glucose and is one of two major components CHEMICAL DIGESTION OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
of starch. Additional dietary carbohydrates include the animal Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) in foods are digested in the small
polysaccharide glycogen, along with some sugars, which are mainly intestine with the help of both pancreatic enzymes and enzymes
disaccharides. produced by the small intestine itself. Pancreatic enzymes called
To chemically digest amylose and glycogen, the enzyme amylase is ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease break down RNA and DNA,
required. The chemical digestion of these polysaccharides begins in the respectively, into smaller nucleic acids. These, in turn, are further
mouth, aided by amylase in saliva. Saliva also contains mucus, which broken down into nitrogen bases and sugars by small intestine enzymes
lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal called nucleases.
alkaline conditions for amylase to work. Carbohydrate digestion is CHEMICAL DIGESTION BY GUT FLORA
completed in the small intestine, with the help of amylase secreted by The human gastrointestinal tract is normally inhabited by trillions of
the pancreas. In the digestive process, polysaccharides are reduced in bacteria, some of which contribute to digestion. Here are just two of
length by the breaking of bonds between glucose monomers. The dozens of examples:
macromolecules are broken down to shorter polysaccharides and
1. The most common carbohydrate in plants, which is cellulose,
disaccharides, resulting in progressively shorter chains of glucose. The
cannot be digested by the human digestive system. However, tiny
end result is molecules of the simple sugars glucose and maltose
amounts of cellulose are digested by bacteria in the large intestine.
(which consists of two glucose molecules), both of which can be
2. Certain bacteria in the small intestine help digest lactose, which
absorbed by the small intestine.
many adults cannot otherwise digest. As a byproduct of this
Other sugars are digested with the help of different enzymes produced process, the bacteria produce lactic acid, which increases the
by the small intestine. For example, sucrose, or table sugar, is a release of digestive enzymes and the absorption of minerals such as
disaccharide that is broken down by the enzyme sucrase to form calcium and iron.

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ABSORPTION minority of cases, indigestion is a symptom of a peptic ulcer of the
When digestion is finished, it results in many simple nutrient stomach or duodenum, usually caused by a bacterial infection. Very
molecules that must go through the process of absorption from the GI rarely, indigestion is a sign of cancer.
tract by blood or lymph so they can be used by cells throughout the An occasional bout of indigestion is usually nothing to worry about,
body. A few substances are absorbed in the stomach and large intestine. especially in people less than 55 years of age. However, if you
For example, water is absorbed in both of these organs, and some suffer frequent or chronic indigestion, it’s a good idea to see a
minerals and vitamins are also absorbed in the large intestine. doctor. If an underlying disorder such as GERD or an ulcer is
However, about 95 percent of nutrient molecules are absorbed in the causing indigestion, this can and should be treated. If no organic
small intestine. The absorption of the majority of these molecules takes disease is discovered, the doctor can recommend lifestyle changes
place in the second part of the small intestine, called the jejunum. or treatments to help prevent or soothe the symptoms of acute
However, there are a few exceptions. For example, iron is absorbed in indigestion. Lifestyle changes might include modifications in eating
the duodenum, and vitamin B12 is absorbed in the last part of the small habits, such as eating more slowly, eating smaller meals, or
intestine, called the ileum. After being absorbed in the small intestine, avoiding fatty foods. You also might be advised to refrain from
nutrient molecules are transported to other parts of the body for storage taking certain medications, especially on an empty stomach. The
or further chemical modification. For example, amino acids are use of antacids or other medications to relieve symptoms may also
transported to the liver to be used for protein synthesis. be recommended.
The epithelial tissue lining the small intestine is specialized for
absorption. It has many wrinkles and is covered with villi and REVIEW
microvilli, creating an enormous surface area for absorption. As shown 1. Define digestion. Where does it occur?
in Figure 18.3.3, each villus also has a network of blood capillaries and 2. Identify two organ systems that control the process of digestion by
fine lymphatic vessels called lacteals close to its surface. The thin the digestive system.
surface layer of epithelial cells of the villi transports nutrients from the 3. What is mechanical digestion? Where does it occur?
lumen of the small intestine into these capillaries and lacteals. Blood in 4. Describe chemical digestion.
the capillaries absorbs most of the molecules, including simple sugars, 5. What is the role of enzymes in chemical digestion?
amino acids, glycerol, salts, and water-soluble vitamins (vitamin C and 6. What is absorption? When does it occur?
the many B vitamins). Lymph in the lacteals absorbs fatty acids and 7. a. Where does most absorption occur in the digestive system?
fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K). b. Why does most of the absorption occur in this organ and not
earlier in the GI tract?
8. Name two digestive enzymes found in saliva and identify which
type of molecule they digest.
9. a. Where is bile produced?
b. What are some functions of bile?
10. True or False. Pepsin digests cellulose.
11. True or False. Glucose can be absorbed by the body without being
further broken down.
12. The pH of the stomach ___________ .
A. is neutral B. is alkaline
C. is acidic D. depends only on what you eat
13. Lymph absorbs __________ .
Figure 18.3.3 : This highly simplified drawing of an intestinal villus
(plural villi) shows the capillaries and lacteals within it that carry away A. fatty acids B. sugars
absorbed substances. Note that each cell in the thin surface layer of the
C. amino acids D. vitamin C
villus is actually covered with microvilli that greatly increase the
surface area for absorption.
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY
EXPLORE MORE
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16832#Explore_More
The process of digestion does not always go as it should. Many
people suffer from indigestion, or dyspepsia, a condition of ATTRIBUTIONS
impaired digestion. Symptoms may include upper abdominal 1. Dyspepsia wafers, Public Domain via Flickr.com
fullness or pain, heartburn, nausea, belching, or some combination 2. Mechanical and Chemical Digestion by Open Stax College, CC BY
of these symptoms. The majority of cases of indigestion occur 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
without evidence of an organic disease that is likely to explain the 3. Intestinal villus simplified by Snow93, Public Domain via
symptoms. Anxiety or certain foods or medications (such as Wikimedia Commons
aspirin) may be contributing factors in these cases. In other cases, 4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
indigestion is a symptom of an organic disease, most often 3.0
gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) or gastritis. In a small

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18.4: UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
HEAD STAND SALIVARY GLANDS
Did you ever wonder what would happen if you tried to swallow The mouth contains three pairs of major salivary glands, which are
food while standing on your head? Many people think that food shown in Figure 18.4.2. These three pairs are all exocrine glands that
travels down the gullet from the mouth by the force of gravity. If secrete saliva into the mouth through ducts.
that were the case, then the food you swallowed would stay in your 1. The largest of the three major pairs of salivary glands are the
throat while you were standing on your head. In reality, your parotid glands, which are located on either side of the mouth in
position doesn’t have much to do with your ability to swallow. front of the ears.
Food will travel from your mouth to your stomach whether you are 2. The next largest pair is the submandibular glands, located beneath
standing upright or upside down. That’s because the tube the food the lower jaw.
travels through — the esophagus — moves the food along by the 3. The third pair is the sublingual glands, located underneath the
muscular contractions is known as peristalsis. The esophagus is one tongue.
of several organs that make up the upper gastrointestinal tract.

Figure 18.4.1 : Headstand

ORGANS OF THE UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL

TRACT
Besides the esophagus, organs of the upper gastrointestinal (GI)
tract include the mouth, pharynx, and stomach. These hollow organs
are all connected to form a tube through which food passes during
digestion. The only role in digestion played by the pharynx and Figure 18.4.2 : Salivary glands in the mouth include the three major
esophagus is to move food through the GI tract. The mouth and pairs of glands shown here. The sublingual gland is under the tongue.
stomach, in contrast, are organs where digestion, or the breakdown of The submandibular gland is below the jaw. The parotid gland is the
back of the mouth.
food, also occurs. In both of these organs, food is broken into smaller
pieces (mechanical digestion) as well as broken down chemically In addition to these three pairs of major salivary glands, there are also
(chemical digestion). It should be noted that the first part of the small hundreds of minor salivary glands in the oral mucosa lining the mouth
intestine (duodenum) is considered in some contexts to be part of the and on the tongue. Along with the major glands, most of the minor
upper GI tract, but that practice is not followed here. You can read glands secrete the digestive enzyme amylase, which begins the
about the small intestine (and large intestine) in the concept Lower chemical digestion of starch and glycogen (polysaccharides). However,
Gastrointestinal Tract. the minor salivary glands on the tongue secrete the fat-digesting
enzyme lipase, which in the mouth is called lingual lipase (to
MOUTH distinguish it from pancreatic lipase secreted by the pancreas).
The mouth is the first organ of the GI tract. Most of the oral cavity is The saliva secreted by the salivary glands mainly helps digestion, but it
lined with a mucous membrane. This tissue produces mucus, which also plays other roles. It helps to maintain dental health by cleaning the
helps to moisten, soften, and lubricate food. Underlying the mucous teeth, and it contains antibodies that help protect against infection. By
membrane is a thin layer of smooth muscle to which the mucous keeping the mouth lubricated, saliva also allows the mouth movements
membrane is only loosely connected. This gives the mucous membrane needed for speech.
considerable ability to stretch as you eat food. The roof of the mouth,
TONGUE
called the palate, separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity. The
front part is the hard palate, consisting of a mucous membrane The tongue is a fleshy, muscular organ that is attached to the floor of
covering a plate of bone. The back part of the palate is softer and more the mouth by a band of ligaments that gives it great mobility. This is
pliable, consisting of mucous membrane over muscle and connective necessary so the tongue can manipulate food for chewing and
tissue. The hard surface of the front of the palate allows for the swallowing. Movements of the tongue are also necessary for speaking.
pressure needed in chewing and mixing food. The soft, pliable surface The upper surface of the tongue is covered with tiny projections called
of the back of the palate can move to accommodate the passage of food papillae, which contain taste buds. The latter are collections of
while swallowing. Muscles at either side of the soft palate contract to chemoreceptor cells. These sensory cells sense chemicals in food and
create the swallowing action. send the information to the brain via cranial nerves, thus enabling the
sense of taste.
Several specific structures in the mouth are specialized for digestion.
These include salivary glands, tongue, and teeth. TEETH

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The teeth are complex structures made of a bone-like material called normally remains closed at other times to prevent the contents of the
dentin and covered with enamel, which is the hardest tissue in the stomach from entering the esophagus. Failure of this sphincter to
body. Adults normally have a total of 32 teeth, with 16 in each jaw. The remain completely closed can lead to heartburn. If it happens
right and left sides of each jaw are mirror images in terms of the chronically, it can lead to gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), in
numbers and types of teeth they contain. Teeth have different shapes to which the mucous membrane of the esophagus may become damaged
suit them for different aspects of mastication (chewing). by the highly acidic contents of the stomach.

PHARYNX
The tube-like pharynx (Figure 18.4.3) plays a dual role as an organ of
both respiration and digestion. As part of the respiratory system, it
conducts air between the nasal cavity and larynx. As part of the
digestive system, it allows swallowed food to pass from the oral cavity
to the esophagus. Anything swallowed has priority over inhaled air
when passing through the pharynx. During swallowing, the backward
motion of the tongue causes a flap of elastic cartilage, called the
epiglottis, to close over the opening to the larynx. This prevents food or
drinks from entering the larynx.

Figure 18.4.4: The

esophagus is located behind the trachea and it connects the pharynx to
the stomach. The stomach is connected at the bottom to the small
intestine.

STOMACH
Figure 18.4.3 : The tongue moves backward during swallowing to The stomach (Figure 18.4.4 is a J-shaped organ that is joined to the
cause the epiglottis to cover the opening to the larynx so food passes
from the pharynx to the esophagus and not into the larynx. esophagus at its upper end and to the first part of the small intestine
(duodenum) at its lower end. When the stomach is empty of food, it
ESOPHAGUS normally has a volume of about 75 mL. However, it can expand to hold
The esophagus, which is shown in Figure 18.4.4, is a muscular tube up to about a liter of food. Waves of muscle contractions (peristalsis)
through which food is pushed from the pharynx to the stomach. The passing through the muscular walls of the stomach cause the food
esophagus passes through an opening in the diaphragm (the large inside to be mixed and churned. The wall of the stomach has an extra
breathing muscle that separates the abdomen from the thorax) before layer of muscle tissue not found in other organs of the GI tract that
reaching the stomach. In adults, the esophagus averages about 25 cm helps it squeeze and mix the food. These movements of the stomach
(10 in.) in length, depending on a person’s height. The inner lining of wall contribute greatly to mechanical digestion by breaking the food
the esophagus consists of a mucous membrane, which provides a into much smaller pieces. The churning also helps to mix the food with
smooth, slippery surface for the passage of food. The cells of this stomach secretions that aid in its chemical digestion.
membrane are constantly being replaced as they are worn away from Secretions of the stomach include gastric acid, which consists mainly
the frequent passage of food over them. of hydrochloric acid. This makes the stomach contents highly acidic,
When food is not being swallowed, the esophagus is closed at both which is necessary so that the enzyme pepsin — also secreted by the
ends by upper and lower esophageal sphincters. Sphincters are rings of stomach — can begin the digestion of protein. Mucus is secreted by the
muscle that can contract to close off openings between structures. The lining of the stomach to provide a slimy protective coating against the
upper esophageal sphincter is triggered to relax and open by the act of otherwise damaging effects of gastric acid. The fat-digesting enzyme
swallowing, allowing a bolus of food to enter the esophagus from the lipase is secreted in small amounts in the stomach, but very little fat
pharynx. Then the esophageal sphincter closes again to prevent food digestion occurs there.
from moving back into the pharynx. By the time food has been in the stomach for about an hour, it has
Once in the esophagus, the food bolus travels down to the stomach, become the thick, semi-liquid chyme. When the small intestine is ready
pushed along by the rhythmic contraction and relaxation of muscles to receive chyme, a sphincter between the stomach and duodenum,
(peristalsis). The lower esophageal sphincter is located at the junction called the pyloric sphincter, opens to allow the chyme to enter the
between the esophagus and the stomach. This sphincter opens when the small intestine for further digestion and absorption.
bolus reaches it, allowing the food to enter the stomach. The sphincter FEATURE: RELIABLE SOURCES

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 The ongoing epidemic of obesity has led to the development of C. Stomach
several different bariatric surgeries that modify the stomach to help D. A and C
obese patients reduce their food intake and lose weight. Go online
E. A, B, and C
to learn more about bariatric surgery. Find sources you judge to be
reliable that answer the following questions: 9. Describe the differences between how air and food normally move
past the pharynx.
1. Who qualifies for bariatric surgery?
2. Describe the bariatric surgeries commonly called stomach 10. Name two structures in the mouth that contribute to mechanical
stapling, lap band, and gastric sleeve. How does each type of digestion.
surgery modify the stomach? How effective is each type in 11. What structure normally keeps stomach contents from backing up
terms of weight loss? into the esophagus?
3. What are the major potential risks of bariatric surgery? 12. True or False. Peristalsis occurs in the esophagus, but not in the
4. Besides weight loss, what other benefits have been shown to stomach.
result from bariatric surgery? 13. True or False. The sense of taste is due to the detection of
chemicals by the tongue.
REVIEW 14. Where is most of your food located thirty minutes after you eat a
1. List organs of the upper gastrointestinal tract. meal? Explain your answer.
2. Identify structures in the mouth that are specialized for digestion. 15. What are the two roles of mucus in the upper GI tract?
3. Describe digestion in the mouth.
4. What general role do the pharynx and esophagus play in the EXPLORE MORE
digestion of food? https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16833#Explore_More
5. How does food travel through the esophagus?
6. Describe digestion in the stomach. ATTRIBUTIONS
7. In which of the following structures does chemical digestion occur? 1. Yoga by Anant_762 via Pixabay license
A. Mouth 2. Salivary glands by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
B. Esophagus
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. CC BY 3.0 via
C. Stomach
Wikimedia Commons
D. A and C 3. Head and neck by Prof. Squirrel, Public Domain via Wikimedia
E. A, B, and C Commons
8. In which of the following structures does mechanical digestion 4. Esophagus and stomach by NIAID, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
occur? Commons
5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
A. Mouth
3.0
B. Pharynx

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18.5: LOWER GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
WHAT IS IT? can be divided into three parts, called the duodenum, jejunum, and
Figure 18.5.1 shows some of the cells of what has been called “the ileum, as shown in Figure 18.5.2 and described below.
last human organ to be discovered.” This “organ” weighs about 200 The mucosa lining the small intestine is very wrinkled and covered
grams (0.44 lb.) and consists of a hundred trillion cells, yet with finger-like projections called villi. In fact, each square inch of
scientists are only now beginning to learn everything it does and mucosa contains around 20,000 villi. The individual cells on the
how it varies among individuals. What is it? It’s the mass of surface of the villi also have many finger-like projections, the
bacteria that live in our lower gastrointestinal tract. microvilli shown in Figure 18.5.3. There are thought to be well over
100 billion microvilli per square inch of intestinal mucosa! All of these
wrinkles, villi, and microvilli greatly increase the surface area for
chyme to come into contact with digestive enzymes, which coat the
microvilli, as well as forming a tremendous surface area for the
absorption of nutrients. Inside each of the villi is a network of tiny
Figure 18.5.1: Micrograph of Bacteroides biacutis - cultured in
blood and lymph vessels that receive the absorbed nutrients and carry
blood agar medium for 48 hours.
them away in the blood or lymph circulation. The wrinkles and
projections in the intestinal mucosa also slow down the passage of
ORGANS OF THE LOWER GASTROINTESTINAL chyme so there is more time for digestion and absorption to take place.
TRACT
Most of the bacteria that normally live in the lower gastrointestinal
(GI) tract live in the large intestine. They have important and mutually
beneficial relationships with the human organism. We provide them
with a great place to live, and they provide us with many benefits,
some of which you can read about below. Besides the large intestine
and its complement of helpful bacteria, the lower GI tract also includes
the small intestine. The latter is arguably the most important organ of
the digestive system. It is where most chemical digestion and virtually
all absorption of nutrients take place. Figure 18.5.3 : The fringe-like structures in this photomicrograph are
microvilli lining the inside of the small intestine.

DUODENUM
The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine, directly
connected to the stomach. It is also the shortest part of the small
intestine, averaging only about 25 cm (10 in.) in length in adults. Its
main function is chemical digestion, and it is where most of the
chemical digestion in the entire GI tract takes place.

Figure 18.5.2 : The three parts of the small intestine are color-coded in
this diagram, with yellow for the duodenum (the first part of the small
intestines), blue for the jejunum (the middle), and pink for the ileum
(the end of the small intestines). Figure 18.5.1 : This figure shows the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas,
along with the ducts that carry their secretions to the duodenum
SMALL INTESTINE The duodenum receives partially digested, semi-liquid chyme from the
The small intestine (also called the small bowel or gut) is the part of stomach. It receives digestive enzymes and alkaline bicarbonate from
the GI tract between the stomach and large intestine. Its average length the pancreas through the pancreatic duct, and it receives bile from the
in adults is 4.6 m (15 ft) in females and 6.9 m (22 ft 8 in.) in males. It liver via the gallbladder through the common bile duct (Figure 18.5.4).
is approximately 2.5 to 3.0 cm (1.0 to 1.2 in.) in diameter (it is called In addition, the lining of the duodenum secretes digestive enzymes and
“small” because it is much smaller in diameter than the large intestine). contains glands — called Brunner’s glands — that secrete mucus and
The internal surface area of the small intestine totals an average of bicarbonate. The bicarbonate from the pancreas and Brunner’s glands
about 30 m2 (323 ft2). Structurally and functionally, the small intestine as well as bile from the liver neutralize the highly acidic chyme after it
enters the duodenum from the stomach. This is necessary because the

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digestive enzymes in the duodenum require a nearly neutral cm (2.5 in.) in diameter. Water is absorbed from the chyme as it passes
environment in order to work. The three major classes of compounds through the large intestine, turning the chyme into solid feces. Feces is
that undergo chemical digestion in the duodenum are carbohydrates, stored in the large intestine until it leaves the body during defecation.
proteins, and lipids.
PARTS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES IN THE DUODENUM
Like the small intestine, the large intestine can be divided into several
Complex carbohydrates such as starches are broken down by the parts, as shown in Figure 18.5.5. The large intestine begins at the end
digestive enzyme amylase from the pancreas to short-chain molecules of the small intestine, where a valve separates the small and large
consisting of just a few saccharides (that is, simple sugars). intestines and regulates the movement of chyme into the large intestine.
Disaccharides, including sucrose and lactose, are broken down into The first part of the large intestine, where chyme enters from the small
simple sugars by duodenal enzymes: sucrase breaks down sucrose, and intestine, is called the cecum. From the cecum, the large intestine
lactase (if present) breaks down lactose. Some carbohydrates are not continues upward as the ascending colon, travels across the upper
digested in the duodenum and ultimately pass undigested to the large abdomen as the transverse colon, and then continues downward as the
intestine, where they may be digested by intestinal bacteria. descending colon. It then becomes a V-shaped region called the
DIGESTION OF PROTEINS IN THE DUODENUM sigmoid colon, which is attached to the rectum. The rectum stores
In the duodenum, the pancreatic enzymes trypsin and chymotrypsin feces until elimination occurs. It transitions to the final part of the large
cleave proteins into peptides. Then, these smaller molecules are broken intestine, called the anus, which has an opening to the outside of the
down into amino acids. Their digestion is catalyzed by pancreatic body for feces to pass through.
enzymes called peptidases. A projection from the cecum of the colon is known as the appendix.
The function of the appendix is uncertain, but it does not seem to be
DIGESTION OF LIPIDS IN THE DUODENUM
involved in digestion or absorption. It may play a role in immunity, and
Pancreatic lipase breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and in the fetus, it seems to have an endocrine function, releasing hormones
glycerol. Lipase works with the help of bile secreted by the liver and needed for homeostasis. Some biologists speculate that the appendix
stored in the gall bladder. Bile salts attach to triglycerides to help them may also store a sample of the colon’s normal bacteria. If so, it may be
emulsify or form smaller particles (called micelles) that can disperse able to repopulate the colon with the bacteria if illness or antibiotic
through the watery contents of the duodenum. This increases the access medications deplete these microorganisms. Appendicitis, or infection
to the molecules by pancreatic lipase. and inflammation of the appendix, is a fairly common medical
JEJUNUM problem, typically resolved by surgical removal of the appendix
(appendectomy). People who have had their appendix surgically
The jejunum is the middle part of the small intestine, connecting the
removed do not seem to suffer any ill effects, so the organ is
duodenum and the ileum. The jejunum is about 2.5 m (8.2 ft) long. Its
considered to be dispensable. As such, it is often referred to as a
main function is the absorption of the products of digestion, including
vestigial organ, which is a previously useful organ that has been
sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids. Absorption occurs by simple
retained over evolutionary time as part of the anatomy, even though it
diffusion (water and fatty acids), facilitated diffusion (the simple sugar
no longer has a function in the body.
fructose), or active transport (amino acids, small peptides, water-
soluble vitamins, and most glucose). All nutrients are absorbed into the
blood except for fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins, which are
absorbed into the lymph. Although most nutrients are absorbed in the
jejunum, there are a few exceptions:
Iron is absorbed in the duodenum.
Vitamin B12 and bile salts are absorbed in the ileum.
Water and lipids are absorbed throughout the small intestine,
including the duodenum and ileum in addition to the jejunum.

ILEUM
The ileum is the third and final part of the small intestine, directly
connected at its distal end to the large intestine. The ileum is about 3 m
(9.8 ft) long. Some cells in the lining of the ileum secrete enzymes that
catalyze the final stages of digestion of any undigested protein and
carbohydrate molecules. However, the main function of the ileum is to
absorb vitamin B12 and bile salts. It also absorbs any other remaining
nutrients that were not absorbed in the jejunum. All substances in
chyme that remain undigested or unabsorbed by the time they reach the Figure 18.5.5 : The parts of the large intestine include the cecum (just
distal end of the ileum pass into the large intestine. after the small intestines), ascending colon (moving upward),
transverse colon (moving across), descending colon (moving
downward), sigmoid colon (small S-shaped segment), rectum
LARGE INTESTINE (connecting to the anus), and anus.
The large intestine, also called the large bowel, is the last organ of the
FUNCTIONS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE
GI tract. In adults, it averages about 1.5 m (5 ft) in length. It is shorter
than the small intestine but at least twice as wide, averaging about 6.5

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The removal of water from chyme to form feces starts in the ascending instrument inserted with the scope is usually used to remove them.
colon and continues throughout much of the length of the organ. Salts Therefore, a colonoscopy can not only detect cancer in its early
such as sodium are also removed from food wastes in the large stages, but it can even help prevent cancer by enabling the removal
intestine before the wastes are eliminated from the body. This allows of potentially pre-cancerous polyps.
salts as well as water to be recycled in the body. A test similar to colonoscopy may be done in some patients. Called
The large intestine is also the site where huge numbers of beneficial a flexible sigmoidoscopy, it allows a doctor to use a small camera
bacteria ferment many unabsorbed materials in food waste. The to inspect the rectum and lower third of the colon, where the
bacterial breakdown of undigested polysaccharides produces nitrogen, majority of cases of colorectal cancer occur. However, the rest of
carbon dioxide, methane, and other gases that are responsible for the colon cannot be examined with a sigmoidoscopy. Another
intestinal gas, or flatulence. These bacteria are particularly prevalent in alternative to a full-blown colonoscopy is a virtual colonoscopy, in
the descending colon. Some of the bacteria also produce vitamins that which a CT scan of the rectum and colon is used to make detailed
are absorbed from the colon. The vitamins include vitamins B1 cross-sectional images of the organs. The images can then be
(thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B7 (biotin), B12, and K. Another role of studied by a specialist to detect cancers or polyps. For both of these
bacteria in the colon is an immune function. The bacteria may colonoscopy alternatives, a follow-up colonoscopy is required if
stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies that are effective polyps or potentially cancerous lesions are detected.
against similar, but pathogenic, bacteria, thereby preventing infections. Unless you have a family history of colorectal cancer or certain
Still, other roles played by bacteria in the large intestine include other risk factors, you probably do not need to start routine
breaking down toxins before they can poison the body, producing screening for the disease until middle age. Your doctor can tell you
substances that help prevent colon cancer, and inhibiting the growth of the most appropriate starting age for your particular case, given
harmful bacteria. your risk factors and current cancer guidelines. You may be able to
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY be screened with one of the less invasive methods rather than
Colorectal cancer, or cancer of the colon or rectum, is the fourth colonoscopy until you are somewhat older. Again, check with your
most common cancer in the United States. It is also the second most doctor for specific recommendations. All of the testing methods
common cause of cancer deaths in this country. Widespread have pros and cons that should be taken into consideration by a
screening of patients for signs of colorectal cancer has significantly given patient and medical provider.
lowered the death rate in recent years. Because early-stage
colorectal cancer is usually asymptomatic, routine screening is REVIEW
important for identifying cancer early when chances of a cure are 1. Which organs are included in the lower GI tract?
still high. 2. Name the parts of the small intestine.
Screening for colorectal cancer has also become easier and less 3. How is the mucosa of the small intestine specialized for digestion
invasive in recent years. One way to test for colorectal cancer is to and absorption?
examine a sample of stool and look for occult (hidden from the 4. What digestive substances are secreted into the duodenum, and
unaided eye) blood in the stool. This test is based on the assumption what compounds in food do they help digest?
that blood vessels in cancer are fragile and may be easily damaged 5. What is the main function of the jejunum?
by the passage of feces through the colon or rectum. The damaged 6. What roles are played by the ileum?
vessels may bleed into the feces but rarely bleed enough for blood 7. Name the parts of the large intestine.
to be visible in the stool. Stool for the occult blood test can be 8. Identify the main functions of the large intestine.
collected by the patient at home with a test kit provided by a doctor. 9. How do beneficial bacteria in the large intestine help the human
If occult blood is detected in the stool, a different type of follow-up organism?
test is generally needed to determine whether cancer is the cause of 10. True or False. The first part of the large intestine is where most
the bleeding. chemical digestion takes place.
A similarly simple and noninvasive but more definitive test for 11. True or False. The small intestine is actually longer than the large
colorectal cancer looks for DNA from cancer cells in the stool. intestine.
Again, the patient can collect the stool sample at home using a 12. When diarrhea occurs, feces leaves the body in a more liquid state
simple test kit and mail the specimen to a lab, which does the than normal. What part of the digestive system do you think is
analysis. If the test comes back positive, then a direct visual involved in diarrhea? Explain your answer.
examination of the colon and rectum by colonoscopy is required. 13. Arrange the following parts of the lower GI tract in order of how
food passes through them, from earliest to latest. Note that not all
Colonoscopy is the gold standard for the diagnosis of colorectal
parts are listed.
cancer. Using a tiny camera at the end of a long tube inserted up
into the colon, a doctor can directly visualize the lining of the large cecum; duodenum; sigmoid colon; jejunum; rectum; ileum
intestine and spot any suspicious areas that may be cancerous. 14. Which enzyme digests proteins?
While a colonoscopy is invasive and requires the patient to prepare A. trypsin
for the test for a couple of days by changing his or her diet and
B. amylase
drinking special fluids, it reveals more than just cancer. A
C. lipase
colonoscopy also reveals any growths called polyps in the colon.
Colon polyps are not cancer but often develop into cancerous D. lactase
lesions, so if they are found during a colonoscopy, a surgical 15. What is intestinal gas, or flatulence, due to?

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EXPLORE MORE 4. biliary tract medium by www.6xc.com.au6XC, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16834#Explore_More 5. Large intestine by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
ATTRIBUTIONS DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. CC BY 3.0 via
1. Bacteroides biacutis by US government, Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Wikimedia Commons 6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
2. Small intestine anatomy by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical 3.0
gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. CC BY 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons
3. Human jejunum microvilli by Louisa Howard, Katherine
Connollly, Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

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18.6: ACCESSORY ORGANS OF DIGESTION
JAUNDICED EYES However, the liver has a wide range of additional functions unrelated to
Did you ever hear of a person looking at something or someone digestion. In fact, some estimates put the number of functions of the
with a “jaundiced eye”? It means to take a negative view, such as liver at about 500! A few of them are described below.
envy, maliciousness, or ill will. The expression may be based on the
antiquated idea that liver bile is associated with such negative
emotions as these, as well as the fact that excessive liver bile causes
jaundice or yellowing of the eyes and skin. Jaundice is likely to be
a sign of a liver disorder or blockage of the duct that carries bile
away from the liver. Bile contains waste products, making the liver
an organ of excretion. Bile also has an important role in digestion,
making the liver an accessory organ of digestion.

Figure 18.6.3 : The portal vein supplies the liver with wastes filtered
out of the blood in the spleen as well as nutrients from the
gastrointestinal tract. Oxygen-rich blood enters the liver via the hepatic
Figure 18.6.1 : Jaundice Eyes artery.

STRUCTURE OF THE LIVER

WHAT ARE ACCESSORY ORGANS OF The liver is a reddish-brown, wedge-shaped structure. In adults, the
DIGESTION? liver normally weighs about 1.5 kg (3.3 lb). It is both the heaviest
internal organ and the largest gland in the human body. The liver is
divided into four lobes of unequal size and shape. Each lobe, in turn, is
made up of lobules, which are the functional units of the liver. Each
lobule consists of millions of liver cells, called hepatic cells (or
hepatocytes). They are the basic metabolic cells that carry out the
various functions of the liver.
As shown in Figure 18.6.3, the liver is connected to two large blood
vessels: the hepatic artery and the portal vein. The hepatic artery
carries oxygen-rich blood from the aorta, whereas the portal vein
carries blood that is rich in digested nutrients from the GI tract and
wastes filtered from the blood by the spleen. The blood vessels
subdivide into smaller arteries and capillaries, which lead to the liver
lobules. The nutrients from the GI tract are used to build many vital
biochemical compounds, and the wastes from the spleen are degraded
and excreted.
Figure 18.6.2 : The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are the major
accessory organs of digestion. In this figure, the pink tubular structure FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER
that starts at the lower stomach and wraps around the pancreas is the The main digestive function of the liver is the production of bile. Bile
duodenum of the small intestine. This is where the accessory organs is a yellowish alkaline liquid that consists of water, electrolytes, bile
secrete their digestive substances. The pancreas is just behind the
stomach. The liver is above on the right side and the gall bladder is just salts, and cholesterol, among other substances, many of which are
under the liver. waste products. Some of the components of bile are synthesized by
Accessory organs of digestion are organs that secrete substances hepatocytes; the rest are extracted from the blood.
needed for the chemical digestion of food but through which food does As shown in the figure below, bile is secreted into small ducts that join
not actually pass as it is digested. Besides the liver, the major accessory
together to form larger ducts, with just one large duct carrying bile out
organs of digestion are the gallbladder and pancreas. These organs of the liver. If bile is needed to digest a meal, it goes directly to the
secrete or store substances that are needed for digestion in the first part
duodenum through the common bile duct. In the duodenum, the bile
of the small intestine, the duodenum, where most chemical digestion neutralizes acidic chyme from the stomach and emulsifies fat globules
takes place. You can see the three organs and their locations in Figureinto smaller particles (called micelles) that are easier to digest
18.6.2. chemically by the enzyme lipase. Bile also aids with the absorption of
vitamin K. Bile that is secreted when digestion is not taking place goes
LIVER to the gallbladder for storage until the next meal. In either case, the bile
The liver is a vital organ located in the upper right part of the enters the duodenum through the common bile duct shown in Figure
abdomen. It lies just below the diaphragm to the right of the stomach. 18.6.4
The liver plays an important role in digestion by secreting bile.

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 The liver synthesizes glycogen from glucose and stores the blood that reach the pancreas via the bloodstream. The pancreatic
glycogen as required to help regulate blood sugar levels. It also digestive enzymes are secreted by clusters of cells called acini, and
breaks down the stored glycogen to glucose and releases it back they travel through the pancreatic ducts to the duodenum. In the
into the blood as needed. duodenum, they help to chemically break down carbohydrates,
The liver stores many substances in addition to glycogen, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids in chyme. The pancreatic digestive
vitamins A, D, B12, and K. It also stores the minerals iron and enzymes include:
copper. amylase, which helps to digest starch and other carbohydrates.
The liver synthesizes numerous proteins and many of the amino trypsin and chymotrypsin, which help to digest proteins.
acids needed to make them. These proteins have a wide range of lipase, which helps to digest lipids.
functions. They include fibrinogen, which is needed for blood deoxyribonucleases and ribonucleases, which help to digest nucleic
clotting; insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1), which is important for acids.
childhood growth; and albumen, which is the most abundant protein
in blood serum and functions to transport fatty acids and steroid
hormones in the blood.
The liver synthesizes many important lipids, including cholesterol,
triglycerides, and lipoproteins.
The liver is responsible for the breakdown of many waste products
and toxic substances. The wastes are excreted in bile or travel to the
kidneys, which excrete them in the urine.
The liver is clearly a vital organ that supports almost every other organ
in the body. Because of its strategic location and diversity of functions,
the liver is also prone to many diseases, some of which cause loss of
liver function. There is currently no way to compensate for the absence
of liver function in the long term, although liver dialysis techniques can
be used in the short term. An artificial liver has not yet been developed, Figure 18.6.4 : Pancreatic digestive enzymes and bicarbonate travel to
so liver transplantation may be the only option for people with liver the duodenum through the pancreatic ducts. The main pancreatic duct
failure. joins with the common bile duct before the latter enters the duodenum

GALLBLADDER REVIEW
The gallbladder is a small, hollow, pouch-like organ that lies just 1. Name three accessory organs of digestion. How do these organs
under the right side of the liver (Figure 18.6.2 and Figure 18.6.3). It is differ from digestive organs that are part of the GI tract?
about 8 cm (3.1 in.) long and shaped like a tapered sac, with the open 2. Describe the liver and its blood supply.
end continuous with the cystic duct. The gallbladder stores and 3. Explain the main digestive function of the liver.
concentrates bile from the liver until it is needed in the duodenum to 4. Besides its role as a digestive organ, what other vital functions does
help digest lipids. After the bile leaves the liver, it reaches the the liver have?
gallbladder through the cystic duct. At any given time, the gallbladder 5. What is the gallbladder? How does it aid in digestion in the
may store between 30 and 60 mL (1-2 oz) of bile. A hormone duodenum?
stimulated by the presence of fat in the duodenum signals the 6. Which two body systems include the pancreas? What type of
gallbladder to contract and force its contents back through the cystic secretions does the pancreas release as part of each body system?
duct and into the common bile duct to drain into the duodenum. 7. List pancreatic enzymes that work in the duodenum and the
substances they help digest.
PANCREAS 8. What are two substances produced by accessory organs of digestion
The pancreas is a glandular organ that is part of both the digestive that help neutralize chyme in the small intestine, and where are they
system and the endocrine system. As shown in Figure 18.6.4, it is produced?
located in the abdomen behind the stomach, with the head of the 9. People who have their gallbladder removed sometimes have
pancreas surrounded by the duodenum of the small intestine. The digestive problems after eating high-fat meals. Why do you think
pancreas is about 15 cm (6 in.) long, and it has two major ducts, the this happens?
main pancreatic duct, and the accessory pancreatic duct. Both of these 10. True or False. The liver is a gland.
ducts drain into the duodenum.
11. True or False. Substances secreted by the pancreas enter into the
As an endocrine gland, the pancreas secretes several hormones, duodenum from the common bile duct.
including insulin and glucagon, which circulate in the blood. The
12. True or False. Bile contains wastes.
endocrine hormones are secreted by clusters of cells called pancreatic
islets (or islets of Langerhans). As a digestive organ, the pancreas 13. Which accessory organ of digestion synthesizes cholesterol?
secretes many digestive enzymes and also bicarbonate, which helps to
neutralize acidic chyme after it enters the duodenum. The pancreas is
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stimulated to secrete its digestive substances when food in the stomach
and duodenum triggers the release of endocrine hormones into the

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18.7: DISORDERS OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
CROHN’S RASH Crohn’s disease are many times more likely to develop the disease than
If you had a skin rash like the one in Figure 18.7.1, you probably people in the general population. Environmental factors that appear to
wouldn’t assume that it was caused by a digestive system disease. increase the risk of the disease include smoking tobacco and eating a
However, that’s exactly why the individual in the picture has a rash. diet high in animal proteins. Crohn’s disease is typically diagnosed on
He has a gastrointestinal (GI) tract disorder called Crohn’s disease. the basis of a colonoscopy, which provides a direct visual examination
This disease is one of a group of GI tract disorders that are known of the inside of the colon and the ileum of the small intestine.
collectively as inflammatory bowel disease. Unlike other People with Crohn’s disease typically experience recurring periods of
inflammatory bowel diseases, signs and symptoms of Crohn’s flare-ups followed by remission. There are no medications or surgical
disease may not be confined to the GI tract. procedures that can cure Crohn’s disease, although medications such as
anti-inflammatory or immune-suppressing drugs may alleviate
symptoms during flare-ups and help maintain remission. Lifestyle
changes, such as dietary modifications and smoking cessation, may
also help control symptoms and reduce the likelihood of flare-ups.
Surgery may be needed to resolve bowel obstructions, abscesses, or
other complications of the disease.

ULCERATIVE COLITIS
Ulcerative colitis is an inflammatory bowel disease that causes
inflammation and ulcers (sores) in the colon and rectum. Unlike
Crohn’s disease, other parts of the GI tract are rarely affected in
Figure 18.7.1 : Pustules and crusts around the elbows in a patient ulcerative colitis. The primary symptoms of the disease are lower
with Crohn's disease and bowel-associated dermatosis-arthritis abdominal pain and bloody diarrhea. Weight loss, fever, and anemia
syndrome (BADAS). may also be present. Symptoms typically occur intermittently with
periods of no symptoms between flare-ups. People with ulcerative
INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE colitis have a considerably increased risk of colon cancer and should be
Inflammatory bowel disease is a collection of inflammatory screened for colon cancer more frequently than the general population.
conditions primarily affecting the intestines. The two principal However, ulcerative colitis seems to reduce primarily the quality of life
inflammatory bowel diseases are Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. and not the lifespan.
Unlike Crohn’s disease, which may affect any part of the GI tract and The exact cause of ulcerative colitis is not known. Theories about its
the joints as well as the skin, ulcerative colitis mainly affects just the cause involve immune system dysfunction, genetics, changes in normal
colon and rectum. Both diseases occur when the body’s own immune gut bacteria, and lifestyle factors such as a diet high in animal protein
system attacks the digestive system. Both diseases also typically first and the consumption of alcoholic beverages. Genetic involvement is
appear in the late teens or early twenties and occur equally in all sexes suspected in part because ulcerative colitis tends to “run” in families. It
and genders. is likely that multiple genes are involved. Diagnosis is typically made
on the basis of colonoscopy and tissue biopsies.
CROHN’S DISEASE
Lifestyle changes, such as reducing the consumption of animal protein
Crohn’s disease is a type of inflammatory bowel disease that may
and alcohol, may improve symptoms of ulcerative colitis. A number of
affect any part of the GI tract from the mouth to the anus, among other
medications are also available to treat symptoms and help prolong
body tissues. The most commonly affected region is the ileum, which
remission. These include anti-inflammatory drugs and drugs that
is the final part of the small intestine. Signs and symptoms of Crohn’s
suppress the immune system. In cases of severe disease, removal of the
disease typically include abdominal pain, diarrhea (with or without
colon and rectum may be required and can cure the disease.
blood), fever, and weight loss. Malnutrition because of faulty
absorption of nutrients may also occur. Potential complications of
DIVERTICULITIS
Crohn’s disease include obstructions and abscesses of the bowel.
Diverticulitis is a digestive disease in which tiny pouches in the wall
People with Crohn’s disease are also at a slightly greater risk than the
of the large intestine become infected and inflamed. Symptoms
general population of developing bowel cancer. Although there is a
typically include lower abdominal pain of sudden onset. There may
slight reduction in life expectancy in people with Crohn’s disease, if
also be fever, nausea, diarrhea or constipation, and blood in the stool.
the disease is well managed, affected people can live full and
Having large intestine pouches called diverticula (Figure 18.7.2) that
productive lives.
are not inflamed is called diverticulosis. Diverticulosis is thought to be
Crohn’s disease is caused by a combination of genetic and due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors and is more
environmental factors that lead to impairment of the generalized common in people who are obese. Infection and inflammation of the
immune response (called innate immunity). The chronic inflammation pouches (diverticulitis) occur in about 10 to 25 percent of people with
of Crohn’s disease is thought to be the result of the immune system diverticulosis and is more common at older ages. The infection is
“trying” to compensate for the impairment. Dozens of genes are likely generally caused by bacteria.
to be involved, only a few of which have been identified. Because of
the genetic component, close relatives such as siblings of people with

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 lifestyle choices are no longer thought to have much if any effect on
the development of peptic ulcers.
Peptic ulcers are typically diagnosed on the basis of symptoms or the
presence of H. pylori in the GI tract. However, endoscopy (Figure
18.7.3), which allows direct visualization of the stomach and

duodenum with a camera, may be required for a definitive diagnosis.

Peptic ulcers are usually treated with antibiotics to kill H. pylori, along
with medications to temporarily decrease stomach acid and aid in
healing. Unfortunately, H. pylori have developed resistance to
commonly used antibiotics, so treatment is not always effective. If a
peptic ulcer has penetrated so deep into the tissues that it causes
perforation of the wall of the stomach or duodenum, then emergency
Figure 18.7.2 : Multiple pouches called diverticula in the wall of the surgery is needed to repair the damage.
large intestine
Diverticulitis can usually be diagnosed with a CT scan. Mild
diverticulitis may be treated with oral antibiotics and a short-term
liquid diet. For severe cases, intravenous antibiotics, hospitalization,
and complete bowel rest (no nourishment via the mouth) may be
recommended. Complications such as abscess formation or perforation
of the colon require surgery.

PEPTIC ULCER
A peptic ulcer is a sore in the lining of the stomach or the duodenum
(the first part of the small intestine). If the ulcer occurs in the stomach,
it is called a gastric ulcer; if it occurs in the duodenum, it is called a Figure 18.7.3 : A doctor inserts a tiny camera through a tube (called an
endoscope) to examine a patient’s upper GI tract for peptic ulcers. He
duodenal ulcer. The most common symptoms of peptic ulcers are upper views the image created by the camera on a screen above the patient’s
abdominal pain that often occurs at night and improves with eating. head.
Other symptoms may include belching, vomiting, weight loss, and poor
appetite. However, many people with peptic ulcers, particularly older GASTROENTERITIS
people, have no symptoms. Peptic ulcers are relatively common, with
about 10 percent of people developing a peptic ulcer at some point in
their life.
The most common cause of peptic ulcers is infection with the
bacterium Helicobacter pylori, which may be transmitted by food,
contaminated water, or human saliva (for example, by kissing or
sharing eating utensils). Surprisingly, the bacterial cause of peptic
ulcers was not discovered until the 1980s. The scientists who made the
discovery are Australians Robin Warren and Barry J. Marshall.
Although the two scientists eventually won a Nobel Prize for their
discovery, their hypothesis was poorly received at first. To demonstrate
the validity of their discovery, Marshall used himself in an experiment.
He drank a culture of bacteria from a peptic ulcer patient and
developed symptoms of peptic ulcer in a matter of days. His symptoms
resolved on their own within a couple of weeks, but he took antibiotics
Figure 18.7.4 : These micrographs show four types of viruses that
to kill any remaining bacteria at his wife’s urging (apparently because commonly cause gastroenteritis in humans: A. rotavirus, B. adenovirus,
bad breath is also one of the symptoms of H. pylori infection). C. norovirus, and D. astrovirus.
Marshall’s self-experiment was published in the Australian Medical Gastroenteritis, also known as infectious diarrhea, is an acute and
Journal and is among the most cited articles ever published in the usually self-limiting infection of the GI tract by pathogens. Symptoms
journal. typically include some combination of diarrhea, vomiting, and
Another relatively common cause of peptic ulcers is the chronic use of abdominal pain. Fever, lack of energy, and dehydration may also occur.
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as aspirin or The illness generally lasts less than two weeks, even without treatment,
ibuprofen. Additional contributing factors may include tobacco but in young children, it is potentially deadly. Gastroenteritis is very
smoking and stress, although these factors have not been demonstrated common, especially in poorer nations. Worldwide, up to five billion
conclusively to cause peptic ulcers independent of H. pylori infection. cases occur each year, resulting in about 1.4 million deaths. In the
Contrary to popular belief, diet does not appear to play a role in either United States, infectious diarrhea is the second most common type of
causing or preventing peptic ulcers. Eating spicy foods and drinking infection after the common cold.
coffee and alcohol were once thought to cause peptic ulcers. These Commonly called “stomach flu,” gastroenteritis is unrelated to the
influenza virus, although viruses are the most common cause of the

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disease (Figure 18.7.4). In children, rotavirus is most often the cause, untreated water from lakes or rivers, and people who have close
whereas norovirus is more likely to be the cause in adults. Besides contact with infected people or animals in other settings. In the United
viruses, other potential causes of gastroenteritis include fungi, protozoa States, giardiasis occurs more often during the summer than other
(including Giardia lamblia, described below), and bacteria (most often seasons, probably because people spend more time outdoors and in
Escherichia coli or Campylobacter jejuni). Transmission of pathogens wild settings at that time of year.
may occur due to eating improperly prepared foods or foods left to Symptoms of giardiasis can vary widely. About a third of people with
stand at room temperature, drinking contaminated water, or having the infection have no symptoms, whereas others have severe diarrhea
close contact with an infected individual. with poor absorption of nutrients. Problems with absorption occur
Gastroenteritis is less common in adults than children, partly because because the parasites inhibit intestinal digestive enzyme production,
adults have acquired immunity after repeated exposure to the most cause detrimental changes in microvilli lining the small intestine, and
common infectious agents. Adults also tend to have better hygiene than kill off small intestinal epithelial cells. The illness can result in
children. If children have frequently repeated incidents of weakness, loss of appetite, stomach cramps, vomiting, and excessive
gastroenteritis, they may suffer from malnutrition, stunted growth, and gas. Without treatment, symptoms may continue for several weeks.
developmental delays. Many cases of gastroenteritis in children can be Treatment with an antibiotic may be needed if symptoms persist longer
avoided by giving them a rotavirus vaccine. Frequent and thorough or are particularly severe.
hand washing can cut down on infections caused by other pathogens.
Treatment of gastroenteritis generally involves increasing fluid intake REVIEW
to replace fluids lost in vomitus or diarrhea. Oral rehydration solution, 1. What is inflammatory bowel disease?
which is a combination of water, salts, and sugar, is often 2. Describe typical symptoms of inflammatory bowel disease.
recommended. In severe cases, intravenous fluids may be needed. 3. Compare and contrast Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis.
Antibiotics are not usually prescribed because they are ineffective 4. What is diverticulosis? How is it related to diverticulitis?
against viruses that cause most cases of gastroenteritis. 5. Identify the locations and causes of peptic ulcers.
6. Define and describe gastroenteritis.
GIARDIASIS 7. Identify the cause of giardiasis. Why may it cause malabsorption?
8. Which of the following does not normally affect the small
intestine?
A. Peptic ulcers
B. Crohn's disease
C. Giardiasis
D. Ulcerative colitis
9. Name three disorders of the GI tract that can be due to bacteria.
10. True or False. A colonoscopy can be used to examine the small
intestine.
11. True or False. Peptic ulcers are mainly due to diet.
12. Name one disorder of the GI tract that can be helped by anti-
Figure 18.7.5 : Giardia lamblia is a single-celled organism that
inflammatory medications and one that can be caused by chronic
parasitizes the GI tract of humans as well as many other animal
species. It is a eukaryotic cell with tentacle-like extensions. use of anti-inflammatory medications.
Giardiasis, popularly known as beaver fever, is a type of 13. People with ulcerative colitis should be frequently screened for
gastroenteritis caused by a GI tract parasite, the single-celled protozoan _________ cancer.
Giardia lamblia (Figure 18.7.5). The parasite inhabits the digestive 14. Describe one reason why it can be dangerous to drink untreated
tract of a wide variety of domestic and wild animal species in addition water.
to human beings, including cows, rodents, and sheep as well as beavers 15. Do you think the “stomach flu” can be prevented by an influenza
(hence its popular name). Giardiasis is one of the most common vaccine? Why or why not?
parasitic infections in people the world over, with hundreds of millions
of people infected worldwide each year. EXPLORE MORE
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risk include travelers to countries where giardiasis is common, people
who work in child-care settings, backpackers and campers who drink

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18.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: CELIAC AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
inflammation. Crohn’s disease can affect any part of the GI tract, most
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: PLEASE DON’T commonly the ileum of the small intestine, while ulcerative colitis
PASS THE BREAD mainly affects the colon and rectum. Similar to celiac disease,
The garlic bread stuffed with spaghetti shown in Figure 18.8.1 may or treatments for these diseases also focus on reducing GI tract damage
may not look appetizing to you, but for people with celiac disease, it is through lifestyle changes and medications.
certainly off-limits. Bread and pasta are traditionally made with wheat, Gluten is clearly dangerous for people with celiac disease, but should
which contains proteins called gluten. As you learned in the beginning people who do not have celiac disease or other diagnosed medical
of the chapter, even trace amounts of gluten can damage the digestive problems with gluten also eliminate gluten from their diet? Many
system of people with celiac disease. When Rania and Tui met for medical experts say no; because gluten-free diets are so restrictive, they
lunch, Rania chose a restaurant that she knew could provide her with may cause nutritional deficiencies without providing any proven health
gluten-free food because she has this disease. benefits. They can also be expensive and, as Tui’s cousin found out,
difficult to maintain given that gluten is present in so many foods. It is
estimated that only 1% of the population has celiac disease. Most
people should enjoy a varied diet and consult with their doctor if they
are concerned about celiac disease, other types of gluten intolerance, or
food allergies.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this chapter, you learned about the digestive system, which allows
the body to obtain needed nutrients from food. Specifically, you
learned that:
The digestive system consists of organs that break down food,
Figure 18.8.1 : Spaghetti Stuffed Garlic Bread
absorb its nutrients, and expel any remaining food waste.
When people with celiac disease eat gluten, it causes an autoimmune
Most digestive organs form a long, continuous tube through which
reaction that results in inflammation and flattening of the villi of the
food passes, called the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. It starts at the
small intestine. What do you think happens if the villi are inflamed and
mouth, which is followed by the pharynx, esophagus, stomach,
flattened? Think about what you have learned about the functions of
small intestine, and large intestine.
the villi and small intestine. The small intestine is where most chemical
Organs of the GI tract have walls that consist of several tissue
digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs in the body. The villi
layers that enable them to carry out digestion and/or absorption. For
increase the surface area in the small intestine to maximize the
example, the inner mucosa has cells that secrete digestive enzymes
digestion of food and absorption of nutrients into the blood and lymph.
and other digestive substances and also cells that absorb nutrients.
If the villi are inflamed and flattened, there is less surface area where
The muscle layer of the organs enables them to contract and relax
digestion and absorption can occur. Therefore, damage from celiac
in waves of peristalsis to move food through the GI tract.
disease can result in inadequate absorption of nutrients, called
Digestion is a form of catabolism, in which food is broken down
malabsorption.
into small molecules that the body can absorb and use for energy,
Malabsorption explains why there can be so many different types of growth, and repair. Digestion occurs when food moves through the
symptoms of celiac disease, ranging from diarrhea and other forms of GI tract. The digestive process is controlled by both hormones and
digestive distress to anemia, nutritional deficiencies, skin rashes, nerves.
osteoporosis, bone pain, depression, anxiety, and rarer but potentially
Mechanical digestion is a physical process in which food is
serious complications such as cancer. Our bodies need to digest and
broken into smaller pieces without becoming chemically
absorb adequate amounts of nutrients in order to function properly and
changed. It occurs mainly in the mouth and stomach.
stay healthy. Lack of nutrients can affect and damage cells, tissues, and
Chemical digestion is a chemical process in which
organs throughout the body, sometimes seriously and irreversibly. A
macromolecules including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
person with celiac disease can limit and often heal intestinal damage
nucleic acids in food are changed into simple nutrient molecules
just by not eating gluten. In fact, eliminating all gluten from the diet is
that can be absorbed into body fluids. Carbohydrates are
the main treatment for celiac disease. In some people with celiac
chemically digested to sugars, proteins to amino acids, lipids to
disease, a gluten-free diet may not be enough, and steroids and other
fatty acids, and nucleic acids to individual nucleotides.
medications may be used to reduce the inflammation in the small
Chemical digestion requires digestive enzymes. Gut flora carries
intestine.
out additional chemical digestion.
Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder in which the body’s immune
Absorption occurs when the simple nutrient molecules that result
system attacks its own tissues. It is thought to be caused by the
from digestion are absorbed into blood or lymph. They are then
presence of particular genes in combination with exposure to gluten.
circulated through the body.
What are some other autoimmune disorders that you read about in this
Organs of the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract include the mouth,
chapter that affect the digestive system? The two main inflammatory
pharynx, esophagus, and stomach.
bowel diseases, Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis are both due to
the body’s immune system attacking the digestive system, resulting in

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 The mouth is the first organ of the GI tract. It has several The main digestive function of the liver is the production of
structures that are specialized for digestion, including salivary the alkaline liquid called bile. Bile is carried directly to the
glands, tongue, and teeth. Both mechanical digestion and duodenum by the common bile duct or to the gallbladder
chemical digestion of carbohydrates and fats begin in the mouth. first for storage. Bile neutralizes acidic chyme that enters the
The pharynx and esophagus move food from the mouth to the duodenum from the stomach and also emulsifies fat globules
stomach but are not directly involved in the process of digestion into smaller particles (micelles) that are easier to digest
or absorption. Food moves through the esophagus by peristalsis. chemically.
Mechanical and chemical digestion continue in the stomach. Other vital functions of the liver include regulating blood
Acid and digestive enzymes secreted by the stomach start the sugar levels by storing excess sugar as glycogen, storing
chemical digestion of proteins. The stomach turns masticated many vitamins and minerals, synthesizing numerous proteins
food into a semi-fluid mixture called chyme. and lipids, and breaking down waste products and toxic
The lower GI tract includes the small intestine and large intestine. substances.
The small intestine is where most chemical digestion and virtually The gallbladder is a small, pouch-like organ near the liver. It stores
all absorption of nutrients occur. The large intestine contains huge and concentrates bile from the liver until it is needed in the
numbers of beneficial bacteria and removes water and salts from duodenum to neutralize chyme and help digest lipids.
food waste before it is eliminated. The pancreas is a glandular organ that secretes both endocrine
The small intestine consists of three parts: the duodenum, hormones and digestive enzymes. As an endocrine gland, the
jejunum, and ileum. All three parts of the small intestine are pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar. As a
lined with mucosa that is very wrinkled and covered with villi digestive organ, the pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the
and microvilli, giving the small intestine a huge surface area for duodenum through ducts. Pancreatic digestive enzymes include
digestion and absorption. amylase (starches); trypsin and chymotrypsin (proteins); lipase
The ileum carries out any remaining digestion and (lipids); and ribonucleases and deoxyribonucleases (RNA and
absorption of nutrients, but its main function is to absorb DNA).
vitamin B12 and bile salts. Inflammatory bowel disease is a collection of inflammatory
The jejunum carries out most of the absorption of nutrients conditions primarily affecting the intestines. The diseases involve
in the small intestine, including the absorption of simple the immune system attacking the GI tract, and they have multiple
sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and many vitamins. genetic and environmental causes. Typical symptoms include
The duodenum secretes digestive enzymes and also receives abdominal pain and diarrhea, which show a pattern of repeated
bile from the liver or gallbladder and digestive enzymes and flare-ups interrupted by periods of remission. Lifestyle changes and
bicarbonate from the pancreas. These digestive substances medications may control flare-ups and extend remission. Surgery is
neutralize acidic chyme and allow for the chemical digestion sometimes required.
of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids in the The two principal inflammatory bowel diseases are Crohn’s disease
duodenum. and ulcerative colitis. Crohn’s disease may affect any part of the GI
tract from the mouth to the anus, among other body tissues.
The large intestine consists of the colon (which in turn includes the
Ulcerative colitis affects the colon and/or rectum.
cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and
Some people have little pouches, called diverticula, in the lining of
sigmoid colon), rectum, and anus. The vestigial organ called the
their large intestine, a condition called diverticulosis. People with
appendix is attached to the cecum of the colon.
diverticulosis may develop diverticulitis, in which one or more of
The main function of the large intestine is to remove water and the diverticula become infected and inflamed. Diverticulitis is
salts from chyme for recycling within the body and eliminating generally treated with antibiotics and bowel rest; sometimes surgery
the remaining solid feces from the body through the anus. The is required.
large intestine is also the site where trillions of bacteria help A peptic ulcer is a sore in the lining of the stomach (gastric ulcer)
digest certain compounds, produce vitamins, stimulate the or duodenum (duodenal ulcer). The most common cause is
immune system, and break down toxins, among other important infection with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori. NSAIDs such as
functions. aspirin can also cause peptic ulcers, and some lifestyle factors may
Accessory organs of digestion are organs that secrete substances play contributing roles. Antibiotics and acid reducers are typically
needed for the chemical digestion of food, but through which food prescribed; surgery is not often needed.
does not actually pass as it is digested. The accessory organs Gastroenteritis, or infectious diarrhea, is an acute and usually self-
include the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. These organs secrete or limiting infection of the GI tract by pathogens, most often viruses.
store substances that are carried to the duodenum of the small Symptoms typically include diarrhea, vomiting, and/or abdominal
intestine as needed for digestion. pain. Treatment includes replacing lost fluids; antibiotics are not
The liver is a large organ in the abdomen that is divided into usually effective.
lobes and smaller lobules, which consist of metabolic cells Giardiasis is a type of gastroenteritis caused by infection of the GI
called hepatic cells, or hepatocytes. The liver receives oxygen in tract with the protozoa parasite Giardia lamblia. It may cause
the blood from the aorta through the hepatic artery. It receives malnutrition. It is generally self-limiting, but severe or long-lasting
nutrients in blood from the GI tract and wastes in blood from the cases may require antibiotics.
spleen through the portal vein.
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW

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 1. Explain how the accessory organs of digestion interact with the GI pancreas; liver; gallbladder
tract. A. A small, pouch-like organ that stores and concentrates bile
2. In which of the following organs is food actually digested? produced by a different organ.
A. Pancreas B. Produces insulin as well as digestive enzymes and other needed
B. Small intestine substances.
C. Gallbladder C. Processes wastes in addition to aiding in digestive functions.
D. A and B 18. What is the name of the rhythmic muscle contractions that move
3. True or False. Bile is one of the digestive fluids secreted in the food through the GI tract?
stomach. 19. What are the major roles of the upper GI tract?
4. True or False. The smell of food can stimulate the release of 20. Diverticulitis causes infected and inflamed pouches in the:
digestive enzymes. A. stomach
5. If the pH in the duodenum was too low (acidic), what effect do you B. small intestine
think this would have on the processes of the digestive system? C. jejunum
6. Is the stomach involved in chemical digestion, mechanical D. large intestine
digestion, or both? Explain your answer. 21. What is the physiological cause of heartburn?
7. Absorption of most nutrients occurs in the: 22. Which disease most commonly affects the ileum of the small
A. Duodenum intestine?
B. Ileum
A. Crohn’s disease
C. Cecum
B. Peptic ulcer
D. Jejunum
C. Ulcerative colitis
8. Is food passing through the GI tract generally more solid in the D. Gastroenteritis
small intestine or the large intestine? Explain your answer.
23. True or False. Smoking does not contribute to digestive system
9. What is another name for the colon?
disorders.
10. Discuss whether digestion occurs in the large intestine.
24. True or False. In addition to obtaining nutrients, the digestive
11. The appendix is attached to:
system plays a role in protecting the body from pathogens.
A. The large intestine 25. What are two ways in which the tongue participates in digestion?
B. The small intestine 26. Where is the epiglottis located?
C. The pancreas 27. If the epiglottis were to not close properly, what might happen?
D. The liver 28. The GI tract goes from the mouth to which structure?
12. What is lacteal? In your answer, be sure to describe both its location
and function in the digestive system. ATTRIBUTIONS
13. Lipids are digested at different points in the digestive system. 1. Spaghetti Stuffed Garlic Bread by Adam S licensed CC BY 2.0 via
Describe how lipids are digested at two of these points. Flickr.com
14. Describe two different functions of stomach acid. 2. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
15. True or False. Proteins are only digested in the stomach. 3.
16. True or False. A peptic ulcer can occur in the small intestine.
17. Match each of the following organs of the digestive system with the
description that best fits it. Each organ is used only once: Organs:

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
19: URINARY SYSTEM
This chapter discusses the concept of excretion and explains the excretory functions of the skin,
liver, large intestine, lungs, and kidneys. It also describes the other organs of the urinary system and
several urinary system disorders.

19.1: CASE STUDY: WASTE MANAGEMENT

“Wow, this line for the restroom is long!” Bintou says to Maeva, anxiously bobbing from side to
side to ease the pressure in her bladder. Maeva nods and says, “It’s always like this at parties. It’s
the alcohol.” As you will learn in this chapter, the liver and kidneys are important organs of the
excretory system, and impairment of the functioning of these organs can cause serious health
consequences.

19.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE URINARY SYSTEM

The actual human urinary system, also known as the renal system, is shown in the drawing below. The system consists of the kidneys,
ureters, bladder, and urethra, which is the only structure not visible in the sculpture above. The main function of the urinary system is
to eliminate the waste products of metabolism from the body by forming and excreting urine. Between 1 and 2 liters of urine are
normally produced every day in a healthy individual.

19.3: KIDNEYS
The two bean-shaped kidneys are located high in the back of the abdominal cavity on either side of the spine. A renal artery connects
each kidney with the aorta and transports unfiltered blood to the kidney. The kidney has two main layers involved in the filtration of
blood and formation of urine: the outer cortex and inner medulla. At least a million nephrons, which are the tiny functional units of
the kidney, span the cortex and medulla.

19.4: URETERS, URINARY BLADDER, AND URETHRA

Ureters are tube-like structures that connect the kidneys with the urinary bladder. They are paired structures, with one ureter for each
kidney. The urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular organ that rests on the pelvic floor. It is also lined with transitional epithelium. The
urethra is a tube that connects the urinary bladder to the external urethral orifice, which is the opening of the urethra on the surface of
the body.

19.5: DISORDERS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM

The kidneys play such vital roles in eliminating wastes and toxins and maintaining body-wide homeostasis that disorders of the
kidneys may be life threatening. Gradual loss of normal kidney function commonly occurs with a number of disorders, including
diabetes mellitus and high blood pressure. Other disorders of the kidneys are caused by faulty genes that are inherited. Loss of kidney
function may eventually progress to kidney failure.

19.6: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: ALCOHOL AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

As you learned in the beginning of the chapter, consumption of alcohol inhibits a hormone that causes our bodies to retain water. The
result is that more water is released in urine, increasing the frequency of restroom trips as well as the risk of dehydration. The
excretory system is essential to remove toxic wastes from the body and regulate homeostasis. Limiting alcohol consumption can help
preserve the normal functioning of the excretory system so that it can protect your health.

1 4/25/2021
19.1: CASE STUDY: WASTE MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER OVERVIEW: EXCRETORY SYSTEM
CASE STUDY: DRINK AND FLUSH In this chapter, you will learn about the excretory system, which rids
“Wow, this line for the restroom is long!” Bintou says to Maeva, the body of toxic waste products and helps maintain homeostasis.
anxiously bobbing from side to side to ease the pressure in her bladder. Specifically, you will learn about:
Maeva nods and says, “It’s always like this at parties. It’s the alcohol.”
The organs of the excretory system, which include the skin, liver,
Bintou and Maeva are 21-year-old college students at a party. They and large intestine, lungs, and kidneys, eliminate waste and excess
many other people have been drinking alcoholic beverages over the water from the body.
course of the evening. As the night has gotten later, the line for the How wastes are eliminated through sweat, feces, urine, and exhaled
restroom has gotten longer and longer. You may have noticed this gases; and how toxic substances in the blood are broken down by
phenomenon if you have been to places where large numbers of people the liver.
are drinking alcohol, like at the ballpark below. The urinary system, which includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder,
and urethra.
The main function of the urinary system, which is to filter the blood
and eliminate wastes, mineral ions, and excess water from the body
in the form of urine.
How the kidneys filter the blood, retain needed substances, produce
urine, and help maintain homeostasis, such as proper ion and water
balance.
How urine is stored, transported, and released from the body.
Figure 19.1.1 : A line stretching out of a restroom door at a ballpark. Disorders of the urinary system, including bladder infections,
Bintou says, “I wonder why alcohol makes you have to pee?” Maeva kidney stones, polycystic kidney disease, urinary incontinence, and
learned about this in her Human Biology class and tells Bintou that kidney damage due to factors such as uncontrolled diabetes and
alcohol inhibits a hormone that helps you retain water. So instead of high blood pressure.
your body retaining water, you urinate more out. This could lead to
As you read the chapter, think about the following questions:
dehydration, so she suggests that after their trip to the restroom, they
1. Which hormone do you think Maeva was referring to? Remember
start drinking water instead of alcohol.
that this hormone causes the urinary system to retain water and
For people who drink occasionally or moderately, this effect of alcohol
excrete less water out in the urine.
on the excretory system—the system that removes wastes such as urine
2. How and where does this hormone work?
—is usually temporary. However, in people who drink excessively,
3. Long-term, excessive use of alcohol can affect the liver and
alcohol can have serious, long-term effects on the excretory system.
kidneys. How do these two organs of excretion interact and work
For example, heavy drinking on a regular basis can cause liver and
together?
kidney disease.
As you will learn in this chapter, the liver and kidneys are important ATTRIBUTIONS
organs of the excretory system, and impairment of the functioning of 1. Gotta Pee (from QUACK design, Oslo based design agency that
these organs can cause serious health consequences. At the end of the make interiors from recycled materials) by Jon-Eric Melsæter, CC
chapter, you will learn which hormone Maeva was referring to, and BY 2.0 via Flickr.com
some of the ways alcohol can affect the excretory system, both after the 2. Line at ballpark by Dorothy, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr.com
occasional drink and in cases of excessive alcohol use and abuse. 3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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19.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE URINARY SYSTEM
SCULPTURE GARDEN kidney. The anatomy and function of the kidney are discussed in detail
In Figure 19.2.1, this interesting outdoor art installation can be in the next section.
viewed at the Hague in the Netherlands. It’s a colorful piece with an URETERS, BLADDER, URETHRA
unusual subject. The wrinkled structures on each side of the
After urine forms in the kidneys, it is transported through the ureters
sculpture represent the kidneys, and the striped structure in the
(one per kidney) to the sac-like bladder, which stores the urine until
distance represents the urinary bladder. The red and blue tubes are
urination. During urination, the urine is released from the bladder and
blood vessels, and the tan tubes are ureters. In short, the installation
transported by the urethra to be excreted outside the body through the
is a three-dimensional depiction of the human urinary system. Only
external urethral opening.
one urinary system organ is not visible in the photo. Do you know
what it is? FUNCTIONS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
Waste products removed from the body with the formation and
elimination of urine include many water-soluble metabolic products.
The main waste products are urea, a by-product of protein catabolism,
and uric acid, a by-product of nucleic acid catabolism. Excess water
and mineral ions are also eliminated in urine.
Besides the elimination of waste products such as these, the urinary
system has several other vital functions. These include:
Figure 19.2.1 : Nier met blaas (Kidney with bladder) maintaining homeostasis of mineral ions in extracellular fluid.
These ions are either excreted in urine or returned to the blood as
The actual human urinary system, also known as the renal system, is
needed to maintain the proper balance.
shown in Figure 19.2.2. The system consists of the kidneys, ureters,
regulating the acid-base balance in the body. For example, when pH
bladder, and urethra, which is the only structure not visible in the
is too low (blood is too acidic), the kidneys excrete less bicarbonate
sculpture above. The main function of the urinary system is to
(which is basic) in the urine. When pH is too high (blood is too
eliminate the waste products of metabolism from the body by forming
basic), the opposite occurs and more bicarbonate is excreted in the
and excreting urine. Between 1 and 2 liters of urine are normally
urine.
produced every day in a healthy individual.
controlling the volume of extracellular fluids, including the blood,
which helps maintain blood pressure. The kidneys control fluid
volume and blood pressure by excreting more or less salt and water
in urine.

CONTROL OF THE URINARY SYSTEM

The formation of urine must be closely regulated to maintain body-
wide homeostasis. Several endocrine hormones help control this
function of the urinary system, including antidiuretic hormone,
parathyroid hormone, and aldosterone.
Antidiuretic hormone, also called vasopressin, is secreted by the
hypothalamus. One of its main roles is conserving body water. It is
released when the body is dehydrated and causes the kidneys to
excrete less water in urine.
Parathyroid hormone is secreted by the parathyroid glands. It works
to regulate the balance of mineral ions in the body through its
Figure 19.2.2 : The components of the urinary system include the two effects on several organs, including the kidneys. Parathyroid
kidneys which lead to two tubes called ureters which lead to a holding hormone stimulates the kidneys to excrete less calcium and more
structure called the bladder which leads to a tube called the urethra. phosphorus in the urine.
Aldosterone is secreted by the cortex of the adrenal glands, which
ORGANS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM rest atop the kidneys, as shown in Figure 19.2.3. It plays a central
The urinary system is all about urine. It includes organs that form urine role in regulating blood pressure through its effects on the kidneys.
and also those that transport, store, or excrete urine. It causes the kidneys to excrete less sodium and water in urine.
KIDNEYS
Urine is formed by the kidneys, which filter many substances out of
blood, allow the blood to reabsorb needed materials, and use the
remaining materials to form urine. The human body normally has two
paired kidneys, although it is possible to get by quite well with just one

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 7. Identify the functions of the urinary system besides the elimination
of waste products.
8. How is the formation of urine regulated?
9. Explain how the process of urination is controlled.
10. What function do the adrenal glands carry out that is related to
urine?
A. They form urine and transport it to the kidneys
B. They excrete concentrated urine into the ureters
C. They secrete a hormone that affects the composition of urine
D. They store urine when water and salts need to be retained by the
body
11. Explain why it is important to have voluntary control over the
sphincter at the end of the urethra.
Figure 19.2.3 : The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys.
They secrete aldosterone into the bloodstream, which carries it to the 12. Compare the aldosterone to antidiuretic hormones in terms of how
kidneys. they affect the kidneys.
Once urine forms, it is excreted from the body in the process of 13. If your body needed to retain more calcium, which of the hormones
urination. This process is controlled by both the autonomic and the described in this concept is the most likely to rise in the level?
somatic nervous systems. As the bladder fills with urine, it causes the Explain your reasoning.
autonomic nervous system to signal a muscle in the bladder wall to 14. True or False. Urine is composed of water, urea, and minerals only.
contract and the sphincter between the bladder and urethra to relax and
15. True or False. The renal artery contains blood that was filtered by
open. This forces urine out of the bladder and through the urethra.
the kidney.
Another sphincter at the distal end of the urethra is under voluntary
control. When it relaxes under the influence of the somatic nervous EXPLORE MORE
system, it allows urine to leave the body through the external urethral https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16839#Explore_More
opening.
Attributions
REVIEW 1. Nier met blaas / Kidney with bladder by FaceMePLS from The
Hague, The Netherlands, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons
1. What organs make up the urinary system?
2. Urinary system by Arcadian (National Cancer Institute), Public
2. State the main function of the urinary system.
Domain via Wikimedia Commons
3. What is the primary function of the kidneys?
3. Adrenal Glands by Pearson Scott Foresman, Public Domain via
4. Describe how blood enters and leaves the kidneys.
Wikimedia Commons
5. What are nephrons?
4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
6. What happens to urine after it forms in the kidneys?
3.0

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19.3: KIDNEYS
KIDNEYS ON THE MENU The shape of each kidney gives it a convex side and a concave side.
Pictured here amidst a bed of mixed veggies are a steak and kidney You can see this clearly in the detailed diagram of kidney anatomy
pudding. More often made into a pie, this savory dish is a British shown in Figure 19.3.3. The concave side is where the renal artery
favorite. Kidneys on the menu typically come from sheep, pigs, or enters the kidney and the renal vein and ureter leave the kidney. This
cows. In these animals as in the human animal, kidneys are the area of the kidney is called the hilum. The entire kidney is surrounded
main organs of excretion. by tough fibrous tissue, called the renal capsule, which in turn is
surrounded by two layers of protective, cushioning fat.

Figure 19.3.1 : Steak and kidney pudding

LOCATION OF THE KIDNEYS

The two bean-shaped kidneys are located high in the back of the
abdominal cavity, one on each side of the spine. Both kidneys sit just
below the diaphragm, the large breathing muscle that separates the
abdominal and thoracic cavities. As you can see in Figure 19.3.2, the
right kidney is slightly smaller and lower than the left kidney. The right Figure 19.3.3 : This diagram shows the location and relative size of the
two kidneys as well as the internal structure of each kidney.
kidney is behind the liver, and the left kidney is behind the spleen. The
location of the liver explains why the right kidney is smaller and lower Internally, each kidney is divided into two major layers: the outer renal
than the left. cortex and the inner renal medulla (see Figure 19.3.3). These layers
take the shape of many cone-shaped renal lobules, each containing a
renal cortex surrounding a portion of the medulla called a renal
pyramid. Within the renal pyramids are the structural and functional
units of the kidneys, the tiny nephrons. Between the renal pyramids are
projections of cortex called renal columns. The tip or papilla of each
pyramid empties urine into a minor calyx (chamber). Several minor
calyces empty into a major calyx, and the latter empties into the funnel-
shaped cavity called the renal pelvis, which becomes the ureter as it
leaves the kidney.

RENAL CIRCULATION
The renal circulation is an important part of the kidney’s main function
of filtering waste products from the blood. Blood is supplied to the
kidneys via the renal arteries. The right renal artery supplies the right
kidney, and the left renal artery supplies the left kidney. These two
arteries branch directly from the aorta, which is the largest artery in the
body. Each kidney is only about 11 cm (4.4 in.) long and has a mass of
just 150 grams (5.3 oz), yet it receives about 10 percent of the total
output of blood from the heart. Blood is filtered through the kidneys
about 20 times each hour, 24 hours a day, day after day.
As indicated in Figure 19.3.4, each renal artery carries blood with
Figure 19.3.2 : This classic illustration of the abdominal cavity
provides a view of the internal organs from the back of the body. It waste products into the kidney. Within the kidney, the renal artery
clearly shows the locations of the right and left kidney, as well as the branches into increasingly smaller arteries that extend through the renal
large blood vessels that connect the kidneys to the body’s main artery columns between the renal pyramids. These arteries, in turn, branch
(aorta) and vein (inferior vena cava). The ureter exiting each kidney is into arterioles that penetrate the renal pyramids. Blood in the arterioles
also shown in the diagram.
passes through nephrons, the structures that actually filter the blood.
KIDNEY ANATOMY After blood passes through the nephrons and is filtered, the clean blood
moves through a network of venules that converge into small veins.

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Small veins merge into increasingly larger ones and ultimately into the the Bowman's capsule, a space surrounding the glomerulus. Bowman's
renal vein, which carries clean blood away from the kidney to the capsule is the initial structure of a nephron. Extending from Bowman’s
inferior vena cava. capsule is the renal tubule. The proximal end (nearest Bowman’s
capsule) of the renal tubule is called the proximal convoluted (coiled)
tubule. From here, the renal tubule continues as a loop (known as the
loop of Henle), which in turn becomes the distal convoluted tubule.
The latter finally joins with a collecting duct. As you can see in the
diagram, peritubular capillaries surround the total length of the renal
tubule.

THE FUNCTION OF A NEPHRON

Figure 19.3.4 : The renal artery and renal vein carry blood to and from
the kidney, respectively. As blood passes through the capillaries
surrounding nephrons within the kidney, it is filtered and substances
filtered from the blood are eventually excreted via ureter to the bladder.

NEPHRON STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

The illustration above gives an indication of the complex structure of a
nephron. The nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of the
kidney, and each kidney typically contains at least a million of them.
As blood flows through a nephron, many materials are filtered out of
the blood, needed materials are returned to the blood, and the
remaining materials form urine. Most of the waste products removed
from the blood and excreted in the urine are byproducts of metabolism.
At last half of the waste is urea, a waste product produced by protein Figure 19.3.6 : This diagram of a nephron shows the parts of the
catabolism. Another important waste is uric acid, produced in nucleic nephron where different stages of nephron function take place.
acid catabolism. Filtration (1) occurs in the Renal corpuscle, Reabsorption (2) occurs in
the proximal tubule, Secretion (3) occurs in the distal tubule, and
COMPONENTS OF A NEPHRON Excretion (4) occurs in the collecting duct.
The simplified diagram of a nephron in Figure 19.3.6 shows how the
nephron functions. Blood enters the nephron through an arteriole called
the afferent arteriole. Some of the blood next passes through the
capillaries of the glomerulus. Any blood that doesn’t pass through the
glomerulus, as well as blood after it passes through the glomerular
capillaries, continues on through an arteriole called the efferent
arteriole. The efferent arteriole follows the renal tubule of the nephron,
where it continues to play roles in nephron functioning.
FILTRATION
As blood from the afferent arteriole flows through the glomerular
capillaries, it is under pressure. Because of the pressure, water and
solutes are filtered out of the blood and into the space made by
Bowman’s capsule. This is the filtration stage of nephron function. The
filtered substances, called filtrate, pass into Bowman’s capsule and
from there into the proximal end of the renal tubule. At this stage,
filtrate includes water, salts, organic solids such as nutrients, and waste
Figure 19.3.5 : This model of an individual nephron shows each of the products of metabolism such as urea.
structures that are involved in filtering blood, returning needed REABSORPTION AND SECRETION
materials to blood, or excreting wastes that form urine. The arrows
indicate the direction in which fluids flow through the nephron. As filtrate moves through the renal tubule, some of the substances it
The diagram in Figure 19.3.5 shows in greater detail the components contains are reabsorbed from the filtrate back into the blood in the
of a nephron. The renal corpuscle is a filtering structure that is consists efferent arteriole (via peritubular capillaries). This is the reabsorption
of a network of capillaries called the glomerulus (plural, glomeruli) and stage of nephron function. About two-thirds of the filtered salts and

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water and all of the filtered organic solutes (mainly glucose and amino Aldosterone is secreted by the adrenal cortex. Aldosterone causes
acids) are reabsorbed from the filtrate by the blood in the peritubular the kidneys to increase the reabsorption of sodium ions and water
capillaries. Reabsorption occurs mainly in the proximal convoluted from the filtrate into the blood. This returns the concentration of
tubule and the loop of Henle. sodium ions in the blood to normal. The increased water in the
At the distal end of the renal tubule, some additional reabsorption blood also increases blood volume and blood pressure.
generally occurs. This is also the region of the tubule where other Calcitriol is secreted by the kidneys in response to low levels of
substances from the blood are added to the filtrate in the tubule. The calcium in the blood. This hormone stimulates the uptake of
addition of other substances to the filtrate from the blood is called calcium by the intestine, thus raising blood levels of calcium.
secretion. Both reabsorption and secretion in the distal convoluted Erythropoietin is secreted by the kidneys in response to low levels
tubule are largely under the control of endocrine hormones that of oxygen in the blood. This hormone stimulates erythropoiesis,
maintain homeostasis of water and mineral salts in the blood. These which is the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. Extra
hormones work by controlling what is reabsorbed into the blood from red blood cells increase the level of oxygen carried in the blood.
the filtrate and what is secreted from the blood into the filtrate to FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS
become urine. For example, the parathyroid hormone causes more Kidney failure is a complication of common disorders including
calcium to be reabsorbed into the blood and more phosphorus to be diabetes mellitus and hypertension. Almost half a million
secreted into the filtrate. Americans have end-stage kidney disease and need to either receive
a donated kidney or have frequent hemodialysis, a medical
COLLECTION OF URINE AND EXCRETION
procedure in which the blood is artificially filtered through a
By the time the filtrate has passed through the entire renal tubule, it has
machine. Transplant generally has better outcomes than
become the liquid waste known as urine. Urine empties from the distal
hemodialysis but demand for organs far outstrips the supply. At any
end of the renal tubule into a collecting duct. From there, the urine
given time, more than 100,000 people in the U.S. are on a waiting
flows into increasingly larger collecting ducts. As urine flows through
list for a kidney transplant, but each year fewer than 20,000 receive
the system of collecting ducts, more water may be reabsorbed from it.
them. Every day, 13 Americans die while waiting for a donor's
This will occur in the presence of antidiuretic hormone from the
kidney.
hypothalamus. This hormone makes the collecting ducts permeable to
For the past decade, Dr. William Fissell, a kidney specialist at
water, allowing water molecules to pass through them into capillaries
Vanderbilt University, has been working to create an implantable
by osmosis while preventing the passage of ions or other solutes. As
part-biological and part-artificial kidney. Using microchips like
much as three-fourths of the water may be reabsorbed from urine in the
those used in computers, he has produced an artificial kidney small
collecting ducts, making the urine more concentrated.
enough to implant in the patient’s body in place of the failed
Urine finally exits the largest collecting ducts through the renal kidney. According to Dr. Fissell, the artificial kidney is “... a bio-
papillae. It empties into the renal calyces and finally into the renal hybrid device that can mimic a kidney to remove enough waste
pelvis (see Figure 19.3.3. From there, it travels through the ureter to products, salt, and water to keep a patient off [hemo]dialysis.”
the urinary bladder for eventual excretion from the body. An average of
The filtration system in the artificial kidney consists of a stack of
about 1.5 liters of urine is excreted each day. Normally, urine is yellow
15 microchips. Tiny pores in the microchips act as a scaffold for the
or amber in color (Figure 19.3.7). The darker the color, generally the
growth of living kidney cells that can mimic the natural functions
more concentrated the urine is.
of the kidney. The living cells form a membrane to filter the
patient’s blood as a biological kidney would, but with less risk of
rejection by the patient’s immune system because they are
embedded within the device. The new kidney doesn’t need a power
source because it uses the natural pressure of blood flowing through
arteries to push the blood through the filtration system. A major
part of the design of the artificial organ was devoted to fine-tuning
the fluid dynamics so blood flows through the device without
clotting.
Figure 19.3.7 : Fresh urine is typically yellow or amber in color. The implantable kidney was given fast-track approval for testing in
people by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration because of the
OTHER FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEYS potentially life-saving benefits of the device. The artificial kidney is
Besides filtering blood and forming urine for the excretion of soluble expected to be tested in pilot trials by 2018. Dr. Fissell says he has
wastes, the kidneys have several vital functions in maintaining body- a long list of patients eager to volunteer for the trials.
wide homeostasis. Most of these functions are related to the
composition or volume of urine formed by the kidneys. These REVIEW
functions include maintaining the proper balance of water and salts in 1. Where are the kidneys located?
the body, normal blood pressure, and the correct range of blood pH. 2. Contrast the renal artery and renal vein.
Through the processes of absorption and secretion by nephrons, more 3. Describe the structure of the kidney.
or less water, salt ions, acids, or bases are returned to the blood or 4. Identify the functions of a nephron.
excreted in urine as needed to maintain homeostasis. 5. Describe in detail what happens to fluids (blood, filtrate, and urine)
as they pass through the parts of a nephron.
KIDNEY HORMONES

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 6. Use the example of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system to B. renal tubule
illustrate how the kidneys control homeostasis with the help of C. collecting duct
endocrine hormones.
D. ureter
7. Identify two endocrine hormones secreted by the kidneys and the
functions they control. EXPLORE MORE
8. Put the following structures in order of how urine flows out of the https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16840#Explore_More
kidney, from the earliest to the latest:
collecting ducts; renal tubule; renal pelvis; renal calyces ATTRIBUTIONS
9. Name two regions in the kidney where water is reabsorbed. 1. Steak and Kidney Pudding by Annie Mole from London, UK; CC
BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons
10. True or False. Once the filtrate enters the renal tubule, no
2. Vessels of the abdomen by Henry Gray (1918) Anatomy of the
substances are added to it.
Human Body, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons
11. True or False. Some substances are reabsorbed in the distal end of 3. Kidney Anatomy by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
the renal tubule. Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
12. Is the blood in the glomerular capillaries more or less filtered than DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. CC BY 3.0 via
the blood in the peritubular capillaries? Explain your answer. Wikimedia Commons
13. How many nephrons are there per kidney? 4. Kidney by CNX OpenStax, CC BY 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
5. Blood Flow in the Nephron by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0, via
A. One
Wikimedia Commons
B. Thirteen 6. Physiology of Nephron by Madhero88, CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia
C. At least one thousand Commons
D. At least one million 7. Urine by Sustainable Sanitation Alliance, CC BY 2.0 via
14. If blood flow to the kidneys is blocked, what do you think would Wikimedia Commons
happen? 8. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0
15. The loop of Henle is part of the:
A. glomerulus

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19.4: URETERS, URINARY BLADDER, AND URETHRA
COMMUNICATING WITH URINE
Why do dogs urinate on fire hydrants? Besides “having to go,” they
are marking their territory with chemicals called pheromones in
their urine. It’s a form of communication, in which they are
“saying” with odors that the yard is theirs and other dogs should
stay away. Dogs may urinate on fence posts, trees, car tires, and
many other objects in addition to fire hydrants. Urination in dogs,
as in people, is usually a voluntary process controlled by the brain.
The process of forming urine, which occurs in the kidneys, occurs
constantly and is not under voluntary control. What happens to all
the urine that forms in the kidneys? It passes from the kidneys
through the other organs of the urinary system, starting with the
Figure 19.4.3 : Urine collects in the renal pelvis which is continuous
ureters. with the ureter. The ureter then carries the urine from the kidney to the
urinary bladder.
The walls of the ureters are composed of multiple layers of different
types of tissues. You can see the layers in Figure 19.4.4. The innermost
layer is a special type of epithelium, called the transitional epithelium.
Unlike the epithelium lining most organs, the transitional epithelium is
capable of flattening and distending and does not produce mucus. It
lines much of the urinary system, including the renal pelvis, bladder,
and much of the urethra in addition to the ureters. Transitional
Figure 19.4.1 : Dog urinating on hydrant epithelium allows these organs to stretch and expand as they fill with
urine or allow urine to pass through. The next layer of the ureter walls
URETERS is made up of loose connective tissue containing elastic fibers, nerves,
As shown in Figure 19.4.2, ureters are tube-like structures that connect and blood and lymphatic vessels. After this layer are two layers of
the kidneys with the urinary bladder. They are paired structures, with smooth muscles, an inner circular layer, and an outer longitudinal layer.
one ureter for each kidney. In adults, ureters are between 25 and 30 cm The smooth muscle layers can contract in waves of peristalsis to propel
(10 to 12 in.) long and about 3 to 4 mm (about 1/8 in.) in diameter. urine down the ureters from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. The
outermost layer of the ureter walls consists of fibrous tissue.

Figure 19.4.4 : This illustration shows a cross-section of a ureter. The

white space inside is the lumen through which urine passes. From the
lumen outward, the layers of the ureter wall include transitional
Figure 19.4.2 : Besides the kidneys, the urinary system includes two
epithelium, connective tissue, two layers of muscle fibers, and an outer
ureters, the urinary bladder, and the urethra.
layer of fibrous tissue.
Each ureter arises in the pelvis of a kidney (Figure 19.4.3). It then
passes down the side of the kidney and finally enters the back of the URINARY BLADDER
bladder. The urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular, and stretchy organ that
rests on the pelvic floor. It collects and stores urine from the kidneys
before the urine is eliminated through urination. As shown in Figure
19.4.5, urine enters the urinary bladder from the ureters through two

ureteral openings on either side of the back wall of the bladder. Urine
leaves the bladder through a sphincter called the internal urethral
sphincter. When the sphincter relaxes and opens, it allows urine to flow
out of the bladder and into the urethra.

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Like the ureters, the bladder is lined with transitional epithelium, which (exceptions are infants, some elderly people, and patients with certain
can flatten out and stretch as needed as the bladder fills with urine. The injuries or disorders). The muscle can be held in a contracted state and
next layer (lamina propria) is a layer of loose connective tissue, nerves, hold in the urine until the person is ready to urinate. Following
and blood and lymphatic vessels. This is followed by a submucosa urination, the smooth muscle lining the urethra automatically contracts
layer, which connects the lining of the bladder with the detrusor muscle to re-establish muscle tone, and the individual consciously contracts
in the walls of the bladder. The outer covering of the bladder is the the external urethral sphincter to close the external urethral opening.
peritoneum, which is a smooth layer of epithelial cells that lines the
abdominal cavity and covers most abdominal organs.
The detrusor muscle in the wall of the bladder is made of smooth
muscle fibers that are controlled by both the autonomic and somatic
nervous systems. As the bladder fills, the detrusor muscle
automatically relaxes to allow it to hold more urine. When the bladder
is about half full, the stretching of the walls triggers the sensation of
needing to urinate. When the individual is ready to void, conscious
nervous signals cause the detrusor muscle to contract and the internal
urethral sphincter to relax and open. As a result, urine is forcefully
expelled out of the bladder and into the urethra.

Figure 19.4.6 : The urinary bladder and urethra are colored brown to
Figure 19.4.5 : This diagram of the urinary bladder shows (a) a cross- illustrate them in (a) female anatomy and (b) male anatomy. Notice
sectional drawing of the entire bladder and (b) a microscopic cross- how much longer the male urethra is because it travels through the
section of the tissues in the wall of the bladder. length of the penis to reach the external urethral orifice.

URETHRA REVIEW
The urethra is a tube that connects the urinary bladder to the external 1. What are ureters?
urethral orifice, which is the opening of the urethra on the surface of 2. Describe the location of the ureters relative to other urinary tract
the body. As shown in Figure 19.4.6, the urethra in a person with XY organs.
chromosomes (anatomically male) travels through the penis, so it is 3. Identify layers in the walls of a ureter and how they contribute to
much longer than the urethra in a person with XX chromosomes the ureter’s function.
(anatomically female). In a genetically male person, the urethra 4. Describe the urinary bladder.
averages about 20 cm (8 in.) long, whereas, in a genetically female 5. What is the function of the urinary bladder?
individual, it averages only about 4.8 cm (1.9 in.) long. In an XY 6. How does the nervous system control the urinary bladder?
individual, the urethra carries semen as well as urine, but in the XX 7. What is the urethra?
individual, it carries only urine. 8. How does the nervous system control urination?
9. Identify the sphincters that are located along the pathway from the
Like the ureters and bladder, the proximal (closer to the bladder) two-
ureters to the external urethral orifice.
thirds of the urethra are lined with transitional epithelium. The distal
10. What are two differences between the male and female urethra?
(farther from the bladder) third of the urethra is lined with mucus-
11. True or False. Urine travels through the urinary system due solely
secreting epithelium. The mucus helps protect the epithelium from
to the force of gravity.
urine, which is corrosive. Below the epithelium is loose connective
12. True or False. Urination refers to the process that occurs from the
tissue, and below that are layers of smooth muscle that are continuous
formation of urine in the kidneys to the elimination of urine from
with the muscle layers of the urinary bladder. When the bladder
the body.
contracts to forcefully expel urine, the smooth muscle of the urethra
13. When the bladder muscle contracts, the smooth muscle in the walls
relaxes to allow the urine to pass through.
of the urethra _________ .
In order for urine to leave the body through the external urethral
14. Transitional epithelium lines the:
orifice, the external urethral sphincter must relax and open. This
A. bladder
sphincter is a striated muscle that is controlled by the somatic nervous
system, so it is under conscious, voluntary control in most people B. ureters

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 C. renal pelvis 2. Urinary System by Arcadian, Public Domain, via Wikimedia
D. All of the above Commons
3. The kidney by OpenStax, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
EXPLORE MORE 4. Transverseureter, Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16841#Explore_More 5. The bladder by OpenStax CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
Attributions 6. Female and Male Urethra by OpenStax CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
1. Dog urinating on hydrant by Jackie, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
Commons 7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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19.5: DISORDERS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
AWARENESS RIBBON
Awareness ribbons are symbols meant to show support or raise
consciousness for a cause. Different colors are associated with
different issues, often relating to health problems. The first ribbon
to gain familiarity for a health issue was the red ribbon for
HIV/AIDS, created in 1991. The pink ribbon for breast cancer
awareness is probably the best known today. Do you know what a
green ribbon like the one pictured in Figure 19.5.1 represents?
Among several other health problems, a green ribbon is meant to
show support or raise awareness for kidney disorders.

Figure 19.5.2 : Diabetic nephropathy is characterized by damage to the

capillaries in the glomeruli of the kidneys, represented by the lower of
the two inset diagrams.

Figure 19.5.1 : Kidney disorder awareness ribbon POLYCYSTIC KIDNEY DISEASE

Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is a genetic disorder in which
The kidneys play such vital roles in eliminating wastes and toxins and multiple abnormal cysts develop and grow in the kidneys. Figure
maintaining body-wide homeostasis that disorders of the kidneys may 19.5.3 shows a pair of kidneys that are riddled with cysts from PKD. In
be life-threatening. The gradual loss of normal kidney function people who inherit PKD, the cysts may start to form at any point in life
commonly occurs with a number of disorders, including diabetes from infancy through adulthood. Typically, both kidneys are affected.
mellitus and high blood pressure. Other disorders of the kidneys are Symptoms of the disorder may include high blood pressure, headaches,
caused by faulty genes that are inherited. Loss of kidney function may abdominal pain, blood in the urine, and excessive urination.
eventually progress to kidney failure.

DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY
Diabetic nephropathy is a progressive kidney disease caused by
damage to the capillaries in the glomeruli of the kidneys due to long-
standing diabetes mellitus (see Figure 19.5.2). It is not fully
understood how diabetes leads to damage of glomerular capillaries, but
it is thought that high levels of glucose in the blood are involved. In
people with diabetes, nephropathy is more likely if their blood glucose Figure 19.5.3 : In polycystic kidney disease, the kidneys are injured by
is poorly controlled. Having high blood pressure, a history of cigarette the formation of multiple cysts, which may grow to be quite large.
smoking and a family history of kidney problems are additional risk There are two types of PKD. The more common type is caused by an
factors. Diabetic nephropathy often has no symptoms at first. In fact, it autosomal dominant allele, and the less common type is caused by an
may take up to a decade after kidney damage begins for symptoms to autosomal recessive allele. Both types collectively make PKD one of
appear. When they do appear, they typically include severe tiredness, the most common hereditary diseases in the United States, affecting
headaches, nausea, frequent urination, and itchy skin. more than half a million people. There is little or no difference in the
Proteins are large molecules that usually are not filtered out of blood in rate of occurrence of PKD between genders or ethnic groups. There is
the glomeruli. When the glomerular capillaries are damaged, it allows no known cure for this disease other than a kidney transplant.
proteins such as albumin to leak into the filtrate from the blood. As a
KIDNEY FAILURE
result, albumin ends up being excreted in the urine. Finding a high
level of albumin in the urine is one indicator of diabetic nephropathy Both diabetic nephropathy and PKD may lead to kidney (or renal)
and helps to diagnose the disorder. Drugs may be prescribed to reduce failure (classified as end-stage kidney disease), in which the kidneys
protein levels in the urine. Controlling high blood sugar levels and are no longer able to adequately filter metabolic wastes from the blood.
hypertension (high blood pressure) is also important to help slow Long-term, uncontrolled high blood pressure is another common cause
kidney damage, as is a reduction of sodium intake. of kidney failure. Symptoms of kidney failure may include nausea,
more or less frequent urination, blood in the urine, muscle cramps,
anemia, swelling of the extremities, and shortness of breath due to the
accumulation of fluid in the lungs. If kidney function drops below the
level needed to sustain life, then the only treatment option is kidney

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transplantation or some means of artificial filtration of the blood, such are obvious. They include limiting cola consumption, eating less
as by hemodialysis. animal protein, losing weight, and increasing fluid intake.
Hemodialysis is a medical procedure in which blood is filtered
externally through a machine. You can see how it works in the
simplified diagram in Figure 19.5.4. During dialysis, waste products
such as urea as well as excess water are removed from the patient’s
blood before the blood is returned to the patient. Hemodialysis is
typically done on an outpatient basis in a hospital or special dialysis
clinic. Less frequently, it is done in the patient’s home. Depending on
the patient’s size, among other factors, the blood is filtered for 3 to 4
hours about 3 times a week. Because the treatment is needed so
frequently, hemodialysis is one of the most common procedures
performed in U.S. hospitals.

Figure 19.5.5 : Kidney stones form in the kidney and may grow large
enough to block the major calyx or ureter.

OTHER URINARY SYSTEM DISORDERS

Although disorders of the kidneys are generally the most serious
urinary system disorders, problems that affect other organs of the
urinary tract are generally more common. They include bladder
infections and urinary incontinence.

BLADDER INFECTION
A bladder infection, also called cystitis, is a very common type of
urinary tract infection in which the urinary bladder becomes infected
Figure 19.5.4 : This simple diagram shows the general process by by bacteria (typically Escherichia coli), rarely by fungi. Symptoms of
which blood is filtered externally in the process of hemodialysis. Blood
is taken from a patient, run through a filtration machine, and then bladder infections may include pain with urination, frequent urination,
returned. and feeling the need to urinate despite having an empty bladder. In
some cases, there may be blood in the urine. A much less common type
KIDNEY STONES of urinary tract infection is pyelonephritis, in which the kidney
A kidney stone, also known as a renal calculus, is a solid crystal that becomes infected. If a kidney infection occurs, it is generally because
forms in a kidney from minerals in urine (see Figure 19.5.5). The of an untreated bladder infection. Bladder infections are treated mainly
majority of kidney stones consist of crystals of calcium salts. Kidney with antibiotics.
stones typically leave the body in the urine stream. A small stone may
pass through the ureters and other urinary tract organs without causing
symptoms and go undetected. A larger stone may cause pain when it
passes through the urinary tract. If a kidney stone grows large enough,
it may block the ureter. Blockage of a ureter may cause a decrease in
kidney function and damage to the kidney.
A kidney stone that causes pain is generally treated with pain
medication until it passes through the urinary tract. A stone that causes
a blockage may be treated with lithotripsy. This is a medical procedure
in which high-intensity ultrasound pulses are applied externally to
cause fragmentation of the stone into pieces small enough to pass
easily through the urinary tract. Although lithotripsy is noninvasive, it
can cause damage to the kidneys. An alternative treatment for a stone
that blocks urine flow is to insert a stent into the ureter to expand it and
allow both urine and the stone to pass. In some cases, surgery may be Figure 19.5.6 : Using a diaphragm like this one as a barrier method of
required to physically remove a large stone from the ureter. birth control may increase the risk of a woman developing a bladder
infection following sexual intercourse
A combination of lifestyle and genetic factors seem to predispose
certain people to develop kidney stones. Risk factors include high Risk factors for urinary bladder infections include sexual intercourse
consumption of cola soft drinks, eating a diet high in animal protein, (especially when spermicide or a diaphragm, as shown in Figure
19.5.6, is used for contraception), diabetes, obesity, and most
being overweight, and not drinking enough fluids. Preventive measures
importantly, female sex. Bladder infections are four times more

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common in women than in men. In fact, in women, they are the most dark urine may indicate dehydration, but it could also be caused by
common type of bacterial infection, and as many as 1 in 10 women has taking certain medications or ingesting some other substances. If
a bladder infection in any given year. Female anatomy explains the sex the urine has a reddish tinge, it is often a sign of blood in the urine,
difference in the incidence of bladder infections. The urethra is much which could be due to a urinary tract infection, kidney stone, or
shorter and closer to the anus in females than in males, so even cancer. If the urine appears cloudy instead of clear, it could be
contamination of the urethra and then the bladder with GI tract bacteria due to white blood cells in the urine, which may be another sign of
is more likely in females than in males. Once the bacteria reach the a urinary tract infection.
bladder, they can attach to the bladder wall and form a biofilm that Normal urine may have virtually no odor if it is very dilute. It will
resists the body’s immune response. have a stronger odor if it is concentrated. Brief changes in the
normal odor of urine often occur due to the ingestion of certain
URINARY INCONTINENCE
foods or medications. For example, after eating asparagus, urine
Urinary incontinence is a chronic problem of uncontrolled leakage of
may have a peculiar and distinctive odor for several hours. More
urine. It is very common, especially at older ages and especially in
significant is urine that has a sweet smell, because this may indicate
women. Sometimes urinary incontinence is a sign of another health
sugar in the urine, which is a sign of diabetes.
problem, such as diabetes or obesity. Regardless of the underlying
cause, the symptoms of urinary incontinence alone may have a large Urine test strips, much like the familiar litmus test strips used to
impact on the quality of life, frequently causing inconvenience, detect acids and bases in a chemistry lab, are used to identify
embarrassment, and distress. abnormal levels of certain components in the urine. For example,
urine test strips can detect and quantify the presence of nitrites in
In a person with male anatomy, urinary incontinence is most commonly
urine, which is usually a sign of infection with certain types of
caused by an enlarged prostate gland or treatment for prostate cancer.
bacteria. Urine test strips can also be used to identify proteins such
In genetically female individuals, there are two common types of
as albumin in urine, which may be a sign of a kidney infection or of
urinary incontinence with different causes: stress incontinence and urge
kidney failure. Levels of sodium in urine can also be measured with
incontinence.
test strips, and higher-than-normal levels may be another indication
Stress urinary incontinence is caused by loss of support of the of kidney failure. In addition, test strips can identify and quantify
urethra, usually due to stretching of pelvic floor muscles during the presence of white blood cells and blood in a urine specimen,
childbirth. It is characterized by leakage of small amounts of urine both of which are likely to be a sign of a urinary tract infection or
with activities that increase abdominal pressure, such as coughing, some other urinary system disorder.
sneezing, or lifting. Treatment of stress urinary incontinence may
Besides the use of urine test strips, other simple urine tests that are
include Kegel exercises to strengthen the pelvic muscles (see
often performed include Benedict’s test, which is a test for the
Explore More below). More serious cases may call for surgery to
presence and quantity of glucose in urine. If the level is high, it is
improve support for the bladder.
likely to indicate diabetes. The test is so simple that it may even be
Urge urinary incontinence (commonly called “overactive bladder”)
done in the home by the patient to monitor how well sugar levels
is caused by uncontrolled contractions of the detrusor muscle in the
are being controlled. Testing for some other substances in urine
wall of the bladder. This causes the bladder to empty unexpectedly.
requires the patient to collect urine over a 24-hour period. This is
Urge incontinence is characterized by leakage of large amounts of
the case, for example, when testing for the adrenal hormone cortisol
urine in association with an insufficient warning to get to the
in urine. When urine cortisol levels are higher than normal it may
bathroom in time. Treatment of urge incontinence may include
indicate Cushing’s syndrome, and when the levels are lower than
taking medication to relax the detrusor muscle.
normal it may indicate Addison’s disease.
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY
You probably have had to “donate” a urine specimen for analysis in REVIEW
conjunction with a medical visit. A thorough medical exam often 1. What is diabetic nephropathy and what causes it?
includes clinical tests for urine. Understanding what your urine may 2. Describe polycystic kidney disease (PKD).
reveal about your health may help you appreciate the need for such 3. Define kidney failure.
tests. 4. What are potential treatments for kidney failure when kidney
The most common urine test is called a urinalysis. In a routine function drops below the level needed to sustain life?
urinalysis, a urine sample may be analyzed by sight and smell and 5. Describe hemodialysis.
with simple urine test strips. If a particular disorder is suspected, 6. What are kidney stones?
urinalysis may be more extensive. For example, the urine may be 7. How may a large kidney stone be removed from the body?
analyzed with specific tests or viewed under a microscope to 8. How are bladder infections usually treated?
identify abnormal substances in the urine. If a bacterial infection is 9. Why are bladder infections much more common in females than in
suspected, a sample of urine may be cultured in the lab to see if it males?
grows bacteria and which type of bacteria grow. Knowing the type 10. Define urinary incontinence.
of bacteria is important for deciding which class of antibiotics is 11. Compare and contrast stress incontinence and urge incontinence.
likely to be most effective in treating the infection. 12. Why is the presence of a protein such as albumin in the urine a
The color and clarity of urine may be obvious first indicators of cause for concern?
disorders or other abnormalities. Normal urine is yellow to amber 13. Patients undergoing hemodialysis usually have to do this procedure
in color and looks clear. If urine is nearly colorless, it could be a a few times a week. Why does it have to be done so frequently?
sign of excessive fluid intake, or it might be a sign of diabetes. Very 14. Which of the following is considered a genetic disorder?

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 A. Polycystic kidney disease 3. Polycystic kidneys by CDC/ Dr. Edwin P. Ewing, Jr., Public
B. Diabetic nephropathy Domain, via Wikimedia Commons
4. Hemodialysis by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
C. Kidney failure
Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
D. Urinary incontinence DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. CC BY 3.0 via
15. What is the most common cause of a kidney infection? Wikimedia Commons
5. Kidney Stones by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
EXPLORE MORE Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16842#Explore_More DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. CC BY 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons
ATTRIBUTIONS
6. 'Durex' diaphragm by Wellcome Collection gallery (2018-03-21)
1. Ribbon by rosanegra_1, Pixabay license
CC-BY-4.0 ia Wikimedia Commons
2. Diabetic Nephropathy by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical
7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
3.0
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. CC BY 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons

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19.6: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: ALCOHOL AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: DRINK AND FLUSH other parts of the excretory system. The dehydrating effect of
You are probably aware that drinking alcohol can cause visual alcohol on the body can impair the function of many organs,
disturbances, slurred speech, drowsiness, impaired judgment, and including the kidneys themselves. Additionally, because of
loss of coordination because of its effects on the brain. Although it alcohol’s effect on kidney function and water and ion balance,
may be less obvious, alcohol also can have serious effects on the chronic alcohol consumption can cause abnormalities in blood ion
functioning of the excretory system. concentration and acid-base balance, which can be very dangerous.
Additionally, drinking more than two alcoholic beverages a day can
increase your risk of high blood pressure. As you have learned,
high blood pressure is a risk factor for some kidney disorders and a
common cause of kidney failure. Therefore, drinking too much
alcohol can damage the kidneys by raising blood pressure.
Finally, chronic excessive consumption of alcohol can cause liver
disease. As you know, the liver is an important organ of the
excretory system that breaks down toxic substances in the blood.
The liver and kidneys work together to remove wastes from the
Figure 19.6.1 : Alcohol bottles bloodstream. For example, as you have learned, the liver transforms
ammonia into urea, which is then filtered and excreted by the
As you learned in the beginning of the chapter from the
kidneys. When the liver is not functioning normally, it puts added
conversation between Maeva and Bintou, who were in line for the
strain on the kidneys, which can result in kidney dysfunction. This
restroom, consumption of alcohol inhibits a hormone that causes
association between alcohol, liver disease, and kidney dysfunction
our bodies to retain water. The result is that more water is released
is so strong that most of the patients in the United States with both
in urine, increasing the frequency of restroom trips as well as the
liver disease and related kidney dysfunction are alcoholics.
risk of dehydration.
As you have learned, the excretory system is essential to remove
Which hormone discussed in this chapter does this? If you
toxic wastes from the body and regulate homeostasis. Having an
answered antidiuretic hormone (ADH; also called vasopressin)—
occasional drink can temporarily alter these functions, but
you are correct! ADH is secreted by the hypothalamus of the brain
excessive alcohol exposure can seriously and permanently damage
and acts on the kidneys. As you have learned, the kidneys filter the
this system in many ways. Limiting alcohol consumption can help
blood, reabsorb needed substances, and produce urine. ADH helps
preserve the normal functioning of the excretory system so that it
the body conserve water by influencing this process. ADH makes
can protect your health.
the collecting ducts in the kidneys permeable to water, allowing
water molecules to be reabsorbed from the urine back into the
blood through osmosis into capillaries. CHAPTER SUMMARY
Alcohol is thought to produce more dilute urine by inhibiting the In this chapter, you learned about the excretory system. Specifically,
release of ADH. This causes the collecting ducts to be more you learned that:
impermeable to water, so less water can be reabsorbed and more is Excretion is the process of removing wastes and excess water from
excreted in the urine. Because the volume of urine is increased, the the body. It is an essential process in all living things and a major
bladder fills up more quickly, and the urge to urinate occurs more way the human body maintains homeostasis.
frequently. This is part of the reason why you often see a long line Organs of the excretory system include the skin, liver, large
for the restroom in situations where many people are drinking intestine, lungs, and kidneys.
alcohol. In addition to producing more dilute urine, simply The skin plays a role in excretion through the production of sweat
consuming many beverages can also increase urine output. by sweat glands. Sweating eliminates excess water and salts and
In most cases, moderate drinking causes only a minor and also a small amount of urea, a byproduct of protein catabolism.
temporary effect on kidney function. However, when people The liver is a very important organ of excretion. The liver breaks
consume a large quantity of alcohol in a short period of time or down many substances in the blood, including toxins. The liver also
abuse alcohol over long time periods, there can be serious effects excretes bilirubin, a waste product of hemoglobin catabolism, in
on the kidney. For example, binge drinking (i.e. consuming about bile. Bile then travels to the small intestine and is eventually
four to five drinks in two hours), can cause a condition called excreted in feces by the large intestine.
“acute kidney injury,” serious and sudden impairment of kidney The main excretory function of the large intestine is to eliminate
function that requires immediate medical attention. As with other solid waste that remains after food is digested and water is
cases of kidney failure that you learned about in this chapter, the extracted from the indigestible matter. The large intestine also
treatment is to artificially filter the blood using hemodialysis. While collects and excretes wastes from throughout the body.
normal kidney function may eventually return, acute kidney injury The lungs are responsible for the excretion of gaseous wastes,
can sometimes cause long-term damage to the kidneys. primarily carbon dioxide from cellular respiration in cells
throughout the body. Exhaled air also contains water vapor and
In cases where people abuse alcohol, particularly for an extended
trace levels of some other waste gases.
period of time, there can be many serious effects on the kidneys and

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 The paired kidneys are often considered to be the main organs of urine, but the conscious contraction of the detrusor muscle expels
excretion. Their primary function is the elimination of excess water urine from the bladder during urination.
and wastes from the bloodstream by the production of urine. The Ureters are tube-like structures that connect the kidneys with the
kidneys filter many substances out of blood, allow the blood to urinary bladder. Each ureter arises at the renal pelvis of a kidney
reabsorb needed materials, and use the remaining materials to form and travels down through the abdomen to the urinary bladder. The
urine. walls of the ureter contain smooth muscle that can contract to push
The two bean-shaped kidneys are located high in the back of the urine through the ureter by peristalsis. The walls are lined with
abdominal cavity on either side of the spine. A renal artery connects transitional epithelium that can expand and stretch.
each kidney with the aorta and transports unfiltered blood to the The urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular organ that rests on the
kidney. A renal vein connects each kidney with the inferior vena pelvic floor. It is also lined with transitional epithelium. The
cava and transports filtered blood back to the circulation. function of the bladder is to collect and store urine from the kidneys
The kidney has two main layers involved in the filtration of blood before the urine is eliminated through urination. Filling of the
and formation of urine: the outer cortex and inner medulla. At least bladder triggers the autonomic nervous system to stimulate the
a million nephrons, which are the tiny functional units of the detrusor muscle in the bladder wall to contract. This forces urine
kidney, span the cortex and medulla. The entire kidney is out of the bladder and into the urethra.
surrounded by a fibrous capsule and protective fat layers. The urethra is a tube that connects the urinary bladder to the
As blood flows through a nephron, many materials are filtered out external urethral orifice. Somatic nerves control the sphincter at the
of the blood, needed materials are returned to the blood, and the distal end of the urethra. This allows the opening of the sphincter
remaining materials are used to form urine. for urination to be under voluntary control.
In each nephron, the glomerulus and the surrounding Bowman’s Diabetic nephropathy is a progressive kidney disease caused by
capsule form the unit that filters blood. From Bowman’s damage to the capillaries in the glomeruli of the kidneys due to
capsule, the material filtered from the blood, called filtrate, long-standing diabetes mellitus. Years of capillary damage may
passes through the long renal tubule. As it does, some occur before symptoms first appear.
substances are reabsorbed into the blood and other substances Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is a genetic disorder (autosomal
are secreted from the blood into the filtrate, finally forming dominant or recessive) in which multiple abnormal cysts grow in
urine. The urine empties into collecting ducts, where more water the kidneys.
may be reabsorbed. Diabetic nephropathy, PKD, or chronic hypertension may lead to
kidney failure, in which the kidneys are no longer able to
The kidneys are part of the urinary system, which also includes the
adequately filter metabolic wastes from the blood. Kidneys may fail
ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The main function of the
to such a degree that kidney transplantation or repeated, frequent
urinary system is to eliminate the waste products of metabolism
hemodialysis is needed to support life. In hemodialysis, the
from the body by forming and excreting urine. After urine forms in
patient’s blood is filtered artificially through a machine and then
the kidneys, it is transported through the ureters to the bladder. The
returned to the patient’s circulation.
bladder stores the urine until urination, when urine is transported by
A kidney stone is a solid crystal that forms in a kidney from
the urethra to be excreted outside the body.
minerals in the urine. A small stone may pass undetected through
Besides the elimination of waste products such as urea, uric acid,
the ureters and the rest of the urinary tract. A larger stone may
excess water, and mineral ions, the urinary system has other vital
cause pain when it passes or be too large to pass so it blocks a
functions. These include maintaining homeostasis of mineral ions
ureter. Large kidney stones may be shattered with high-intensity
in extracellular fluid, regulating acid-base balance in the blood,
ultrasound into pieces small enough to pass through the urinary
regulating the volume of extracellular fluids, and controlling blood
tract, or they may be removed surgically.
pressure.
A bladder infection is generally caused by bacteria that reach the
The formation of urine must be closely regulated to maintain body-
bladder from the GI tract and multiply. Bladder infections are much
wide homeostasis. Several endocrine hormones help control this
more common in females than males because the female urethra is
function of the urinary system, including antidiuretic hormone from
much shorter and closer to the anus. Treatment generally includes
the hypothalamus, parathyroid hormone from the parathyroid
antibiotic drugs.
glands, and aldosterone from the adrenal glands. For example, the
Urinary incontinence is a chronic problem of uncontrolled leakage
kidneys are part of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system that
of urine. It is very common, especially at older ages and in women.
regulates the concentration of sodium in the blood to control blood
In men, urinary incontinence is usually caused by an enlarged
pressure. In this system, the enzyme renin secreted by the kidneys
prostate gland. In women, it is usually caused by stretching of
works with hormones from the liver and adrenal gland to stimulate
pelvic floor muscles during childbirth (stress incontinence) or by an
nephrons to reabsorb more sodium and water from urine.
“overactive bladder” that empties without warning (urge
The kidneys also secrete endocrine hormones, including calcitriol,
incontinence).
which helps control the level of calcium in the blood; and
erythropoietin, which stimulates the bone marrow to produce red You have learned that the excretory system protects your body through
blood cells. the removal of toxic wastes and the maintenance of homeostasis. But
The process of urination is controlled by both the autonomic and how does your body protect itself against pathogens and other threats?
the somatic nervous systems. The autonomic system causes the Read the next chapter on the immune system to find out.
detrusor muscle in the bladder wall to relax as the bladder fills with
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW

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 1. Match each organ of the excretory system with the description that capillaries located within the kidneys, and what is their function?
best fits it. Each organ is used only once. Organs: lungs, skin, 11. Describe one way in which the excretory system helps maintain
kidneys, liver, large intestine homeostasis in the body.
A. Excretes solid wastes from food 12. Secretion in a nephron occurs:
B. Cools the body while it eliminates water and other wastes A. before filtration, and goes from the filtrate into the blood
C. Part of the urinary system B. after filtration, and goes from the filtrate into the blood
D. Produces bile and breaks down toxins in the blood C. before filtration, and goes from the blood into the filtrate
E. Eliminates waste gases D. after filtration, and goes from the blood into the filtrate
2. In what ways can the alveoli of the lungs be considered analogous 13. High blood pressure can both contribute to the development of
to the nephrons of the kidney? kidney disorders and be a symptom of kidney disorders. What is a
3. What is urea? Where is urea produced and what is it produced kidney disorder that can be caused by high blood pressure? What is
from? How is urea excreted from the body? a kidney disorder that has high blood pressure as a symptom? How
4. True or False. The lungs help excrete excess water, in addition to does blood pressure generally relate to the function of the kidney?
carbon dioxide. 14. If the body is dehydrated, what do the kidneys do? What does this
5. True or False. There are two kidneys in the human body, and both do to the appearance of the urine produced?
are the same size and shape. 15. Which of the following contain filtered blood in the kidney?
6. True or False. The renal pelvis is a bone that surrounds the kidneys. A. Arteries
7. If a person has a large kidney stone that prevents urine that has left B. Venules
the kidney from reaching the bladder, where do you think this C. Veins
kidney stone is located? Explain your answer. D. B and C
8. Match each of the following structures with the description that best 16. True or False. Hormones influence the functions of the kidney, but
fits it. Each structure is used only once. Structures: urethra; the kidney itself does not produce hormones.
nephron; ureters; urinary bladder 17. True or False. Both the lungs and the kidneys help maintain the pH
A. Produces urine of the blood.
B. Stores relatively large quantities of urine 18. Identify three risk factors for the development of kidney stones.
C. Releases urine to the outside of the body
D. Transports urine between where it is produced and where it is ATTRIBUTIONS
stored 1. Alcohol by geralt; Pixabay license
9. Explain what is meant by “Excretion = Filtration – Reabsorption + 2. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
Secretion” regarding the production of urine. 3.0
10. Which disease discussed in the chapter specifically affects the
glomerular capillaries of the kidneys? Where are the glomerular

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
20: IMMUNE SYSTEM
This chapter outlines the layered responses of the human immune system, including both innate and
adaptive immune responses. It also describes the structures and functions of the lymphatic system,
with a focus on its roles in host defense. In addition, the chapter examines three different types of
immune system disorders.

20.1: CASE STUDY: YOUR DEFENSE SYSTEM

As you read this chapter, you will learn about the functions of the immune system, and the specific
roles that its cells and organs - such as B and T cells and lymph nodes - play in defending the
body. At the end of this chapter, you will learn what type of lymphoma Wei has and what some of
his treatment options are, including treatments that make use of the biochemistry of the immune
system to fight cancer with the immune system itself.

20.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

The immune system is a host defense system. It comprises many biological structures - ranging from individual white blood cells to
entire organs - as well as many complex biological processes. The function of the immune system is to protect the host from
pathogens and other causes of disease such as tumor cells. To function properly, the immune system must be able to detect a wide
variety of pathogens.

20.3: LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system is a collection of organs involved in the production, maturation, and harboring of white blood cells called
lymphocytes. It also includes a network of vessels that transport or filter the fluid known as lymph in which lymphocytes circulate.
The figure below shows major lymphatic vessels and other structures that make up the lymphatic system.

20.4: INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM

The innate immune system is a subset of the human immune system that produces rapid but non-specific responses to pathogens.
Innate responses are generic rather than tailored to a particular pathogen. Every pathogen that is encountered is responded to in the
same general ways by the innate system. Although the innate immune system provides immediate and rapid defenses against
pathogens, it does not confer long-lasting immunity to them.

20.5: ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM

The adaptive immune system is a subsystem of the overall immune system. It is composed of highly specialized cells and processes
that eliminate specific pathogens and tumor cells. An adaptive immune response is set in motion by antigens that the immune system
recognizes as foreign. Unlike an innate immune response, an adaptive immune response is highly specific to a particular pathogen (or
its antigen).

20.6: DISORDERS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

An allergy is a disorder in which the immune system makes an inflammatory response to a harmless antigen. Any antigen that causes
allergies is called an allergen. Common allergens include pollen, dust mites, mold, specific foods such as peanuts, insect stings, and
certain medications such as aspirin. Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system fails to recognize the body's own
molecules as self and attacks them, causing damage to tissues and organs.

20.7: HUMAN MICROBIOME

The scientific evidence supporting the gut microbiome in relation to health maintenance and links with various disease states
afflicting humans, from metabolic to mental health, has grown dramatically in the last few years. Strategies addressing the positive
modulation of microbiome functionality associated with these disorders offer huge potential to the food and pharmaceutical industries
to innovate and provide therapeutic solutions to many of the health issues affecting modern society.

20.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: LYMPHOMA AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

About every three minutes, one person in the U.S. is diagnosed with blood cancer, the most common type of which is lymphoma. Wei,
who was diagnosed with lymphoma in the beginning of this chapter, has a difficult road ahead, but he and his medical team are
optimistic that he may be able to be cured. More research into how the immune system functions may lead to even better treatments
for lymphoma, and other types of cancers, in the future.

1 4/25/2021
20.1: CASE STUDY: YOUR DEFENSE SYSTEM
what some of his treatment options are, including treatments that make
CASE STUDY: DEFENDING YOUR DEFENSES use of the biochemistry of the immune system to fight cancer with the
Twenty-six-year-old Wei isn’t feeling well. Wei uses he/him/his immune system itself.
pronouns. He is more tired than usual, dragging through his workdays
despite going to bed earlier and napping on the weekends. He doesn't CHAPTER OVERVIEW: IMMUNE SYSTEM
have much of an appetite and has started losing weight. When he In this chapter, you will learn about the immune system—the system
presses on the side of his neck, like the doctor is doing in Figure that defends the body against infections and other causes of disease
20.1.1, he notices an unusual lump. such as cancerous cells. Specifically, you will learn about:
How the immune system identifies normal cells of the body as
“self” and pathogens and damaged cells as “non-self.”
The two major subsystems of the general immune system: the
innate immune system, which provides a quick but non-specific
response; and the adaptive immune system, which is slower but
provides a specific response that often results in long-lasting
immunity.
Figure 20.1.1 : Palpating lymph nodes The specialized immune system that protects the brain and spinal
Wei goes to his doctor, who performs a physical exam and cord called the neuroimmune system.
determines that the lump is a swollen lymph node. Lymph nodes are The organs, cells, and responses of the innate immune system,
part of the immune system, and they will often become enlarged when which include physical barriers such as skin and mucus, chemical
the body is fighting off an infection. Dr. Bouazizi thinks that the and biological barriers, inflammation, activation of the complement
swollen lymph node and fatigue could be signs of a viral or bacterial system of molecules, and non-specific cellular responses such as
infection, or indicate a type of cancer called lymphoma. However, an phagocytosis.
infection is a more likely cause, particularly in a young person like The lymphatic system—which includes white blood cells called
Wei. Dr. Bouazizi prescribes an antibiotic in case Wei has a bacterial lymphocytes; lymphatic vessels that transport a fluid called
infection and advises him to return in a few weeks if his lymph node lymph; and organs such as the spleen, tonsils, and lymph nodes—
does not shrink or if he is not feeling better. and its important role in the adaptive immune system.
Wei returns a few weeks later. He is not feeling better and his lymph Specific cells of the immune system and their functions, including
node is still enlarged. Dr. Bouazizi is concerned and orders a biopsy of B cells, T cells, plasma cells, and natural killer cells.
the enlarged lymph node. A lymph node biopsy for suspected How the adaptive immune system can generate specific and often
lymphoma often involves the surgical removal of all or part of a lymph long-lasting immunity against pathogens through the production of
node, to determine whether the tissue contains cancerous cells. antibodies.
The initial results of the biopsy indicate that Wei does have lymphoma. How vaccines work to generate immunity.
Although lymphoma is more common in older people, young adults How cells in the immune system detect and kill cancerous cells.
and even children can get this disease. There are many types of Some strategies that pathogens employ to evade the immune
lymphoma, with the two main types being Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin system.
lymphoma. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), in turn, has many Disorders of the immune system, including allergies, autoimmune
subtypes depending on factors such as which cell types are affected. diseases (such as diabetes and multiple sclerosis), and
For instance, some subtypes of NHL affect immune system cells called immunodeficiency resulting from conditions such as HIV infection.
B cells, while others affect different immune system cells called T As you read the chapter, think about the following questions:
cells. 1. What are the functions of lymph nodes?
Dr. Bouazizi explains to Wei that it is important to determine which 2. What are B and T cells and how do they relate to lymph nodes?
type of lymphoma he has, in order to choose the best course of 3. What are cell-surface antigens? How do they relate to the immune
treatment. Wei’s biopsied tissue will be further examined and tested to system and to cancer?
see which cell types are affected and which specific cell-surface
proteins, called antigens, are present. This should help in identifying ATTRIBUTIONS
his specific type of lymphoma. 1. Palpating lymph nodes by BodyParts3D/Anatomography (NIH),
As you read this chapter, you will learn about the functions of the public domain via Wikimedia Commons
immune system, and the specific roles that its cells and organs—such 2. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
as B and T cells and lymph nodes— play in defending the body. At the 3.
end of this chapter, you will learn what type of lymphoma Wei has and

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 20.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
The Schistosoma worm has a parasitic relationship with humans. In
WORM ATTACK! this type of relationship, one organism, called the parasite, lives on or
in another organism, called the host. The parasite always benefits from
Does this organism look like a space alien? A scary creature from a
the relationship and the host is always harmed. The human host of the
nightmare? In fact, it’s a 1-cm long worm in the genus Schistosoma.
Schistosoma worm is clearly harmed by the parasite when it invades
It may invade and take up residence in the human body, causing a
the host’s tissues. The urinary tract or intestines may be infected, and
very serious illness known as schistosomiasis. The worm gains
signs and symptoms may include abdominal pain, diarrhea, bloody
access to the human body while it is in a microscopic life stage. It
stool, or blood in the urine. Those who have been infected a long time
enters through a hair follicle when the skin comes into contact with
may experience liver damage, kidney failure, infertility, or bladder
contaminated water. The worm then grows and matures inside the
cancer. In children, Schistosoma infection may cause poor growth and
human organism, causing disease.
difficulty learning. Table 20.2.1 lists some of the microscopic
pathogens, their images, description, and the diseases that they cause.
Like the Schistosoma worm, many other organisms can make us sick if
they manage to enter our body. Any such agent that can cause disease
is called a pathogen. Most pathogens are microorganisms, although
some, such as the Schistosoma worm, are much larger. In addition to
worms, common types of pathogens of human hosts include bacteria,
viruses, fungi, and single-celled organisms called protists. You can see
examples of each of these types of pathogens in Table 20.2.1.
Fortunately for us, our immune system is able to keep most potential
pathogens out of the body or to quickly destroy them if they do manage
Figure 20.2.1 : Schistosome Parasite
to get in. When you read this chapter, you’ll learn how your immune
system usually keeps you safe from harm — including from scary
HOST VS. PATHOGEN creatures like the Schistosoma worm!

Table 20.2.1 : Types of Pathogens

Type of Example and their
Description Human Disease caused by pathogens of that type
Pathogen Image

n Bacteria Strep throat, staph infections, tuberculosis, food poisoning, tetanus,

Single-celled organisms without a nucleus
pneumonia, syphilis

such as Escherichia coli

n Viruses Common cold, flu, genital herpes, cold sores, measles, AIDS, genital warts,
Particles that reproduce by taking over living cells.
chickenpox, smallpox

such as Herpes simplex

n Fungi Organisms with a nucleus that grow as single cells or

Ringworm, athlete's foot, tineas, candidiasis, histoplasmosis
tread-like filaments

such as Trichophyton
rubrum

n Protozoa
A single-celled organism with a nucleus Malaria, Traveler's diarrhea, giardiasis, trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)

Such as Giarida
lamblia

The immune system is a host defense system. It comprises many

WHAT IS THE IMMUNE SYSTEM? biological structures —ranging from individual white blood cells to
entire organs — as well as many complex biological processes. The

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function of the immune system is to protect the host from pathogens the antigen (and the pathogen displaying it) for destruction by other
and other causes of disease such as tumor cells. To function properly, immune cells.
the immune system must be able to detect a wide variety of pathogens. Antigens on the surface of pathogens are how the adaptive immune
It also must be able to distinguish the cells of pathogens from the host’s system recognizes specific pathogens. Antigen specificity allows for
own cells and also to distinguish cancerous or damaged host cells from the generation of responses tailored to the specific pathogen. It is also
healthy cells. In humans and most other vertebrates, the immune how the adaptive immune system ”remembers” the same pathogen in
system consists of layered defenses that have increased specificity for the future.
particular pathogens or tumor cells. The layered defenses of the human
immune system are usually classified into two subsystems called the IMMUNE SURVEILLANCE
innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. Another important role of the immune system is to identify and
eliminate tumor cells. This is called immune surveillance. The
INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM
transformed cells of tumors express antigens that are not found on
Any discussion of the innate immune response usually begins with the
normal body cells. The main response of the immune system to tumor
physical barriers that prevent pathogens from entering the body,
cells is to destroy them. This is carried out primarily by aptly named
destroy them after they enter, or flush them out before they can
killer T cells of the adaptive immune system.
establish themselves in the hospitable environment of the body’s soft
tissues. Barrier defenses are part of the body’s most basic defense LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
mechanisms. The barrier defenses are not a response to infections, but
The lymphatic system is a human organ system that is a vital part of
they are continuously working to protect against a broad range of
the adaptive immune system. It is also part of the cardiovascular
pathogens.
system and plays a major role in the digestive system (see the concept
The phagocytes are the body’s fast acting first line of immunological Lymphatic System).
defense against organisms that have breached barrier defenses and have
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS
entered the vulnerable tissues of the body. For example, certain
leukocytes (white blood cells) engulf and destroy pathogens they “They’ll have to rewrite the textbooks!”
encounter in the process called phagocytosis. The body's response That sort of response to scientific discovery is sure to attract media
again a pathogen's breach is also called Inflammation. attention, and it did. It’s what Kevin Lee, a neuroscientist at the
Phagocytosis and Inflammation will be discussed in detail in concept University of Virginia, said in 2016 when his colleagues told him
Innate Immune System. they had discovered human anatomical structures that had never
before been detected. The structures were tiny lymphatic vessels in
ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM the meningeal layers surrounding the brain.
The adaptive immune system is activated if pathogens successfully How these lymphatic vessels could have gone unnoticed when all
enter the body and manage to evade the general defenses of the innate human body systems have been studied so completely is amazing in
immune system. An adaptive response is specific to the particular type its own right. The suggested implications of the discovery are
of pathogen that has invaded the body or to cancerous cells. It takes equally amazing:
longer to launch a specific attack, but once it is underway, its
The presence of these lymphatic vessels means that the brain is
specificity makes it very effective. An adaptive response also usually
directly connected to the peripheral immune system,
leads to immunity. This is a state of resistance to a specific pathogen
presumably allowing a close association between the human
due to the ability of the adaptive immune system to “remember” the
brain and human pathogens. This suggests an entirely new
pathogen and immediately mount a strong attack tailored to that
avenue by which humans and their pathogens may have
particular pathogen if it invades again in the future.
influenced each other’s evolution. The researchers speculate
SELF VS. NON-SELF that our pathogens may have even influenced the evolution of
our social behaviors.
Both innate and adaptive immune responses depend on the ability of
The researchers think there will also be many medical
the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self molecules.
applications of their discovery. For example, the newly
Self molecules are those components of an organism’s body that can be
discovered lymphatic vessels may play a major role in
distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system. Virtually
neurological diseases that have an immune component, such as
all body cells have surface proteins that are part of a complex called
multiple sclerosis. The discovery might also affect how
the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). These proteins are
conditions such as autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia
one way the immune system recognizes body cells as self. Non-self
are treated.
proteins, in contrast, are recognized as foreign because they are
different from self-proteins.
REVIEW
ANTIGENS AND ANTIBODIES 1. What is a pathogen?
Many non-self molecules comprise a class of compounds called 2. State the purpose of the immune system.
antigens. Antigens, which are usually proteins, bind to specific 3. Compare and contrast the innate and adaptive immune systems.
receptors on immune system cells and elicit an adaptive immune 4. Explain how the immune system distinguishes self molecules from
response. Some adaptive immune system cells (B cells) respond to non-self molecules.
foreign antigens by producing antibodies. An antibody is a molecule 5. What are antigens?
that precisely matches and binds to a specific antigen. This may target 6. Define tumor surveillance.

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 7. Briefly describe the lymphatic system and its role in immune 11. What are the general relationships between the terms lymphocytes,
function. leukocytes, and white blood cells?
8. Identify the neuroimmune system. 12. True or False. Phagocytosis occurs in the innate immune system.
9. Which of the following is NOT a function of the immune system? 13. True or False. Major histocompatibility complex proteins are
A. Protecting the body against fungi antibodies.
B. Protecting the body against bacteria 14. True or False. Only the adaptive immune response requires the
C. Protecting the body against cancerous cells ability to distinguish between self and non-self.
D. None of the above 15. Why is the immune system considered to be “layered?”
10. What does it mean that the immune system is not just composed of
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ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Schistosome Parasite by Bruce Wetzel and Harry Schaefer, public domain via NCI NIH
2. Scanning electron micrograph of Escherichia coli by NIAID, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
3. Electron micrograph of Herpes virus by George W. Beran, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
4. Trichophyton rubrum by CDC/Dr. Libero Ajello, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
5. Giardia by schmidty4112, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
7. Some text is adapted from 21.2 Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response by OpenStax licensed CC BY 4.0.

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20.3: LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
TONSILLITIS CARDIOVASCULAR FUNCTION OF THE
The white patches on either side of the throat in this picture are LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
signs of tonsillitis. The tonsils are small structures in the throat that The return of lymph to the bloodstream is one of the major functions of
are very common sites of infection. The white spots on the tonsils the lymphatic system. When blood travels through capillaries of the
pictured here are evidence of infection. The patches consist of large cardiovascular system, it is under pressure, which forces some of the
amounts of dead bacteria, cellular debris, and white blood cells; in a components of blood (such as water, oxygen, and nutrients) through the
word, pus. Children with recurrent tonsillitis may have their tonsils walls of the capillaries and into the tissue spaces between cells,
removed surgically to eliminate this type of infection. The tonsils forming tissue fluid, also called interstitial fluid (Figure 20.3.3).
are organs of the lymphatic system. Interstitial fluid bathes and nourishes cells and also absorbs their waste
products. Much of the water from the interstitial fluid is reabsorbed
into the capillary blood by osmosis. Most of the remaining fluid is
absorbed by tiny lymphatic vessels called lymph capillaries. Once
interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic vessels, it is called lymph. Lymph
is very similar in composition to blood plasma. Besides water, lymph
may contain proteins, waste products, cellular debris, and pathogens. It
Figure 20.3.1 :Tonsilitis also contains numerous white blood cells, especially the subset of
white blood cells known as lymphocytes. In fact, lymphocytes are the
WHAT IS THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM? main cellular components of lymph.
The lymphatic system is a collection of organs involved in the
production, maturation, and harboring of white blood cells called
lymphocytes. It also includes a network of vessels that transport or
filter the fluid known as lymph in which lymphocytes circulate. Figure
20.3.2shows major lymphatic vessels and other structures that make up

the lymphatic system. Besides the tonsils, organs of the lymphatic

system include the thymus, the spleen, and hundreds of lymph nodes
that are distributed along the lymphatic vessels.

Figure 20.3.3 : Fluid and other substances in the blood are forced by
blood pressure through the walls of capillaries and into the surrounding
tissue spaces. Some of the tissue fluid is absorbed by tiny lymphatic
vessels, forming lymph. The arrows show the direction of blood and
lymph through the blood and lymphatic vessels.
The lymph that enters lymph capillaries in tissues is transported
through the lymphatic vessel network to two large lymphatic ducts in
the upper chest. From there, the lymph flows into two major veins
(called subclavian veins) of the cardiovascular system. Unlike blood,
lymph is not pumped through its network of vessels. Instead, lymph
moves through lymphatic vessels via a combination of contractions of
the vessels themselves and forces applied to the vessels externally by
skeletal muscles. Lymphatic vessels also contain numerous valves that
keep lymph flowing in just one direction, thereby preventing backflow.

DIGESTIVE FUNCTION OF THE LYMPHATIC

SYSTEM
Figure 20.3.2: The lymphatic system includes the thymus, spleen, Lymphatic vessels called lacteals (Figure 20.3.4) are present in the
lymph vessels, and nodes. lining of the gastrointestinal tract, mainly in the small intestine. Each
tiny villus in the lining of the small intestine has an internal bed of
The lymphatic vessels form a transportation network similar in many
capillaries and lacteals. The capillaries absorb most nutrients from the
respects to the blood vessels of the cardiovascular system. However,
digestion of food into the blood. The lacteals absorb mainly fatty acids
unlike the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic system is not a closed
from lipid digestion into the lymph, forming a fatty-acid-enriched fluid
system. Instead, lymphatic vessels carry lymph in a single direction,
called chyle. Vessels of the lymphatic network then transport chyle
always toward the upper chest, where the lymph empties from
from the small intestine to the main lymphatic ducts in the chest from
lymphatic vessels into blood vessels.
which it drains into the blood circulation. The nutrients in chyle then

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circulate in the blood to the liver, where they are processed along with distinguish self from non-self. Only those lymphocytes that
the other nutrients that reach the liver directly via the bloodstream. successfully complete this maturation process go on to actually fight
infections by pathogens.
B cells mature in the bone marrow, which is why they are called B
cells. After they mature and leave the bone marrow, they travel first to
the circulatory system and then enter the lymphatic system to search
for pathogens. T cells, on the other hand, mature in the thymus, which
is why they are called T cells. The thymus is illustrated in Figure
20.3.6. It is a small lymphatic organ in the chest that consists of an

outer cortex and inner medulla, all surrounded by a fibrous capsule.

After maturing in the thymus, T cells enter the rest of the lymphatic
system to join B cells in the hunt for pathogens. The bone marrow and
thymus are called primary lymphoid organs because of their role in the
production and/or maturation of lymphocytes.

Figure 20.3.4 : Vessels called lacteals in the villi lining the small
intestine are the main way that fatty acids from digestion are absorbed
from the gastrointestinal tract. These nutrients eventually reach the
blood circulation after traveling through the network of lymphatic
vessels.

IMMUNE FUNCTION OF THE LYMPHATIC

SYSTEM
The primary function of the lymphatic system is host defense as part of
the immune system. This function of the lymphatic system is centered
on the production, maturation, and circulation of lymphocytes.
Lymphocytes are leukocytes that are involved in the adaptive immune
system. They are responsible for the recognition of, and tailored
defense against, specific pathogens or tumor cells. Lymphocytes may
also create a lasting memory of pathogens so they can be attacked Figure 20.3.6 : The thymus (found in the chest) is an important organ of
the lymphatic system because it is the location of T cell maturation.
quickly and strongly if they ever invade the body again. In this way,
lymphocytes bring about long-lasting immunity to specific pathogens. LYMPHOCYTES IN SECONDARY LYMPHOID ORGANS
There are two major types of lymphocytes, called B cells and T cells, The tonsils, spleen, and lymph nodes are referred to as secondary
which are illustrated in Figure 20.3.5. Both B cells and T cells are lymphoid organs. These organs do not produce or mature lymphocytes.
involved in the adaptive immune response, but they play different Instead, they filter lymph and store lymphocytes. It is in these
roles. You can learn more about their immune functions by reading the secondary lymphoid organs that pathogens (or their antigens) activate
concept Adaptive Immune System. lymphocytes and initiate adaptive immune responses. Activation leads
to the cloning of pathogen-specific lymphocytes, which then circulate
between the lymphatic system and the blood, searching for and
destroying their specific pathogens by producing antibodies against
them.
TONSILS
There are actually four pairs of human tonsils. Three of the four are
shown in Figure 20.3.7. The fourth pair, called tubal tonsils, is located
at the back of the nasopharynx. The palatine tonsils are the tonsils that
are visible on either side of the throat. All four pairs of tonsils encircle
a part of the anatomy where the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts
Figure 20.3.5 : Notice the large nucleus in the center of these relatively intersect and where pathogens have ready access to the body. This ring
round cells. of tonsils is called Waldeyer's ring.
PRODUCTION AND MATURATION OF LYMPHOCYTES
Like all other types of blood cells, including red blood cells as well as
leukocytes, both B cells and T cells are produced from stem cells in the
red marrow inside bones. After lymphocytes first form, they must go
through a complicated maturation process before they are ready to
search for pathogens. In this maturation process, they “learn” to

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 Figure 20.3.9 : In this diagram, lymph node regions are just shown for
the left side of the body. The same regions are also found on the right
side of the body.

Figure 20.3.7 : Three of four pairs of human tonsils are shown in this FEATURE: MYTH VS. REALITY
figure. Lingual tonsils are below the tongue. Palatine tonsils are at the Lymph nodes near the surface of the body are obvious signs of
back of the mouth. Pharyngeal (adenoid) tonsils are in the back of the immune system activity when they become enlarged and sometimes
nasal cavity.
tender to the touch. Because it is easy to see and feel swollen lymph
SPLEEN nodes, an individual can monitor his or her own health. It is
The spleen (Figure 20.3.8) is the largest of the secondary lymphoid important to be able to know the myths and realities of swollen
organs and is centrally located in the body. Besides harboring lymph nodes.
lymphocytes and filtering lymph, the spleen also filters blood. Most Myth: You should see a doctor immediately whenever you have
dead or aged red blood cells are removed from the blood in the red swollen lymph nodes.
pulp of the spleen. Lymph is filtered in the white pulp of the spleen. In Reality: Lymph nodes are constantly filtering lymph so it is
the fetus, the spleen has the additional function of producing red blood expected that they will change in size with varying amounts of
cells. This function is taken over by bone marrow after birth. debris or pathogens that may be present. A minor, unnoticed
infection may cause swollen lymph nodes that may last for a few
weeks. Generally, lymph nodes that return to their normal size
within three weeks are not a cause for concern.
Myth: Swollen lymph nodes mean you have a bacterial infection.
Reality: Although infection is the most common cause of swollen
lymph nodes, not all infections are caused by bacteria. For example,
mononucleosis commonly causes swollen lymph nodes, and it is
caused by viruses. There are also other causes of swollen lymph
nodes besides infections, such as cancer and certain medications.
Figure 20.3.8 : The spleen (found behind the stomach) is a secondary Myth: A swollen lymph node means you have cancer.
lymphoid organ where pathogens are likely to encounter lymphocytes Reality: Cancer is far less likely to be the cause of a swollen lymph
and trigger an adaptive immune response.
node than is an infection.
LYMPH NODES Myth: Cancer in a lymph node always originates somewhere else.
Each lymph node is a small but organized collection of lymphoid There is no cancer of the lymph nodes.
tissue (see green circular structures in Figure 20.3.1) that contains Reality: Cancers do commonly spread from their site of origin to
many lymphocytes. Lymph nodes are located at intervals along the nearby lymph nodes and then to other organs, but cancer may also
lymphatic vessels, and lymph passes through them on their way back to originate in the lymph nodes. This type of cancer is called
the blood. There are at least 500 lymph nodes in the human body. lymphoma.
Many of them are clustered at the base of the limbs and in the neck.
Figure 20.3.9 shows the major lymph node concentrations. The figure
includes the spleen and the region named Waldeyer’s ring, consisting
REVIEW
of the tonsils. 1. What is the lymphatic system?
2. Describe the composition of lymph.
3. Outline the cardiovascular function of the lymphatic system.

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 4. Describe the role of the lymphatic system in the absorption of 2. Lymphatic System By Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery
nutrients from the digestive system. of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
5. Summarize the function of the lymphatic system in host defense. DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. via Wikimedia
6. Name primary lymphatic organs and their functions. Commons, licensed CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
7. What are the secondary lymphatic organs? State their functions in 3. Lymph Capillaries by US Government, Public Domain via
the adaptive immune system. Wikimedia Commons
8. How is interstitial fluid related to lymph? 4. Intestinal Villus by Snow93, public domain via Wikimedia
9. B and T cells are types of: Commons
A. Leukocytes 5. White Blood Cells, CC BY 3.0, Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical
B. Lymphocytes gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
C. White blood cells DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436, licensed CC BY
D. All of the above 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
6. Thymus by US Government, Public Domain via Wikimedia
10. For each of the following statements, indicate whether it applies to
Commons
B cells, T cells, or both.
7. Tonsils CC BY by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
A. These cells are born in the red bone marrow.
Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
B. These cells are part of the adaptive immune system.
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY
C. These cells mature in the bone marrow.
3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
11. Explain the difference between lymphocyte maturation and 8. Spleen adapted from Illu Spleen by US government, public domain,
lymphocyte activation. via Wikimedia Commons
12. True or False. The spleen produces lymphocytes. 9. Lymph Nodes by Fred the Oyster, public domain via Wikimedia
13. True or False. Tonsils are glands that produce lymph. Commons
10. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
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ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Tonsillitis by Michaelbladon, Public Domain; via Wikimedia
Commons

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20.4: INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM
PAPER CUT Mucous membranes provide a mechanical barrier to pathogens and
It’s just a paper cut, but the break in your skin could provide an other particles at body openings. These membranes also line the
easy way for pathogens to enter your body. If bacteria were to enter respiratory, gastrointestinal, urinary, and reproductive tracts. Mucous
through the cut and infect the wound, your innate immune system membranes secrete mucus, which is a slimy and somewhat sticky
would quickly respond with a dizzying array of general defenses. substance that traps pathogens. Many mucous membranes also have
hair-like cilia that sweep mucus and trapped pathogens toward body
openings where they can be removed from the body. When you sneeze
or cough, mucus, and pathogens are mechanically ejected from the
nose and throat, as you can see in the photo below. Other mechanical
defenses include tears, which wash pathogens from the eyes, and urine,
which flushes pathogens out of the urinary tract.

Figure 20.4.1 : Papercut

The innate immune system is a subset of the human immune system

that produces rapid but non-specific responses to pathogens. Innate
responses are generic rather than tailored to a particular pathogen.
Every pathogen that is encountered is responded to in the same general
ways by the innate system. Although the innate immune system
provides immediate and rapid defenses against pathogens, it does not Figure 20.4.2 : A sneeze can expel many pathogens from the
confer long-lasting immunity to them. In most organisms, the innate respiratory tract. That’s why you should always cover your mouth and
immune system is the dominant system of host defense. Other than nose and when you sneeze.
most vertebrates including humans, the innate immune system is the
CHEMICAL BARRIERS
only system of host defense.
Chemical barriers also protect against infection by pathogens. They
In humans, the innate immune system includes surface barriers,
destroy pathogens on the outer body surface, at body openings, and on
inflammation, the complement system, and a variety of cellular
inner body linings. Sweat, mucus, tears, saliva, and breastmilk all
responses. Surface barriers of various types generally keep most
contain antimicrobial substances, such as the enzyme lysozyme, that
pathogens out of the body. If these barriers fail, then other innate
kill pathogens, especially bacteria. Sebaceous glands in the dermis of
defenses are triggered. The triggering event is usually the identification
the skin secrete acids that form a very fine, slightly acidic film on the
of pathogens by pattern-recognition receptors on cells of the innate
surface of the skin that acts as a barrier to bacteria, viruses, and other
immune system. These receptors recognize molecules that are broadly
potential contaminants that might penetrate the skin. Urine and vaginal
shared by pathogens but distinguishable from host molecules.
secretions are also too acidic for many pathogens to endure. Semen
Alternatively, the other innate defenses may be triggered when
contains zinc, which most pathogens cannot tolerate, as well as
damaged, injured, or stressed cells send out alarm signals, many of
defensins, which are antimicrobial proteins that act mainly by
which are recognized by the same receptors as those that recognize
disrupting bacterial cell membranes. In the stomach, stomach acid and
pathogens.
digestive enzymes called proteases, which break down proteins, kill
most pathogens that enter the gastrointestinal tract in food or water.
BARRIERS TO PATHOGENS
The body’s first line of defense consists of three different types of BIOLOGICAL BARRIERS
barriers that keep most pathogens out of body tissues. The types of Biological barriers are living organisms that help protect the body from
barriers are mechanical, chemical, and biological barriers. pathogens. Trillions of harmless bacteria normally live on the human
skin and in the urinary, reproductive, and gastrointestinal tracts. These
MECHANICAL BARRIERS
bacteria use up food and surface space that help prevent pathogenic
Mechanical barriers are the first line of defense against pathogens, and
bacteria from colonizing the body. Some of these harmless bacteria
they physically block pathogens from entering the body. The skin is the
also secrete substances that change the conditions of their environment,
most important mechanical barrier. In fact, it is the single most
making it less hospitable to potentially harmful bacteria. For example,
important defense the body has. The outer layer of skin, the epidermis,
they may release toxins or change the pH. All of these effects of
is tough and very difficult for pathogens to penetrate. It consists of
harmless bacteria reduce the chances that pathogenic microorganisms
dead cells that are constantly being shed from the body surface. This
will be able to reach sufficient numbers to cause illness.
helps remove bacteria and other infectious agents that have adhered to
the skin. The epidermis also lacks blood vessels and is usually lacking INFLAMMATION
moisture, so it does not provide a suitable environment for most
If pathogens manage to breach the barriers protecting the body, then
pathogens. Hair, which is an accessory organ of the skin, also helps to
one of the first active responses of the innate immune system kicks in.
keep out pathogens. Hairs inside the nose may trap larger pathogens
This response is inflammation. The main function of inflammation is
and other particles in the air before they can enter the airways of the
to establish a physical barrier against the spread of infection. It also
respiratory system.
eliminates the initial cause of cell injury, clears out dead cells and

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tissues damaged from the original insult and the inflammatory process, Cellular responses of the innate immune system involve a variety of
and initiates tissue repair. Inflammation is often a response to infection different types of leukocytes. Many of these leukocytes circulate in the
by pathogens, but there are other possible causes, including burns, blood and act like independent, single-celled organisms, searching out
frostbite, and exposure to toxins. and destroying pathogens in the human host. These and other immune
The signs and symptoms of inflammation include redness, swelling, cells of the innate system identify pathogens or debris and then help to
warmth, pain, and frequently some loss of function. These symptoms eliminate them in some way. One way is phagocytosis.
are caused by increased blood flow into infected tissue and a number of
PHAGOCYTOSIS
other processes, illustrated in Figure 20.4.3 and described below in the
Phagocytosis is an important feature of innate immunity that is
text.
performed by cells classified as phagocytes. In the process of
phagocytosis, phagocytes engulf and digest pathogens or other harmful
particles. Phagocytes generally patrol the body searching for
pathogens, but they can also be called to specific locations by the
release of cytokines when inflammation occurs. Some phagocytes
reside permanently in certain tissues.
As shown in Figure 20.4.4, when a pathogen such as a bacterium is
encountered by a phagocyte, the phagocyte extends a portion of its
plasma membrane, wrapping the membrane around the pathogen until
it is enveloped. Once inside the phagocyte, the pathogen becomes
enclosed within an intracellular vesicle called a phagosome. The
phagosome then fuses with another vesicle called a lysosome, forming
a phagolysosome. Digestive enzymes and acids from the lysosome kill
and digest the pathogen in the phagolysosome. The final step of
phagocytosis is the excretion of soluble debris from the destroyed
pathogen through exocytosis.

Figure 20.4.3 : This drawing shows what happens during the

inflammatory response.
Inflammation is triggered by chemicals such as cytokines and
histamines, which are released by injured or infected cells or by
immune system cells such as macrophages (described in Figure 20.4.5)
that are already present in tissues. These chemicals cause capillaries to
dilate and become leaky, increasing blood flow to the infected area and Figure 20.4.4 : Phagocytosis is a multi-step process in which a
allowing blood to enter the tissues. Pathogen-destroying leukocytes, pathogen is engulfed and digested by immune cells called phagocytes.
complement proteins, and tissue-repairing proteins migrate into tissue
spaces from the bloodstream to attack pathogens and repair their LEUKOCYTES
damage. Cytokines also promote chemotaxis, which is migration to the Types of leukocytes that kill pathogens by phagocytosis include
site of infection by leukocytes that destroy pathogens. Some cytokines neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells. Macrophages and
have anti-viral, antifungal, and antibacterial effects, such as shutting dendritic cells are the derivatives of monocytes. Figure 20.4.5 shows
down protein synthesis in host cells, which viruses need in order to five major types of leukocytes, lymphocytes, basophils, eosinophils,
survive and replicate. neutrophils, and monocytes. Because lymphocytes are mainly
involved in the adaptive immune system, they are not discussed in this
COMPLEMENT SYSTEM concept.
The complement system is a complex biochemical mechanism named
for its ability to “complement” the killing of pathogens directly by
creating holes in the body of the pathogen and by assisting antibodies.
Antibodies are produced as part of an adaptive immune response. The
complement system consists of more than two dozen proteins that are
normally found in the blood and synthesized in the liver. The proteins
usually circulate as non-functional precursor molecules until activated.

CELLULAR RESPONSES

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 Like macrophages, dendritic cells develop from monocytes (see Figure
20.4.6. They reside in tissues that have contact with the external

environment, so they are located mainly in the skin, nose, lungs,

stomach, and intestines. Their plasma membrane has extensions.
Besides engulfing and digesting pathogens, dendritic cells also act as
antigen-presenting cells that trigger adaptive immune responses.

Figure 20.4.5 : Five types of leukocytes: from left to right, lymphocyte,

basophil, eosinophil, neutrophil, and monocytes.
NEUTROPHILS
Neutrophils are leukocytes that travel throughout the body in the blood
and are usually the first immune cells to arrive at the site of an
infection. As shown in Figure 20.4.5, these cells contain granules and
carry a multilobed nucleus. They are the most numerous types of Figure 20.4.6 : dendritic cell
phagocytes and normally make up at least half of the total circulating MAST CELLS
leukocytes. The bone marrow of a normal healthy adult produces more Mast cells are non-phagocytic leukocytes that help to initiate
than 100 billion neutrophils per day. During acute inflammation, more inflammation by secreting histamines. In some people, histamines
than 10 times that many neutrophils may be produced each day. Many trigger allergic reactions as well as inflammation. Mast cells may also
neutrophils are needed to fight infections because after a neutrophil secrete chemicals that help defend against parasites.
phagocytizes just a few pathogens, it generally dies.
NATURAL KILLER CELLS
MACROPHAGES
Natural killer cells are in the subset of leukocytes called lymphocytes,
Macrophages are large phagocytic leukocytes that develop from
which are produced by the lymphatic system. Natural killer cells
monocytes. Macrophages spend much of their time within the
destroy cancerous or virus-infected host cells, although they do not
interstitial fluid in tissues of the body. As shown in Figure 20.4.5,
directly attack invading pathogens. Natural killer cells recognize these
monocytes do not contain granules and carry a big kidney-
host cells by a condition they exhibit called “missing self.” Cells with
shaped nucleus. They are the most efficient phagocytes and can
missing self have abnormally low levels of cell-surface proteins of the
phagocytize a substantial number of pathogens or other cells.
major histocompatibility complex (MHC), which normally identify
Macrophages are also versatile cells that produce a wide array of
body cells as self.
chemicals — including enzymes, complement proteins, and cytokines
— in addition to their phagocytic action. As phagocytes, macrophages REVIEW
act as scavengers that rid tissues of worn-out cells and other debris as
1. What is the innate immune system?
well as pathogens. In addition, macrophages act as antigen-presenting
2. Identify the body’s first line of defense.
cells that activate the adaptive immune system. (To learn more about
3. Define and give examples of mechanical and chemical barriers of
antigen-presenting cells, see the concept Adaptive Immune System.)
the innate immune system.
EOSINOPHILS 4. What are biological barriers, and how do they protect the body?
Eosinophils are non-phagocytic leukocytes that are related to 5. State the purposes of inflammation.
neutrophils. They specialize in defending against parasites. As shown 6. What triggers inflammation, and what signs and symptoms does it
in Figure 20.4.5, these cells contain granules and carry a bilobed cause?
earmuff-shaped nucleus. These leukocytes are very effective in killing 7. Define the complement system. How does it help destroy
large parasites such as worms by secreting a range of highly toxic pathogens?
substances when activated. Eosinophils may become overactive and 8. List six different types of leukocytes and state their roles in innate
cause allergies or asthma. immune responses.
9. Describe two ways that pathogens may evade the innate immune
BASOPHILS
system.
Basophils are non-phagocytic leukocytes that are also related to 10. Explain how mucus can contribute to the immune system as both a
neutrophils. They are the least numerous of all white blood cells. As mechanical barrier and a chemical barrier.
shown in Figure 20.4.5, these cells contain granules and carry a 11. Which type of immune system cell can both phagocytize pathogens
bilobed nucleus. Basophils secrete two types of chemicals that aid in and produce chemicals that promote inflammation?
body defenses: histamines and heparin. Histamines are responsible for
A. Macrophages
dilating blood vessels and increasing their permeability in
inflammation. Heparin inhibits blood clotting and also promotes the B. Natural killer cells
movement of leukocytes into an area of infection. C. Basophils
DENDRITIC CELLS D. Mast cells

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12. What are the ways in which phagocytes can encounter pathogens in 3. Inflammatory Response by OpenStax, CC BY 3.0
the body? 4. Phagocytosis by OpenStax, CC BY 3.0
13. Describe different two ways in which enzymes play a role in the 5. Leukocytes by Suzanne Wakim licensed CC BY 4.0 adapted from:
innate immune response. White Blood Cells, CC BY 3.0, Blausen.com staff (2014).
14. True or False. Complement proteins can be produced by "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of
macrophages. Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.
Leukocyte Key by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via
15. True or False. The main function of inflammation is to secrete
Wikimedia Commons
repair proteins at the site of damage.
6. S8-Dendritic Cells Dragging Conidia in Collagen by Judith
EXPLORE MORE Behnsen, Priyanka Narang, Mike Hasenberg, Frank Gunzer, Ursula
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16847#Explore_More Bilitewski, Nina Klippel, Manfred Rohde, Matthias Brock, Axel A.
Brakhage, Matthias Gunzer, CC BY 2.5 via wikimedia.org
ATTRIBUTIONS 7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
1. Oww Papercut by Laurence Facun (Flickr), CC BY 2.0, via 3.0
Wikimedia Commons
2. Sneeze by James Gathany; CDC Public Health Image library ID
11162, Public domain via Wikimedia Commons

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20.5: ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM
THE KISS OF DEATH T cells must be activated. After the pathogen is phagocytized and
The photomicrograph in Figure 20.5.1 shows a group of killer T digested by macrophages, a part of the pathogen is displayed coupled
cells (green and red) surrounding a cancer cell (blue, center). When with the MHC of the macrophage. Therefore macrophages are called
a killer T cell makes contact with the cancer cell, it attaches to and antigen-presenting cells as shown in Figure 20.5.2 and Figure 20.5.3.
spreads over the dangerous target. The killer T cell then uses B lymphocytes can also act as antigen-presenting cells. Helper T cells
special chemicals stored in vesicles (red) to deliver the killing blow. are more easily activated than killer T cells. Activation of killer T cells
This event has thus been nicknamed “the kiss of death.” After the is strongly regulated and may require additional stimulation from
target cell is killed, the killer T cells move on to find the next helper T cells.
victim. Killer T cells like these are important players in the HELPER T CELLS
adaptive immune system.
Activated helper T cells do not kill infected or cancerous cells. Instead,
their role is to “manage” both innate and adaptive immune responses
by directing other cells to perform these tasks. They control other cells
by releasing cytokines. These are proteins that can influence the
activity of many cell types, including cytotoxic killer T cells
(sometimes referred to as only killer T cells), B cells, and
macrophages. For example, some cytokines released by helper T cells
help activate killer T cells.

Figure 20.5.1 : Killer T cells surrounded by Cancer Cells

The adaptive immune system is a subsystem of the overall immune

system. It is composed of highly specialized cells and processes that
eliminate specific pathogens and tumor cells. An adaptive immune
response is set in motion by antigens that the immune system
recognizes as foreign. Unlike an innate immune response, an adaptive
immune response is highly specific to a particular pathogen (or its
antigen). An important function of the adaptive immune system that is
not shared by the innate immune system is the creation of
immunological memory or immunity. This occurs after the initial Figure 20.5.2 : After getting activated by an antigen-presenting cell,
helper T cells trigger various other cells of the immune system, such as
response to a specific pathogen. It allows a faster, stronger response on activation of B cells to produce antibodies, recruitment and activation
subsequent encounters with the same pathogen, usually before the of macrophages, and activation of cytotoxic killer T cells. In this
pathogen can cause symptoms of illness. image, APC stands for antigen-presenting cells and CD4+ stands for
Cluster Differentiation glycoprotein which is present on the surface of
Lymphocytes are the main cells of the adaptive immune system. They helper T cells.
are leukocytes that arise and mature in organs of the lymphatic system,
including the bone marrow and thymus. The human body normally has KILLER T CELLS (CYTOTOXIC T CELLS)
about 2 trillion lymphocytes, which constitute about a third of all When infected body cells present pathogen antigen to a killer T cell, it
leukocytes. Most of the lymphocytes are normally sequestered within gets activated (see lower panel of Figure 20.5.3). Activated killer T
tissue fluid or organs of the lymphatic system, including the tonsils, cells induce the death of cells that bear a specific non-self antigen
spleen, and lymph nodes. Only about 2 percent of the lymphocytes are because they are infected with pathogens or are cancerous. The antigen
normally circulating in the blood. There are two main types of targets the cell for destruction by killer T cells, which travel through
lymphocytes involved in adaptive immune responses, called T cells the bloodstream searching for target cells to kill. Killer T cells may use
and B cells. T cells destroy infected cells or release chemicals that various mechanisms to kill target cells. One way is by releasing toxins
regulate immune responses. B cells secrete antibodies that bind with in granules that enter and kill infected or cancerous cells (Figure
antigens of pathogens so they can be removed by other immune cells or 20.5.3).

processes.

T CELLS
There are multiple types of T cells or T lymphocytes. Major types are
killer (or cytotoxic) T cells and helper T cells. Both types develop from
immature T cells that become activated by exposure to an antigen.

T CELL ACTIVATION

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Figure 20.5.3: Naïve CD4+ (Helper) T cells engage MHC II molecules
on antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and become activated. Clones of
the activated helper T cell, in turn, activate B cells and CD8+ T (killer)
cells, which become cytotoxic T cells. Cytotoxic T cells kill infected
cells.

B CELLS AND B CELL ACTIVATION

B cells, or B lymphocytes, are the major cells involved in the creation Figure 20.5.4 : B cells are activated and become antibody-producing
plasma cells with the help of helper T cells.
of antibodies that circulate in blood plasma and lymph. Antibodies are
large, Y-shaped proteins used by the immune system to identify and PLASMA CELLS
neutralize foreign invaders. Besides producing antibodies, B cells may Plasma cells are antibody-secreting cells that form from activated B
also function as antigen-presenting cells or secrete cytokines that help
cells. Each plasma cell is like a tiny antibody factory. It may secrete
control other immune cells and responses. millions of copies of an antibody, each of which can bind to the
Before B cells can actively function to defend the host, they must be specific antigen that activated the original B cell. The specificity of an
activated. As shown in Figure 20.5.4, B cell activation begins when a antibody to a specific antigen is illustrated in Figure 20.5.5. When
B cell engulfs and digests an antigen. The antigen may be either free- antibodies bind with antigens, it makes the cells bearing them easier
floating or on top of the pathogen. B cell internalize antigen and targets for phagocytes to find and destroy. Antibody-antigen complexes
present it on its MHC to a helper T cell. The T cell activates and may also trigger the complement system of the innate immune system,
secretes cytokines that help the B cell to multiply and the daughter which destroys the cells in a cascade of protein enzymes. In addition,
cells to mature into plasma cells and memory B cells. Plasma B cells the complexes are likely to clump together (agglutinate). If this occurs,
produce antibodies. they are filtered out of the blood in the spleen or liver.

Figure 20.5.5 : Each antibody fits its antigen like a lock fits a key.

IMMUNITY
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Most activated T cells and B cells die within a few days once a
pathogen has been cleared from the body. However, a few of the cells
survive and remain in the body as memory T cells or memory B cells.
These memory cells are ready to activate an immediate response if they
are exposed to the same antigen again in the future. This is the basis of
immunity.
The earliest known reference to the concept of immunity relates to the
bubonic plague (see Figure 20.5.6). In 430 B.C., a Greek historian and
general named Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a
previous bout of the plague could nurse people sick with the plague
without contracting the illness a second time. We now know that this is
true of many diseases and it occurs because of active immunity.

Figure 20.5.7 : This young child is receiving an oral polio vaccine.

In a vaccine, only part of a pathogen, a weakened form of the
pathogen, or a dead pathogen is typically used. This causes an adaptive
immune response without making the immunized person sick. This is
how you most likely became immune to diseases such as measles,
Figure 20.5.6 : Dead, blackened tissues at the fingertips and other mumps, and chickenpox. Immunizations may last for a lifetime or
extremities are a sign of the bubonic plague, giving rise to its other
require periodic booster shots to maintain immunity. While
name, the black death.
immunization generally has long-lasting effects, it usually takes several
ACTIVE IMMUNITY weeks to develop full immunity.
Active immunity is the ability of the adaptive immune system to resist Immunization is the most effective method ever discovered in
a specific pathogen because it has formed an immunological memory preventing infectious diseases. As many as 3 million deaths are
of the pathogen. Active immunity is adaptive because it occurs during prevented each year because of vaccinations. Widespread immunity
the lifetime of an individual as an adaptation to infection with a due to vaccinations is largely responsible for the worldwide eradication
specific pathogen and prepares the immune system for future of smallpox and the near elimination of several other infectious
challenges from that pathogen. Active immunity can come about diseases from many populations, including such diseases as polio and
naturally or artificially. measles. Immunization is so successful because it exploits the natural
NATURALLY ACQUIRED ACTIVE IMMUNITY specificity and inducibility of the adaptive immune system.
Active immunity is acquired naturally when a pathogen invades the PASSIVE IMMUNITY
body and activates the adaptive immune system. When the initial Passive immunity results when pathogen-specific antibodies or
infection is over, memory B cells and memory T cells remain that activated T cells are transferred to a person who has never been
provide immunological memory of the pathogen. As long as the exposed to the pathogen. Passive immunity provides immediate
memory cells are alive, the immune system is ready to mount an protection from a pathogen, but the adaptive immune system does not
immediate response if the same pathogen tries to infect the body again. develop immunological memory to protect the host from the same
ARTIFICIALLY ACQUIRED ACTIVE IMMUNITY pathogen in the future. Unlike active immunity, passive immunity lasts
Active immunity can also be acquired artificially through only as long as the transferred antibodies or T cells survive in the
immunization. Immunization is the deliberate exposure of a person to blood. This is usually between a few days and a few months. However,
a pathogen in order to provoke an adaptive immune response and the like active immunity, passive immunity can be acquired both naturally
formation of memory cells specific to that pathogen. The pathogen is and artificially.
introduced in a vaccine — usually by injection, sometimes by nose or NATURALLY ACQUIRED PASSIVE IMMUNITY
mouth (Figure 20.5.7) — so immunization is also called vaccination.
Passive immunity is acquired naturally by a fetus through its mother’s
blood. Antibodies are transported from mother to fetus across the
placenta, so babies have high levels of antibodies at birth. Their
antibodies have the same range of antigen specificity as their mother’s.
Passive immunity may also be acquired by an infant through the
mother’s breast milk. This gives young infants protection from
common pathogens in their environment while their own immune
system matures.
ARTIFICIALLY ACQUIRED PASSIVE IMMUNITY
Older children and adults can acquire passive immunity artificially
through the injection of antibodies or activated T cells. This may be
done when there is a high risk of infection and insufficient time for the
body to develop active immunity through vaccination. It may also be

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done to reduce symptoms of ongoing disease or to compensate for 8. How does passive immunity differ from active immunity?
immunodeficiency diseases (for the latter, see the concept Disorders of 9. How may passive immunity occur?
the Immune System). 10. What ways of evading the human adaptive immune system evolved
in the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)?
ADAPTIVE IMMUNE EVASION 11. Describe two ways in which B cells and T cells work together to
Many pathogens have been around for a long time, living with human generate adaptive immune responses.
populations for generations. To persist, some have evolved 12. Which cells directly kill pathogen-infected or cancerous cells?
mechanisms to evade the adaptive immune system of human hosts. A. Plasma cells
One way they have done this is by rapidly changing their non-essential
B. Killer T cells
antigens. This is called antigenic variation. An example of a pathogen
C. Helper T cells
that takes this approach is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). It
mutates rapidly so the proteins on its viral envelope are constantly D. All of the above
changing. By the time the adaptive immune system responds, the 13. Why do vaccinations involve the exposure of a person to a version
virus’s antigens have changed. Antigenic variation is the main reason of a pathogen?
that efforts to develop a vaccine against HIV have not yet been 14. True or False. Immunization is a form of passive immunity.
successful.
15. True or False. Antibodies transmitted from mother to child via
Another evasion approach some pathogens may take is to mask breast milk cause the formation of memory B cells and long-term
pathogen antigens with host molecules so the host’s immune system immunity.
cannot detect the antigens. HIV takes this approach as well. The
envelope that covers the virus is formed from the outermost membrane EXPLORE MORE
of the host cell. https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16848#Explore_More
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY
If you think that immunizations are just for kids, think again. There
ATTRIBUTIONS
are several vaccines recommended by the CDC for people over the 1. Killer T cells surrounded by Cancer Cells by NIH, Public Domain
age of 18. This link shows the vaccine schedule recommended for via Wikimedia Commons
all adults aged 19 years and older. Additional vaccines may be 2. T cell receptors by Charles Molnar, CC BY 4.0 via BC Campus
recommended for certain adults based on specific medical 3. Lymphocyte activation by Mikael Häggström, public domain via
conditions or other indications. Are you up to date with your Wikimedia Commons
vaccines? You can check with your doctor to be sure. 4. B cell activation by Fred the Oyster, public domain via Wikimedia
Commons
5. Antibody by Fvasconcellos, Public domain via Wikimedia
REVIEW Commons
1. What is the adaptive immune system? 6. Acral gangrene of digits by CDC, Public Domain via Wikimedia
2. Describe the main cells of the adaptive immune system. Commons
3. How are lymphocytes activated? 7. Polio drops by USAID, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons
4. Identify two common types of T cells and their functions. 8. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
5. How do activated B cells help defend against pathogens? 3.0
6. Define immunity.
7. What are two ways active immunity may come about?

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20.6: DISORDERS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
ALLERGY EYES PREVALENCE OF ALLERGIES
Eyes that are red, watery, and itchy are typical of an allergic There has been a significant increase in the prevalence of allergies over
reaction known as allergic rhinitis. Commonly called hay fever, the past several decades, especially in the rich nations of the world,
allergic rhinitis is an immune system reaction typically to the pollen where allergies are now very common disorders. In the developed
of certain plants. Your immune system usually protects you from countries, about 20 percent of people have or have had hay fever,
pathogens and keeps you well. However, like any other body another 20 percent have had contact dermatitis, and about 6 percent
system, the immune system itself can develop problems. have food allergies. In the poorer nations of the world, on the other
Sometimes it responds to harmless foreign substances as though hand, allergies of all types are much less common.
they were pathogens. That’s the basis of allergies such as hay fever. One explanation for the rise in allergies in the developed world is
called the hygiene hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, people in
developed countries live in relatively sterile environments because of
hygienic practices and sanitation systems. As a result, people in these
countries are exposed to fewer pathogens than their immune system
evolved to cope with. To compensate, their immune system “keeps
busy” by attacking harmless antigens in allergic responses.

HOW ALLERGIES OCCUR

Figure 20.6.1 : Oedema of the conjunctiva due to hay fever allergy

ALLERGIES
An allergy is a disorder in which the immune system makes an
inflammatory response to a harmless antigen. It occurs when the
immune system is hypersensitive to an antigen in the environment that
causes little or no response in most people. Allergies are strongly
familial: allergic parents are more likely to have allergic children and
those children’s allergies are likely to be more severe. This is evidence
that there is a heritable tendency to develop allergies. Allergies are
more common in children than adults because many children outgrow
their allergies by adulthood.

ALLERGENS

Figure 20.6.3 : This diagram shows how the adaptive immune system is
activated by an otherwise harmless antigen on ragweed pollen,
responding to the allergen as though it was a pathogen.
The diagram in Figure 20.6.3 shows how an allergic reaction occurs.
Figure 20.6.2 : Common causes of allergies include pollen and poison At the first exposure to an allergen, B cells are activated to form
ivy plasma cells that produce large amounts of antibodies to the allergen.
Any antigen that causes an allergy is called an allergen. Common These antibodies attach to leukocytes called mast cells. Subsequently,
allergens are plant pollens, dust mites, mold, specific foods (such as every time the person encounters the allergen again, the mast cells are
peanuts or shellfish), insect stings, and certain common medications already primed and ready to deal with it. The primed mast cells
(such as aspirin and penicillin). Allergens may be inhaled or ingested, immediately release cytokines and histamines, which in turn cause
or they may come into contact with the skin or eyes. Symptoms vary inflammation and recruitment of leukocytes, among other responses.
depending on the type of exposure and the severity of the immune These responses are responsible for the signs and symptoms of
system response. Two common causes of allergies are ragweed and allergies.
poison ivy. Inhaling ragweed pollen may cause symptoms of allergic
TREATING ALLERGIES
rhinitis, such as sneezing and red itchy eyes. Skin contact with oils in
poison ivy may cause an itchy rash. This type of allergy is called The symptoms of allergies can range from mild to life-threatening.
contact dermatitis. Mild allergy symptoms are often treated with antihistamines. These are

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drugs that reduce or eliminate the effects of the histamines that produce
allergy symptoms.

Figure 20.6.5 : Skin testing for common allergens is one way to identify
the cause(s) of a patient’s allergic symptoms.

AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system fails to
recognize the body’s own molecules as self. As a result, instead of
ignoring the body’s healthy cells, it attacks them, causing damage to
tissues and altered organ growth and function. Most often, it is B cells
that are at fault in autoimmune responses. They are generally the cells
that lose tolerance for self. Why does this occur? Some autoimmune
diseases are thought to be caused by exposure to pathogens that have
Figure 20.6.4 : Anaphylaxis is a rapid, systemic reaction to allergens antigens similar to the body’s own molecules. After this exposure, the
that may lead to life-threatening symptoms. immune system responds to body cells as though they were pathogens
TREATING ANAPHYLAXIS as well.
The most severe allergic reaction is a systemic reaction called Certain individuals are genetically susceptible to developing
anaphylaxis. This is a life-threatening response caused by a massive autoimmune diseases. These individuals are also more likely to
release of histamines. Many of the signs and symptoms of anaphylaxis develop more than one such disease. Gender is also a risk factor for
are shown in Figure 20.6.4. Some of them include a drop in blood autoimmunity. Females are much more likely than males to develop
pressure, changes in heart rate, shortness of breath, and swelling of the autoimmune diseases, probably in part because of gender differences in
tongue and throat, which may threaten the patient with suffocation sex hormones.
unless emergency treatment is given. People who have had At a population level, autoimmune diseases are less common where
anaphylactic reactions may carry an epinephrine autoinjector (widely infectious diseases are more common. The hygiene hypothesis has
known by its brand name EpiPen®) so they can inject themselves with been proposed to explain the inverse relationship between infectious
epinephrine if they start to experience an anaphylactic response. The and autoimmune diseases as well as the prevalence of allergies.
epinephrine helps to control the immune reaction until medical care According to the hypothesis, without infectious diseases to “keep it
can be provided. Epinephrine constricts blood vessels to increase blood busy,” the immune system may attack the body’s own cells instead.
pressure, relaxes smooth muscles in the lungs to reduce wheezing and
improve breathing, modulates heart rate, and works to reduce swelling
COMMON AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
that may otherwise block the airways. An estimated 15 million or more people worldwide have one or more
autoimmune diseases. Two of the most common autoimmune diseases
IMMUNOTHERAPY FOR ALLERGIES
are type I diabetes and multiple sclerosis. Both are localized diseases in
Another way to treat allergies is called immunotherapy, commonly terms of the specific body cells that are attacked by the immune
called “allergy shots.” This approach may actually cure specific system. In the case of type I diabetes, the immune system attacks and
allergies, at least for several years if not lifelong. It may be particularly destroys insulin-secreting islet cells in the pancreas. In the case of
beneficial for allergens such as pollen that are difficult or impossible to multiple sclerosis, the immune system attacks and destroys the myelin
avoid. First, however, patients must be tested to identify the specific sheaths that normally insulate the axons of neurons and allow rapid
allergens that are causing their allergies. As shown in Figure 20.6.5, transmission of nerve impulses.
this may involve scratching tiny amounts of common allergens into the
Some relatively common autoimmune diseases are systemic, or body-
skin and then observing whether there is a localized reaction to any of
wide, diseases. They include rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus
them. Each allergen is applied in a different numbered location on the
erythematosus (SLE). In these diseases, many tissues and organs may
skin so if there is a reaction, such as redness or swelling, the
be attacked and injured by the immune system. For example, as you
responsible allergens can be identified. Then, through periodic
can see in Figure 20.6.6, symptoms of SLE may involve the muscular,
injections (usually weekly or monthly), patients are gradually exposed
skeletal, integumentary, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems.
to larger and larger amounts of the allergens. Over time, generally from
months to years, the immune system becomes desensitized to the
allergens. This method of treating allergies is often effective for
allergies to pollen or insect stings, but its usefulness for allergies to
food is unclear.

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 Other types of immunodeficiency are not present at birth but acquired
due to experiences or exposures that occur after birth. Acquired
immunodeficiency is called secondary immunodeficiency because it is
secondary to some other event or exposure. Secondary
immunodeficiency may occur for a number of different reasons:
The immune system naturally becomes less effective as people get
older. This age-related decline, called immunosenescence, generally
begins at about age 50 and worsens with increasing age.
Immunosenescence is why older people are generally more
susceptible to disease than younger people.
The immune system may be damaged by another disorder, such as
obesity, alcoholism, or the abuse of other drugs.
In developing countries, malnutrition is the most common cause of
immune system damage and immunodeficiency. Inadequate protein
intake is especially damaging to the immune system. It can lead to
impaired complement system activity, phagocyte malfunction, and
lower-than-normal production of antibodies and cytokines.
Surgical removal or disease of the thymus, where T lymphocytes
normally mature, results in severe immunodeficiency. People
without a functioning thymus are extremely susceptible to
infections.
Certain medications can suppress the immune system. This is the
intended effect of immunosuppressant drugs given to people with
transplanted organs so they do not reject them. In many cases,
Figure 20.6.6 : Systemic lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disease
that may cause symptoms of body-wide tissue damage. The symptoms however, immunosuppression is an unwanted side effect of drugs
listed here are psychological fatigue and loss of appetite, butterfly rash used to treat other disorders.
on the face, inflammation of pleura and pericardium, poor circulation Some pathogens attack and destroy cells of the immune system. An
to finger and toes, fever, photosensitivity, mouth and nose ulcers, example is a virus known as HIV, which attacks and destroys T
muscles aches, and joint arthritis.
cells.
TREATMENT FOR AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
FOCUS ON HIV
None of these common autoimmune diseases can be cured, although all
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the most common
of them have treatments that may help relieve symptoms and prevent
cause of immunodeficiency in the world today, so it is the focus of the
some of the long-term damage they may cause. Traditional treatments
rest of this concept. It is also covered in the concept HIV and AIDS.
for autoimmune diseases include immunosuppressive drugs to block
HIV infections of human hosts are a relatively recent phenomenon.
the immune response and anti-inflammatory drugs to quell
Scientists think that the virus originally infected monkeys but then
inflammation. Hormone replacement may be another option. For
jumped to human populations, probably sometime during the early to
example, type I diabetes is treated with injections of the hormone
mid-1900s. This most likely occurred in West Africa, but the virus
insulin because islet cells in the pancreas can no longer secrete it.
soon spread around the world. HIV was first identified by medical
IMMUNODEFICIENCY researchers in 1981. Since then, HIV has killed almost 40 million
people worldwide, and its economic toll has also been enormous. The
Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is not working
hardest hit countries are in Africa, where the virus has infected human
properly, generally because one or more components of the immune
populations the longest, and medications to control the virus are least
system are inactive. As a result, the immune system may be unable to
available.
fight off pathogens or cancers that a normal immune system would be
able to resist. Immunodeficiency may occur for a variety of reasons. HIV TRANSMISSION
HIV is transmitted through direct contact of mucous membranes or
CAUSES OF IMMUNODEFICIENCY
body fluids such as blood, semen, or breast milk. As shown in Figure
Dozens of rare genetic diseases can result in a defective immune 20.6.7, the transmission of the virus can occur through sexual contact
system. This type of immunodeficiency is called primary or the use of contaminated hypodermic needles. It can also be
immunodeficiency. One is born with one of these diseases rather than transmitted from an infected mother’s blood during late pregnancy or
acquiring it after birth. Probably the best known of these primary childbirth or through breast milk after birth. In the past, HIV was also
immunodeficiency diseases is severe combined immunodeficiency transmitted occasionally through blood transfusions. Because donated
(SCID). It is also known as “bubble boy disease” because people with blood is now screened for HIV, the virus is no longer transmitted this
this disorder are extremely vulnerable to infectious diseases and some way.
of them have become well known for living inside a bubble that
provides a sterile environment. SCID is most often caused by an X-
linked recessive mutation that interferes with normal B cell and T cell
production.

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 For patients who have access to HIV medications, infection with the
virus has ceased to be the death sentence that it once was. By 1995,
combinations of drugs called “highly active antiretroviral therapy”
were developed. For some patients, these drugs can reduce the amount
of virus they are carrying to undetectable levels. However, some
amount of virus always hides in the body’s immune cells and will
multiply again if a patient stops taking the medications. Researchers
are trying to develop drugs to kill these hidden viruses as well. If their
efforts are successful, it could bring an end to AIDS.
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS
EpiPens® and their sole manufacturer, pharmaceutical company
Mylan, were featured in the news headlines in 2016 but not for a
good reason. A drastic price hike in EpiPens® and Mylan’s
apparent greed triggered the media outburst.
Figure 20.6.7 : HIV may be transmitted in all of the ways shown here.
EpiPens® are auto-injectable syringes preloaded with a measured
HIV AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM dose of epinephrine, a drug that can rapidly stop a life-threatening
HIV infects and destroys helper T cells, the type of lymphocytes that anaphylactic response to an allergen. Using the device is easy and
regulate the immune response. How this occurs is shown in Figure does not require any special training. The injector just needs to be
20.6.8. The virus injects its own nucleic acid into a helper T cell and jammed against the thigh, which can be done through clothing or
uses the T cell’s “machinery” to make copies of itself. In the process, on bare skin. Each year, doctors write millions of prescriptions for
the helper T cell is destroyed, and the virus copies go on to infect other EpiPens®. Many people with severe allergies always carry two of
helper T cells. HIV is able to evade the immune system and keep the devices with them just in case they experience anaphylaxis,
destroying helper T cells by mutating frequently so its surface antigens although most of them never need to use them. Other people with
keep changing and by using the host cell’s membrane to hide its own severe allergies have literally had their lives saved multiple times
antigens. by EpiPens® when they had anaphylactic reactions. Even when the
devices haven’t been used, they must be replaced each year due to
the expiration of the epinephrine.
You might think that EpiPens® would be relatively inexpensive,
given their life-saving potential. As recently as 2009, a two-pack of
EpiPens® cost about $100. However, in just 7 years, the cost of the
same two-pack of EpiPens® skyrocketed by an incredible 400
percent! By 2016, the cost was $600 or more. Mylan apparently
raised the price for the sole purpose of increasing profits. The
company also raised prices significantly on many other drugs. The
price hike in EpiPens® alone was certainly profitable. In 2015, the
sale of EpiPens® earned Mylan $1 billion. Mylan’s CEO took
home almost $19 million the same year, which was an increase of
more than 600 percent over her prior salary.
News coverage of the price hike in EpiPens® began in the summer
of 2016 after a price increase in May of that year. Both private
citizens and elected officials expressed outrage over the price
Figure 20.6.8 : The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-I) enters the
T-lymphocyte where the virus loses its outer envelope, releasing its increase, especially when coupled with the gluttonous profits of the
RNA and its reverse transcriptase. The reverse transcriptase builds a company and its CEO. By late August, Mylan responded to the
complementary DNA strand from the viral RNA template. The DNA backlash by offering discount coupons for EpiPens®. A few days
helix is inserted into the host genome. When this is transcribed by the
later, the company promised to introduce a cheaper, generic version
infected cell, the new viral RNA and proteins are produced to form
new viruses that then bud from the cell membrane, thus completing the of the device. Analysts quickly determined that selling a generic
life cycle of the virus. version would allow Mylan to make more money on the product
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) may result from than reducing the price of the name-brand device, which they still
years of damage to the immune system by HIV. It occurs when helper declined to do. By September of 2016, Mylan was being
T cells fall to a very low level and opportunistic diseases occur. investigated for antitrust violations relating to sales of EpiPens® to
Opportunistic diseases are infections and tumors that are rare except in public schools in New York City.
people with a damaged immune system. The diseases take advantage of The Mylan/EpiPen® story may still be making the news. But
the “opportunity” presented by people whose immune systems cannot whatever its outcome, the story has already added fuel to public and
fight back. Opportunistic diseases are usually the direct cause of death private debates about important ethical issues — issues such as the
of people with AIDS. excessive costs of life-saving drugs and the huge profits of big
TREATING HIV/AIDS pharma. What is the most recent news on EpiPens® and Mylan? If

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 you are interested, you can check the headlines online to find out. 15. True or False. An anaphylactic reaction can be stopped by
What are your views on the ethical issues they raise? administering a shot of histamine.

REVIEW EXPLORE MORE

https://bio.libretexts.org/link?16849#Explore_More
1. What are allergies? What causes them?
2. Compare the prevalence of allergies in developed and developing ATTRIBUTIONS
countries. How does the hygiene hypothesis explain the differences
1. Oedema By Championswimmer, Public domain via Wikimedia
in prevalence?
Commons
3. How do allergies occur?
2. Pollen by Hans via Pixabay license
4. How are mild allergy symptoms treated?
3. Poison Ivy by Sam Fraser-Smith, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
5. What is anaphylaxis, and how is it treated?
Commons
6. How does immunotherapy for allergies work?
4. Mast Cells by NIH, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
7. What are autoimmune diseases?
5. Signs and symptoms of anaphylaxis by Mikael Häggström, CC0 via
8. Identify two risk factors for autoimmune diseases.
Wikimedia Commons
9. Autoimmune diseases may be specific to particular tissues, or they
6. Skin prick test for allergies by NIH, public domain via Wikimedia
may be systemic. Give an example of each type of autoimmune
Commons
disease.
7. Symptoms of SLE by Mikael Häggström, Public domain via
10. What is immunodeficiency?
Wikimedia Commons
11. Compare and contrast primary and secondary immunodeficiency,
8. HIV Infection by Hana Zavadska and Laura Guerin, CC BY-NC 3.0
and give an example of each.
via CK-12 foundation
12. What is the most common cause of immunodeficiency in the world
9. AIDS life cycle illustration by NIH, Public domain, via Wikimedia
today? How does this cause affect the immune system?
Commons
13. Distinguish between HIV and AIDS.
10. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
14. True or False. Allergies and autoimmune diseases both result from 3.0
an over-reactive immune system.

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20.7: HUMAN MICROBIOME
BENEFICIAL MICROBES: THE PHARMACY IN THE GUT causing harmful bacteria (i.e., Clostridium difficile) to proliferate and
While some bacteria can cause disease, others play beneficial roles multiply. Oral probiotics may reduce antibiotic-associated diarrhea
in human health. We have co-evolved with microbes in and on our significantly.
body, with everyone having a unique set of microorganisms. The
most abundant and well-studied microbiome is found in the gut. It
has been estimated that the number of bacteria in the human gut
may outnumber the cells in the body by an order of magnitude.
Thus, one may consider the gut microbiome as a multicellular
organ similar in size to the liver. Indeed, it is sometimes referred to
as our “forgotten organ”.

Generally, the microbiome within a given body habitat can be defined

as the diversity and abundance distribution of distinct types of
microorganisms. This microbial composition is highly influenced by
individual factors such as diet, age, lifestyle, ethnicity, and host health,
among others. Although no taxa are observed to be universally present
among all individuals, some microbial patterns demonstrate broad
prevalence. Most bacteria belong to the genera Bacteroides,
Clostridium, Fusobacterium, Eubacterium, Ruminococcus,
Peptococcus, Peptostreptococcus, and Bifidobacterium.
Figure 20.7.1 : Schematic representation of the cross-talk interaction of
THE EVOLUTION OF MICROBIOME DURING indigenous microbiome and oral probiotics with the intestinal
LIFE epithelium. The intestinal microbiome protects the mucosa from
invasion by pathogens. These probiotic bacteria may also allow
Recent research suggests early in-utero microbial exposure during beneficial effects through the release of nutrients (vitamins, SCFAs
pregnancy. Following birth, the newborn’s digestive tract is quickly sugars) which are absorbed in the small intestine. Human microbes and
colonized by microorganisms from the mother (vaginal, fecal, skin, probiotics would also interact with MALT macrophages and naive
lymphocyte cells, allowing a mucosal anti-inflammatory response.
breast milk, etc.) and the environment in which the delivery takes
place. Following birth, the microbiome that enters and evolves in the IMMUNOMODULATORY EFFECTS
infant's gut is dependent upon a number of factors, with delivery mode Commensal bacteria can interact with the host immune system in ways
and feeding regime (breastfeeding vs infant formula feeding) of prime that control the host's immune response and counteracts the
importance in the early days and weeks of life. By the age of 2 to 3 development of the disease. The complex interactions that may occur
years, the microbiome becomes essentially established, having reached between ingested probiotic bacteria, commensals, and the mucosal
a steady state, and remains relatively stable throughout life. However, surface are possible because of the mucosa-associated immune system,
the gut microbiome continuously changes in response to daily typically organized into MALT (Mucosal Associated Lymphoid Tissue,
variations in diet, lifestyle, age, and host physiological and such as Peyer’s patches). This cross-talk interaction enhances cellular
immunological health. immune response characterized by activation of macrophages, antigen-
specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines.
HEALTH BENEFITS OF THE MICROBIOME Furthermore, some probiotics may be effective in the prevention and/or
On the basis of the currently available literature, the gut microbiome is alleviation of allergies and auto-immune diseases like irritable bowel
known to contribute to a number of important functions in the host, syndrome and inflammatory bowel diseases (Crohn’s disease and
from protective, immunomodulatory, metabolic to trophic roles. These ulcerative colitis).
are promoted via a number of mechanisms. For example, members of
the gut microbiome can produce anti-inflammatory factors, pain NUTRITIONAL BENEFITS
relieving compounds, antioxidants, and vitamins to protect and nurture The metabolic activity of the gut microbiome makes an important
the body. Additionally, they may prevent attachment and action of contribution to the nutritional status of the host, via its ability to
harmful bacteria that can produce toxins causing chronic disease. This synthesize certain vitamins and various bioactive metabolites, such as
close and specific contact with human cells, exchanging nutrients and short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) that then become bioavailable to the
metabolic wastes, makes symbiotic bacteria essentially a human organ. host. It has been reported that consumption of yogurt containing
Lactobacillus bulgaricus or acidophilus could alleviate lactose
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTION PREVENTION intolerance during gastric passage through their enzyme lactase.
The indigenous intestinal microbiome serves as a line of resistance to However, the major metabolic function of the colonic microflora is the
colonization by exogenous microbes such as Clostridium difficile and fermentation of nondigestible carbohydrates, which are key sources of
Helicobacter pylori, and thus assists in competitive exclusion of energy in the colon. These carbohydrates also include large
pathogens preventing the potential invasion, termed colonization polysaccharides (i.e., resistant starches, pectins, and cellulose) and
resistance. Indeed, antibiotic-associated diarrhea occurs when some oligosaccharides that escape digestion, as well as unabsorbed
antibiotic treatment disturbs the natural balance of the gut microbiome sugars and alcohols. Other benefits of the gut microbiome on human

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health, such as a role in supporting the health of the reproductive tract, and/or mucus, persist and multiply in the gut to maintain its metabolic
oral cavity, lungs, skin, and gut-brain axis is currently under activity and confer their probiotic properties in the human body.
investigation.
RESOURCES
PROBIOTIC IMBALANCE BIOENGINEERED, 2016, VOL. 7, NO. 1, 11–20:
When the normal composition of the microbiome is thrown off balance http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21655979.2015.1126015
there is a potential risk of disease. A decrease in microbiome diversity REVIEW: Benecial Microbes: The pharmacy in the gut, Daniel
has been linked to cancer, asthma, Parkinson's, obesity, Alzheimer's, M. Linares, Paul Ross, and Catherine Stanton, Food Biosciences
type-2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and possibly even autism in Department, Teagasc Food Research Center, Moorepark, Fermoy,
comparison to healthy subjects. Over the counter probiotics can help. Cork, Ireland; APC, Microbiome Institute, University College
In order to arrive alive at their workplace (i.e. the gastrointestinal Cork, Cork, Ireland; Biosciences Institute, University College Cork,
tract), orally administered probiotics must be able to resist stomach Cork, Ireland
acid, bile, and the effects of digestive enzymes. Certain mechanisms of
action (such as the delivery of certain enzymes to the intestine) may EXPLORE MORE
not require live cells to play a physiologic benefit. Hence, a probiotic https://bio.libretexts.org/link?22726#Explore_More
must contain as many live bacteria as claimed on the label. In addition,
ATTRIBUTION
to survive the stomach and arrive at the intestine in optimal numbers,
probiotic strains must be able to adhere to the intestinal epithelium 1. Beneficial Microbes: The pharmacy in the gut by Daniel M.
Linares, Paul Ross, and Catherine Stanton Benecial Microbes,
licensed CC-BY-NC via NCBI

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20.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: LYMPHOMA AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: DEFENDING YOUR DEFENSES lymph nodes, loss of appetite, and weight loss, common symptoms
The person in Figure 20.8.1 is participating in a bike ride to raise of this type of lymphoma include fever and night sweats. It is an
funds for leukemia and lymphoma research. Leukemia and aggressive and fast-growing type of lymphoma that is fatal if not
lymphoma are blood cancers. About every three minutes, one treated. But the good news is that with early detection and proper
person in the U.S. is diagnosed with blood cancer. Lymphoma is the treatment, about 70% of patients with DLBCL can be cured.
most common type of blood cancer. As a lymphoma patient, Wei, How do physicians determine the specific type of lymphoma?
whom you learned about in the beginning of this chapter, may Tissue obtained from a biopsy can be examined under a microscope
eventually benefit from research funded by a bike ride like this one. to observe physical changes such as abnormal cell size or shape that
are characteristic of a particular subtype of lymphoma.
Additionally, tests can be performed on the tissue to determine
which cell-surface antigens are present. Recall that antigens are
molecules that bind to specific antibodies. Antibodies can be
produced in the laboratory and labeled with compounds that can be
identified by their color under a microscope. When these antibodies
are applied to a tissue sample, this color will appear wherever the
antigen is present, because it binds to the antibody. For example,
this technique was used in the photomicrograph in Figure 20.8.2 to
identify the presence of a cell-surface antigen (shown as reddish-
brown) in a sample of skin cells. This technique, called
immunohistochemistry, is also commonly used to identify
antigens in tissue samples from lymphoma patients.

Figure 20.8.1 : Fundraising for research

What type of blood cell is affected in lymphoma? As the name
implies, lymphoma is cancer that affects lymphocytes, which are a
type of white blood cell. As you have learned in this chapter, there
are different types of lymphocytes, including the B and T cells of
the adaptive immune system. Different types of lymphoma affect
different types of lymphocytes in different ways. It is important to
correctly identify the type of lymphoma so that patients can be
treated appropriately.
You may recall that one of Wei’s symptoms was a swollen lymph
node, and he was diagnosed with lymphoma after a biopsy of that
lymph node. Swollen lymph nodes are a common symptom of
lymphoma. As you have learned, lymph nodes are distributed
throughout the body along lymphatic vessels as part of the
lymphatic system. The lymph nodes filter lymph and store Figure 20.8.2 : Test for lymphoma
lymphocytes and therefore play an important role in fighting Why would identifying cell-surface antigens be important in
infections. Because of this, they will often swell in response to an diagnosing and treating lymphoma? As you have learned, the
infection. In Wei’s case, the swelling and other symptoms did not immune system uses antigens present on the surface of cells or
improve after several weeks and a course of antibiotics, which pathogens to distinguish between self and non-self and to launch
caused Dr. Bouazizi to suspect lymphoma instead. The biopsy adaptive immune responses. Cells that become cancerous often
showed that Wei did indeed have cancerous lymphocytes in his change their cell-surface antigens, and this is one way that the
lymph nodes. immune system can identify and destroy them. Also, different cell
But which type of lymphocytes were affected? Lymphoma most types in the body can sometimes be identified by the presence of
commonly affects B or T lymphocytes. The two major types of specific cell-surface antigens. Knowing the types of cell-surface
lymphoma are called Hodgkin (HL) or non-Hodgkin lymphoma antigens present in a tissue sample can help physicians identify
(NHL). NHL is more common than HL. There are more than which cells are cancerous, and possibly the specific subtype of
70,000 cases of NHL diagnosed in the U.S. each year, compared to cancer. Knowing this information can be helpful in choosing more
about 8,000 for HL. While HL is one distinct type of lymphoma, tailored and effective treatments.
NHL has about 60 different subtypes, depending on which specific In fact, one treatment for NHL is the use of medications made from
cells are affected and how. antibodies that bind to cell-surface antigens present on cells
Wei was diagnosed with a type of NHL called diffuse large B-cell affected by the specific subtype of NHL. This is called
lymphoma (DLBCL)—the most common type of NHL. This type immunotherapy. These drugs can directly bind to and kill the
of lymphoma affects B cells and causes them to appear large under cancerous cells. For patients with DLBCL such as Wei,
the microscope. In addition to Wei’s symptoms of fatigue, swollen immunotherapy is often used in conjunction with chemotherapy

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 and radiation as a course of treatment. Although Wei has a difficult Although it plays a role in digestion, the primary function of the
road ahead, he and his medical team are optimistic that he may be lymphatic system is host defense.
able to be cured, given the high success rate when DLBCL is Lymphocytes, which include B cells and T cells, are the subset of
caught and treated early. More research into how the immune white blood cells that are involved in adaptive immune responses.
system functions may lead to even better treatments for lymphoma, They may create a lasting memory of and immunity to specific
and other types of cancers, in the future. pathogens.
All lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow and then go
CHAPTER SUMMARY through a process of maturation in which they “learn” to distinguish
In this chapter, you learned about the immune system. Specifically, you self from non-self. B cells mature in the bone marrow, and T cells
learned that: mature in the thymus. Both the bone marrow and thymus are
considered primary lymphatic organs.
Any agent that can cause disease is called a pathogen. Most human
Secondary lymphatic organs include the tonsils, spleen, and lymph
pathogens are microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses. The
nodes. There are four pairs of tonsils that encircle the throat. The
immune system is the body system that defends the human host
spleen filters blood as well as lymph. There are hundreds of lymph
from pathogens and cancerous cells.
nodes located in clusters along the lymphatic vessels. All of these
The innate immune system is a subset of the immune system that
secondary organs filter lymph and store lymphocytes, so they are
provides very quick but non-specific responses to pathogens. It
sites where pathogens encounter and activate lymphocytes and
includes multiple types of barriers to pathogens, leukocytes that
initiate adaptive immune responses.
phagocytize pathogens, and several other general responses.
Unlike the adaptive immune system, the innate immune system
The adaptive immune system is a subset of the immune system that
does not confer immunity. The innate immune system includes
provides specific responses tailored to particular pathogens. It takes
surface barriers, inflammation, the complement system, and a
longer to put into effect, but it may lead to immunity to the
variety of cellular responses.
pathogens.
The body’s first line of defense consists of three different types of
Both innate and adaptive immune responses depend on the ability
barriers that keep most pathogens out of body tissues. The types of
of the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self
barriers are mechanical, chemical, and biological barriers.
molecules. Most body cells have major histocompatibility complex
Mechanical barriers—which include the skin, mucous membranes,
(MHC) proteins that identify them as self. Pathogens, infected cells,
and fluids such as tears and urine—physically block pathogens
and tumor cells have non-self proteins called antigens that the
from entering the body.
immune system recognizes as foreign.
Chemical barriers—such as enzymes in sweat, saliva, and semen—
Antigens are proteins that bind to specific receptors on immune
kill pathogens on body surfaces.
system cells and elicit an adaptive immune response. Some immune
Biological barriers are harmless bacteria that use up food and space
cells (B cells) respond to foreign antigens by producing antibodies
so pathogenic bacteria cannot colonize the body.
that bind with antigens and target pathogens for destruction.
If pathogens breach the protective barriers, inflammation occurs.
An important role of the immune system is tumor surveillance.
This creates a physical barrier against the spread of infection and
Killer T cells of the adaptive immune system find and destroy
repairs tissue damage. Inflammation is triggered by chemicals such
tumor cells, which they can identify from their abnormal antigens.
as cytokines and histamines, and it causes swelling, redness, and
The neuroimmune system that protects the central nervous system
warmth.
is thought to be distinct from the peripheral immune system that
The complement system is a complex biochemical mechanism that
protects the rest of the human body. The blood-brain and blood-
helps antibodies kill pathogens. Once activated, the complement
spinal cord barriers are one type of protection of the neuroimmune
system consists of more than two dozen proteins that lead to
system. Glial cells also play role in this system—for example, by
disruption of the cell membrane of pathogens and bursting of the
carrying out phagocytosis.
cells.
The lymphatic system is a human organ system that is a vital part of
Cellular responses of the innate immune system involve various
the adaptive immune system. It consists of several organs and a
types of leukocytes (white blood cells). For example, neutrophils,
system of vessels that transport or filter the fluid called lymph. The
macrophages, and dendritic cells phagocytize pathogens. Basophils
main immune function of the lymphatic system is to produce,
and mast cells release chemicals that trigger inflammation. Natural
mature, harbor, and circulate white blood cells called lymphocytes,
killer cells destroy cancerous or virus-infected cells, and
which are the main cells in the adaptive immune system and are
eosinophils kill parasites.
circulated in the lymph.
Many pathogens have evolved mechanisms that help them evade
The return of lymph to the bloodstream is one of the functions of
the innate immune system. For example, some pathogens form a
the lymphatic system. Lymph flows from tissue spaces, where it
protective capsule around themselves, and some mimic host cells so
leaks out of blood vessels, to major veins in the upper chest, where
the immune system does not recognize them as foreign.
it is returned to the cardiovascular system. Lymph is similar in
The main cells of the adaptive immune system are lymphocytes.
composition to blood plasma. Its main cellular components are
There are two major types of lymphocytes: T cells and B cells.
lymphocytes.
Both types must be activated by foreign antigens to become
Lymphatic vessels called lacteals are found in villi that line the
functioning immune cells.
small intestine. Lacteals absorb fatty acids from the digestion of
Most activated T cells become either killer T cells or helper T cells.
lipids in the digestive system. The fatty acids are then transported
Killer T cells destroy cells that are infected with pathogens or are
through the network of lymphatic vessels to the bloodstream.

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 cancerous. Helper T cells manage immune responses by releasing different tissues and organs may be attacked and injured.
cytokines that control other types of leukocytes. Autoimmune diseases generally cannot be cured, but their
Activated B cells form plasma cells that secrete antibodies, which symptoms can often be managed with drugs or other treatments.
bind to specific antigens on pathogens or infected cells. The Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is not working
antibody-antigen complexes generally lead to the destruction of the properly, generally because one or more of its components are
cells, for example, by attracting phagocytes or triggering the inactive. As a result, the immune system is unable to fight off
complement system. pathogens or cancers that a normal immune system would be able
After an adaptive immune response occurs, long-lasting memory B to resist.
cells and memory T cells may remain to confer immunity to the Primarily immunodeficiency is present at birth and caused by rare
specific pathogen that caused the adaptive immune response. These genetic diseases. An example is severe combined
memory cells are ready to activate an immediate response if they immunodeficiency. Secondary immunodeficiency occurs because of
are exposed to the same antigen again in the future. some event or exposure experienced after birth. Possible causes
Immunity may be active or passive. Active immunity occurs when include substance abuse, obesity, and malnutrition, among others.
the immune system has been presented with antigens that elicit an The most common cause of immunodeficiency in the world today is
adaptive immune response. This may occur naturally as the result the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which infects and
of an infection or artificially as the result of immunization. Active destroys helper T cells. HIV is transmitted through mucous
immunity may last for years or even for life. membranes or body fluids. The virus may eventually lead to such
Passive immunity occurs without an adaptive immune response by low levels of helper T cells that opportunistic infections occur.
the transfer of antibodies or activated T cells. This may occur When this happens, the patient is diagnosed with acquired
naturally between a mother and her fetus or her nursing infant, or it immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Medications can control the
may occur artificially by injection. Passive immunity lasts only as multiplication of HIV in the human body but not eliminate the virus
long as the antibodies or activated T cells remain alive in the body, completely.
generally just weeks or months.
Up to this point, this book has covered body systems that carry out
Many pathogens have evolved mechanisms to evade the adaptive
processes within individuals, such as the digestive, muscular, and
immune system. For example, human immunodeficiency virus
immune systems. Read the next chapter to learn about the body system
(HIV) evades the adaptive immune system by frequently changing
that allows humans to produce new individuals—the reproductive
its antigens and by forming its outer envelope from the host’s cell
system.
membrane.
An allergy is a disorder in which the immune system makes an CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW
inflammatory response to a harmless antigen. Any antigen that
1. The skin plays a role in establishing mechanical, chemical, and
causes allergies is called an allergen. Common allergens include
biological barriers that protect the body against pathogens. Give
pollen, dust mites, mold, specific foods such as peanuts, insect
one example of how the skin contributes to each type of barrier.
stings, and certain medications such as aspirin.
2. Compare and contrast a pathogen and an allergen.
The prevalence of allergies has been increasing for decades,
3. Describe three ways in which pathogens can enter the body.
especially in developed countries where they are much more
4. For each of the following immune responses, state whether it is an
common than in developing countries. The hygiene hypothesis
innate or adaptive immune response.
posits that this has occurred because humans evolved to cope with
A. Inflammation
more pathogens than we now typically face in our relatively sterile
B. Lymphocyte activation
environments in developed countries. As a result, the immune
C. Phagocytosis by leukocytes
system “keeps busy” by attacking harmless antigens.
D. Plasma cell maturation
Allergies occur when B cells are first activated to produce large
amounts of antibodies to an otherwise harmless allergen and the 5. The complement system involves the activation of several proteins
antibodies attach to mast cells. On subsequent exposures to the to kill pathogens. Why do you think this is considered part of the
allergen, the mast cells immediately release cytokines and innate immune system instead of the adaptive immune system?
histamines that cause inflammation. 6. Why are innate immune responses generally faster than adaptive
Mild allergy symptoms are frequently treated with antihistamines immune responses?
that counter histamines and reduce allergy symptoms. A severe 7. Rrue or False. There is more than one type of immune system cell
systemic allergic reaction, called anaphylaxis, is a medical that can carry out phagocytosis.
emergency that is usually treated with injections of epinephrine. 8. True or False. Semen can act as a chemical barrier against
Immunotherapy for allergies involves injecting increasing amounts pathogens.
of allergens to desensitize the immune system to them. 9. True or False. Leukocytes in the innate immune system are all
Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system fails to phagocytic.
recognize the body’s own molecules as self and attacks them, 10. Which type of immunity is triggered by vaccination?
causing damage to tissues and organs. A family history of A. Artificially acquired active immunity
autoimmunity and female sex are risk factors for autoimmune B. Artificially acquired natural immunity
diseases. C. Artificially acquired passive immunity
In some autoimmune diseases, such as type I diabetes, the immune D. Innate immunity
system attacks, and damages, specific body cells. In other 11. Explain how an autoimmune disease could be triggered by a
autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus, many pathogen.

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12. What is an opportunistic infection? Name two diseases or 19. Many pathogens evade the immune system by altering their outer
conditions that could result in opportunistic infections. Explain surface in some way. Based on what you know about the
your answer. functioning of the immune system, why is this often a successful
13. Match each description below with the cell type that best fits it approach?
from the list provided. Each cell type is used only once. Cell types: 20. Major histocompatibility complex proteins:
mast cells; B cells; killer T cells A. are involved in antigen-presentation by B cells
A. Directly destroys body cells that are cancerous or infected with B. help distinguish cells as self
a pathogen C. produce histamines
B. Secretes histamines and are involved in allergies D. A and B
C. Once activated, these cells multiply and their daughter cells 21. What is “missing self” and how does this condition arise?
mature into plasma cells 22. True or False. Sometimes only part of a pathogen is used to create a
14. Which cell type in the immune system can be considered an vaccine.
“antibody factory”? 23. True or False. An antigen is the same thing as an allergen.
15. Besides foreign pathogens, what is one other thing that the immune
system protects the body against? ATTRIBUTIONS
16. What cell type in the immune system is infected and killed by HIV? 1. Scenic Shore 150 by Joe Grant, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr.com
17. What is the difference between primary lymphoid organs and 2. Langerhans Cells in Normal Epidermis, CD1a Immunostain by Ed
secondary lymphoid organs? Give one example of each in your Uthman, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr.com
answer. 3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
18. Name two types of cells that produce cytokines in the immune 3.0
system. What are two functions of cytokines in the immune system?

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
21: DISEASE
This chapter discusses disease as homeostatic dysfunction and explores causes and types of human
diseases, including both infectious diseases and noninfectious diseases. Special emphasis is given to
sexually transmitted infections, HIV/AIDS, and cancer.

21.1: CASE STUDY: THREATS TO OUR HEALTH

Nineteen-year-old Ximena spent a relaxing week of summer vacation visiting her grandparents in
New Jersey. She particularly enjoyed taking their dog on long walks in the woods near their home,
occasionally spotting deer on the overgrown paths. The discovery of a distinctive rash upon her
return, however, leads to a very serious diagnosis.

21.2: HOMEOSTASIS AND DISEASE

When the human body is maintained in a steady state, the condition is called homeostasis. The body consists of trillions of cells that
perform many different functions, but all of them require a similar internal environment with important variables kept within narrow
ranges. For example, cells require a certain range of body temperature, pH of extracellular fluids, and concentrations of mineral ions
and glucose in the blood. Each of these variables must be maintained within a narrow range of val

21.3: INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Her real name was Mary Mallon (1869-1938), but she was nicknamed "Typhoid Mary." She gained notoriety (as evidenced by this
newspaper article) by being the first person in the United States to be identified as an asymptomatic carrier of the pathogen that causes
typhoid fever.

21.4: SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Syphilis is one of many sexually transmitted infections. A sexually transmitted infection (STI)is an infection caused by a pathogen
that spreads mainly through sexual contact. This generally involves direct contact between mucous membranes or their secretions. To
be considered an STI, an infection must have only a small chance of spreading naturally in other ways.

21.5: HIV AND AIDS

AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and is a disease caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus,
or HIV. HIV is a sexually transmitted virus that infects and destroys helper T cells of the human immune system. AIDS eventually
develops in most people with untreated HIV infections, usually several years after the initial infection with the virus. AIDS is
diagnosed when the immune system has been weakened to the point that it can no longer fight off diseases.

21.6: NONINFECTIOUS DISEASES

Noninfectious diseases include all diseases that are not caused by pathogens. Instead, noninfectious diseases are generally caused by
genetic or environmental factors other than pathogens, such as toxic environmental exposures or unhealthy lifestyle choices. Most
noninfectious diseases have a complex, multifactorial set of causes, often including a mix of genetic and environmental variables.

21.7: CANCER
Cancer is actually a group of more than 100 diseases, all of which involve abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread
to other parts of the body. In general terms, cancer occurs when the cell cycle is no longer regulated due to DNA damage. The number
of potential underlying causes of this DNA damage is great, so there are many different risk factors for cancer. Any cells that become
cancerous divide more quickly than normal cells. They may form a mass of abnormal cells called a

21.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: LYME AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

As you learned in the beginning of the chapter, Ximena came down with symptoms of Lyme disease, including the distinctive bulls-
eye rash that allowed for a relatively quick diagnosis and the beginning of treatment. Lyme disease is a common infectious disease
transmitted by ticks—and the most common vector-borne disease in the U.S. Thankfully, there are steps you can take to protect
yourself!

1 4/25/2021
21.1: CASE STUDY: THREATS TO OUR HEALTH
CASE STUDY: WHAT'S LURKING IN THE
WOODS
Nineteen-year-old Ximena spent a relaxing week of summer vacation
visiting her grandparents in New Jersey. She particularly enjoyed
taking their dog on long walks in the woods near their home,
occasionally spotting deer on the overgrown paths. About a week after
she returned home to California, Ximena came down with what she
thought was the flu. She had a fever, chills, fatigue, headache, and
body aches. But in the shower one morning, she noticed an unusual
rash on her calf. It looked like a bulls-eye on a target, with a central
circle surrounded by a ring, similar to the rash in Figure 21.1.1.

Figure 21.1.2 : Map of cases of Lyme disease reported to the Centers

for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 2017, based on the
county of residence of the infected person. This does not mean the
person was actually infected in that location since people travel, but
there are vastly more cases of Lyme disease reported in the Northeast
and Upper Midwest than in the rest of the U.S.
Lyme disease is caused by bacteria that are spread to people through
tick bites. In the northeastern U.S., it is spread by the black-legged tick
or deer tick. These ticks are commonly found in wooded areas, such as
the paths Ximena walked on during her trip. So those relaxing walks in
the woods might have caused Ximena to pick up an unwanted souvenir
—a disease that was making her feel awful.
Although flu-like symptoms can indicate any number of diseases, a
bulls-eye rash is a distinctive characteristic of Lyme disease. Therefore,
based on Ximena’s symptoms and the fact that she was in an area likely
to harbor Lyme disease, her doctor immediately starts her on
medication to treat Lyme disease. To confirm the diagnosis, he also
Figure 21.1.1: This is erythematous bulls-eye rash because of the takes a blood sample to test for the disease. He tells Ximena that she
concentric rings. may not test positive yet, even if she does have Lyme disease, because
it can take a few weeks after infection for evidence to show up in the
The rash caused Ximena to become concerned that she might have
blood. In the meantime, the medication he prescribed should start
something other than the flu. She went to her doctor, who examined her
helping her feel better soon if she does have Lyme disease.
and asked if she had taken any trips lately. Surprised, Ximena said yes,
and told him about her trip to New Jersey. He told her that a bulls-eye In this chapter, you will learn about some of the major types of human
rash combined with flu-like symptoms are often indications of Lyme diseases. These include infectious diseases, such as HIV, as well as
disease. Lyme disease can occur in California, but it is much more noninfectious diseases, such as most cancers. You will learn about the
prevalent in the northeastern United States, including New York and causes of these diseases, the effects they have on the body, and the
New Jersey (Figure 21.1.2). types of treatment. You will also learn about the ways in which
infectious diseases are transmitted, and steps you can take to prevent
infection. At the end of the chapter, you will learn more about how
Lyme disease is transmitted, its effects on the body, how it is treated,
Ximena’s path to recovery, and how you can protect yourself from this
relatively common infectious disease.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW: DISEASE

In this chapter, you will learn about human diseases. Specifically, you
will learn about:
How problems in regulating homeostasis can result in disease.
The differences between infectious and noninfectious diseases, and
acute and chronic diseases.
Epidemics, pandemics, endemic diseases, and emerging diseases.

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 The science of epidemiology and how it is used to improve public 1. What kind of medication do you think Ximena’s doctor gave her to
health. treat Lyme disease?
The different types of pathogens that cause infectious diseases, how 2. What type of pathogen transmission is involved in Lyme disease?
they are transmitted, and how they can be prevented and treated. What is another disease that is transmitted in a similar way?
Sexually transmitted diseases, such as genital herpes, human 3. Why, specifically, might Ximena’s blood test not be positive for
papillomavirus (HPV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Lyme disease for a few weeks, even if she does have the disease?
and their effects on the body; how they can be prevented and 4. How do you think the term “endemic” relates to Lyme disease?
treated; and their impact on public health.
Noninfectious diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, ATTRIBUTION
cystic fibrosis, and cancer, and their mechanisms, risk factors, 1. Erythematous rash by CDC/ James Gathany, public domain
diagnosis, and treatments. 2. Reported Cases of Lyme Disease – the United States, 2018; Centers
Ways to prevent noninfectious disease through healthy lifestyle for Disease Control (CDC), public domain
choices. 3. Text is adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-
As you read the chapter, think about the following questions: NC 3.0

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21.2: HOMEOSTASIS AND DISEASE
CRUISE CONTROL
Imagine driving on this seemingly endless road. Hopefully, your imaginary car is equipped with cruise control. Cruise control can help keep
you safe as well as help you avoid a speeding ticket by keeping the speed of the car at the speed limit. Cruise control works by monitoring the
car’s speed and adjusting the throttle as needed to keep the speed within a narrow range around the set speed limit. If the car starts to go faster
than the set limit, it causes the throttle to release less gas until the speed drops back down to the setpoint. The opposite happens if the car’s
speed starts to fall below the set speed limit. Cruise control on a car is a good analogy for physiological mechanisms that maintain the human
body in a steady state.

HOMEOSTASIS

Figure 21.2.1 : Blood glucose concentration is maintained within a range of 70 to 110 mg/dL by two negative feedback loops. The top loop uses
insulin to bring higher values back within the normal range, and the bottom loop uses glucagon to bring lower values back within the normal
range.

When the human body is maintained in a steady state, the condition is HOMEOSTATS
called homeostasis. The body consists of trillions of cells that perform Keeping all of the body’s internal variables within normal ranges is the
many different functions, but all of them require a similar internal function of physiological mechanisms called homeostats. Different
environment with important variables kept within narrow ranges. For variables are controlled by different homeostats, but all homeostats
example, cells require a certain range of body temperature, pH of work in the same general way. A stimulus from the variable in question
extracellular fluids, and concentrations of mineral ions and glucose in is sensed and compared with the normal range of values for the
the blood. Each of these variables must be maintained within a narrow variable. If the actual value of the variable is outside the normal range,
range of values regardless of changes in the external environment, food it elicits a response that works to move the variable back within the
that has been consumed, the body’s activity level, or other changes in normal range. All homeostats use negative feedback loops to bring
the human organism.

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excessively high or low values of a variable back within the normal
range.

CONTROLLING BLOOD GLUCOSE

Consider the control of the concentration of glucose in the blood as an
example. The homeostat that controls this variable is illustrated and
described in Figure 21.2.1. The primary sensors that monitor blood
glucose concentration are beta cells in the pancreas. If beta cells detect
a rise in the blood glucose concentration above the normal range, they
secrete the hormone insulin into the blood. Insulin, in turn, acts on cells
throughout the body, stimulating them to take up glucose from the
blood and use it for cellular respiration. Insulin also stimulates cells in
the liver to take up glucose from the blood and turn it into the complex
carbohydrate glycogen for storage. At the same time, insulin inhibits
the liver from breaking down stored glycogen and releasing it as
glucose. Insulin also inhibits the endoplasmic reticula (ER) of cells
from converting amino acids and glycerol into glucose.
If the beta cells detect a drop in the blood glucose concentration below
the normal range, they stop secreting insulin into the blood, and the
alpha cells of the pancreas are stimulated to secrete the hormone Figure 21.2.2 : The white hexagonal shapes in the blood shown here
glucagon into the blood. Glucagon, in turn, inhibits the uptake of represent glucose molecules. A higher-than-normal concentration of
glucose in the blood (lower circle) represents the homeostatic
glucose from the blood by the liver and by fat and muscle cells imbalance that occurs in type 1 diabetes.
throughout the body. Instead, the liver is stimulated to make glucose by
breaking down stored glycogen, and the ER in cells is stimulated to BLOOD GLUCOSE IMBALANCE: TYPE 1 DIABETES
make glucose from amino acids and glycerol. Glucose from all these One of the best-known examples of a disease caused by homeostatic
sources is released into the blood to bring the blood glucose imbalance is type 1 diabetes. In type 1 diabetes, the blood glucose
concentration back to the normal range. homeostat ceases to function because the beta cells of the pancreas are
destroyed, most often by the body’s own immune system. Without beta
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE AND DISEASE cells, the body’s blood glucose sensors are absent and insulin is not
Sometimes homeostats fail to perform properly. This can cause produced in response to high blood concentrations of glucose. Without
homeostatic imbalance, a condition in which variables in the internal insulin, cells are not stimulated to take up glucose from the blood, the
environment are no longer maintained within normal ranges. As a liver does not convert glucose to glycogen for storage, and the
result, cells may not get everything they need, or toxic wastes may conversion of amino acids and glycerol into glucose is not inhibited.
accumulate in cells. Eventually, homeostatic imbalance may lead to As a result, the concentration of glucose in the blood may rise to
disease. The term disease can be broadly defined as a condition that is dangerously high levels (Figure 21.2.2).
associated with the impairment of normal body functioning. Disease If the high blood glucose concentrations of type 1 diabetes are not
states can cause — as well as be caused by — the failure of homeostats controlled, they may lead to further homeostatic imbalances by
to maintain homeostasis. damaging tissues and organs throughout the body. For example, high
blood glucose concentrations may damage blood vessels in the kidneys
and cause kidney disease and even kidney failure. The inability of the
kidneys to function normally causes further homeostatic imbalances
because the kidneys are unable to adequately filter the blood. This may
lead to high acid levels in the blood and imbalances in blood
concentrations of mineral ions. Imbalances of mineral ions, in turn,
may adversely affect bone health. Kidney failure can also have
deleterious effects on cardiovascular function and cause cardiovascular
disease. In fact, death from cardiovascular disease causes close to half
of all deaths of people with advanced kidney failure.

AGING, HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE, AND DISEASE

The normal aging process may bring about a reduction in the efficiency
of the body’s homeostats. This makes elderly people more susceptible
to disease. For example, older people may have a harder time
regulating their body temperature. This is one reason they are more
likely than younger people to develop heat stroke and other diseases
caused by the body overheating. Older people also have a harder time
fighting off many infectious diseases and cancer.

TYPES OF DISEASE

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Although virtually all diseases involve homeostatic imbalances in some cannot eliminate. Examples are the viruses that cause herpes and
way, there are many different underlying causes of disease. For AIDS.
example, some diseases are caused by pathogens, whereas others are
not. EPIDEMIC, PANDEMIC, AND ENDEMIC DISEASES
Some infectious diseases spread through a population from time to
INFECTIOUS VS. NONINFECTIOUS DISEASES time as large-scale disease outbreaks called epidemics, but are not
always present in the population, at least not at high levels. Such
diseases are called epidemic diseases. An example is a flu (influenza).
In the United States, flu spreads through the population at a certain
time each year (generally, from November through April), but is not
commonly found at other times of the year.
Some epidemic diseases lead to pandemics. A pandemic is an
epidemic that spreads across multiple populations, often across
continents or even worldwide. Throughout human history, there have
been many pandemics of infectious diseases. One of the most
devastating pandemics was the Black Death (bubonic plague)
pandemic that spread throughout Europe and much of Asia in the mid-
1300s. In this pandemic, an estimated 75 million people died. More
recent pandemics include influenza pandemics that occurred in 1918
and 2009 (see Explore More below). In December 2019, a novel
coronavirus disease (COVID 19) spread over all continents. By April
Figure 21.2.3 : Single-celled protists in the genus Plasmodium infect 2021, it killed 3.1 million people worldwide.
human beings and cause malaria. Micrographs of 4 different species, Some diseases are always present in a population. Such diseases are
plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium ovale, Plasmodium malaria, and
Plasmodium vivax, are shown above. The pathogen is transmitted by referred to as endemic diseases. For example, in many tropical
infected mosquitoes when they bite people. countries, malaria is an endemic disease. It is transmitted year-round
Pathogens are agents — usually microorganisms — that cause disease. by mosquitoes in the hot climate, rather than appearing in periodic
Diseases caused by pathogens are called infectious, or communicable, outbreaks that occur only at certain times of the year.
diseases because pathogens can spread the diseases by moving from
host to host. Types of pathogens that commonly cause human diseases STUDYING DISEASE IN HUMAN POPULATIONS
include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa (Figure 21.2.3). Epidemiology is the science that focuses on the patterns, causes, and
Examples of infectious diseases include the common cold, influenza, effects of diseases in human populations. It is the cornerstone of public
chickenpox, cholera, and malaria. Some infectious diseases are spread health. It shapes health policy decisions and medical practice by
only or mainly through sexual contact. These diseases are called identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive
sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and include gonorrhea and healthcare. The term epidemiology was first applied to the study of
syphilis (see the concept of Sexually Transmitted Infections to learn epidemics, but it is now widely applied to the study of disease in
more). general and even to the study of many non-disease conditions, such as
high blood pressure and obesity.
Diseases that are not caused by pathogens are called noninfectious
diseases. They are also called non-communicable diseases because THE FATHER OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
they do not spread from person to person. Examples of noninfectious
diseases include diabetes, most types of cancer, and cardiovascular
diseases. There are numerous possible causes of noninfectious
diseases. They include inherited mutations, exposure to environmental
toxins such as air pollution, and unhealthy lifestyle choices such as
overeating or smoking.

ACUTE VS. CHRONIC DISEASES

Most infectious diseases are also acute diseases. An acute disease is a
short-term disease. After a person gets sick, an acute disease either runs
its course (with or without medical intervention) until the person gets
better, or the disease leads to the death of the infected individual.
Figure 21.2.4 : (left) Dr. John Snow is called the father of epidemiology
Many noninfectious diseases are chronic diseases. Chronic disease is a for his scientific investigation of cholera outbreaks in 19th-century
long-term or even lifelong disease. For example, people who develop London. (right) A copy of the original map John Snow created to show
type 1 diabetes have the disease for life as do most people who develop the distribution of cholera cases in the London epidemic of 1854. The
black shapes on the map represent houses where cholera cases
cardiovascular diseases. Some noninfectious diseases, such as cancer,
occurred. All of these houses, and only these houses, obtained their
may be cured or they may be kept under control as chronic diseases drinking water from a particular well, later found to be contaminated
with medications. Certain infectious diseases are also chronic rather with human feces.
than acute diseases because they are caused by pathogens that the body The science of epidemiology has deep roots. The ancient Greek
physician Hippocrates (about 460 to 379 BCE) was the first person

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known to have examined relationships between the occurrence of MORE RECENT CONTRIBUTIONS OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
disease in populations and environmental factors. He also coined the More recent pioneers in epidemiology include the British doctors
terms epidemic and endemic. A century later, a Greek physician named Richard Doll and Austin Bradford Hill, whose large-scale
Galen developed the idea that miasma (“bad air”) was the cause of observational studies in the mid-1900s showed statistically significant
diseases such as bubonic plague and cholera, an idea that was accepted links between tobacco smoking and lung cancer. Doll and Hill were
by most physicians until well into the 1800s. However, the origin of among the first scientists to use epidemiology to study noninfectious
modern epidemiology is generally attributed to an English physician diseases. Since then, epidemiology has been applied to the study of
named John Snow (Figure 21.2.4), who is often referred to as the many different diseases, and epidemiological methods have become
father of epidemiology. Snow gained fame for his scientific more sophisticated and rigorous over time. The results of
investigations into the cause of the cholera epidemics that led to many epidemiological studies continue to make a significant contribution to
deaths in 19th century London. population-based health management. The results are used to assess the
Dr. Snow was skeptical of the still-dominant miasma theory, but the health status and needs of the public and to implement and evaluate
germ theory of disease would not be fully formed for several decades. interventions that are designed to improve public health.
As a result, Snow did not understand the mechanism by which
infectious diseases such as cholera are transmitted. While treating REVIEW
cholera cases during an outbreak in London in the mid-1800s, Snow 1. Define homeostasis.
observed a pattern in the distribution of homes where people got the 2. What are homeostats?
disease. Homes of cases appeared to cluster around a particular public 3. Describe the homeostat that controls blood glucose concentration.
well. Snow wondered if cholera was spread through the drinking water 4. What happens if homeostats fail to perform properly? Give an
in this well. He plotted homes with cholera cases on a map (reproduced example.
below) and then showed that all of these homes received their drinking 5. Compare and contrast infectious and noninfectious diseases.
water from the well in question. Snow also did chemical and 6. Compare and contrast acute and chronic diseases. What is an
microscopic examinations of water from the well but could not prove example of each type of disease?
conclusively that it was causing cholera. However, his demonstration 7. Define and relate the terms epidemic and pandemic.
of the pattern of the disease in the population was convincing enough 8. What is an endemic disease?
to persuade officials to close down the well. They removed the handle 9. What is the focus of epidemiology? What are the applications of
from the pump the next day, an action that has been credited with epidemiological research?
stopping the cholera outbreak 10. Who was John Snow? What is the significance of his work in
It was later discovered that the well in question had been dug only a epidemiology?
few feet from an old cesspit, which had begun to leak fecal matter into 11. True or False. Acute diseases are always less dangerous than
the well water. This suggested that cholera spreads through a fecal-oral chronic diseases.
route. However, this explanation was not immediately accepted 12. True or False. Influenza can cause an epidemic or a pandemic.
because it was too unpleasant for most people to contemplate. It took 13. Briefly describe the relationship between homeostasis and disease.
several more years — and additional cholera outbreaks — before this 14. Can an infectious disease be a chronic disease? Why or why not?
explanation for the spread of the disease could no longer be denied. 15. If you were an epidemiologist studying a new infectious disease
Eventually, Snow’s work inspired fundamental changes in the water that is making many people ill, what are some things you would
and waste systems of London and other cities and eventually led to want to know so that you could distinguish between whether it is
significant improvements in public health around the world. Snow’s endemic, a pandemic, or an epidemic?
contributions to epidemiology and public health are now recognized by
numerous honors and monuments to his work.
EXPLORE MORE
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ATTRIBUTIONS
1. The Homostatic Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
2. Hyperglycemia by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
3. Plasmodium slides by CDC/Steven Glenn, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
4. John Snow, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
5. Snow Cholera map by John Snow, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0

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21.3: INFECTIOUS DISEASES
TYPHOID MARY Viruses: Viruses are little more than DNA or RNA in a protein
Her real name was Mary Mallon (1869-1938), but she was coat. Viruses are not usually classified as living things because they
nicknamed “Typhoid Mary.” She gained notoriety (as evidenced by cannot survive or reproduce on their own. They require the cells of
this newspaper article in Figure 21.3.1) by being the first person in a host to provide the machinery for protein synthesis and
the United States to be identified as an asymptomatic carrier of the reproduction. Many types of viruses are pathogenic to humans.
pathogen that causes typhoid fever. Over the course of her career as Common human diseases caused by viruses include influenza,
a cook, Mary Mallon was thought to have infected 51 people, three mumps, measles, chickenpox, hepatitis, AIDS, yellow fever,
of whom died. She was twice forcibly quarantined by public health coronavirus disease, herpes, polio, and the common cold.
authorities and died after a total of nearly 30 years in isolation. Fungi: Fungi (singular, fungus) are eukaryotic organisms in the
Typhoid fever is caused by bacteria that are spread by eating or Fungus Kingdom. Some fungi are unicellular organisms; others are
drinking food or water contaminated with the feces of an infected multicellular. Many fungi consume dead organisms. Many others
person. Risk factors include poor sanitation and poor hygiene. are parasites of plants or animals, including humans. Human
Typhoid fever is one of many infectious diseases that can spread in diseases caused by fungi include candidiasis, histoplasmosis,
human populations. ringworm, and athlete’s foot. People with a compromised immune
system are particularly susceptible to certain fungal diseases, such
as candidiasis, which is pictured below, and cryptococcosis, which
is a defining opportunistic infection for AIDS patients.

Figure 21.3.2 : Oral infection with yeast (candidiasis) is an

opportunistic infection in this immune-compromised HIV patient. The
patient has white lesions in their mouth and throat.

Figure 21.3.1 : Typhoid Mary Protists: Protists are an informal grouping of simple eukaryotic
organisms that are not plants, animals, or fungi. Some protists —
All infectious diseases are caused by infections with pathogens or particularly those called protozoa — are significant parasites of
disease-causing agents, but not all infections cause infectious diseases. human organisms. They include five species of the parasitic genus
Infection is the invasion of an organism’s body tissues by pathogens, Plasmodium that cause malaria. Malaria places a tremendous
which multiply and damage or poison the host tissues. The reaction of disease burden on human populations. In 2015, there were 214
the host’s immune system to the pathogens may contribute to the tissue million cases of malaria worldwide resulting in an estimated
damage. Infectious disease is an illness resulting from an infection. It 438,000 deaths, 90 percent of which occurred in Africa. Other
occurs when an infection causes noticeable symptoms. human diseases caused by protists include giardiasis,
toxoplasmosis, trichomoniasis, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis,
TYPES OF PATHOGENS trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), and amoebic dysentery.
Infectious diseases kill more people in low-income countries than any
Helminths: Helminths, also commonly known as parasitic worms,
other cause, and they are important causes of death elsewhere. Many
are multicellular organisms, which when mature can generally be
different types of pathogens can cause infectious diseases. Besides
seen with the naked eye. Helminths infect animals including
bacteria and viruses, human pathogens include fungi, protists,
humans. Most live in the host’s intestines, but some live in other
helminths, and prions.
organs, such as muscles or blood vessels. Helminths take
Bacteria: The vast majority of bacteria are at least harmless if not nourishment and protection from the host and cause disease in
beneficial to human hosts. Relatively few bacteria cause human return. Examples of helminthic infections in humans include
diseases, but of those that do, the disease burden they exert on infections by tapeworms, roundworms, pinworms, and hookworms
human populations may be great. Disease burden is the impact of a (Figure 21.3.3).
disease on a population as measured by financial cost, mortality,
morbidity, or other indicators. One of the bacterial diseases with the
highest disease burden worldwide is tuberculosis. It is caused by
the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which kills about 2
million people a year, most of them in sub-Saharan Africa. Other
bacterial diseases that burden human populations include strep
throat, pneumonia, shigellosis, tetanus, typhoid fever, cholera,
diphtheria, syphilis, and leprosy. Figure 21.3.3 : These two hookworms are attached to the intestinal
mucosa of a human host

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 Prions: Prions are infectious agents composed entirely of proteins. identified in pure culture (Figure 21.3.5), this is not the case with all
Prions are misfolded proteins that replicate by converting their pathogens, including viruses and prions. Therefore, these pathogens
properly folded counterparts, in their host, to the same misfolded fail to meet the second postulate. Taking these and other exceptions
structure they possess. Prions are transmissible and a few of them into account, Koch’s postulates can be viewed as sufficient but not
are known to cause human diseases, including Creutzfeldt–Jakob necessary criteria for establishing a specific agent as the cause of a
disease (CJD), an incurable and universally fatal neurodegenerative disease. The postulates still inform the basic approach scientists take to
disease. CJD is similar to the better-known prion disease in cows, this research. Koch’s postulates are also important for their historical
called mad-cow disease. In both the human and bovine (cow) significance. They led to the scientific identification of many human
diseases, brain tissue degenerates rapidly, and the brain develops pathogens, which allowed the development of ways to prevent and cure
holes like a kitchen sponge. diseases.

IDENTIFYING PATHOGENS: KOCH’S

POSTULATES
The human body has more microorganisms than it does human cells.
The majority of microorganisms that live in or on the human organism
are actually beneficial or at least harmless to the human host (except in
the case of immune-compromised individuals). Given a huge load of
microorganisms in and on the human organism, how can scientists
determine which species of microorganism causes a particular disease?
The 19th-century physician and microbiologist Robert Koch (Figure
21.3.4) is best known for developing four basic criteria, or postulates,

for deciding whether a disease is caused by a particular microorganism.

Koch’s postulates are tabulated below:
Figure 21.3.5 : All of the bacteria growing on these culture plates have
KOCH’S POSTULATES been determined to cause human disease. Each independent colony
1. The microorganism must be found in abundance in all arises from a different species of bacterium. The size, color, shape, and
individuals suffering from the disease and should not be found form of each colony are characteristic of its bacterial species.
in healthy individuals.
2. The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased individual
HOW PATHOGENS CAUSE DISEASE
and grown in pure culture. Pathogens usually gain entrance to a human host through the mucosa in
3. The cultured microorganism should cause disease when orifices like the oral cavity, nose, eyes, genitalia, or anus. Some
introduced into a healthy individual. pathogens may be swallowed and gain access through the mucosa
4. The microorganism must be re-isolated from the inoculated lining the digestive tract. Other pathogens may enter a human host
individual and then identified as being identical to the original through breaks in the skin. Once pathogens gain entrance to a host,
microorganism. they multiply inside the host, either at the site of entry or at other sites
after migrating from the entry site. Some pathogens live and multiply
In the first and third postulates, Koch originally used the word “must” inside host cells; others live and multiply in host body fluids.
instead of “should.” He changed the wording when he learned that Within the host’s tissues, pathogens may cause damage by releasing
some carriers of cholera and typhoid were asymptomatic and remained toxins. For example, Clostridium tetani releases a toxin that paralyzes
healthy. muscles, causing the disease known as tetanus. Typically, the more
pathogens that are present, the greater the severity of illness, but there
is considerable variation in the virulence of pathogens. The poliovirus
is not very virulent. Fewer than 5 percent of people infected with
poliovirus actually develop any noticeable symptoms of the disease.
On the other hand, CJD prions are so virulent that they cause severe
disease and death in every infected individual.

HOW PATHOGENS ARE TRANSMITTED

For pathogens to survive and repeat the cycle of infection in other
hosts, they or their progeny must have a means of leaving one host and
entering another. Transmission of pathogens from infected to
noninfected human hosts occurs through many different routes.
Airborne Transmission: One of the most common routes is
airborne transmission. As illustrated in Figure 21.3.6, this occurs
Figure 21.3.4 : Robert Koch, pictured here in his laboratory, developed
when pathogens in droplets are expelled from an infected host’s
his postulates when he was investigating the cause of anthrax in
livestock respiratory system during coughing or sneezing. The pathogens are
Since Koch presented his postulates, scientists have come to realize then inhaled by nearby people, who become new hosts for the
that all four postulates may not apply to every pathogenic pathogens. Flu and the common cold can spread this way.
microorganism. For example, while bacteria can be grown and

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 Figure 21.3.6 : Common airborne pathogens include flu and cold
viruses.
Direct Contact: Many pathogens spread from person to person
through direct contact between an infected person and a new host.
This can happen when people have skin-to-skin contact or touch the
same surfaces. Athlete’s foot and warts are transmitted this way.
Another form of direct contact is the oral transmission. This occurs
when pathogens spread through direct oral contact, for example, by
kissing, or by sharing items that go in the mouth, such as drinking
glasses or eating utensils. Mononucleosis and oral herpes spread
through oral contact.
Fecal-Oral Transmission: Fecal-oral transmission is also very
common. It occurs when pathogens in feces from an infected host
enter the mouth of a new human host in fecally contaminated food
or water or on contaminated fingers. Cholera and many types of
gastroenteritis are transmitted this way. Helminth infections are also
usually spread via a fecal-oral route. Adult worms may live and
produce eggs in the human host for several years. Generally, Figure 21.3.7 : Mosquitoes transmit Malaria, West Nile Virus, Dengue
Fever, and Chikungunya.
thousands or even hundreds of thousands of eggs are released each
day. The eggs are then shed from the human host in feces. The eggs Transmission of Prions: Prions have unusual means of
that hatch develop into larvae that may be consumed by a new transmission. Some people have become infected with prions by
human host in contaminated food or water. After being ingested, the eating meat from cows infected with mad cow disease. Prions that
larvae develop into adult worms that parasitize the new human host. cause the human disease called kuru have been transmitted through
cannibalism. Kuru is a deadly disease that was once commonly
Vector Transmission: Vector transmission occurs when pathogens
found in women and children of the Fore tribe in Papua New
are carried by a vector organism from infected hosts to new hosts,
Guinea. Women and children were most often infected because they
usually through biting them. Mosquitoes, fleas, and other insects
were more likely than males to eat highly infective brain material
are common vectors. Figure 21.3.7 describes four diseases that are
from the cannibalized bodies. Solving the mystery of this disease
spread by mosquito vectors.
and its mode of transmission resulted in two Nobel Prizes.
Vertical Transmission: Vertical transmission occurs when
pathogens travel from an infected woman to her embryo or fetus MANAGING INFECTIOUS DISEASE
during pregnancy or to her infant during or soon after birth. Infectious diseases must be correctly diagnosed so the appropriate
Examples of diseases that can be transmitted this way include HIV treatment can be prescribed. Most infectious diseases can be treated if
infection and rubella. You can learn more about this type of not cured. Many infectious diseases can be prevented through
transmission in the concept Embryonic Stage. commonsense behaviors or immunizations.
Sexual Transmission: Sexual transmission occurs when pathogens
spread through sexual activity between an infected host and a new DIAGNOSING INFECTIOUS DISEASE
host. Sexual transmission generally requires direct contact between Most minor infectious diseases, such as upper respiratory infections
mucous membranes or their secretions. This can occur during any and diarrheal diseases, are usually diagnosed on the basis of their signs
type of sexual contact, including vaginal, anal, or oral contact. and symptoms. However, determining the specific pathogen that is
Sexually transmitted infections include chlamydia and gonorrhea. causing the disease may be necessary to choose the best treatment.
To learn more about sexual transmission, read the concept of Many pathogens can be identified by growing samples from a patient
Sexually Transmitted Infections. on a culture medium or by examining samples from the patient under a
microscope. Most bacteria can be identified from a culture based on the
size, color, and shape of the colony. Viruses can be identified by using
cells grown in culture as the medium. If viruses are pathogenic, they
infect and kill the cultured cells. Biochemical tests can also be used to
identify specific pathogens in patient samples. Some pathogens can be
detected by testing for the chemical products they produce, such as
acids, alcohols, or gases. Another potential diagnostic tool is a

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serological test, which identifies pathogens by their antigens and causing homeostatic imbalance. It’s almost always better to avoid
whether they bind to specific antibodies. getting sick in the first place than to treat a disease after it occurs.
Hygienic habits and immunizations are the most effective ways to
TREATING INFECTIOUS DISEASE prevent the spread of infectious diseases.
Not all infectious diseases require treatment. Many minor infectious
HAND WASHING AND OTHER BEHAVIORS
diseases are usually self-limiting and people get better on their own.
For more serious infectious diseases, pharmaceutical drugs may be Frequent hand washing is the single most important defense against the
needed. Drugs have been developed to treat most types of infectious spread of many pathogens, especially those transmitted through direct
diseases. Different types of drugs are generally required to treat skin contact or the fecal-oral route. Hand washing can also reduce the
different types of pathogens. spread of respiratory illnesses such as flu, coronavirus disease, and the
common cold because the viruses can be spread on people’s hands
Bacteria can often be killed with antibiotic drugs. Antibiotics
when they touch their nose, mouth, or eyes. For the most effective way
typically work by destroying the cell wall of bacterial cells, causing
to wash your hands in order to prevent infection, see the Feature: My
the DNA inside to spill out. This makes the bacterial cells incapable
Human Body below.
of producing proteins, so they die. This generally cures the disease.
Several different classes of antibiotics have been developed. What else can you do to protect yourself? You can use condoms to
Different types of bacteria are susceptible only to certain classes of avoid sexually transmitted infections where there is a risk of
antibiotics. Some bacteria have evolved the ability to resist some or transmission, for example, with a new partner. Condoms are the only
all classes of antibiotics (see Explore More below). method of contraception that also helps prevent the spread of such
infections. Preventing the spread of infectious diseases transmitted by
vectors often involves controlling the vectors or at least exposure to the
vectors. For example, the number of mosquitoes can be reduced by
removing sources of standing water around homes. Insect repellents
and mosquito nets (like the one in Figure 21.3.9) can be used to reduce
human contact with vectors.

Figure 21.3.8 : Clortrimazole is an anti-fungal cream that is commonly

used to treat and cure athlete’s foot and other fungal infections of the
skin.
Unlike bacteria, viruses are not killed by antibiotic drugs. However,
antiviral drugs have been developed to help the immune system
fight off viral infections. Antiviral drugs are generally not as
effective at curing viral infections as antibiotics are at curing Figure 21.3.9 : This bed canopy mosquito net can help protect people
bacterial infections. from mosquito-transmitted diseases such as malaria. It reduces the
Most fungal infections can be treated or cured with antifungal chances that people will be bitten by mosquitoes during the night when
the insects are most active.
medications. These may be taken orally or applied topically,
depending on the disease. Most antifungal drugs are available only IMMUNIZATION
with a doctor’s prescription, but a few can be purchased over the Diseases that can be prevented with vaccinations include many
counter (OTC). An example of an OTC antifungal product is otherwise common and potentially serious early childhood infections
pictured in Figure 21.3.8. such as measles, mumps, chickenpox, whooping cough (pertussis), and
Infections by protozoa are treated with antiprotozoal drugs. diphtheria. Vaccinations also are recommended for older children
Because protozoans may vary greatly in their biology, drugs against the human papillomavirus (HPV) that causes genital warts and
effective against one pathogen may not be effective against another. may lead to cervical cancer in females. Annual vaccines for influenza
Several anti-malarial drugs have been developed, but the (Figure 21.3.10) are highly recommended as well, especially for young
Plasmodium pathogens are evolving resistance to most of them. children and older adults. Pneumonia vaccines are also advised in
Several drugs are available to kill worms in human hosts. Different certain people, particularly the elderly. Coronavirus diseases can also
drugs must be used for different helminthic parasites. The drugs kill be combated by vaccination.
off the adult worms, which are then shed in the host’s feces.
Unfortunately, infectious diseases caused by prions are not treatable at
present. They are considered incurable and inevitably fatal diseases.
The good news is that scientists are actively working to find ways to
treat or cure prion diseases.

PREVENTING INFECTIOUS DISEASE

You have probably heard the expression “an ounce of prevention is Figure 21.3.10: A White House nurse prepares to administer the H1N1
worth a pound of cure.” It certainly applies to infectious diseases. flu vaccine to President Barack Obama at the White House in
Some side effects of treating minor infectious diseases can be worse December of 2009.
than the disease symptoms. For example, taking an antibiotic for a Some people cannot safely receive vaccines. For example, children
minor sinus infection might lead to diarrhea or a vaginal yeast infection with a compromised immune system or cancer may not be able to
as beneficial bacteria are killed off along with harmful bacteria and safely receive routine childhood vaccinations. To help protect such

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vulnerable people from being exposed to infectious diseases, it is immunity. You can see how it works in Figure 21.3.11. The principle
important for populations to maintain high levels of vaccination. When of herd immunity applies to many infectious diseases, including
a critical portion of a population is immunized against an infectious influenza, measles, and mumps, to name just a few.
disease, most members of the population are protected against that
disease even if they have not been immunized. This is known as herd

Figure 21.3.11: This figure shows how herd immunity contains the spread of an infectious disease. The top box depicts a population in which no
one is immunized and an outbreak occurs. In the middle box, some of the population is immunized but not enough to confer herd immunity, so
many people become sick. In the bottom box, a critical portion of the population is immunized, protecting most population members from
infection, even those who have not been immunized because immunized individuals act as a barrier to the spread of pathogens.

transmission of pathogens that may not have been able to spread in

EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES small, dispersed rural populations.
New infectious diseases are showing up in human populations. Called modern transportation. Ships and other cargo carriers often
emerging infectious diseases, they can come about in a number of inadvertently carry microscopic pathogens or their infected vectors
ways, most of which are influenced by human actions. New infectious to distant places where they can infect people who have never been
diseases can emerge when previously harmless microorganisms evolve exposed to them before. International jet travel allows infected
to become pathogenic to humans or when microorganisms that infect people to carry pathogens to distant populations, even before their
nonhuman animals jump to human hosts. Infectious diseases can also first symptoms appear.
spread to faraway populations where people have no prior exposure FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY
and natural immunity to them. Human actions that influence the Proper hand washing is the single most important behavior you can
emergence of new infectious diseases include: adapt to avoid infection by pathogens. The most effective hand
human encroachment on wild habitats. This may happen with washing method is to use soap and warm running water and the
residential development, mining, farming, or logging activities. It following procedure:
may bring humans into contact with insects and other animals that 1. Wet hands with warm water, keeping hands below the forearms
harbor previously unknown microorganisms that are pathogenic to to prevent contaminated water from moving from the hands to
people. the arms.
changes in agriculture. The introduction of new crops attracts new 2. Apply about 5 mL (1 teaspoon) of liquid soap and rub it all over
crop pests and the microbes they carry to farming communities. the hands for at least 20 seconds. Be sure to wash the most
This exposes people to new pathogens. commonly missed areas, which are the thumb, wrist, areas
uncontrolled urbanization. The rapid growth of cities in many between the fingers, and skin under the fingernails. Ideally, you
developing countries concentrates large numbers of people in
crowded areas with poor sanitation. Such conditions foster the

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 should use a nail brush to remove any debris or microorganisms 9. Explain how and why emerging infectious diseases are appearing in
under the fingernails. human populations.
3. Rinse thoroughly. Make sure the water flows from the wrist to 10. Explain why Koch’s first postulate alone would not provide
the fingertips to ensure that any microorganisms are washed off sufficient evidence to prove that a specific microorganism causes a
the skin rather than up onto the arms. disease. In particular, discuss why postulates three and four are
4. Dry hands thoroughly with a clean towel or hot air blower. required.
Properly dispose of any used towels. If possible, use towels to 11. What is a disease burden?
turn faucets on and off and to open the bathroom door. A. How many infectious pathogens are in an infected person.
B. How many people are killed by an infectious disease each year?
REVIEW C. How rapidly an infectious disease spreads.
1. What are infectious diseases?
D. The impact of a disease on a population, including the number of
2. Name types of pathogens and give an example of a human disease
deaths and the associated financial impact.
caused by each type of pathogen.
3. What are Koch’s postulates? What is their current significance? 12. Give an example of a human disease that is caused by a protist and
4. How do pathogens cause disease? Identify two factors that transmitted by a vector.
influence the severity of an infectious disease. 13. What kind of treatment do you think might be given for leprosy?
5. List six common routes of transmission of pathogens. Explain your reasoning.
6. Why is the correct diagnosis of a pathogen important for selecting 14. True or False. The direct contact route of pathogen transmission
the appropriate treatment of an infectious disease? requires skin-to-skin contact.
7. What are the most effective ways to prevent the spread of infectious 15. True or False. Some people who are infected with a pathogen never
diseases? show symptoms.
8. How does herd immunity come about, and why is it important?
EXPLORE MORE
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ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Typhoid Mary, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
2. Candidiasis by CDC/ Sol Silverman, Jr., DDS, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
3. Hookworms by CDC, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
4. Robert Herman Koch , CC BY 4.0 via Wellcome Library
5. Nutrient Agar growing common Gram negative Bacteria by Eukaryotica, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
6. Disease Transmission sneezing by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
7. Mosquito carried diseases by NIAID, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
8. Canesten by Editor182, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
9. Javan bed canopy by Azt3cs, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
10. A nurse vaccinates Barack Obama against H1N1 by White House (Pete Souza) / Maison Blanche (Pete Souza), public domain via Wikimedia
Commons
11. Community Immunity by National Institutes of Health (NIH), public domain via Wikimedia Commons
12. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0

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21.4: SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS
COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE becoming infected. During that war, STIs caused the U.S. Army to lose
This artwork is entitled “Columbus and the Indian Maiden.” It was the services of 18,000 servicemen per day.
painted around 1875 by Constantino Brumidi, an Italian-American
historical painter. It is a good image to represent the concept of
Columbian exchange. This concept refers to the exchange of
pathogens during initial contact between Europeans and Native
Americans, starting when Columbus arrived in the New World in
1492. One of those pathogens may have been the sexually
transmitted bacterium that causes syphilis. Syphilis is thought to
have originated in the New World, and there is some evidence that
Columbus himself was infected with it. The first recorded European
outbreak of syphilis occurred in 1494. The outbreak began in Italy
and quickly swept across the entire European continent. When
Europeans were first exposed to syphilis, it was a much more
virulent disease than it would eventually become. Back then, Figure 21.4.2 : Poster depicts a soldier stamping out venereal diseases.
pustules covered the body of people with syphilis, and they caused The writing says " you kept fit and defeated the Hun. Now set a high
the flesh to fall away from the face. The disease was also usually standard a clean America." Posters like this one were used to dissuade
U.S. soldiers in the First World War from behaviors that exposed them
quickly fatal. In that first European epidemic, syphilis killed an to sexually transmitted infections
estimated 5 million people.
TRANSMISSION OF STIS
Most of the pathogens that cause STIs are either bacteria or viruses that
enter the body through mucous membranes of the reproductive organs
and often through the oral and anal mucosa as well. Pathogens that can
only infect the body via direct contact between mucous membranes
generally cannot spread through non-sexual skin contact, such as
touching, hugging, or shaking hands. All sexual behaviors that involve
contact between mucous membranes put a person at risk for infection
with STIs. This includes vaginal, anal, and oral sexual behaviors. Some
of the pathogens that cause STIs can also be transmitted through body
fluids such as blood and breast milk. Therefore, sharing drug injection
needles as well as the processes of childbirth and breastfeeding are
other ways these STIs can potentially be spread. Most of the
Figure 21.4.1 : Columbus and the Indian Maiden information in this section is about cis-gendered individuals because of
the lack of data and information about the spread of STIs in
INTRODUCTION TO SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED the LGBTQ community.
INFECTIONS (STIS) SYMPTOMS OF STIS
Syphilis is one of many sexually transmitted infections. A sexually Common symptoms of STIs include sores or rashes on the genitals, a
transmitted infection (STI)is an infection caused by a pathogen that vaginal or penile discharge, and painful urination. Many STIs are
spreads mainly through sexual contact. This generally involves direct asymptomatic or cause such mild symptoms that they go unnoticed.
contact between mucous membranes or their secretions. To be Such infections are called “silent” infections. However, even in
considered an STI, an infection must have only a small chance of asymptomatic people, the pathogens can usually be transmitted to other
spreading naturally in other ways. Some infections that can spread people. Asymptomatic infections may also eventually cause serious
through sexual contacts, such as the common cold, spread much more health problems if they go untreated.
commonly by other means, such as airborne transmission. These
infections are not considered STIs. DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF STIS
You may have heard sexually transmitted infections (STIs) referred to Most STIs are treatable if not curable, but the correct treatment
as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). The disease terminology is no depends on diagnosing the pathogen that is causing the infection. STIs
longer used to avoid the misconception that STIs cannot be transmitted caused by bacteria can generally be cured with antibiotics, although
unless one has symptoms of the disease. In fact, many STIs do not some bacteria may be evolving antibiotic resistance. STIs caused by
cause symptoms but can still be spread by infected people, most of viruses cannot be successfully treated or cured with antibiotics. Instead,
whom are unlikely to even realize they are infected. An even older viral STIs are treated with antiviral drugs, which may help control but
term for STIs is venereal disease (VD). The term comes from Venus, usually not eliminate the virus. If the immune system cannot eliminate
the Roman goddess of love. The World War I-era anti-VD poster the virus, it may remain in the body for life.
shown below appeals to patriotism to encourage soldiers to avoid
PREVENTION OF STIS

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Vaccinations are available to prevent just a few STIs (including human untreated mother to her baby during childbirth. In infants infected at
papillomavirus and hepatitis infections). The only completely effective birth, the bacteria may infect the eyes, lungs, anus, or genitals.
way to prevent other STIs is to avoid all sexual contact and other risky
behaviors. Safe sex practices — such as using condoms, having few
sexual partners, and maintaining mutually monogamous relationships
— can reduce the risk of STIs but not prevent them for certain.
Condoms, for example, are not foolproof. Pathogens may be present on
areas of the body not covered by condoms, and condoms can also break
or be used incorrectly. (See the Feature: My Human Body for the
correct way to use condoms.) Practices that cannot prevent the
transmission of STIs include washing the genitals, urinating, and/or
douching after sexual contact.

PATHOGENS THAT CAUSE STIS

STIs are caused by many different types of pathogens. More than 30
different pathogens have been identified. Most are bacteria or viruses.
A few of the pathogens are sexually transmitted parasites.

PARASITES THAT CAUSE STIS Figure 21.4.4 : Chlamydia infection bar graph from 2014. The blue bars
A very common sexually transmitted parasite is the crab louse (Pthirus on the left represent the number of infected males and on the right, the
pubis), pictured in Figure 21.4.3. It lives in human pubic hair where it red bars represent the number of females infected per 100,000
individuals. In each age category, the number of cases is higher in
bites the skin and sucks on blood. This may cause itching and irritation. females than males because of the routine screening of young females
Another common sexually transmitted parasite is the single-celled but not young males for Chlamydia.
protozoan named Trichomonas vaginalis. It infects the vagina and
urethra, causing the STI called trichomoniasis. It may cause burning In women, Chlamydia bacteria usually infect the cervix and sometimes
and itching at the site of infection but is often asymptomatic. It is easily the urethra. If symptoms occur, they are likely to include vaginal or
cured with prescription drugs. urethral discharge or bleeding. Urination may also be painful. The
infection may spread from the cervix to the upper reproductive tract,
including the uterus and Fallopian tubes, causing pelvic inflammatory
disease (PID). PID may also be asymptomatic, but even without
symptoms, it can lead to permanent damage and increase the risk of
ectopic pregnancy (in which the embryo implants outside of the uterus)
or infertility. In men, chlamydia bacteria usually infect the urethra and
sometimes the epididymis. If symptoms occur, they typically include a
urethral discharge and pain in urinating. Occasionally, there is pain,
tenderness, or swelling in one of the testes. In both sexes, the rectum
Figure 21.4.3 : This magnified crab louse is actually only about 2 mm
(0.08 in.) long. can also be infected. If there are rectal symptoms, they may include
rectal discharge, bleeding, or pain.
BACTERIAL STIS Chlamydia is easily cured with antibiotics. Because chlamydia is
Many STIs are caused by bacteria. Some of the most common bacterial usually asymptomatic; screening is necessary to identify most
STIs are chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. infections so they can be treated and cured. Screening programs
CHLAMYDIA routinely test as many people as possible in high-risk groups using lab
tests of patient specimens, such as urine samples or swabs of vaginal,
Chlamydia is an STI caused by infection with the bacterium
oral, or anal discharge. Screening programs have been shown to reduce
Chlamydia trachomatis. It is the most frequently reported bacterial STI
the adverse sequela of chlamydia in women (PID, ectopic pregnancy,
in the United States. In 2015, an estimated 2.9 million chlamydia
infertility), so annual chlamydia testing is recommended for women in
infections occurred in the United States. Chlamydia is most common
high-risk groups. These include all sexually active women younger
among young people, with about two-thirds of new cases occurring in
than 25 as well as older women with certain risk factors, such as a new
people between the ages of 15 and 24. The high rates in young people
sexual partner, multiple sexual partners, or a sexual partner who has an
are apparent in Figure 21.4.4. More young females than young males
STI. Pregnant women are also tested during their first prenatal care
are diagnosed with chlamydia each year, largely because of sex
visit and sometimes again during the third trimester. Routine chlamydia
differences in testing for the infection.
screening is not generally recommended for men because the costs are
Chlamydia is transmitted through sexual contact with the penis, vagina,
thought to outweigh the potential benefits.
mouth, or anus of an infected sexual partner. Ejaculation of semen does
not have to occur for chlamydia to be transmitted or acquired. People GONORRHEA
who have been treated and cured of chlamydia do not become immune Gonorrhea is a common STI caused by the bacterium Neisseria
to the bacteria and may become infected again if they have sexual gonorrhoeae. An estimated 820,000 new cases of gonorrhea occur in
contact with an infected person. Chlamydia can also spread from an the United States each year, but fewer than half of them are actually
diagnosed and reported. Approximately 70 percent of cases occur in

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people aged 15 to 24 years, as indicated by the graph in Figure SYPHILIS
21.4.5 for the year 2014. The blue bars on the left represent the number Syphilis is an STI caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum.
of infected males and on the right, the red bars represent the number of During 2015, there were almost 75,000 new cases of syphilis reported
females infected per 100,000 individuals. Again, sex differences in in the United States. In some of these cases, the disease was diagnosed
testing for the disease are reflected in higher rates for females. for the first time in people with long-term infections.
Syphilis is transmitted from person to person by direct contact with a
syphilitic sore, known as a chancre. Chancres occur mainly on the
external genitals or in the vagina or anus, but they may also occur on
the lips or in the mouth (as shown in Figure 21.4.7). Transmission of
syphilis can occur during vaginal, anal, or oral sex. After being cured
of syphilis, a person can get the disease again through sexual contact
with an infected partner. A pregnant woman with untreated syphilis can
pass the disease to her unborn child at any time during pregnancy or
childbirth. Depending on when the bacteria are transmitted to the fetus,
the outcome may be stillbirth or early infant death. Untreated syphilis
in pregnant women results in infant death in up to 40 percent of cases.

Figure 21.4.5 : The overwhelming preponderance of gonorrhea cases in

the United States in 2014 occurred in males and females aged 15 to 24
Gonorrhea is transmitted through sexual contact with the penis, vagina, Figure 21.4.7 : Syphilis chancre on the surface of the
mouth, or anus of an infected partner. Ejaculation does not have to tongue
occur for gonorrhea to spread. After being cured of gonorrhea, a person
can get the disease again through sexual contact with an infected
partner. Gonorrhea can also be transmitted from an untreated mother to
her baby when the infant passes through the birth canal. The bacteria
may infect the baby’s eyes (Figure 21.4.6) and possibly cause
blindness. The baby can also develop a joint infection or a life-
threatening blood infection.
Figure 21.4.8 : Skin rash - manifestations of secondary
syphilis

Without treatment, syphilis typically progresses through several stages.

The progression of the disease is likely to be stopped only if a person
receives appropriate antibiotic therapy. Barring such treatment, an
infected person may eventually progress through all of the stages of the
disease, a process that may take a decade or more.
1. Primary syphilis is the first stage of the disease. It begins with the
Figure 21.4.6 : Newborn with gonorrhea infection in the eyes appearance of at least one chancre. The chancre is usually firm,
round, and painless. It appears at the location where the syphilis
Gonorrhea is often asymptomatic, especially in females. If symptoms
bacteria entered the body. The chancre lasts from 3 to 6 weeks and
do occur, they typically include a discharge from the penis or vagina
then heals, regardless of whether the person is treated.
and painful urination. Even when women do not have symptoms of
2. Secondary syphilis is the second stage of the disease. It is the most
gonorrhea, they are at risk of developing complications from the
contagious of all the stages and is characterized by the spread of the
infection, such as PID and infertility. If left untreated, gonorrhea can
bacteria throughout the body, causing systemic symptoms such as
also spread to the blood and cause a life-threatening systemic disease.
skin rashes (Figure 21.4.8) and/or sores on the mucous membranes.
Because gonorrhea is so often asymptomatic, the majority of cases are Other symptoms may include fever and swollen lymph glands. This
diagnosed during routine screening. The Centers for Disease Control stage typically begins about 4 to 10 weeks after the initial infection
and Prevention (CDC) recommend annual gonorrhea screening for all and generally lasts 3 to 6 weeks.
sexually active females younger than 25 years old, as well for older 3. Latent syphilis is the third stage of the disease. This stage begins
women with risk factors such as new or multiple sex partners. when the symptoms of secondary syphilis resolve, which generally
Gonorrhea bacteria are detected with lab analysis of urine or of genital, occurs even without treatment. There are no symptoms during the
oral, or rectal specimens. Gonorrhea usually can be cured with proper latent stage, but the bacteria are still present in the body. The latent
treatment. Successful treatment has become more difficult as the stage of syphilis can last for years.
bacteria have started to evolve resistance to the most commonly used 4. Tertiary syphilis is the final stage of the disease. In this stage, the
antibiotics. The CDC advises taking two different antibiotics disease may infect and damage internal organs, such as the brain,
concurrently for the best chances of a cure heart, liver, or bones. A severe joint infection in a person with

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 tertiary syphilis is pictured below. Symptoms of the tertiary stage passed from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or shortly
may include paralysis, blindness, seizures, and dementia. The after birth.
damage may be serious enough to cause death Most people who are infected with genital herpes are unaware of their
infection. In fact, in the United States, almost 90 percent of 14-49-year-
olds infected with HSV-2 have never received a clinical diagnosis.
That’s because most genital herpes infections are asymptomatic or have
very mild symptoms that go unnoticed. When noticeable symptoms do
occur, they typically appear as one or more blisters on or around the
genitals (Figure 21.4.10), rectum, or mouth. When the blisters break,
they leave painful ulcers that take up to a month to heal. Sometimes the
initial outbreak is accompanied by systemic symptoms such as fever
and swollen lymph nodes. Recurrent outbreaks of blisters are common,
Figure 21.4.9 : The severely swollen knee in this patient is caused by especially during the first year of infection. Although the virus is likely
untreated tertiary syphilis to stay in the body indefinitely, the number, duration, and severity of
Syphilis is usually diagnosed on the basis of a blood test that detects outbreaks tend to decrease over time. Rare but serious complications of
antibodies that are specific for the syphilis bacterium. Because of the HSV-1 or HSV-2 infections may include blindness, encephalitis, or
severity of infection in fetuses and the high risk of fetal death, it is meningitis.
recommended that all pregnant women be tested for syphilis at the first
prenatal visit. Women at high risk of syphilis should be tested again
during the third trimester and at the time of delivery. If a pregnant
woman tests positive for syphilis, she is prescribed the antibiotic
penicillin, which has a 98 percent success rate at preventing mother-to-
fetus transmission. If the pregnant woman is allergic to penicillin,
desensitization is required before treatment is given.
Penicillin is also the drug of choice for treating syphilis in the general
population. A single intramuscular injection of long-acting penicillin
can cure primary, secondary, or early latent syphilis. For people with
late latent or tertiary syphilis, three doses of penicillin administered at
weekly intervals are generally required for a cure. If patients are
allergic to penicillin, other antibiotics may be used, but they tend to
less effective and require retesting for syphilis after treatment to ensure
that a cure has occurred. Antibiotics kill the syphilis bacteria and
prevent further damage, but they do not repair any damage that is Figure 21.4.10: The appearance of blisters on the vulva and in the
already done vagina (black arrow) is a sign of genital herpes.

VIRAL STIS Herpes infections can be diagnosed with blood tests that detect
antibodies to the virus. There is no cure for herpes infections, but
Two of the very common viral STIs, genital herpes and HPV infection
antiviral medications can prevent or shorten outbreaks and lessen the
are described below. Another important viral STI is HIV infection,
risk of transmission during the time the patient is taking the medicine.
which causes the disease known as AIDS. HIV infection is covered in
Several clinical trials have tested vaccines against genital herpes, but
the concept HIV and AIDS.
none has yet been found to be effective. Pregnant women with genital
GENITAL HERPES herpes are usually prescribed antiviral medication during the last month
Genital herpes is a viral STI caused by a herpes simplex virus. The of pregnancy to reduce the risk of an outbreak around the time of birth
cause of genital herpes is most often herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV- when the transmission is most likely. If an outbreak does occur, a
2). Increasingly, however, genital herpes is caused by herpes simplex cesarean delivery is recommended to prevent HSV transmission to the
virus type 1 (HSV-1). HSV-1 more commonly causes herpes infections infant.
of the mouth, resulting in “cold sores,” and is typically acquired during HPV INFECTION
childhood. Genital herpes infections are very common in the United
The most common sexually transmitted infection in the United States is
States, with about three-quarters of a million new cases occurring each
infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV). Almost 80 million
year. HSV-2 infection is more common in women than men due to sex
Americans are estimated to be infected with HPV, and about 14 million
differences in transmission of the virus: genital herpes is more easily
people are thought to become infected each year. HPV is so common
transmitted from males to females than from females to males.
that nearly all sexually active people are eventually infected by it.
Generally, a person can get an HSV-2 infection only through sexual There are more than 40 different types of HPV, but only some of them
contact with someone who has an infection with the virus. are likely to cause health problems.
Transmission occurs through contact with lesions, mucosal surfaces, or
HPV is acquired through vaginal, anal, or oral sex with someone who
genital or oral secretions. Transmission can occur even when the
is infected with the virus. The infected person can transmit the virus
infected person does not have visible sores because the virus can be
even without showing any signs or symptoms of infection. In most
shed from body surfaces that appear normal. Genital herpes can also be
cases, the immune system naturally clears HPV from the body before it

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causes any symptoms — generally within a couple of years of the condoms, follow these guidelines for the most effective prevention
original infection. However, in some cases, HPV is not naturally of STI transmission:
cleared. These cases may develop health problems years after the Always use a new condom; never reuse a condom, even if it
infection was first acquired. Some types of HPV can cause genital does not contain ejaculate.
warts, and certain other types can cause cancer. Avoid putting on a condom tightly at the end. Leave about 1.5
Genital warts appear as one or more bumps on the skin or mucosa cm (3/4 in.) of empty space at the tip of the condom to allow
in the genital area. Warts may be small, like the genital wart in the room for ejaculate. Otherwise, the force of ejaculation may
photo below, or they may be much larger. Warts may be raised or cause the condom to fail.
flat; sometimes they are shaped like a cauliflower. Avoid inverting or spilling a condom once worn, whether or not
Primary cancer caused by HPV is cervical cancer. However, HPV it contains ejaculate.
can also cause other cancers, including cancer of the vulva, vagina, If the user attempts to unroll the condom over the penis but
penis, anus, or throat and mouth. It generally takes years or even realizes it is on the wrong side, the condom should be discarded
decades for cancer to develop after a person is infected with HPV. and a new one used.
Be careful when handling a condom, especially with long
fingernails.
Avoid using oil-based lubricants with latex condoms because
the oil can weaken the latex.
Avoid using flavored condoms, especially for vaginal
intercourse, because the sugar in the flavoring may encourage
yeast infections.

REVIEW
1. Define the sexually transmitted infection.
2. Describe how sexually transmitted pathogens are spread.
3. Give examples of different types of sexually transmitted pathogens.
4. Describe common symptoms of STIs.
Figure 21.4.11: The genital wart on this shaved scrotum is so small 5. Contrast treatments for bacterial and viral STIs.
that it might easily go unnoticed unless it grew larger. 6. Why is it important to treat STIs even if they do not cause
symptoms?
There is no cure for HPV infection. Once a person is infected, if the
7. Discuss the role of vaccines in preventing STIs.
immune system does not clear the virus, it may remain in the body for
8. What are ways to prevent the transmission of STIs for which there
life. There is also no general screening test to determine whether
are no vaccines?
someone is infected with HPV. However, there are specific HPV tests
9. Name two STIs that often go unnoticed because they commonly do
that can identify the most common types of HPV that cause cervical
not cause symptoms, or cause only very mild symptoms.
cancer. These tests are recommended for women aged 30 and older.
10. True or False. Proper use of condoms can completely prevent the
Women aged 21 to 65 should also receive routine Pap tests every 3
transmission of STIs.
years to screen for cervical cancer, which has a high cure rate if it is
11. True or False. Antibiotics can be used to treat genital herpes.
discovered early.
12. What is the most common STI in the United States?
Genital warts can usually be diagnosed visually by a healthcare 13. Describe the relationship between cancer and an STI.
provider. There is typically no need to treat warts unless they are 14. What are two reasons why the number of diagnosed cases of some
unsightly or bothersome. Treatment consists of topical medications that STIs is higher in females than in males?
cause warts to slowly resorb and disappear. However, treatment of
genital warts does not get rid of the patient’s HPV infection, and warts EXPLORE MORE
may return. If genital warts are not treated, they may or may not https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17747#Explore_More
eventually go away on their own.
Unlike the other STIs described above, infection with the most ATTRIBUTIONS
common and dangerous types of HPV can be prevented with a vaccine. 1. Columbus and the Indian Maiden by Architect of the Capitol public
The HPV vaccine is recommended for all girls and boys between the domain via Wikimedia Commons
ages of 11 and 12 years. Young people who do not get vaccinated at 2. Poster from the Library of Congress by US Government, public
those ages can still get the vaccine through age 21 (for males) or 26 domain via Wikimedia Commons
(for females). The main purpose of the vaccine is to protect people 3. Pthirus pubis by CDC, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
from developing HPV-related cancers later in life. 4. Chlamydia in the US by Delphi234, licensed CC0 via Wikimedia
Commons
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY
5. Gonorrhea in the US by Delphi234, licensed CC0 via Wikimedia
Proper use of condoms can significantly reduce the risk of
Commons
transmission of STIs. For infection protection, the best condoms to
6. Gonococcal ophthalmia neonatorum by CDC, public domain via
use are latex condoms, because some pathogens are able to pass
Wikimedia Commons
through the tiny pores in natural skin condoms. When using male

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 7. Primary stage syphilis sore by CDC, public domain via Wikimedia 11. Small condylomata on testicles by Bikepunk2 licensed CC0 via
Commons Wikimedia Commons
8. Manifestations of secondary syphilis by CDC, public domain via 12. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
Wikimedia Commons 3.0
9. Charcot joint tertiary syphilis by CDC/ Robert Sumpter, public
domain via Wikimedia Commons
10. Genital Herpes by Mikael Häggström, licensed CC0 via Wikimedia
Commons

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21.5: HIV AND AIDS
MYTHS AND REALITIES
There are many misconceptions about HIV and AIDS. Knowing the
realities is important to help prevent the spread of HIV and reduce
the stigma associated with it.
Myth: HIV can be transmitted through nonsexual contacts such as
kissing, sharing a glass, spitting, sitting on a public toilet seat, and
coughing or sneezing.
Reality: HIV has not been shown to be transmissible through such
contacts. People can safely interact and have casual contact with
HIV-infected individuals without fear of acquiring the virus.
Myth: HIV can be acquired through an act of anal intercourse
between two men, regardless of the HIV status of the sexual
partners. In other words, homosexual acts in and of themselves
increase the risk of acquiring HIV.
Figure 21.5.1 : Global death rate from HIV/AIDS in 2017. Death rates
Reality: HIV infections can be acquired through sexual contact measure the number of deaths from HIV/AIDS per 100,000 individuals
only with people who are infected with the virus. Uninfected in a country or region. You can explore this map interactively at
individuals cannot transmit the virus. Homosexual contact is not ourworldindata.org.
necessary for the virus to be spread. In fact, most transmissions of
HIV occur through heterosexual contacts.
TRANSMISSION OF HIV
Myth: HIV/AIDS was created by scientists, either accidentally or
deliberately. HIV is considered to be a sexually transmitted infection (STI) because
that is its most common mode of transmission. However, unlike some
Reality: This conspiracy theory was created and spread by
other pathogens that cause STIs, HIV is also commonly transmitted
Operation INFEKTION, a Soviet KGB disinformation campaign. It
through nonsexual contact with HIV-contaminated blood and from
purposely spread the misinformation that the United States invented
HIV-infected mothers to their children.
HIV/AIDS as part of a biological weapons research project. The
Soviet Union spread the now-discredited theory in order to SEXUAL TRANSMISSION
undermine the United States’ credibility, foster anti-American The majority of all HIV transmissions worldwide occur through sexual
attitudes, isolate America abroad, and create tensions between host contact. Of these cases, most are the result of heterosexual contact.
countries and the U.S. over the presence of American military bases However, the pattern of transmission varies geographically. In the
(which were often portrayed as the cause of AIDS outbreaks in United States, HIV is transmitted more often in men who have sex with
local populations). men. The risk of transmission from anal intercourse is especially high,
whereas the risk of transmission from oral sex is relatively low.
INTRODUCTION TO HIV AND AIDS The risk of HIV transmission increases when people are already
AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. It is a infected with other sexually transmitted infections, and especially when
disease caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus they have open sores on their genitals. In fact, the presence of genital
or HIV. HIV is a sexually transmitted virus that infects and destroys sores increases the risk of transmission by about fivefold. The risk of
helper T cells of the human immune system (see the concept Disorders transmission is also greater during the early months of infection when
of the Immune System to learn more about how HIV infects immune infected people usually have the greatest viral load. Viral load refers to
system cells). AIDS eventually develops in most people with untreated the amount of virus in a sample of an infected individual’s blood.
HIV infections, usually several years after the initial infection with the
virus. AIDS is diagnosed when the immune system has been weakened TRANSMISSION THROUGH CONTAMINATED BLOOD
to the point that it can no longer fight off diseases that do not occur in The second most frequent mode of HIV transmission is via
healthy individuals. contaminated blood and blood products. Blood-borne transmission can
Figure 21.5.1 shows the global distribution of deaths due to HIV and occur through needle sharing during intravenous drug use, needle-stick
AIDS in 2017. The rate ranges from 0 to 250 deaths per 100,000 injury in health professionals, transfusion of contaminated blood or
individuals. Most of those with HIV infections live in sub-Saharan blood products, or medical injections with unsterilized equipment.
Africa. This is partly due to the fact that this is where HIV first Theoretically, giving or receiving tattoos or piercings can also transmit
originated as a human disease when the virus jumped from nonhuman HIV, but no confirmed cases have been documented. It is not possible
primate populations to human populations. Almost one million for mosquitoes or other blood-sucking insects to transmit HIV.
(954,000) people died from HIV/AIDS in 2017. HIV infections and In 2009 in the United States, intravenous drug users made up 12
AIDS are considered to be pandemic — a disease outbreak that is percent of all new cases of HIV, and in some areas, more than 80
present in multiple populations around the world. percent of people who injected drugs were infected with HIV. In rich
nations, the risk of acquiring HIV from a blood transfusion is now
virtually nil because of careful screening of blood donors and blood

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products. In poor nations, on the other hand, screening is less rigorous;
therefore, rates of transmission through contaminated blood are higher.
Unsafe medical injections and invasive medical procedures are also a
significant mode of transmission in poor nations, particularly in sub-
Saharan Africa. While it is possible to acquire HIV from the infected
organ or tissue transplantation, this is rare because of screening.

Figure 21.5.3 : Acute HIV has symptoms such as fever, weight loss,
sores, malaise, lymphadenopathy, rash, nausea, thrush, myalgia, and
spleen enlargement, etc.

CHRONIC HIV INFECTION

After any acute HIV symptoms subside, the infected individual enters
the stage of chronic HIV infection. Typically, this begins with a
prolonged period without symptoms. Without treatment, this stage may
Figure 21.5.2 : A young individual on a poster. The writing on the last from 3 to 20 years. However, the infection keeps progressing, and
poster says, "If you're dabbling in drugs you could be dabbling with HIV keeps infecting and destroying helper T cells. Toward the end of
your life."This 1989 poster from the CDC highlighted the association the chronic stage, the infected person starts to experience symptoms
between injected drug use and the threat of HIV infection and AIDS
again, such as fever, weight loss, and swollen lymph nodes.
MOTHER-TO-CHILD TRANSMISSION
AIDS
The third most common way HIV is transmitted worldwide is from an
Most infected individuals will eventually progress to AIDS if their HIV
untreated mother to her child during pregnancy, childbirth, or
infection is not treated. AIDS is diagnosed when the helper T cell count
breastfeeding. If the mother is infected with HIV, there is about a 15%
falls below 200 helper T cells per microliter of blood or when the
chance that the virus will be transmitted to her infant through her breast
infected individual starts to develop opportunistic diseases. These are
milk. The transmission of pathogens from one generation to the next in
diseases that rarely occur except in people with a compromised
these ways is called vertical transmission. This mode of transmission
immune system. Such diseases are typically the immediate cause of
accounts for most cases of HIV infection in children.
death in people with AIDS.
STAGES OF HIV INFECTION
HIV is a type of virus called a retrovirus. Retroviruses are single-
stranded RNA viruses that live as parasites inside host cells. HIV
primarily infects helper T cells (CD4+ T cells) as well as some other
cells of the human immune system. It spreads from helper T cells to
helper T cells and causes illness by killing off the helper T cells.
Figure 21.5.4 : Kaposi’s sarcoma is a cancer that causes skin red raised
ACUTE HIV INFECTION scab-like skin lesions. This is the most common type of opportunistic
cancer in people with AIDS, occurring in 10 to 20 percent of AIDS
After HIV enters the human body, there is a period of rapid viral patients. It is caused by a type of herpes virus that normally does not
replication, causing a high viral load in the person’s blood and a drop cause illness in healthy people.
in the number of circulating helper T cells. This stage of infection is Common opportunistic diseases in people with AIDS include
called acute HIV infection. It produces an immune system response, in pneumocystis pneumonia (fungal pneumonia) and esophageal
which the number of killer T cells increases. The killer T cells start candidiasis (yeast infection). They also include viral-induced cancers
killing HIV-infected cells, and antibodies to HIV are also produced. As such as Kaposi’s sarcoma (Figure 21.5.4) and Burkitt’s lymphoma. In
a consequence, the viral load starts to decline, and the number of helper addition to opportunistic diseases, many AIDS patients develop HIV
T cells recovers. However, the virus is not eliminated and remains in wasting syndrome, in which they lose weight and muscle mass and
the body. experience extreme fatigue and weakness. People with AIDS also
Acute HIV infection may cause no noticeable symptoms, or it may frequently experience systemic symptoms such as prolonged fevers,
cause a brief period of flu-like illness. The main symptoms of acute night sweats, swollen lymph nodes, and diarrhea.
HIV infection are illustrated in Figure 21.5.3. Even when symptoms
are present, they are not often recognized as signs of HIV infection due DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF HIV/AIDS
to their nonspecific nature. HIV/AIDS is diagnosed on the basis of blood tests and then staged
based on the presence of signs and symptoms. In the United States,
HIV screening is recommended for people aged 15 to 65 years, and
especially for pregnant women. Testing for HIV is also recommended
for people at high risk of HIV infection, which includes anyone

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diagnosed with another STI. Blood tests diagnose HIV infection by or sexual assault by an HIV-positive perpetrator, the risk of HIV
identifying antibodies to the virus. However, it may take up to 3 infection can be substantially reduced by the administration of
months after the initial infection for antibodies to show up in the blood. antiretroviral medications within two or three days of the incident.
Antibody tests are also not accurate in children younger than 18 Rates of mother-to-child transmission can be reduced to about 1
months because of the presence of maternal antibodies in their blood. percent by giving antiretroviral medications to the mother during
Tests that identify viral RNA can detect the virus before antibodies pregnancy and to the infant after birth. Delivering infants by cesarean
develop, but these tests are not available in much of the world. instead of vaginally also reduces the risk of transmission during
There is currently no cure for HIV infection or AIDS. However, the childbirth. Substituting bottle feeding for breastfeeding, if feasible,
development of new antiretroviral drugs to treat HIV infections has eliminates the risk of HIV transmission through breast milk.
changed HIV infections from a fatal to chronic disease. At present,
treatment consists of a “cocktail” of at least three antiretroviral drugs REVIEW
that slow the progression of the disease by keeping viral loads 1. What is HIV?
relatively low. The medications should be started as soon as the 2. How is HIV transmitted?
diagnosis is made and continued without breaks. The sooner treatment 3. How is HIV infection diagnosed?
is begun, the more effective it is likely to be. The goals of treatment are
4. What is AIDS?
to decrease the risk of progression to AIDS and the risk of death. 5. How is AIDS diagnosed?
Taking the drugs consistently allows HIV-infected people to live 6. Describe the distribution of HIV infections in human populations.
longer, healthier lives. Another benefit of treatment is a decreased risk
7. Explain how HIV infection changed from a fatal to a chronic
of transmission of the virus. Any opportunistic infections that occur indisease.
people with AIDS are also treated, generally with appropriate 8. Without a vaccine, how can the risk of HIV transmission be
medications. For example, pneumocystis pneumonia is treated with reduced?
anti-fungal drugs. 9. Explain why it is important to treat people exposed to or infected
with HIV as early as possible with antiretroviral medications.
PREVENTION OF HIV TRANSMISSION 10. If your new sexual partner shows you recent test results indicating
There is currently no approved vaccine for HIV or AIDS, although they are HIV negative, does that mean you cannot get HIV from
vaccine trials are ongoing. Instead, prevention of HIV transmission them if you have unprotected sex? Why or why not?
depends on adopting safe behaviors and/or the administration of 11. Explain how HIV can cause cancer.
antiretroviral drugs. 12. The immediate cause of death in people with AIDS is/are typically:
A. opportunistic diseases
PREVENTING SEXUAL TRANSMISSION OF HIV
B. weight loss
C. autoimmune disorders
D. Kaposi’s sarcoma
13. What is one risk factor that increases the rate of transmission of
HIV?
14. True or False. Treatment with antifungal medications reduces the
Figure 21.5.5 : This South African restroom has a free condom viral load in patients with HIV.
dispenser right next to the hand-drying blower
15. True or False. Different types of sexual intercourse (i.e. oral, anal,
HIV transmission through sexual contact can be greatly reduced by the
vaginal) have different risks of transmission of HIV.
consistent use of condoms. When condoms are always used by couples
in which one person is infected, the rate of transmission is less than 1 EXPLORE MORE
percent per year. Increasing condom use is typically an important https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17748#Explore_More
public health policy in countries with very high rates of HIV/AIDS.
For example, in South Africa, condom use is encouraged by dispensing ATTRIBUTIONS
condoms free of charge in public restrooms (Figure 21.5.5). It is 1. HIV data by Our World in Data, CC BY 4.0
important to note that programs advocating sexual abstinence do not 2. AIDS poster, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
appear to diminish HIV risk. On the other hand, comprehensive sex 3. Symptoms of acute HIV infection by Mikael Häggström public
education programs decrease risk by reducing high-risk behaviors and domain via Wikimedia Commons
increasing condom use. 4. Kaposi's Sarcoma Lesions by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons
PREVENTING NONSEXUAL TRANSMISSION OF HIV
5. AIDS Prevention - Condom dispensers by Jorge Láscar from
HIV transmission through intravenous drug use can be reduced through
Australia, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
harm-reduction strategies such as needle-exchange programs or the
6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
substitution of prescription drugs for illegal drugs. In cases of
3.0
unanticipated exposure to infected blood, such as a needle-stick injury

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21.6: NONINFECTIOUS DISEASES
APPLE SHAPE: GOOD FOR APPLES, BAD FOR PEOPLE Many of the same risk factors increase a person’s chances of
The person pictured in Figure 21.6.1 is obese. He has a lot of extra developing a diversity of noninfectious diseases. These common risk
fat in his abdomen, giving him an apple shape. This type of fat factors include age, gender, genes, and exposure to environmental
distribution is called abdominal, or central, obesity. It is one of dangers such as radon. Behaviors such as smoking, unhealthy diet, and
several indicators that are used to diagnose a condition called physical inactivity are also common environmental risk factors for
metabolic syndrome. Other indicators of metabolic syndrome many noninfectious diseases. These behaviors all contribute to obesity,
include high blood pressure, high blood levels of glucose and high blood pressure, unbalanced blood lipid levels, and high blood
triglycerides, and low blood levels of HDL (“good cholesterol”). glucose levels — in other words, to metabolic syndrome. This
Metabolic syndrome, in turn, is a major risk factor for many syndrome, in turn, is a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and
noninfectious disease killers. type 2 diabetes. One of the single most important behavioral factors
contributing to metabolic syndrome is the consumption of large
amounts of sweetened beverages such as soft drinks (Figure 21.6.2).

Figure 21.6.1 : Symptom of Obesity

Figure 21.6.2 : Avoiding over-sized servings of sugary drinks is an

INTRODUCTION TO NONINFECTIOUS important way to help prevent metabolic syndrome.
DISEASES Most behavioral risk factors for noninfectious diseases can be avoided.
Noninfectious diseases include all diseases that are not caused by That’s why many noninfectious diseases are considered preventable.
pathogens. Instead, noninfectious diseases are generally caused by Their risk can be reduced by modifying behaviors and making healthier
genetic or environmental factors other than pathogens, such as toxic lifestyle choices. In fact, an estimated 80 percent of cases of
environmental exposures or unhealthy lifestyle choices. Most cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes and 40 percent of cancer
noninfectious diseases have a complex, multifactorial set of causes, cases could be avoided through lifestyle changes. Interventions that
often including a mix of genetic and environmental variables. target common behavioral risk factors can make a big impact on a
Examples of noninfectious diseases include cystic fibrosis, most nation’s noninfectious disease burden. For example, laws taxing
cancers, cardiovascular diseases such as coronary artery disease, and tobacco products and curbing smoking in public places have been
diabetes mellitus. shown to reduce rates of smoking, which is the main risk factor for
While many noninfectious diseases are long-lasting, or chronic, lung cancer.
diseases, their chronicity is not a defining factor because some Other risk factors for noninfectious diseases — including age, gender,
infectious diseases, such as AIDS, are also chronic diseases. In and genes — cannot be avoided or modified. In terms of age, most
addition, some noninfectious diseases are short-term, or acute, diseases noninfectious diseases become more common as people get older.
because they generally result in rapid death. Some types of cancer and Some noninfectious diseases, such as certain types of cancer, are more
heart disease are examples of noninfectious diseases that may be acute common, or occur only, in one sex or the other. Genes are wholly
for this reason. responsible for some inherited noninfectious diseases, such as cystic
Noninfectious diseases have also been called diseases of affluence or fibrosis. Genes may also affect individual susceptibility to many other
lifestyle diseases because they are often caused by unhealthy lifestyle noninfectious diseases that are caused mainly by environmental factors.
choices and first became prevalent in the richer nations of the world, For example, genes may influence how likely a person is to develop
while infectious diseases remained at relatively high levels in the metabolic syndrome for a given lifestyle, and ultimately how likely the
poorer nations. Globally, noninfectious diseases are the leading causes person is to develop cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. It is
of death. Although infectious diseases still cause more deaths in low- important to take these unavoidable risk factors into account in
income countries, rates of death from noninfectious diseases are diagnosing and screening for noninfectious diseases and establishing
expected to rise in these countries as well. By 2030, noninfectious individual treatment and prevention guidelines.
diseases are expected to kill more than 50 million people a year
worldwide, and most of these deaths will occur not in high-income EXAMPLES OF NONINFECTIOUS DISEASES
nations but in low- and middle-income countries. National economies Several examples of noninfectious diseases are described below. The
around the world will also suffer significant losses because of the diseases represent a diversity of types of diseases, ranging from purely
growing noninfectious disease burden, as noninfectious diseases cause genetic to primarily environmental diseases.
a great deal of worker disability and premature death.
CYSTIC FIBROSIS
RISK FACTORS FOR NONINFECTIOUS Cystic fibrosis is an example of a genetic noninfectious disease. It is
DISEASES caused by an inherited mutation in a gene called CFTR. Mutant

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versions of the gene produce a faulty protein that normally helps to
move sodium chloride into and out of cells. The impaired salt transfer
causes mucus to be abnormally thick and sticky. Figure 21.6.3 helps
explain the diversity of negative health impacts that may occur in
people with cystic fibrosis. The thick mucus accumulates in the organs
of the airways. This may lead to resurrect respiratory and
sinus infections. This may also lead to malabsorption. The mucus
blocks passages in mucus-secreting organs such as the lungs, pancreas,
reproductive system, and intestine.

Figure 21.6.4 : This pedigree shows that people affected by an

autosomal recessive disease such as cystic fibrosis must have two
carrier parents. The image shows two carrier parents. According to the
Punnett square, the probability of them having a normal child is 75%,
and the probability of them having a child with cystic fibrosis is 25%.
Twenty five percent of the normal children will be non carrier and fifty
percent will carry the gene without any symptoms of the disease.

CANCER
Figure 21.6.3 : This figure explains how a single defective gene Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the
resulting in thick mucus can lead to severe health problems body-wide. potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Cancer is one of
There is no known cure for cystic fibrosis, but recent advances in the the top ten causes of death in high-income countries. Most cancers are
treatment of cystic fibrosis allow people with the disease to live diagnosed in people over the age of 65; only a few types of cancer
healthier and longer lives. A few generations ago, a newborn with occur in children. It is likely that if one were to live long enough and
cystic fibrosis was unlikely to live beyond the first year of life. Today, avoid other common causes of death, such as cardiovascular diseases
people with cystic fibrosis are likely to live to middle adulthood. Lung and diabetes, sooner or later a person would succumb to cancer.
infections and other lung problems cause the greatest disability and About 90 percent of cancers are noninfectious diseases. (About 10
premature death in people with cystic fibrosis. Therefore, treatment percent of cancers are infectious diseases caused by pathogens, such as
usually includes the proactive use of antibiotics and other drugs to fightthe human papillomavirus, which causes cervical cancer.) Rather than
off infections, along with pulmonary rehabilitation to maximize lung pathogens, noninfectious cancers are caused by some combination of
function. Even with treatment, however, lung damage may eventually genetic and environmental factors. About 10 percent of cancers are
progress to the point where a lung transplant is needed. caused largely by genes or have a very strong genetic influence. For
The mutant CFTR gene for cystic fibrosis is a recessive gene located example, inheriting genes called BRCA1 and BRCA2 increase the risk
on an autosome (chromosome 7). As with any autosomal recessive of women developing breast or ovarian cancer by as much as 75
trait, an individual must have two copies of the mutant gene to develop percent.
the disease. An individual with just one copy of the normal CFTR gene Most cancers are caused largely by environmental factors, including
can produce enough of the functioning protein to secrete normal mucus human behaviors. For example, tobacco smoke contains 50 known
and avoid the signs and symptoms of cystic fibrosis. Such a person is carcinogens or cancer-causing agents, and smoking causes 90 percent
called a carrier of cystic fibrosis. Carriers can pass the mutant gene to of lung cancers. You can see the connection between smoking and lung
their offspring. The inheritance pattern of an autosomal recessive cancer in Figure 21.6.5. Like most such environmental factors and
disease such as cystic fibrosis is shown in the pedigree diagram in cancer, it generally takes many years of exposure to tobacco smoke
Figure 21.6.4. before lung cancer develops. Lung cancer is not the only kind of cancer
Without medical intervention, cystic fibrosis is fatal in infancy, yet the caused by tobacco use. Smoking also increases the risk of cancer of the
mutant gene that causes it has been maintained at relatively high levels larynx, head, neck, stomach, bladder, kidney, esophagus, and pancreas.
in some human populations for tens of thousands of years. The mutant
gene is most common in people of Northern European ancestry. In
these populations, about 1 in 25 people is a carrier, and about 1 in
3,000 newborns have cystic fibrosis. The most common explanation for
the persistence of the cystic fibrosis mutation is some type of
heterozygote advantage in carriers of the mutant gene. For example, it
has been hypothesized that carriers of the cystic fibrosis mutation may
have greater-than-normal resistance to certain infectious diseases, such
as cholera, typhoid fever, or tuberculosis.

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 Figure 21.6.6 : Atherosclerosis occurs when arteries narrow due to the
buildup of plaques. The arrows represent blood flow through the
arteries and show how blood flow is reduced through the artery with
the plaque.
Figure 21.6.5 : Based on data from the mid-1900s, this graph shows
that the more cigarettes men smoked, the greater was their risk of dying
from lung cancer. It also shows that smokers generally died from lung Obesity and diabetes are additional major risk factors for
cancer about two decades after they began smoking. cardiovascular disease. Obesity is associated with other risk factors for
Other behaviors that play major roles in causing cancer include poor cardiovascular disease, including hypertension and high blood
diet and physical inactivity, both of which contribute to high rates of triglycerides, but it may also have an independent effect on
obesity. These factors are responsible for at least a third of cancer cardiovascular disease risk. People with diabetes are two to four times
deaths. Additional environmental causes of cancer include the more likely than nondiabetics to die of cardiovascular disease.
radioactive gas radon from underground rocks and ultraviolet radiation Most cases of cardiovascular disease could be prevented by modifying
from the sun. Radon increases lung cancer risk, and UV radiation is the risk factors. Some risk factors, such as hypertension and high blood
primary cause of skin cancer. triglycerides, can be controlled with medications. Other risk factors,
Many treatment options exist for cancer. The primary treatments such as obesity and physical inactivity, can be controlled by adopting
include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. Which healthy behaviors (such behaviors may also help control hypertension
treatments are used depends on factors such as the type and location of and high blood lipids even without medications). Although modifiable
cancer and whether cancer has spread. Treatments may or may not be environmental factors such as these are the main risk factors for
curative. You can learn more about cancer by reading the concept of cardiovascular disease, genes also play an important role. A person’s
Cancer. risk of developing cardiovascular disease is three times greater than the
average if the person’s parents had cardiovascular disease. However,
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE age is by far the most important risk factor for diseases of the heart or
Cardiovascular disease refers to a class of diseases that involve the arteries. There is a tripling of cardiovascular disease risk with each
heart or blood vessels. The diseases include coronary artery disease, passing decade of life.
stroke, and peripheral artery disease. (You can read more about specific
types of cardiovascular disease in the concept of Cardiovascular TYPE 2 DIABETES
Disease.) Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death Diabetes is diagnosed in people who have abnormally high levels of
worldwide, with about 30 percent of deaths attributable mainly to blood glucose over prolonged periods of time. Symptoms of untreated
cardiovascular disease. By the year 2030, an estimated 23 million high blood glucose include frequent urination, increased thirst, and
people a year will die from cardiovascular disease. increased hunger. As of 2016, an estimated 422 million people
worldwide had diabetes, with the rates being somewhat higher in
Two major precursors of cardiovascular disease are hypertension and
developed countries.
atherosclerosis.
There are several types of diabetes, but type 2 diabetes is by far the
Hypertension is defined as blood pressure that is persistently
most common. It accounts for about 90 percent of all cases of diabetes.
elevated. Controlling hypertension either through medications or
Type 2 diabetes generally develops due to insulin resistance, rather
lifestyle changes is important for reducing the risk of all types of
than lack of insulin, which occurs in type 1 diabetes. As illustrated in
cardiovascular diseases, but especially stroke.
Figure 21.6.7, insulin resistance occurs when cells of the body become
Atherosclerosis is a condition in which artery walls thicken and
increasingly unresponsive to insulin due to malfunctioning insulin-
stiffen as a result of the buildup of fatty plaques inside the arteries
receptor sites. Cells can no longer take up enough glucose from the
(Figure 21.6.6). The buildup of plaques in arteries actually starts in
blood to maintain glucose homeostasis. In many cases of type 2
childhood and continues in most people throughout life. The
diabetes, the problem of insulin resistance is exacerbated by a
progression of atherosclerosis can be controlled through lifestyle
secondary reduction in insulin secretion.
approaches, including eating a healthy diet, getting regular exercise,
and avoiding tobacco smoke. Medications to lower blood
triglycerides and raise HDL levels may also help.

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 behaviors, you may be able to keep your blood glucose level within the
normal range without medications or insulin.

REVIEW
1. Define noninfectious disease.
2. In general, what causes noninfectious diseases?
3. Identify risk factors for noninfectious diseases.
4. Why are many noninfectious diseases considered preventable
diseases?
5. What noninfectious disease risk factors cannot be avoided? Why
are these risk factors still important to identify?
6. What is cystic fibrosis?
Figure 21.6.7: The mechanism that underlies most type 2 diabetes is
7. How does the cystic fibrosis mutation cause disease?
insulin resistance, which leads to elevated levels of glucose in the
8. Define cancer.
blood. On the left, it shows two receptors piercing through the plasma
membrane of a cell. The blue ball represents insulin which is attached 9. What causes most cancers?
to its receptor. This attachment is necessary for the glucose channels to 10. List three types of treatment for cancer.
open. The glucose is flowing into the cell through open glucose 11. What is a cardiovascular disease? What is its significance as a
channels. On the right, you see the same types of receptors. Insulin is cause of death worldwide?
attached to its receptor, but it is not causing the glucose channels to 12. Identify major precursors and risk factors for cardiovascular
open. This leads to the accumulation of glucose in the blood. disease.
13. What causes type 2 diabetes?
14. Identify risk factors for type 2 diabetes.
15. List possible health problems that can result from poorly controlled
diabetes.
16. Could metabolic syndrome ultimately result in kidney failure?
Explain your answer.
Type 2 diabetes typically starts after the age of 40. It is most likely to
be diagnosed in people who are obese and have other indicators of EXPLORE MORE
metabolic syndrome, which is sometimes referred to as pre-diabetes for https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17749#Explore_More
this reason. Because of the dramatic increase in recent decades in
obesity in younger people, the age at which type 2 diabetes is
ATTRIBUTIONS
diagnosed has fallen. Even children are now being diagnosed with type 1. Obesity by FatM1ke, Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
2 diabetes. Today, about 30 million Americans have type 2 diabetes, 2. Double big gulp by Russell Bernice from New York City, U.S., CC
and another 90 million Americans have pre-diabetes. BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
3. Cystic Fibrosis by National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH),
Unless diabetes is carefully monitored and controlled, high blood sugar
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
levels can eventually lead to heart attacks, strokes, blindness, kidney
4. Autosomal Recessive Inheritance by OpenStax College CC BY 3.0
failure, and many other serious health problems. These complications
5. Smoking and Lung Cancer Correlation by Sakurambo, Public
of diabetes are primarily due to damage to small blood vessels caused
Domain via Wikimedia Commons
by inadequately controlled blood glucose levels. All else being equal,
6. Coronary Artery Disease by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical
the risk of death in adults with diabetes is 50 percent greater than it is
gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
in adults without diabetes.
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. CC BY 3.0 via
Controlling type 2 diabetes usually requires frequent blood glucose Wikimedia Commons
testing, watching what and when you eat and taking oral medications 7. Insulin Resistance by Manu5, CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia.org
or even insulin injections. Changing your lifestyle may stop the 8. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
progression of type 2 diabetes or even reverse it. By adopting healthier 3.

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21.7: CANCER
FEEL THE BURN By far, the most common of the 100-plus types of human cancer is
During his many months on the campaign trail in 2015 and 2016, basal cell carcinoma, the type of skin cancer Bernie Sanders had
U.S. Democratic presidential candidate Bernie Sanders was feeling removed in 2016. Basal cell carcinoma makes up 40 percent of all new
the burn — sunburn, that is. There’s no doubt that candidate cancers each year in the United States. Other common types of cancer
Sanders was exposed to a lot of UV light during all those outdoor include lung, colorectal, prostate (in males), and breast (in females)
rallies in states across the nation. Exposure to UV light is the single cancers. These cancers are not as common as skin cancer, but they
greatest risk factor for skin cancer, so it’s perhaps not surprising cause the majority of cancer deaths.
that Sanders was diagnosed with a small skin cancer on his cheek
by December of 2016 (although most of his cumulative UV
HOW CANCER OCCURS
exposure probably occurred earlier in life). In Sanders's case, the Cancer occurs when a normal cell is transformed into a cancer cell.
cheek cancer was a basal cell carcinoma. This is the most common This happens when the genes that regulate cell growth and
type of skin cancer. Fortunately, basal cell carcinoma is also a differentiation are altered through mutations. The genes involved
slowly growing and highly curable cancer. Sanders had his basal include proto-oncogenes and tumor-suppressor genes. Proto-
cell carcinoma completely removed in an hour-long outpatient oncogenes are genes that normally promote the growth and division of
procedure, after which he was able to return immediately to work. normal cells. Tumor-suppressor genes are genes that normally inhibit
Unfortunately, most other types of cancer are faster growing and the division and survival of abnormal cells. Genetic alterations may
more difficult to cure than basal cell carcinoma, including a result in the formation of cancer-causing oncogenes, over-expression of
relatively rare but potentially deadly form of skin cancer called normal proto-oncogenes, or under-expression or disabling of tumor-
melanoma. suppressor genes.
As shown in Figure 21.7.2, changes in multiple genes are typically
required to transform a normal cell into a cancer cell. The entire
process is similar to a chain reaction. Initial DNA errors are
compounded by additional errors, and each error progressively allows
the cell to escape more controls on cell growth and cell division.

Figure
21.7.1

:
Feel the Bern. Bernie Sanders is shown on fire in a
political poster. The caption says "Feel The Bern."

DEFINING CANCER
Cancer is actually a group of more than 100 diseases, all of which Figure 21.7.2 : Transformation of a normal cell into a cancer cell is a
involve abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to multi-stage process involving accumulated genetic damage to proto-
other parts of the body. In general terms, cancer occurs when the cell oncogenes and tumor-suppressor genes.
cycle is no longer regulated due to DNA damage. The number of
potential underlying causes of this DNA damage is great, so there are
HOW CANCER SPREADS
many different risk factors for cancer. Any cells that become cancerous Once a normal cell transforms into a cancer cell and starts dividing out
divide more quickly than normal cells. They may form a mass of of control, cancer cells can spread from the original site (called the
abnormal cells called a tumor. The rapidly dividing cells take up primary tumor) to other tissues. This can occur in three different ways.
nutrients and space, damaging the normal cells around them. If the One way is local spread, in which aggressively dividing cancer cells
cancer cells spread to other parts of the body, they invade and damage directly invade nearby tissues. Another way involves the lymphatic
other tissues and organs. They may eventually lead to death. system. Cancer cells can spread to regional lymph nodes through
lymph vessels that pass by the primary tumor.

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The third way cancer cells can spread is through the blood to distant especially in smokers; air pollution, which increases the risk of lung
sites. This is called metastasis, and the new cancers that form are called cancer and bladder cancer; and UV light, which increases the risk of
metastases. Although the blood can carry cancer cells to tissues both carcinoma and melanoma skin cancers.
everywhere in the body, cancer cells generally grow only in certain Avoidable lifestyle choices — especially smoking tobacco, eating an
sites (Figure 21.7.3). Different types of cancers tend to metastasize to unhealthy diet, and not exercising — are some of the most important
particular organs. The most common places for metastases to occur are but preventable environmental risk factors for cancer. In fact, the
the brain, lungs, bones, and liver. Almost all cancers can metastasize, majority of cancer deaths could be prevented by making healthy
especially during the late stages of the disease. Cancer that has lifestyle choices. Not using tobacco would prevent an estimated 25
metastasized generally has the worst prognosis and is associated with percent of cancer deaths. Eating right, getting adequate exercise, and
most cancer deaths. avoiding obesity would prevent another 35 percent of cancer deaths.

DIAGNOSING CANCER
Early diagnosis and treatment are the keys to curing cancer, although
not all cancers can be cured. Many cancers are first detected through
routine screening of asymptomatic people. Many other cancers are
noticed by early warning signs of cancer. A definitive diagnosis of
cancer requires a biopsy before treatment can begin.

CANCER SCREENING
Screening for cancer has the aim of detecting common cancers in
people who do not yet have any noticeable symptoms. Examples of
cancers for which screening is usually recommended for high-risk
groups include colon cancer (older people), breast cancer (older
females), prostate cancer (older men), and skin cancer (e.g., light-
skinned people, people with excessive UV light exposure). Screening
of asymptomatic people for cancer may involve physical examinations
(e.g., visual inspection of the skin for skin cancer), medical imaging
(mammogram for breast cancer, pictured in Figure 21.7.4), blood test
(PSA test for prostate cancer), other tissue tests (Pap test for cervical
cancer), or endoscopy (colonoscopy for colon cancer).
Figure 21.7.3 : Cancer cells that originate in one organ may metastasize
by traveling in the blood to distant sites (metastases). Metastasized
lung cancer grows in the brain, bone, and adrenal gland. Metastasized
pancreas cancer grows in the liver and lungs. Metastasized breast
cancer can grow in the bone, brain, and liver. Metastasized Colon and
Ovarian cancer grow in the liver.

RISK FACTORS FOR CANCER

The direct cause of any cancer is DNA damage in genes that control
the cell cycle. In this sense, all cancers are genetic diseases. The DNA
damage can be inherited from parents or result spontaneously from Figure 21.7.4 : Routine screening mammograms help to catch breast
environmental exposures to cancer-causing agents, or carcinogens. cancer early. Annual mammograms are generally recommended for
Having risk factors for cancer increases your chances of getting cancer women aged 50 and older.
either way. Routine cancer screening is somewhat controversial. Screening has
both risks and benefits, and not everyone agrees that the benefits
INHERITED RISK FACTORS
always outweigh the risks. Ideally, potential benefits are early
Certain mutant genes greatly increase the risk of particular cancers, detection, treatment, and cure of the disease in more people. However,
such as the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, which increase the risk for if no treatment is available or treatment is unlikely to result in a cure,
breast and ovarian cancer in women to 75 percent. However, there is obviously less benefit to screening. Potential risks of cancer
environmental factors also play a role even in this example because the screening include false positives, which may lead to unnecessary
genes do not cause cancer in every woman who inherits them. Genes anxiety and more invasive testing. Other potential risks include harm
with such a great effect on cancer risk cause fewer than 10 percent of from excessive radiation and excessive cost or pain from screening
human cancers. procedures. Given the controversial nature of screening, it is not
ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS surprising that sometimes-conflicting screening recommendations are
made. As a general rule, people should follow the advice of a health
Environmental risk factors are the major risk factors for at least 90
care provider who is familiar with their status.
percent of human cancers. Environmental risk factors include certain
pathogens, such as hepatitis viruses that increase the risk of liver WARNING SIGNS OF CANCER
cancer. Other, nonpathogenic environmental factors that increase There is no routine screening for many types of cancers. Instead, it is
cancer risk include radon, which increases the risk of lung cancer, up to patients and healthcare providers to notice signs that might

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indicate cancer. Most cancers do not initially cause pain, but there may 4. Distant — Cancer has spread to distant parts of the body.
be other early warning signs. A good way to remember the signs is
using the mnemonic CAUTION: TREATING CANCER
Change in the bowel of bladder habits Many treatments for cancer exist. Some of the options for removing or
A sore that does not heal killing cancer cells and potentially curing cancer are surgery,
Unusual bleeding or discharge chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and immunotherapy. Which treatment
Thickening or lump in the breast or elsewhere is used generally depends on the type of cancer and its stage. In many
Indigestion or difficulty in swallowing cases, two or more types of curative treatments are used. Palliative
Obvious change in wart or mole treatments, such as drugs to relieve pain, are often provided in addition
Nagging cough or hoarseness to curative treatments.

Most of the early warning signs of cancer are likely to be caused by the SURGERY
mass of a primary tumor or its ulceration. For example, the mass of a Surgery is the primary method to treat most isolated, solid cancers. In
tumor in the rectum might cause a change in bowel habits. If the tumor an isolated tumor, surgery typically attempts to remove the entire mass,
was ulcerated, it might cause bleeding in the rectum and blood in the often along with local lymph nodes. If the cancer is still localized,
stool. A tumor in a breast might produce a detectable lump; a tumor in surgery is likely to cure it. If not, surgery may at least lessen symptoms
a lung might interfere with normal breathing and cause a persistent and prolong survival.
cough.
The early warning signs of cancer are not diagnostic of cancer because CHEMOTHERAPY
they could have many other causes — and chances are they do. Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with one or more drugs that
However, the presence of one or more of the signs should prompt a kill cancer cells. The drugs are often delivered directly into the
visit to the doctor to find out for sure. bloodstream rather than orally (Figure 21.7.5). Chemotherapy may be
used alone or, more commonly, in conjunction with other treatments.
BIOPSY Most chemotherapy drugs target rapidly dividing cells, not specifically
A definitive diagnosis of cancer requires a biopsy. In a biopsy, a tissue cancerous cells. For example, chemotherapy drugs often target rapidly
sample from the patient is examined microscopically by a pathologist growing cells in hair roots, causing a temporary loss of hair. A more
(doctor specializing in disease diagnosis based on tissue changes). sophisticated form of chemotherapy, called targeted chemotherapy,
Cancers are classified and named by the type of tissue where cancer targets specific molecules that distinguish cancerous from normal cells.
began (Table 21.7.1). For example, carcinoma — such as Bernie Targeted therapies generally cause fewer adverse side effects. Targeted
Sanders’ basal cell carcinoma — is cancer derived from epithelial cells. therapies exist for breast cancer, prostate cancer, melanoma, and
Besides the skin, carcinomas include cancers of the lung, breast, and several other cancers.
colon. Often, different types of cancer can be further distinguished on
the basis of the size or shape of the cancer cells. For example,
carcinomas of the lung include small-cell carcinomas and non-small-
cell carcinomas. This is an important distinction because the two types
of lung carcinoma have different prognoses and treatments.
Table 21.7.1 : Four Common Types of Cancer
Type of Type of Tissue or Cells Where It Example of this Type of
Cancer Originates Cancer
Carcinoma epithelial system skin
Sarcoma connective tissue bone Figure 21.7.5 : Chemotherapy drugs may be delivered directly into the
Leukemia blood-forming tissue bone marrow
bloodstream via a catheter in a vein.
Lymphoma immune system cells lymph nodes RADIATION THERAPY
About half of the cancers are treated with radiation therapy, usually in
CANCER STAGING
addition to surgery and/or chemotherapy. Radiation therapy is the use
A cancer diagnosis generally includes cancer staging. Staging is the
of ionizing radiation such as X-rays to kill cancerous tissues. To spare
use of a classification system that reflects the seriousness of a cancer,
normal tissues through which the radiation must pass to reach cancer,
such as how large a tumor is and the extent to which cancer has spread.
multiple rays are directed toward cancer from different angles. The
These factors are important to consider in determining the prognosis
rays all intersect at the site of cancer, providing a much larger dose
and appropriate treatment for a given cancer. There are several
than in the surrounding healthy tissue.
different staging systems in use for different types of cancer. A general
staging system commonly used by cancer registries includes the IMMUNOTHERAPY
following stages: A variety of newer therapies are directed at helping the immune system
1. In situ — Abnormal cells are present but have not spread to nearby fight cancer. This type of therapy is called immunotherapy. Cancer
tissue. immunotherapy attempts to stimulate the immune system to destroy
2. Localized — Cancer is limited to the place where it started, with no cancer cells. A variety of such strategies are in use or are undergoing
sign that it has spread beyond local tissue. research and testing (see the Feature: Human Biology in the News
3. Regional — Cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes, tissues, or below). If immunotherapy is used, it is usually in conjunction with
organs. other types of treatment, such as surgery or chemotherapy.

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STIGMA OF CANCER 11. Many other diagnoses have a worse prognosis than most diagnoses
Many other diagnoses have a worse prognosis than most diagnoses of of cancer, but cancer usually causes greater fear and dread. Why?
cancer, but a cancer diagnosis usually causes greater fear and dread. 12. Which stage(s) of cancer, as defined here, are the most likely to be
There are widespread misconceptions that cancer is always painful or able to be fully cured with surgery? Explain your answer.
always terminal, and there is a stigma associated with cancer. The 13. True or False. Activation of tumor-suppressor genes is a common
stigma is reflected in how people refer to cancer deaths. An obituary is cause of cancer.
likely to say the deceased “died after a long illness” rather than “died 14. True or False. Lung cancer can commonly spread to the brain.
of cancer.” Fear of cancer and cancer stigma may delay cancer 15. Explain why some cancer treatments can damage normal tissue.
diagnoses and treatment and increase the risk of cancer death.
EXPLORE MORE
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17750#Explore_More
REVIEW
1. What is cancer? ATTRIBUTIONS
2. What are some common types of cancer?
1. Feel the Bern by Carl Glover from Long Beach, California, United
3. How does a normal cell transform into a cancer cell?
States; CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
4. Describe three ways that cancer cells can spread from the original
2. Cancer requires multiple mutations by National Cancer Institute,
site of cancer.
NIH, Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
5. Define metastases.
3. Metastasis sites for common cancers by Mikael Häggström, CC0
6. Explain why there are many different risk factors for cancer, and
1.0 via Wikimedia Commons
identify some common cancer risk factors.
4. Woman receives mammogram by National Cancer Institute, NIH,
7. Why is it important to diagnose cancer early? What are two ways in
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
which cancer can be detected early?
5. Chemotherapy IV by National Cancer Institute, NIH, Public
8. What is a biopsy, what is its role in a cancer diagnosis, and what
Domain via Wikimedia Commons
else can a biopsy reveal?
6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
9. Explain cancer staging and why it is done.
3.0
10. Discuss types of treatments for cancer.

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21.8: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: LYME AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
the pathogen to be produced by the body and detectable in the blood. In
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: WHAT’S LURKING the case of HIV, this can take up to three months, while in Lyme
IN THE WOODS disease it can take up to two months.
The bacteria in Figure 21.8.1, labeled with red, yellow, and green in Ximena’s EIA test results came back as “indeterminate” (neither
the photomicrograph, are the tiny culprits responsible for Lyme conclusively positive nor negative), possibly because she was recently
disease. They are the bacteria Borrelia burgdorferi, which, when infected. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
transmitted through the bite of an infected tick, can make humans very recommends two-step testing for Lyme disease if the initial EIA test is
sick. indeterminate or positive, meaning that the second type of test should
be performed to confirm the diagnosis. This second test is called an
immunoblot, or Western blot test, which is another way of detecting
antibodies in the blood.
Why would a second test be needed if the first test came back positive?
This is because the EIA test can give false positives, often due to the
presence of other diseases, such as tick-borne relapsing fever, syphilis,
and some autoimmune disorders. The Western blot test gives more
information and may be able to distinguish between Lyme and other
diseases. Even the Western blot can give false positives, so it must be
Figure 21.8.1 : The Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi administered correctly (i.e. at the correct time after infection) and the
As you learned in the beginning of the chapter, Ximena came down results must be interpreted carefully by an experienced medical
with symptoms of Lyme disease after visiting her grandparents in New professional. The risk of false positives and the need for careful
Jersey and spending time in the woods there. Ximena’s symptoms interpretation is similar to the reasons why widespread screening for
included a distinctive bulls-eye rash that is characteristic of Lyme some types of cancer can be controversial, as you learned earlier in the
disease (known formally as an erythema migrans rash—shown in chapter.
Figure 21.8.2) and flu-like symptoms, including fever, chills, fatigue, When Ximena’s doctor did the Western blot test, it confirmed that she
headache, and body aches. In addition to these symptoms, Lyme did have antibodies against the bacteria that cause Lyme disease. This
disease can cause facial palsy (loss of muscle tone in the face, which result, combined with her symptoms and presence in areas where
can occur on one or both sides), and joint pain and swelling. These Lyme-disease infected ticks are common, caused her doctor to confirm
symptoms are illustrated below. Lyme disease can also cause swollen a diagnosis of Lyme disease. Recall that he started Ximena on
lymph nodes; neck stiffness; pain, numbness, or tingling in various medication immediately, because of the high likelihood that she had
parts of the body; heart problems; dizziness; inflammation of the brain Lyme disease and the importance of early treatment. Given what you
and spinal cord; and short-term memory problems. Clearly, Lyme have learned in this chapter, what type of medication do you think he
disease can be quite serious, which is why early diagnosis and prescribed? If you guessed an antibiotic, you are correct! Because the
treatment are so important. pathogen is bacterial, antibiotics are generally effective in treating
Lyme disease. A two- to four-week course of oral antibiotics is usually
sufficient, although extreme cases may require intravenous antibiotics.
Within a week of starting the antibiotics, Ximena was beginning to feel
better, although she continued to have fatigue and body aches for
several weeks afterward, which is common. By two months after
treatment, Ximena was back to normal. A small percentage of people
with Lyme disease are not so lucky. In those people, Lyme disease
symptoms can continue for more than six months after treatment. This
Figure 21.8.2 : Some symptoms of Lyme disease: "classic" erythema is called Post-treatment Lyme Disease Syndrome (PTLDS) and the
migrans rash, facial palsy, and swollen knee.
cause is not yet known. Most medical experts think that PTLDS is due
In a way, Ximena was lucky that her symptoms included the bulls-eye to damage to body tissues and the immune system that occurred during
rash because it helped her get diagnosed early. In about 20-30% of the original infection, and not a continued active infection with B.
cases of Lyme disease, there is no rash. Even if there is a rash, it may burgdorferi, although the causes are still under investigation. More
not have the “classic” bulls-eye appearance, which can make it hard to research needs to be done to better understand this more chronic
identify. version of Lyme disease.
In addition to noting Ximena’s symptoms and time spent in the woods
Ximena is relieved to have recovered, but she wonders how she got
of the northeastern U.S. where Lyme disease is prevalent, Ximena’s
infected in the first place. She never saw a tick on her or felt a tick bite,
doctor took a blood sample to confirm the diagnosis of the disease. The
which is not uncommon. The ticks that spread Lyme disease are very
first blood test for Lyme disease is usually an enzyme immunoassay
small (Figure 21.8.3) and their saliva contains a substance that has
(EIA), which detects antibodies against the bacteria that cause Lyme
anesthetic properties, so a person may not feel their bite. They often
disease. Similar to HIV testing, which you learned about in this
bite and attach themselves on areas of the body where they are hard to
chapter, it can take time after the initial infection for antibodies against
see, such as the scalp, armpit, and groin.

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 laboratories advertise types of tests for Lyme disease that have not been
scientifically proven to be valid. The good news is that when properly
diagnosed and treated early, as in Ximena's case, Lyme disease can
usually be cured.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this chapter, you learned about the general causes of disease, and
details about several specific diseases. Specifically, you learned that:
Figure 21.8.3 : The relative sizes of a tick that can transmit Lyme
disease, compared to a dime. Most people are infected by the bite of Homeostasis is needed for good health. Homeostasis refers to
immature ticks called nymphs, which are less than 2 mm in size. Adult maintaining internal conditions in a steady state. Homeostats are
ticks can also spread Lyme disease. physiological mechanisms that keep internal variables within
normal ranges.
As you now know, this method of infectious disease transmission is
The homeostat that controls blood glucose concentration
called vector transmission. The disease-causing pathogen is the B.
involves pancreatic beta cells, which secrete insulin, and alpha
burgdorferi bacteria and the vector is the tick. This is similar to
cells, which secrete glucagon. These two hormones control
malaria, where the pathogen is transmitted through the bite of a
blood glucose concentration in two negative feedback loops,
mosquito vector. Like malaria, Lyme disease is endemic to particular
with insulin-lowering values that are too high, and glucagon
geographic regions, based on the presence of the vector organism.
raising values that are too low.
Lyme disease risk is high in certain areas of the U.S., because of where
If homeostats fail to perform properly, homeostatic imbalance and
the tick species that transmit Lyme disease live. In the northeast, mid-
disease may result. For example, failure of the homeostat that
Atlantic, and north-central U.S., the tick species that transmits Lyme
controls blood glucose concentration causes high blood glucose
disease is the black-legged tick, or deer tick, Ixodes scapularis, and on
levels and diabetes. Homeostats also start to fail as people age.
the Pacific coast, it is transmitted by the western black-legged tick,
There are many underlying causes of homeostatic imbalances that
Ixodes pacificus. A research study published in 2016 showed that the
lead to disease. Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens such as
range of these species is rapidly expanding, and that half of all counties
bacteria and viruses. Noninfectious diseases are caused by genes or
in the U.S. are now home to these tick species. Cases of Lyme disease
environmental factors other than pathogens, such as toxic exposures
have tripled in the U.S. in the last 20 years, and it is estimated that
or unhealthy habits.
300,000 Americans are infected each year. Lyme disease is the most
Some diseases, such as flu, are acute, or short-term, diseases. Other
common vector-borne disease in the United States.
diseases, such as heart disease, are long-term or even lifelong
How can you prevent getting this common infectious disease? You diseases.
don’t necessarily need to avoid spending time in nature, but you should At the population level, diseases may occur as sudden outbreaks,
take preventative measures if you are outside in an area with Lyme called epidemics. If epidemics spread through multiple populations
disease. These include avoiding walking through thick vegetation or even worldwide, they are called pandemics. Endemic diseases, in
where ticks commonly live, using insect repellent, bathing after being contrast, occur at about the same rate year-round in populations.
outdoors, and checking yourself for ticks daily if you are likely to be The science that studies diseases in human populations is
exposed. You may want to enlist a friend or family member to check epidemiology. The results of epidemiological research form the
areas you can’t easily see, such as your scalp. cornerstone of public health. The father of epidemiology is John
If you do see a tick attached to your body, it is important to remove it Snow, a 19th-century English physician whose investigations
quickly and carefully. Removing a tick within 24 hours of attachment pinpointed the cause of cholera outbreaks in London. His work
can greatly reduce your chance of getting Lyme disease since it can eventually led to significant improvements in public health around
take 36-48 hours for a tick to transmit the disease-causing bacteria. the world.
Remove the tick with tweezers by steadily pulling straight up, as All infectious diseases are caused by infections with pathogens, or
shown in Figure 21.8.4. Visit the CDC website and consult with your disease-causing agents, many of which are microorganisms. Types
physician for more detailed instructions on proper tick removal. of pathogens and examples of the diseases each type causes
include: bacteria (e.g., tuberculosis and strep throat), viruses (e.g.,
influenza and the common cold), fungi (e.g., ringworm and
athlete’s foot), protists (e.g., malaria and giardiasis), helminths
(e.g., tapeworm and hookworm), and prions (e.g., CJD and mad-
cow disease).
In the 19th century, Robert Koch developed four criteria, or
postulates, for deciding whether a disease is caused by a
particular microorganism. The postulates are now viewed as
sufficient but not necessary criteria. They still inform the basic
approach to identifying pathogens and historically led to the
Figure 21.8.4 : Pull ticks out by grasping them near the head and discovery of many human pathogens.
pulling straight up. Pathogens cause disease by invading and multiplying in host
If you are concerned about a tick bite or think you may have symptoms tissues, causing damage and releasing toxins. Typically, the
of Lyme disease, please consult a physician. Many websites or more pathogens there are in the host, the greater is the severity

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 of the disease. However, pathogens also vary greatly in their transmitted through contaminated blood or breast milk. HIV
virulence. infection is diagnosed on the basis of a blood test for antibodies to
Transmission of pathogens from infected to noninfected human the virus.
hosts can occur through a variety of different routes: airborne AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. AIDS is a
transmission, direct contact, fecal-oral transmission, vector disease that develops in people with untreated HIV infections,
transmission, vertical transmission, and sexual transmission. typically several years after their initial infection with the virus.
Prions can be transmitted via eating contaminated nervous tissue AIDS is diagnosed when the immune system has been weakened to
from an infected individual. the point that it can no longer fight off opportunistic diseases that
Infectious diseases must be correctly diagnosed so the do not normally occur in healthy individuals.
appropriate treatment can be prescribed. Most infectious HIV infection and AIDS are a worldwide pandemic with the
diseases can be treated with drugs if not cured. Hygienic habits, highest population rates in sub-Saharan Africa where the virus
especially frequent handwashing, and immunizations are the first emerged. Death and disability due to AIDS have been
most effective ways to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. economically devastating to these populations.
A high level of vaccination in a population provides herd The development of new anti-retroviral drugs to treat HIV
immunity to population members who cannot be vaccinated for infection has changed HIV infection from a fatal to a chronic
medical reasons. disease. The drugs keep the virus at low levels, reducing the risk
Emerging infectious diseases are new infectious diseases that of transmission as well as reducing the risk of the infection
are appearing for the first time in human populations, mainly progressing to AIDS.
because of human actions such as encroachment on wild lands. Until an HIV vaccine is developed, reducing the risk of HIV
Emerging infectious diseases come about in a number of ways. transmission depends on factors ranging from individual
For example, some pathogens of nonhuman hosts jump to behaviors such as effective condom use to public health policies
human hosts and start causing disease in them. such as needle-exchange programs.
A sexually transmitted infection (STI) is an infection caused by a Noninfectious diseases include all diseases that are not caused by
pathogen that spreads mainly through sexual contact. This may pathogens. Noninfectious diseases are generally caused by a
include vaginal, anal, and/or oral contact. combination of genetic and environmental factors other than
Most STIs are caused by pathogens that can infect the body only pathogens. Noninfectious diseases are the leading causes of death
via direct contact between mucous membranes. Such pathogens globally.
generally cannot spread through nonsexual skin contact, Risk factors for noninfectious diseases include age, gender,
although some can also be transmitted through body fluids such inherited genes, and environmental factors including exposures
as blood and breast milk. such as radon and behaviors such as smoking. Most behavioral
Types of pathogens that are sexually transmitted include risk factors for noninfectious diseases can be avoided, so many
parasites, such as crab lice and the protozoa that cause noninfectious diseases are considered preventable diseases. Risk
trichomoniasis; bacteria, including those that cause chlamydia, factors such as age, gender, and genes cannot be avoided but
gonorrhea, and syphilis; and viruses, such as those that genital should be considered in diagnosing, treating, and preventing
herpes, genital warts, and AIDS. noninfectious diseases in individuals.
Common symptoms of STIs include genital sores, genital Cystic fibrosis is an example of a genetic noninfectious disease.
discharge, and painful urination. However, many cases of STIs It is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait, caused by a
are asymptomatic. mutation in a gene called CFTR. It results in thick mucus that
Bacterial STIs can generally be cured with antibiotics. Viral blocks mucus-secreting organs such as the lungs and intestines,
STIs can be treated with anti-viral drugs, but the viruses may causing recurrent respiratory infections and malabsorption of
not be completely eliminated. nutrients. Medical interventions can help people with cystic
If STIs go untreated, some may eventually lead to more serious fibrosis live into middle adulthood.
diseases, especially in females, who may develop the pelvic Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth
inflammatory disease (PID) and its sequelae of infertility or with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.
ectopic pregnancy. Untreated syphilis is dangerous in both It is a major cause of death in developed countries. Most cancers
sexes. It typically advances through several stages over the are noninfectious diseases caused by a combination of genetic
decades to invade internal organs and cause death. and environmental factors. Few are caused mainly by inherited
A few STIs can be prevented with vaccines. An example is a genes.
human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, which sometimes leads Cardiovascular disease is a class of diseases that involve the
to genital warts or cervical cancer. The HPV vaccine is heart or blood vessels, such as coronary artery disease and
recommended for all girls and boys aged 11-12 years old. stroke. Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death
For STIs without vaccines, avoiding sexual contact is the only globally. Major precursors of cardiovascular disease include
sure way to prevent transmission. Practicing safe sex behaviors hypertension and atherosclerosis. Obesity and diabetes are
— such as proper condom use — can greatly reduce but not additional major risk factors. Most cases of cardiovascular
totally eliminate the risk of transmission. disease could be prevented by modifying risk factors through
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a sexually transmitted medications and behavioral changes.
virus that infects and destroys helper T cells of the immune system. Type 2 diabetes accounts for 90% of all diabetes cases. It
It is usually transmitted through sexual contact but can also be generally develops due to insulin resistance, although the

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 reduction in insulin secretion may exacerbate the problem. Risk 7. For each of the following diseases, state whether the pathogen is a
factors for type 2 diabetes include obesity, with or without the bacterium, virus, fungus, protist, helminth, or prion.
other indicators of metabolic syndrome, which is called pre- A. Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
diabetes. Poorly controlled diabetes can lead to heart attacks, B. Strep throat
blindness, kidney failure, and other serious health problems. C. Ringworm
Cancer is a group of more than 100 diseases, all of which involve D. Giardiasis
abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other E. Hepatitis
parts of the body. The most common type of cancer is the type of F. Pinworm
skin cancer called basal cell carcinoma, which is usually easy to 8. Which type(s) of pathogens (listed in question 7) are not considered
cure. Less common but more deadly cancers include lung, to be living organisms? Explain your answer.
colorectal, prostate, and breast cancers. 9. True or False. Transmission of viral pathogens can sometimes be
Cancer generally occurs when the cell cycle is no longer prevented by immunization.
regulated due to DNA damage to two types of genes: proto- 10. True or False. Human papillomavirus can cause cancer of the penis.
oncogenes, which normally promote division of normal cells; 11. Proper washing can help prevent the spread of:
and tumor-suppressor genes, which normally inhibit the division A. Sexually transmitted diseases
of abnormal cells. Transformation of a normal cell into a cancer B. Infectious respiratory illnesses
cell is a multi-stage process involving accumulated damage to C. Cystic fibrosis
these genes. D. A and B
Once a normal cell transforms into a cancer cell and starts 12. What does “screening” for a disease mean? Compare and contrast
dividing out of control, cancer cells can spread from the original screening for STIs to screening for cancer in terms of potential
site. Cancer cells can invade nearby tissues, spread through benefits and drawbacks.
lymph vessels to regional lymph nodes, or spread through the 13. Which is more likely to result in a chronic disease instead of an
bloodstream to distant sites in the body, which is called acute disease—a bacterial STI or a viral STI? Assume the proper
metastasis. New cancers that forms at a distant sites are called treatment is given. Explain your answer and give an example of
metastases. each type of STI.
There are many possible underlying causes of the DNA damage 14. Can a couple that does not engage in penile-vaginal intercourse still
that leads to cancer, so cancer has many risk factors. DNA transmit STIs to each other if they engage in other types of
damage can be inherited from parents or result spontaneously unprotected sexual activity? Why or why not?
from environmental exposures to carcinogens. Environmental 15. What are two ways that STIs can be transmitted that do not involve
risk factors include radon, UV light, air pollution, and behaviors sexual activity?
such as smoking, unhealthy diet, and lack of exercise. 16. What is metabolic syndrome and why is it such a cause for
Early diagnosis and treatment are the keys to curing cancer, concern?
although not all cancers are curable. Cancers may be detected 17. What is the relationship between HIV and AIDS?
early through routine screening (e.g., by mammograms) or by
A. HIV causes AIDS.
patients or health care providers noticing early warning signs,
B. AIDS causes HIV.
such as unusual bleeding or a nagging cough. A definitive
C. They are different terms for the same thing.
diagnosis of cancer requires a biopsy, in which a tissue sample
D. AIDS can make a person more susceptible to HIV.
from the patient is examined microscopically. A biopsy may
also reveal the type of cancer (e.g., carcinoma or sarcoma) and 18. Viral load refers to:
its stage (degree of severity, such as whether it has spread). A. The financial impact of a viral disease.
Many types of treatments for cancer exist, including surgery, B. The amount of damage a virus does to an individual.
chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and immunotherapy. The first C. How widely a virus has spread across a population.
three types of treatment directly target cancer cells, while the D. The amount of virus in a sample of an infected person’s blood.
last type of treatment is directed at helping the immune system 19. Explain the roles of genetics and the environment in the
fight cancer. development of cancer.
20. If breast cancer metastasized to a patient’s brain, what stage would
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW this cancer most likely be classified as? Explain your answer.
1. What type of feedback loops help maintain homeostasis by keeping 21. What are two healthy lifestyle choices that you can make that can
variables within a normal range? reduce your risk of disease? Explain your answer, and identify
2. Explain what generally happens to homeostatic mechanisms as some of the diseases that may be able to be avoided.
people age, and how this relates to susceptibility to disease in 22. What is the most frequently reported bacterial STI in the United
elderly people. States?
3. Give an example of a noninfectious disease that can cause an A. HPV
infectious disease. B. Genital herpes
4. True or False. Epidemiologists only study diseases that can be C. Chlamydia
transmitted between people. D. PID
5. True or False. Some cases of cancer are preventable.
23. What is the difference between a disease vector and a pathogen?
6. Explain how type 1 diabetes can lead to cardiovascular disease.
24. Antiretroviral drugs are used to treat:

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 A. HIV 1. Lyme Disease Bacteria by NIAID/NIH, CC BY 3.0 via Flickr.com
B. Tetanus 2. Signs and Symptoms of Lyme Disease by Centers for Disease
C. Cholera Control, Public Domain
D. Malaria 3. Transmission of Lyme Disease by Centers for Disease Control,
25. What is one way that screening for skin cancer is performed? Public Domain
4. Tick removal by Centers for Disease Control, Public Domain
ATTRIBUTIONS 5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
22: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Please note there are not only two genders in the human population. When male or female is
mentioned in this chapter, it only refers to the biological male and female sexes. This chapter
outlines the structures and functions of the male and female reproductive systems, explains how
fertilization occurs, and discusses the menstrual cycle's role. The chapter describes the causes of and
treatments for male and female reproductive system disorders, infertility, and contraception methods.

22.1: CASE STUDY: MAKING BABIES

Isabella, 28, and Omar, 30, have been together for three years. A year ago, they decided they
wanted to have a baby, and they stopped using birth control. At first, they did not pay attention to
the timing of their sexual activity in relation to Isabella's menstrual cycle, but after six months
passed without Isabella becoming pregnant, they decided to try to maximize their efforts.

22.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The reproductive system is the human organ system responsible for the production and fertilization of gametes (sperm or eggs) and, in
females, the carrying of a fetus. Both male and female reproductive systems have organs called gonads that produce gametes. Besides
producing gametes, the gonads also produce sex hormones.

22.3: STRUCTURES OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The two testes are sperm- and testosterone-producing male gonads. They are contained within the scrotum, a pouch that hangs down
behind the penis. The testes are filled with hundreds of tiny, tightly coiled seminiferous tubules, where sperm are produced.

22.4: FUNCTIONS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

A mature sperm cell has several structures that help it reach and penetrate an egg.

22.5: DISORDERS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Erectile dysfunction (ED) is a disorder characterized by the regular and repeated inability of a sexually mature male to obtain and
maintain an erection. ED occurs when normal blood flow to the penis is disturbed, or when there are problems with the nervous
control of penile arousal.

22.6: STRUCTURES OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system is made up of internal and external organs that function to produce haploid female gametes called
eggs (or oocytes), secrete female sex hormones (such as estrogen), and carry and give birth to a fetus.

22.7: MENSTRUAL CYCLE

The menstrual cycle refers to natural changes that occur in the ovaries and uterus each month during the reproductive years of a
female.

22.8: FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

At birth, a female's ovaries contain all the eggs she will ever produce, which may include a million or more eggs. The eggs don't start
to mature, however, until she enters puberty and attains sexual maturity. After that, one egg typically matures each month and is
released from an ovary, until she reaches menopause.

22.9: DISORDERS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Cervical cancer is one of three disorders of the female reproductive system described in detail in this concept.

22.10: INFERTILITY
Infertility is the inability of a sexually mature adult to reproduce by natural means and is generally defined as the failure to achieve a
successful pregnancy after at least one year of regular, unprotected sexual intercourse.

22.11: CONTRACEPTION
Contraception, also known as birth control, is any method or device used to prevent pregnancy. Birth control methods have been used
for centuries, but safe and effective methods only became available in the 20th century.

22.12: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: TRYING TO CONCEIVE AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

In the beginning of the chapter, you learned that Isabella and Omar have been actively trying to get pregnant for a year, which, as you
now know, is the time-frame necessary for infertility to be diagnosed.

1 4/25/2021
22.1: CASE STUDY: MAKING BABIES
As you read this chapter, you will learn about the male and female
CASE STUDY: TRYING TO CONCEIVE reproductive systems, how sperm and eggs are produced, and how they
Isabella, 28, and Omar, 30, have been together for three years. A year meet each other to ultimately produce a baby. You will learn how these
ago, they decided they wanted to have a baby, and they stopped using complex processes are regulated, and how they can be susceptible to
birth control. At first, they did not pay attention to the timing of their problems along the way. Problems in either the male or female
sexual activity in relation to Isabella’s menstrual cycle, but after six reproductive systems can result in infertility, or difficulty in achieving
months passed without Isabella becoming pregnant, they decided to try a successful pregnancy. As you read the chapter, you will understand
to maximize their efforts. exactly how BBT and LH relate to ovulation, why Dr. Bashir
recommended that Isabella monitor these variables, and the types of
problems she will look for in Omar’s semen. At the end of the chapter,
you will find out the results of Isabella and Omar’s fertility
assessments, steps they can take to increase their chances of
conception, and whether they are ultimately able to get pregnant.

LGBTQ +
Most of the information in this chapter is in terms of cis-gendered
Figure 22.1.1: Couples holding hands individuals because there is a lack of data on lesbian, gay,
bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) individuals. About
They knew that in order for a woman to become pregnant, the man’s
3.5% of Americans identify themselves as lesbian, gay, or
sperm must encounter the woman’s egg, which is typically released
bisexual, and 0.3% identify themselves as transgender. The
once a month through a process called ovulation. They had also heard
acronym LGBTQIA+ is an umbrella term that includes a number
that for the average woman, ovulation occurs around day 14 of the
of groups: lesbian (homosexual woman), gay (homosexual man
menstrual cycle. To maximize their chances of conception, they tried to
or woman), bisexual (person who is attracted to both genders),
have sexual intercourse on day 14 of Isabella’s menstrual cycle each
transgender (person who identifies their gender as different from
month.
their biological one), queer (a synonym for gay; some people
prefer to identify themselves as queer to empower themselves and
take their identity “back from the bullies”), questioning (people
who are unsure about their gender identity/sexuality), intersex
(people with two sets of genitalia), asexual (people who are not
sexually attracted to anyone and who don’t identify with any
orientation), allies (the loving supporters of the community,
though not necessarily part of it), two spirits (a tradition in many
First Nations that considers sexual minorities to have both male
and female spirits), and pansexual (person sexually attracted to
others of any sex or gender).
Figure 22.1.2 : Monitoring body temperature before getting out of bed
in the morning can often help tell if and when a woman is ovulating.
Usually, a special, highly sensitive thermometer is used. CHAPTER OVERVIEW: REPRODUCTIVE
After several months of trying this method, Isabella is still not
SYSTEM
pregnant. She is concerned that she may not be ovulating on a regular In this chapter, you will learn about the male and female reproductive
basis because her menstrual cycles are irregular and often longer than systems. Specifically, you will learn about:
the average 28 days. Omar is also concerned about his own fertility. He The functions of the reproductive system, which include the
had some injuries to his testicles (testes) when he was younger, and production and fertilization of gametes (eggs and sperm), the
wonders if that may have caused a problem with his sperm. production of sex hormones by the gonads (testes and ovaries), and,
Isabella calls her doctor for advice. Dr. Bashir recommends that she try in females, the carrying of a fetus
taking her temperature each morning before she gets out of bed. This How the male and female reproductive systems differentiate in the
temperature is called basal body temperature (BBT), and recording embryo and fetus, and how they mature during puberty
BBT throughout a woman’s menstrual cycle can sometimes help The structures of the male reproductive system, including the testes,
identify if and when they ovulate. Additionally, Dr. Bashir epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory ducts, seminal vesicles,
recommends she try using a home ovulation predictor kit, which prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, and the penis
predicts ovulation by measuring the level of luteinizing hormone How sperm are produced, matured, stored, and deposited into the
(LH) in the urine. In the meantime, Dr. Bashir sets up an appointment female
for Omar to give a semen sample, so that his sperm may be examined The fluids in semen that protect and nourish sperm, and where
with a microscope. those fluids are produced
Disorders of the male reproductive system, including erectile
dysfunction, epididymitis, prostate cancer, and testicular cancer—

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 some of which predominantly affect younger men 2. Why is Isabella concerned about her irregular and long menstrual
The structures of the female reproductive system, including the cycles? How could tracking her BBT and LH level help identify if
ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina, and external she is ovulating and when?
structures of the vulva 3. Why do you think Omar is concerned about past injuries to his
How eggs are produced in the female fetus, and how they then testes? How might an analysis of his semen help assess whether he
mature after puberty through the process of ovulation has a fertility issue—and, if so, the type of issue?
The menstrual cycle, its purpose, and the hormones that control it
How fertilization and implantation occur, the stages of pregnancy ATTRIBUTIONS
and childbirth, and how the mother’s body produces milk to feed 1. Couple holding hands by aprilsylvester; Pixabay license
the baby 2. Day 222 - temperature by Phil and Pam Gradwell licensed CC BY
Disorders of the female reproductive system, including cervical 2.0 via Flickr
cancer, endometriosis, and vaginitis (which includes yeast 3. Some text is adapted from Health Care Disparities Among Lesbian,
infections) Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Youth: A Literature
Some causes and treatments of male and female infertility Review; Hudaisa Hafeez, Muhammad Zeshan, Muhammad A
Forms of contraception (birth control), including barrier methods Tahir, Nusrat Jahan, and Sadiq Naveed; Cureus. 2017 Apr; 9(4):
(such as condoms), hormonal methods (such as the birth control e1184. Published online 2017 Apr 20. doi: 10.7759/cureus.1184;
pill), behavioral methods, intrauterine devices, and sterilization CC BY 4.0.
As you read the chapter, think about the following questions: 4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-
1. Why might sexual intercourse on day 14 of Isabella's menstrual 12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
cycle not necessarily be optimal timing to achieve a pregnancy?

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22.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
IT’S ALL ABOUT SEX produce estrogen. Estrogen, in turn, will lead to the formation of the
A tiny sperm breaks through the surface of a huge egg. Voilà! In other organs of a female reproductive system.
nine months, a new baby will be born. Like most other multicellular
organisms, human beings reproduce sexually. In human sexual
reproduction, individuals with testes produce sperm, and
individuals with ovaries produce eggs, and a new offspring forms
when a sperm unites with an egg. How do sperm and eggs form?
And how do they arrive together at the right place and time so they
can unite to form a new offspring? These are functions of the
reproductive system. Figure 22.2.2 : The SRY gene on the short arm of the Y chromosome
causes the undifferentiated gonads of an embryo to develop into testes.
Otherwise, the gonads develop into ovaries.

HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES
Undifferentiated embryonic tissues develop into different structures in
male and female fetuses. Structures that arise from the same tissues in
males and females are called homologous structures. The testes and
ovaries, for example, are homologous structures that develop from the
undifferentiated gonads of the embryo. Likewise, the penis and clitoris
are homologous structures that develop from the same embryonic
tissues.

SEX HORMONES AND MATURATION

Male and female reproductive systems are different at birth, but they
Figure 22.2.1 : A sperm cell fertilizing an egg cell
are immature and incapable of producing gametes or sex hormones.
Maturation of the reproductive system occurs during puberty when
WHAT IS THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM?
hormones from the hypothalamus and pituitary gland stimulate the
The reproductive system is the human organ system responsible for testes or ovaries to start producing sex hormones again. The main sex
the production and fertilization of gametes (sperm or eggs) and hormones are testosterone and estrogen. Sex hormones, in turn, lead
carrying of a fetus. Both both sexes gonads produce gametes. A to the growth and maturation of the reproductive organs, rapid body
gamete is a haploid cell that combines with another haploid gamete growth, and the development of secondary sex characteristics, such
during fertilization, forming a single diploid cell called a zygote. as body and facial hair and breasts.
Besides producing gametes, the gonads also produce sex hormones.
Sex hormones are endocrine hormones that control the development of ROLE OF SEX HORMONES IN TRANSGENDER
sex organs before birth, sexual maturation at puberty, and reproduction TREATMENT
once sexual maturation has occurred. Other reproductive system organs Feminizing or masculinizing hormone therapy is the administration of
have various functions, such as maturing gametes, delivering gametes exogenous endocrine agents to induce changes in physical
to the site of fertilization, and providing an environment for the appearance. Since hormone therapy is inexpensive relative to surgery
development and growth of an offspring. and highly effective in the development of secondary sex
characteristics (e.g., facial and body hair in female-to-male [FTM]
SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE REPRODUCTIVE individuals or breast tissue in male-to-females [MTFs]), hormone
SYSTEM therapy is often the first, and sometimes only, medical gender
The reproductive system is the only human organ system that is affirmation intervention accessed by transgender individuals looking to
significantly different between males and females. Embryonic develop masculine or feminine characteristics consistent with their
structures that will develop into the reproductive system start out the gender identity. In some cases, hormone therapy may be required
same in males and females, but by birth, the reproductive systems have before surgical interventions can be conducted. Trans-females are
differentiated. How does this happen? prescribed estrogen and anti-testosterone medication, such
as cyproterone acetate and spironolactone. Trans-men are prescribed
SEX DIFFERENTIATION testosterone.
Starting around the seventh week after conception in genetically male
(XY) embryos, a gene called SRY on the Y chromosome (Figure MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
22.2.2) initiates the production of multiple proteins. These proteins

cause undifferentiated gonadal tissue to develop into testes.

Testes secrete hormones — including testosterone — that trigger other
changes in the developing offspring (now called a fetus), causing it to
develop a complete male reproductive system. Without a Y
chromosome, an embryo will develop ovaries, that will

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 muscular organ that functions to carry a fetus until birth. It can expand
greatly to accommodate a growing fetus, and its muscular walls can
contract forcefully during labor to push the baby out of the uterus and
into the vagina. The vagina is a tubular tract connecting the uterus to
the outside of the body. The vagina is where sperm are usually
deposited during sexual intercourse and ejaculation. The vagina is also
called the birth canal because a baby travels through the vagina to
leave the body during birth.
The external structures of the female reproductive system are referred
to collectively as the vulva. They include the clitoris, which is
homologous to the male penis. They also include two pairs of labia
(singular, labium), which surround and protect the openings of the
Figure 22.2.3 : The main organs of the male reproductive system. Focus urethra and vagina.
on the seminiferous tubules, testis, scrotum, epididymis, vas deferens,
urethra, penis, and the glands that produce semen.
REVIEW
The main structures of the male reproductive system are external to the
1. What is the reproductive system?
body and illustrated in Figure 22.2.3. The two testes (singular, testis)
2. Define gonad.
hang between the thighs in a sac of skin called the scrotum. The testes
produce both sperm and testosterone. Resting atop each testis is a 3. What are sex hormones? What are their general functions?
coiled structure called the epididymis (plural, epididymes). The 4. Distinguish between male and female sex hormones.
function of the epididymes is to mature and store sperm. The penis is a 5. How does the differentiation of the reproductive system occur in
tubular organ that contains the urethra and has the ability to stiffen males and females?
during sexual arousal. Sperm passes out of the body through the
6. In the context of the human male and female reproductive systems,
urethra during a sexual climax (orgasm). This release of sperm is called
what are homologous structures?
ejaculation.
7. When and how does the human reproductive system mature?
In addition to these organs, there are several ducts and glands that are
internal to the body. The ducts, which include the vas deferens (also 8. List the organs of the male reproductive system.
called the ductus deferens), transport sperm from the epididymis to the 9. List the organs of the female reproductive system.
urethra. The glands, which include the prostate gland and seminal 10. Female gametes are called _________ and male gametes are called
vesicles, produce fluids that become part of semen. Semen is the fluid _________ .
that carries sperm through the urethra and out of the body. It contains 11. True or False: The vagina is the homologous structure to the penis.
substances that control pH and provide sperm with nutrients for energy.
12. True or False: In the absence of a Y chromosome in humans,
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ovaries will develop.
13. Which are secondary sex characteristics?
A. Fallopian tubes
B. ovaries
C. breasts
D. all of the above
14. Fertilization usually occurs in the _________________.
A. ovary
B. Fallopian tube
C. uterus
D. vagina
15. Explain the difference between the vulva and the vagina.

EXPLORE MORE
Figure 22.2.4 : The main organs of the female reproductive system lie https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17787#Explore_More
within the abdominal cavity. Pay attention to ovaries, uterine tube,
uterus, cervix, and vagina. ATTRIBUTIONS
The main structures of the female reproductive system are internal to 1. Sperm-Egg; public domain via Wikimedia Commons
the body and shown in Figure 22.2.4. They include the paired ovaries, 2. Human Y chromosome by National Center for Biotechnology
which are small, ovoid structures that produce eggs and secrete Information (NCBI); public domain via Wikimedia Commons
estrogen. The two Fallopian tubes (aka uterine tube) start near the 3. Male Reproductive System by Charles Molnar and Jane Gair; CC
ovaries and end at the uterus. Their function is to transport eggs from BY 4.0 from Concepts of Biology - 1st Canadian edition
the ovaries to the uterus. If an egg is fertilized, it usually occurs while 4. Female Reproductive System by Blausen.com staff (2014).
it is traveling through a Fallopian tube. The uterus is a pear-shaped "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of

Suzanne Wakim & Mandeep Grewal 4/25/2021 22.2.2 CC-BY-NC https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/17787

 Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. 6. Some text is adapted from White Hughto JM, Reisner SL.. A
licensed CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons systematic review of the effects of hormone therapy on
5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC psychological functioning and quality of life in transgender
3.0 individuals. Transgend Health. 2016;1(1):21-31 CC BY 4.0

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22.3: STRUCTURES OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
ROCKY MOUNTAIN OYSTERS the tubule contains sperm in several different stages of development
First, they are peeled and pounded flat. Then, they are coated in (spermatogonia, spermatocytes, spermatids, and spermatozoa). The
flour, seasoned with salt and pepper, and deep-fried. What are they? seminiferous tubule is also lined with epithelial cells called Sertoli
They are often called Rocky Mountain oysters, but they don’t come cells. These cells release a hormone (inhibin) that helps regulate sperm
from the sea. They may also be known as Montana tendergroin, production. Adjacent Sertoli cells are closely spaced, so large
cowboy caviar, or swinging beef — all names that hint at their molecules cannot pass from the blood into the tubules. This prevents
origins. Here’s another hint: they are harvested only from male the immune system from reacting against the developing sperm, which
animals, such as bulls or sheep. What are they? In a word: testes. may be antigenically different from his own self tissues. Cells of
another type, called Leydig cells (a.k.a. interstitial cells), are found
between the seminiferous tubules. Leydig cells produce and secrete
testosterone (Figure 22.3.3.

Figure 22.3.1 : Lamb fries are fried lamb testicles

TESTES AND SCROTUM

The two testes (singular, testis) are sperm- and testosterone-producing
gonads in male mammals, including male humans. These and other
organs of the human male reproductive system are shown in Figure
22.3.2. The testes are contained within the scrotum, a pouch made of

skin and smooth muscle that hangs down behind the penis.

TESTES STRUCTURE Figure 22.3.3 : A cross-sectional drawing of a testis and seminiferous

tubule shows the lining of Sertoli cells and different stages of sperm
development.

OTHER SCROTAL STRUCTURES

Besides the two testes, the scrotum also contains a pair of organs called
epididymes (singular, epididymis) and part of each of the paired vas
deferens (or ducti deferens). Both structures play important functions
in the production or transport of sperm.
EPIDIDYMIS
The seminiferous tubules within each testis join together to form ducts
(called efferent ducts) that transport immature sperm to the epididymis
associated with that testis. Each epididymis (plural, epididymes)
consists of a tightly coiled tubule with a total length of about 6 m (20
ft). As shown in Figure 22.3.2 the epididymis is generally divided into
three parts: the head (which rests on top of the testis), the body (which
Figure 22.3.2 : This drawing includes a testis, epididymis, and vas (or
ductus) deference. The three structures are connected to create a tract drapes down the side of the testis), and the tail (which joins with the
through which sperm can travel. Testes are composed of microscopic vas deferens near the bottom of the testis). The functions of the two
tubes called Seminiferous tubues where spersm are produced. Sperm is epididymes are to mature sperm, and then to store that mature sperm
stored in epididymis after maturation until it is ejeculated via vas until they leave the body during an ejaculation when they pass the
derernes.
sperm on to the vas deferens.
The testes are filled with hundreds of tiny tubes, called seminiferous
tubules, which are the functional units of the testes. The seminiferous VAS DEFERENS
tubules are coiled and tightly packed within divisions of the testis The vas deferens, also known as sperm ducts, are a pair of thin tubes,
called lobules. Lobules are separated from one another by internal each about 30 cm (1 ft) long, which begin at the epididymis in the
walls (or septa). scrotum and continue up into the pelvic cavity. They are composed of
ciliated epithelium and smooth muscle. These structures help the vas
One or more seminiferous tubules are tightly coiled within each of the
deferens fulfill their function of transporting sperm from the
hundreds of lobules in the testis. A single testis normally contains a
epididymes to the ejaculatory ducts, which are accessory structures of
total of about 30 m (90 ft) of these tightly packed tubules! As shown in
the male reproductive system.
the cross-sectional drawing of a seminiferous tubule in Figure 22.3.3,

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ACCESSORY STRUCTURES help lubricate the urethra and neutralize any urine (which is acidic) that
In addition to the structures within the scrotum, the male reproductive may remain in the urethra.
system includes several internal accessory structures. They include the
ejaculatory ducts, seminal vesicles, and the prostate and bulbourethral
PENIS
(Cowper’s) glands. See Figure 22.3.4. The major reproductive The penis is the external male organ that has the reproductive function
structures represented in this figure are explained below. of delivering sperm to the female reproductive tract. This function is
called intromission. The penis also serves as the organ that excretes
urine.

STRUCTURE OF THE PENIS

The structure of the penis and its location relative to other reproductive
organs are shown in Figure 22.3.5. The part of the penis that is located
inside the body and out of sight is called the root of the penis. The shaft
of the penis is the part of the penis that is outside the body. The
enlarged, bulbous end of the shaft is called the glans penis.

Figure 22.3.4 : The figure shows the ejaculatory duct, seminal vesicles,
and the bulbourethral gland that produce semen. The figure also shows
the other major structures of the male reproductive system.

SEMINAL VESICLES
The seminal vesicles are a pair of glands that each consist of a single
tube, which is folded and coiled upon itself. Each vesicle is about 5 cm
(2 in.) long and has an excretory duct that merges with the vas deferens
to form one of the two ejaculatory ducts. Fluid secreted by the seminal
vesicles into the ducts makes up about 70 percent of the total volume of
semen, which is the sperm-containing fluid that leaves the penis during
an ejaculation. The fluid from the seminal vesicles is alkaline, so it
gives semen a basic pH that helps prolong the lifespan of sperm after it
enters the acidic secretions inside the female vagina. Fluid from the
seminal vesicles also contains proteins, fructose (a simple sugar), and
other substances that help nourish sperm. Figure 22.3.5 : This section shows the internal anatomy of the penis
and related structures. The penis is composed of glans pernis, shaft,
EJACULATORY DUCTS root of pernis. The corpus spongiosum is the column of erectile tissue
that contains the urethra. The corpora cavernosa are the other two
The ejaculatory ducts form where the vas deferens join with the ducts columns that erect the penis.
of the seminal vesicles in the prostate gland. They connect the vas
deferens with the urethra. The ejaculatory ducts carry sperm from the URETHRA
vas deferens, as well as secretions from the seminal vesicles and the The urethra passes through the penis to carry urine from the bladder —
prostate gland that together form semen. The substances secreted into or semen from the ejaculatory ducts — through the penis and out of the
semen by the glands as it passes through the ejaculatory ducts control body. After leaving the urinary bladder, the urethra passes through the
its pH and provide nutrients to sperm, among other functions. The fluid prostate gland, where the urethra is joined by the ejaculatory ducts.
itself provides sperm with a medium in which to “swim.” From there, the urethra passes through the penis to its external opening
at the tip of the glans penis. Called the external urethral orifice, this
PROSTATE GLAND opening provides a way for urine or semen to leave the body.
The prostate gland is located just below the seminal vesicles. It is a
walnut-sized organ that surrounds the urethra and its junction with the TISSUES OF THE PENIS
two ejaculatory ducts. The function of the prostate gland is to secrete a
slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes close to 30 percent of the total
volume of semen. The prostate fluid contains small quantities of
proteins, such as enzymes. In addition, it has a very high concentration
of zinc, which is an important nutrient for maintaining sperm quality
and motility.

BULBOURETHRAL GLANDS
Also called Cowper’s glands, the two bulbourethral glands are each
about the size of a pea and located just below the prostate gland. The
bulbourethral glands secrete a clear, alkaline fluid that is rich in
proteins. Each of the glands has a short duct that carries the secretions
into the urethra, where they make up a tiny percentage of the total
volume of semen. The function of the bulbourethral secretions is to

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 That surgery lasted nine hours and was highly successful. The
young man made a full recovery and regained both urinary and
sexual functions in the transplanted organ.
In 2005, a man in China also received a donated penis in a
technically successful operation. However, the patient asked
doctors to reverse the procedure just two weeks later, because of
psychological problems associated with the transplanted organ for
both himself and his wife.

REVIEW
1. What are the testes? Where are they located?
2. Describe the structure of a testis.
3. Identify the epididymis and its functions.
Figure 22.3.6 : Cross-section of the penis: The penis consists mostly of
spongy tissues that can fill with blood, stiffening the organ. The corpus 4. What are the vas deferens? What do they do?
cavernosum urethrae are now called corpus spongiosum. You can see 5. Where are the seminal vesicles located? What is their reproductive
urethral in the center of corpus spongiosum.
role?
The penis is covered with skin (epithelium) that is unattached and free
6. Which parts of the male reproductive system are connected by the
to move over the body of the penis. In an uncircumcised male, the
ejaculatory ducts? What fluids enter and leave the ejaculatory ducts?
glans penis is also mainly covered by epithelium, which (in this
location) is called the foreskin, and below which is a layer of the 7. Identify the location of the prostate gland relative to other male
mucous membrane. The foreskin is attached to the penis at an area on reproductive organs. What is the prostate’s function?
the underside of the penis called the frenulum. 8. Where are the bulbourethral glands? What is their function?
As shown in Figure 22.3.6, the interior of the penis consists of three 9. Relate the structure of the penis to its two basic functions.
columns of spongy tissue that can fill with blood and swell in size, 10. For each of the descriptions below, match the part of the male
allowing the penis to become erect. This spongy tissue is called corpus reproductive system from the list that best fits it. Each part is used only
cavernosum (plural, corpora cavernosa). Two columns of this tissue run once.
side by side along the top of the shaft, and one column runs along the
Parts of the male reproductive system: urethra, seminal vesicle,
bottom of the shaft. The urethra runs through this bottom column of
epididymis, testes
spongy tissue, which is sometimes called corpus spongiosum. The
glans penis also consists mostly of spongy erectile tissue. Veins and A. Sperm are produced here.
arteries run along the top of the penis, allowing blood circulation B. Sperm mature here.
through the spongy tissues. C. Sperm are transported through the penis in this structure.
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS D. This is a gland that produces fluid that is a major component of
Lung, heart, kidney, and other organ transplants have become semen.
relatively commonplace, so when they occur, they are unlikely to 11. A vasectomy is a form of birth control for men that is performed by
make the news. However, when the nation’s first penis transplant surgically cutting or blocking the vas deferens so that sperm cannot be
took place, it was considered very newsworthy. ejaculated out of the body. Do you think men who have a vasectomy
In 2016, Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston announced that emit semen when they ejaculate? Why or why not?
a team of its surgeons had performed the first penis transplant in the 12. Which of the following structures are located internally within the
United States. The patient who received the donated penis was a body? Choose all that apply.
64-year-old cancer patient. During the 15-hour procedure, the
A. testes
intricate network of nerves and blood vessels of the donor penis
were connected with those of the penis recipient. The surgery went B. seminal vesicles
well, but doctors reported it would be a few weeks until they would C. epididymis
know if normal urination would be possible, and even longer before D. prostate
they would know if sexual functioning would be possible. At the E. glans penis
time that news of the surgery was reported in the media, the patient
had not shown any signs of rejecting the donated organ. The EXPLORE MORE
surgeons also reported they were hopeful that such transplants https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17788#Explore_More
would become relatively common, and that patient populations
would expand to include wounded warriors and transgender males ATTRIBUTIONS
seeking to transition. 1. Lamb Fries by Paul Lowry, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
The 2016 Massachusetts operation was not the first penis transplant 2. Testicle by (public domain; National Cancer Institute via
ever undertaken. The world’s first successful penis transplant was Wikimedia.org)
actually performed in 2014 in Cape Town, South Africa. A young 3. Seminiferous tubule by OpenStax College licensed CC BY 3.0 via
man who had lost his penis from complications of a botched Wikimedia Commons
circumcision at age 18 was given a donor penis three years later.

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4. Male Reproductive Anatomy by OpenStax College licensed CC BY 6. Cross-section of the penis, by Gray's Anatomy, licencsd public
3.0 domain, via Wikimedia Commons
5. Anatomical Illustration by Grant, John Charles Boileau licensed 7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
public domain, via Wikimedia Commons 3.0

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22.4: FUNCTIONS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
COLORFUL SPERM usually continues uninterrupted until death, although a decrease in
The false-color image in Figure 22.4.1 shows real human sperm. sperm production generally occurs at older ages. A young, healthy
The tiny gametes are obviously greatly magnified in the picture male may produce hundreds of millions of sperm a day! Only about
because they are actually the smallest of all human cells. In fact, half of these, however, are likely to become viable, mature sperm.
human sperm cells are small, even when compared with sperm cells WHERE SPERM ARE PRODUCED
of other animals. Mice sperm are about twice the length of human
Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules in the testes.
sperm! Human sperm may be small in size, but in a normal, healthy
Spermatogenesis requires high concentrations of testosterone.
man, huge numbers of them are usually released during each
Testosterone is secreted by Leydig cells, which are adjacent to the
ejaculation. There may be hundreds of millions of sperm cells in a
seminiferous tubules in the testes.
single teaspoon of semen. Producing sperm is one of the major
functions of the male reproductive system. Sperm production in the seminiferous tubules is very sensitive to
temperature. This may be the most important reason the testes are
located outside the body in the scrotum. The temperature inside the
scrotum is generally about 2 degrees Celsius (almost 4 degrees
Fahrenheit) cooler than core body temperature. This lower temperature
is optimal for spermatogenesis. The scrotum regulates its internal
temperature as needed by contractions of the smooth muscles lining the
scrotum. When the temperature inside the scrotum becomes too low,
the scrotal muscles contract. The contraction of the muscles pulls the
scrotum higher against the body, where the temperature is warmer. The
opposite occurs when the temperature inside the scrotum becomes too
high.
Figure 22.4.1 : Human spermatozoa (sperm cells) EVENTS OF SPERMATOGENESIS
The chart below summarizes the main cellular events that occur in the
SPERM ANATOMY process of spermatogenesis. The process begins with a diploid stem
cell called a spermatogonium (plural, spermatogonia), and involves
several cell divisions. The entire process takes at least ten weeks to
complete, including maturation in the epididymis.

Figure 22.4.2 : Each normal mature sperm cell has the structures
labeled in this image. The acrosome is at the front end, just behind the
nucleus. The midpiece connects the nucleus to the tail.
A mature sperm cell has several structures that help it reach and
penetrate an egg. These are labeled in the drawing of a sperm shown in
Figure 22.4.2.
The head is the part of the sperm that contains the nucleus — and
not much else. The nucleus, in turn, contains tightly coiled DNA
that is the male parent’s contribution to the genetic makeup of a
zygote (if one forms). Each sperm is a haploid cell, containing half
the chromosomal complement of a normal, diploid body cell.
The front of the head is an area called the acrosome. The acrosome
contains enzymes that help the sperm penetrate an egg (if it reaches
one). Figure 22.4.3 : Spermatogenesis includes one mitotic division and two
meiotic divisions.
The midpiece is the part of the sperm between the head and the
flagellum tail. The midpiece is packed with mitochondria that 1. A spermatogonium undergoes mitosis to produce two diploid cells
produce the energy needed to move the flagellum. called primary spermatocytes. One of the primary spermatocytes
The flagellum (also called the tail) can rotate like a propeller, goes on to produce sperm. The other replenishes the reserve of
allowing the sperm to “swim” through the female reproductive tract spermatogonia.
to reach an egg if one is present. 2. The primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis I to produce two
haploid daughter cells called secondary spermatocytes.
SPERMATOGENESIS 3. The secondary spermatocytes rapidly undergo meiosis II to produce
The process of producing sperm is known as spermatogenesis. a total of four haploid daughter cells called spermatids.
Spermatogenesis normally starts when a boy reaches puberty, and it 4. The spermatids begin to form a tail, and their DNA becomes highly
condensed. Unnecessary cytoplasm and organelles are removed

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 from the cells, and they form a head, midpiece, and flagellum. The As sperms travel through the ejaculatory ducts during ejaculation, they
resulting cells are sperm (spermatozoa). mix with secretions from the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and
bulbourethral glands to form semen (Figure 22.4.5). The average
As shown in Figure 22.4.4, the events of spermatogenesis begin near
amount of semen per ejaculate is about 3.7 mL, which is a little less
the wall of the seminiferous tubule — where spermatogonia are located
than a teaspoonful. Most of this volume of semen consists of glandular
— and continue inward toward the lumen of the tubule. Sertoli cells
secretions, with the hundreds of millions of sperm cells actually
extend from the wall of the seminiferous tubule inward toward the
contributing relatively little to the total volume.
lumen, so they are in contact with developing sperm at all stages of
spermatogenesis. Sertoli cells play several roles in spermatogenesis:
They secrete endocrine hormones that help regulate
spermatogenesis.
They secrete substances that initiate meiosis.
They concentrate testosterone (from Leydig cells), which is needed
at high levels to maintain spermatogenesis. Figure 22.4.5 : This petri dish shows normal human semen in a typical
They phagocytize the extra cytoplasm that is shed from developing ejaculate.
sperm cells. The secretions in semen are important for the survival and motility of
They secrete a testicular fluid that helps carry sperm into the sperm. They provide a medium through which sperm can swim. They
epididymis. also include sperm-sustaining substances, such as high concentrations
They maintain a blood-testis barrier, so immune system cells cannot of the sugar fructose, which is the main source of energy for sperm. In
reach and attack the sperm. addition, semen contains many alkaline substances that help neutralize
the acidic environment in the female vagina. This protects the DNA in
sperm from being denatured by the acid and prolongs the life of sperm
in the female reproductive tract.

ERECTION
Besides providing a way for sperm to leave the body, the main role of
the penis in reproduction is intromission or depositing sperm in the
vagina of the female reproductive tract. Intromission depends on the
ability of the penis to become stiff and erect, a state referred to as an
erection. The human penis, unlike that of most other mammals,
contains no erectile bone. Instead, in order to reach its erect state, it
relies entirely on engorgement with the blood of its columns of spongy
Figure 22.4.4 : Cross-section of a testis and seminiferous tubules. One tissue. During sexual arousal, the arteries that supply blood to the penis
of the functions of the Sertoli cells is to protect the sperms from the
male's immune system during spermatogenesis. dilate, allowing more blood to fill the spongy tissue. The now-
engorged spongy tissue presses against and constricts the veins that
MATURATION IN THE EPIDIDYMIS carry blood away from the penis. As a result, more blood enters than
Although the sperm produced in the testes have tails, they are not yet leaves the penis, until a constant erectile size is achieved.
motile (able to “swim”). The non-motile sperms are transported to the In addition to sperm, the penis also transports urine out of the body.
epididymis in the testicular fluid that is secreted by Sertoli cells with These two functions cannot occur simultaneously. During an erection,
the help of peristaltic contractions. In the epididymis, the sperms gain the sphincters that prevent urine from leaving the bladder are
motility, so they are capable of swimming up the female genital tract controlled by centers in the brain so they cannot relax and allow urine
and reaching an egg. The mature sperms are stored in the epididymis to enter the urethra.
until ejaculation occurs.
TESTOSTERONE PRODUCTION
EJACULATION The final major function of the male reproductive system is the
Sperms are released from the body during ejaculation, which typically production of the male sex hormone testosterone. In mature males, this
occurs during orgasm. Hundreds of millions of mature sperm — occurs mainly in the testes. Testosterone production is under the
contained within a small amount of thick, whitish fluid called semen — control of luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland. LH
are propelled from the penis during a normal ejaculation. stimulates Leydig cells in the testes to secrete testosterone.

HOW EJACULATION OCCURS Testosterone is important for male sexual development at puberty. It
stimulates maturation of the male reproductive organs, as well as the
Ejaculation occurs when peristalsis of the muscle layers of the vas
development of secondary male sex characteristics (such as facial hair).
deferens and other accessory structures propel sperm from the
Testosterone is also needed in mature males for normal
epididymes, where mature sperm are stored. The muscle contractions
spermatogenesis to be maintained in the testes. Follicle stimulating
force the sperm through the vas deferens and the ejaculatory ducts, and
hormone (FSH) from the pituitary gland is also needed for
then out of the penis through the urethra. Due to the peristaltic action
spermatogenesis to occur, in part because it helps Sertoli cells in the
of the muscles, the ejaculation occurs in a series of spurts.
testes concentrate testosterone to high enough levels to maintain sperm
THE ROLE OF SEMEN production. Testosterone is also needed for the proper functioning of

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the prostate gland. In addition, testosterone plays a role in erection, erection. The erection usually occurs with sexual arousal as the
allowing sperm to be deposited within the female reproductive tract. columns of spongy tissue inside the penis become engorged with
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY blood.
If you’re a man and you use a laptop computer on your lap for long Leydig cells in the testes secrete testosterone under the control of
periods of time, you may be decreasing your fertility. The reason? luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland. Testosterone is
A laptop computer generates considerable heat, and its proximity to needed for male sexual development at puberty, and to maintain
the scrotum during typical use results in a significant rise in normal spermatogenesis after puberty. It also plays a role in the
temperature inside the scrotum. Spermatogenesis is very sensitive prostate function and penis's ability to become erect.
to high temperatures, so it may be adversely affected by laptop
computer use. If you want to avoid the potentially fertility-
REVIEW
depressing effect of laptop computer use, you might want to 1. List parts of mature sperm.
consider using your laptop computer on a table or other surface 2. What is spermatogenesis? When does it occur?
rather than on your lap — at least when you log on for long 3. Where does spermatogenesis take place? State one role of Sertoli
computer sessions. Other activities that raise scrotal temperature cells in spermatogenesis.
and have the potential to reduce spermatogenesis including soaking
4. Summarize the steps of sperm production, naming the cells and
in hot tubs, wearing tight clothing, and biking. Although the effects
processes involved.
of short-term scrotal heating on fertility seem to be temporary,
5. What must happen to sperm before they are able to “swim”?
years of such heat exposure may cause irreversible effects on sperm
production. 6. What is ejaculation?
7. Describe semen and its components.
8. Define intromission. How is it related to erection?
9. Explain how an erection occurs.
10. What cells secrete testosterone? What controls this process?
11. Identify the functions of testosterone in males.

Figure 22.4.6 : A male with a laptop on his lap 12. Which of the following cells are haploid? Choose all that apply.
A. spermatids
SUMMARY B. spermatogonia
Parts of a mature sperm include the head, acrosome, midpiece, and C. primary spermatocytes
flagellum. The process of producing sperm is called D. secondary spermatocytes
spermatogenesis. This normally starts during puberty and continues
E. mature sperm
uninterrupted until death.
Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules in the testes 13. Describe one way in which Leydig and Sertoli cells work together
and requires high concentrations of testosterone. Sertoli cells in the to maintain spermatogenesis.
testes play many roles in spermatogenesis, including concentrating 14. True or False: When it is cold outside the body, the scrotal muscles
testosterone under the influence of follicle stimulating hormone relax.
from the pituitary gland. 15. True or False: During an erection, the arteries and veins of the
Spermatogenesis begins with a diploid stem cell called a penis dilate.
spermatogonium, which undergoes mitosis to produce a primary
spermatocyte. The primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis I to EXPLORE MORE
produce haploid secondary spermatocytes, and these cells, in turn, https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17789#Explore_More
undergo meiosis II to produce spermatids. After the spermatids
grow a tail and undergo other changes, they become sperm. ATTRIBUTIONS
Before sperms are able to “swim,” they must mature in the 1. Sperm by Gilberto Santa Rosa licensed CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
epididymis. The mature sperms are then stored in the epididymis Commons
until ejaculation occurs. 2. Sperm Transport by from Anatomy and Physiology by
Ejaculation is the process in which semen is propelled by peristalsis OSCRiceUniversity licensed CC BY 4.0
in the vas deferens and ejaculatory ducts from the urethra in the 3. Male Reproductive Anatomy by OpenStax College licensed CC BY
penis. Semen is a whitish fluid that contains sperm and secretions 3.0
from the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands. 4. Drawing by CK-12 Foundation licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
These secretions are important for sperm survival and motility. 5. Human semen in a Petri dish by Digitalkil, public domain via
Besides ejaculating sperm, another reproductive role of the penis is Wikimedia Commons
intromission, which is depositing sperm in the female vagina. This 6. Homework by Tony Alter, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
requires the penis to become stiff and erect, a state referred to as an 7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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22.5: DISORDERS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
OFFERING TO THE GODS prescription drugs, known by brand names such as Viagra® and
The marble penis and scrotum depicted below comes from ancient Cialis®. These drugs help ED by increasing blood flow to the penis.
Rome, during the period from about 200 BCE to 400 CE. During Other potential treatments include topical creams applied to the penis,
that time, offerings like this were commonly given to the gods by injection of drugs into the penis, or the use of a vacuum pump that
people with health problems, either in the hopes of a cure or as helps draw blood into the penis by applying negative pressure. More
thanks for receiving one. The offerings were generally made in the invasive approaches may be used as a last resort if other treatments fail.
shape of the afflicted body part. Scholars think this marble penis These usually involve surgery to implant inflatable tubes or rigid rods
and scrotum may have been an offering given in hopes of — or into the penis.
thanks for — a cure for impotence, known medically today as Ironically, the world’s most venomous spider —the Brazilian
erectile dysfunction. wandering spider (Figure 22.5.2) — may offer a new treatment for ED.
The venom of this spider is known to cause priapism in humans.
Priapism is a prolonged erection that may damage the reproductive
organs and lead to infertility if it continues too long. Researchers are
investigating one of the components of the spider’s venom as a
possible treatment for ED if taken in minute quantities.

Figure 22.5.1 : Votive male genitalia, Roman, 200 BCE-400 CE

Figure 22.5.2 : The venom of a Brazilian wandering spider may be
deadly, but one of its components might lead to a new treatment for
ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION ED.
Erectile dysfunction (ED) is sexual dysfunction characterized by the
regular and repeated inability of a sexually mature individual to obtain EPIDIDYMITIS
or maintain an erection. It is a common disorder that affects about 40 Epididymitis is inflammation of the epididymis. The epididymis is one
percent of people with penises. of the paired organs within the scrotum where sperms mature and are
stored. Discomfort or pain and swelling in the scrotum are typical
CAUSES OF ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION symptoms of epididymitis, which is a relatively common condition,
The penis normally stiffens and becomes erect when the columns of especially in young individuals. In the U.S. alone, more than half a
spongy tissue within the shaft of the penis (the corpora cavernosa and million cases of epididymitis are diagnosed annually between the ages
corpus spongiosum) become engorged with blood. Anything that of 18 to 35.
hampers normal blood flow to the penis may, therefore, interfere with
its potential to fill with blood and become erect. The normal nervous ACUTE VS. CHRONIC EPIDIDYMITIS
control of sexual arousal or penile engorgement may also fail and lead Epididymitis may be acute or chronic. Acute diseases are generally
to problems obtaining or maintaining an erection short-term conditions, whereas chronic diseases may last years — or
Specific causes of ED include both physiological and psychological even lifelong.
causes. Physiological causes include the use of therapeutic drugs (such ACUTE EPIDIDYMITIS
as antidepressants), aging, kidney failure, diseases (such as diabetes or
Acute epididymitis generally has a fairly rapid onset and is most often
multiple sclerosis), tobacco smoking, and treatments for other disorders
caused by a bacterial infection. Bacteria in the urethra can back-flow
(such as prostate cancer). Psychological causes are less common but
through the urinary and reproductive structures to the epididymis. In
may include stress, performance anxiety, or mental disorders. The risk
sexually active individuals, many cases of acute epididymitis are
of ED may also be greater in people with obesity, cardiovascular
caused by sexually transmitted bacteria. Besides pain and swelling,
disease, poor dietary habits, and overall poor physical health. Having
common symptoms of acute epididymitis include redness, warmth in
an untreated hernia in the groin may also lead to ED.
the scrotum, and a fever. There may also be a urethral discharge.
TREATMENTS FOR ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION CHRONIC EPIDIDYMITIS
Treatment of ED depends on its cause or contributing factors. For Chronic epididymitis is epididymitis that lasts for more than three
example, for tobacco smokers, smoking cessation may bring significant months. In some, the condition may last for years. It may occur with or
improvement in ED. Improving overall physical health by losing without a bacterial infection being diagnosed. Sometimes, it is
weight and exercising regularly may also be beneficial. The most associated with lower back pain that occurs after an activity that
common first-line treatment for ED, however, is the use of oral

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stresses the lower back, such as heavy lifting or a long period spent Early in the course of prostate cancer, there may be no symptoms.
driving a vehicle. When symptoms do occur, they mainly involve urination, because the
urethra passes through the prostate gland. The symptoms typically
TREATMENT OF EPIDIDYMITIS include frequent urination, difficulty starting and maintaining a steady
If a bacterial infection is suspected, both acute and chronic stream of urine, blood in the urine, and painful urination. Prostate
epididymitis are generally treated with antibiotics. For chronic cancer may also cause problems with sexual function, such as difficulty
epididymitis, antibiotic treatment may be prescribed for as long as four achieving an erection or painful ejaculation.
to six weeks to ensure the complete eradication of any possible
RISK FACTORS FOR PROSTATE CANCER
bacteria. Additional treatments often include anti-inflammatory drugs
to reduce inflammation of the tissues and painkillers to control the Some factors that increase the risk of prostate cancer can be changed,
pain, which may be severe. Physically supporting the scrotum and and others cannot.
applying cold compresses may also be recommended to help relieve Risk factors that can be changed include a diet high in meat, a
swelling and pain. sedentary lifestyle, obesity, and high blood pressure.
Regardless of symptoms, treatment is important for both acute and Risk factors that cannot be changed include older age, a family
chronic epididymitis, because major complications may occur history of prostate cancer, and African ancestry. Family history is
otherwise. Untreated acute epididymitis may lead to an abscess — an important risk factor, so genes are clearly involved. Many
which is a buildup of pus — or to the infection spreading to other different genes have been implicated.
organs. Untreated chronic epididymitis may lead to permanent damage DIAGNOSING PROSTATE CANCER
to the epididymis and testis, and it may even cause infertility. The only definitive test to confirm a diagnosis of prostate cancer is a
biopsy. In this procedure, a small piece of the prostate gland is
MALE REPRODUCTIVE CANCERS
surgically removed and then examined microscopically. A biopsy is
Why does the Brazilian hospital pictured below have a huge blue done only after less invasive tests have found evidence that a patient
mustache on its “face”? The mustache is a symbol of “Movember.” may have prostate cancer.
This is an international campaign to raise awareness of prostate cancer,
A routine exam by a doctor may find a lump on the prostate, which
as well as money to fund prostate cancer research.
might be followed by a blood test that detects an elevated level of
prostate-specific antigen (PSA). PSA is a protein secreted by the
prostate that normally circulates in the blood. Higher-than-normal
levels of PSA can be caused by prostate cancer, but they may also have
other causes. Ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) might
also be undertaken to provide images of the prostate gland and
additional information about cancer.
TREATMENT OF PROSTATE CANCER
The average age at which men are diagnosed with prostate cancer is 70.
Prostate cancer typically is such a slow-growing cancer that elderly
patients may not require treatment. Instead, the patients are watched
carefully over the subsequent years to make sure the cancer isn’t
Figure 22.5.3 : The mustache is a symbol for “Movember,” a campaign
against prostate cancer. growing and posing an immediate threat — an approach that is called
active surveillance. It is used for at least 50 percent of patients who are
PROSTATE CANCER expected to die from other causes before their prostate cancer causes
The prostate gland is an organ located in the male pelvis. The urethra symptoms.
passes through the prostate gland after it leaves the bladder and before Treatment of younger patients — or those with more aggressively
it reaches the penis. The function of the prostate is to secrete zinc and growing tumors — may include surgery to remove the prostate,
other substances into semen during ejaculation. In the United States, chemotherapy, and/or radiation therapy (such as brachytherapy, see
prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer and the second photo below). All of these treatment options can have significant side
leading cause of cancer death in people carrying prostate gland. About effects, such as erectile dysfunction or urinary incontinence. Patients
80 percent of Americans individuals with the prostate will have should learn the risks and benefits of the different treatments, and
cancerous cells in their prostate gland by the age of 80. discuss them with their healthcare provider to decide on the best
HOW PROSTATE CANCER OCCURS treatment options for their particular case.
Prostate cancer occurs when glandular cells of the prostate mutate into
tumor cells. Eventually, the tumor, if undetected, may invade nearby
structures, such as the seminal vesicles. Tumor cells may also
metastasize and travel in the bloodstream or lymphatic system to
organs elsewhere in the body. Prostate cancer most commonly
metastasizes to the bones, lymph nodes, rectum, or lower urinary tract
organs.
SYMPTOMS OF PROSTATE CANCER

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 normal blood flow to the penis is disturbed, or when there are
problems with the nervous control of penile engorgement or
arousal.
Possible physiological causes of ED include aging, illness, drug
use, tobacco smoking, and obesity, among others. Possible
psychological causes of ED include stress, performance anxiety,
and mental disorders.
Treatments for ED may include lifestyle changes, such as stopping
smoking, adopting a healthier diet, and regular exercise. The first-
line treatment, however, is prescription drugs such as Viagra® or
Cialis® that increase blood flow to the penis. Vacuum pumps or
Figure 22.5.4 : Brachytherapy is a form of radiation therapy for prostate
cancer. Radioactive “seeds” like the ones shown here are inserted into penile implants may be used to treat ED if other types of treatment
the prostate gland. The seeds give off radiation that kills cancer cells. fail.
Epididymitis is inflammation of the epididymis. It is a common
TESTICULAR CANCER disorder, especially in young people. It may be acute or chronic and
Reproductive cancer that is rare and most commonly affects young is often caused by a bacterial infection. Treatments may include
individuals is testicular cancer. The testes are the paired reproductive antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs, and painkillers. Treatment is
organs in the scrotum that produce sperm and secrete testosterone. The important to prevent the possible spread of infection, permanent
risk of testicular cancer is about four to five times greater in damage to the epididymis or testes, and even infertility.
individuals of European than African ancestry. The cause of this Prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer and the second
difference is unknown. leading cause of cancer death in prostate carrying individuals. If
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF TESTICULAR CANCER there are symptoms, they typically involve urination, such as
One of the first signs of testicular cancer is often a lump or swelling in frequent or painful urination. Risk factors for prostate cancer
one of the two testes. The lump may or may not be painful. If pain is include older age, family history, high-meat diet, and sedentary
present, it may occur as a sharp pain or a dull ache in the lower lifestyle, among others.
abdomen or scrotum. Some people with testicular cancer report a Prostate cancer may be detected by a physical exam or a high level
feeling of heaviness in the scrotum. Testicular cancer does not of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in the blood, but a biopsy is
commonly spread beyond the testis, but if it does, it most often spreads required for a definitive diagnosis. Prostate cancer is typically
to the lungs, where it may cause shortness of breath or a cough. diagnosed relatively late in life and is usually slow growing, so
treatment may not be necessary. In younger patients or those with
DIAGNOSIS OF TESTICULAR CANCER faster-growing tumors, treatment is likely to include surgery to
The main way that testicular cancer is diagnosed is by detection of a remove the prostate, followed by chemotherapy and/or radiation
lump in the testis. This is likely followed by further diagnostic tests. therapy.
An ultrasound may be done to determine the exact location, size, and Testicular cancer, or cancer of the testes, is the most common
characteristics of the lump. Blood tests may be done to identify and cancer in individuals between the ages of 20 and 39 years. It is
measure tumor-marker proteins in the blood that are specific to more common in European than African ancestry. A lump or
testicular cancer. CT scans may also be done to determine whether the swelling in one testis, fluid in the scrotum, and testicular pain or
disease has spread beyond the testis. However, unlike the case with tenderness are possible signs and symptoms of testicular cancer.
prostate cancer, a biopsy is not recommended, because it increases the Testicular cancer can be diagnosed by a physical exam and
risk of cancer cells spreading into the scrotum. diagnostic tests, such as ultrasound or blood tests. Testicular cancer
TREATMENT OF TESTICULAR CANCER has one of the highest cure rates of all cancers. It is typically treated
with surgery to remove the affected testis, and this may be followed
Testicular cancer has one of the highest cure rates of all cancers. Three
by radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy. If the remaining testis is
basic types of treatment for testicular cancer are surgery, radiation
healthy, normal male reproductive functions are still possible after
therapy, and/or chemotherapy. Generally, the initial treatment is
one testis is removed.
surgery to remove the affected testis. If the cancer is caught at an early
stage, the surgery is likely to cure the cancer, and has nearly a 100
REVIEW
percent five-year survival rate. When just one testis is removed, the
1. What is erectile dysfunction? When does it occur?
remaining testis (if healthy) is adequate to maintain fertility, hormone
production, and other normal functions. Radiation therapy and/or 2. Underlying causes of erectile dysfunction may include physiological
chemotherapy may follow surgery to kill any tumor cells that might and/or psychological factors. Identify some of these factors.
exist outside the affected testis, even when there is no indication that 3. Discuss types of treatment for erectile dysfunction.
the cancer has spread. In many cases, however, surgery is followed by 4. Define epididymitis. What is its most common cause?
surveillance instead of additional treatments.
5. Identify possible treatments for epididymitis. Why is treatment
important, even when there are no symptoms?
SUMMARY
6. Rank prostate cancer as a cause of cancer and cause of cancer death
Erectile dysfunction (ED) is a disorder characterized by the regular
in men. What are some of the symptoms of prostate cancer?
and repeated inability of a sexually mature male to obtain and
maintain an erection. ED is a common disorder that occurs when 7. List risk factors for prostate cancer.

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8. How is prostate cancer detected? B. testicular cancer
9. In many cases, treatment for prostate cancer is unnecessary. Why? C. prostate cancer
When is treatment necessary, and what are treatment options? D. B and C
10. Testicular cancer is generally rare, but it is the most common
cancer in one age group. What age group is it? EXPLORE MORE
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17793#Explore_More
11. Identify possible signs and symptoms of testicular cancer.
12. How can testicular cancer be diagnosed? ATTRIBUTIONS
13. Describe how testicular cancer is typically treated. 1. Votive male genitalia by Wellcome Images, CC BY 4.0 via
14. Which of the following is common in younger individuals (i.e. Wikimedia Commons
under age 39)? 2. Phoneutria nigriventer by João P. Burini, CC BY-SA 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons
A. prostate cancer
3. Novembro Azul by Marcelo Camargo / Agência Brasil, CC BY 3.0
B. testicular cancer via Wikimedia Commons
C. epididymitis 4. Brachytherapy by James Heilman, MD, CC BY-SA 4.0 via
D. B and C Wikimedia Commons
15. A biopsy is important in cases of suspected _____________. 5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0
A. epididymitis

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22.6: STRUCTURES OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
FERTILITY SYMBOL reproductive tract. It also serves as the exit from the uterus during
The geometric design on this ancient stone carving represents a menses and childbirth. The outer walls of the anterior and posterior
powerful symbol of fertility: the vagina. The symbol is called yoni vagina are formed into longitudinal columns or ridges, and the superior
in Hindu, and it reflects the value placed by Hindu culture on the portion of the vagina—called the fornix—meets the protruding uterine
ability to give birth. The vagina is one of several organs in the cervix. The walls of the vagina are lined with an outer, fibrous
female reproductive system. adventitia; a middle layer of smooth muscle; and an inner mucous
membrane with transverse folds called rugae. Together, the middle and
inner layers allow the expansion of the vagina to accommodate
intercourse and childbirth. The thin, perforated hymen can partially
surround the opening to the vaginal orifice. The hymen can be ruptured
with strenuous physical exercise, penile-vaginal intercourse, and
childbirth. The Bartholin’s glands and the lesser vestibular glands
(located near the clitoris) secrete mucus, which keeps the vestibular
area moist.
The vagina is home to a normal population of microorganisms that help
to protect against infection by pathogenic bacteria, yeast, or other
organisms that can enter the vagina. In a healthy individual, the most
Figure 22.6.1 : A stone yoni found in Cát Tiên sanctuary, Lam predominant type of vaginal bacteria is from the genus Lactobacillus.
Dong, Vietnam. This family of beneficial bacterial flora secretes lactic acid, and thus
protects the vagina by maintaining an acidic pH (below 4.5). Potential
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS pathogens are less likely to survive in these acidic conditions. Lactic
The female reproductive system is made up of internal and external acid, in combination with other vaginal secretions, makes the vagina a
organs that function to produce haploid gametes called eggs (or self-cleaning organ. However, douching—or washing out the vagina
oocytes), secrete sex hormones (such as estrogen), and carry and give with fluid—can disrupt the normal balance of healthy microorganisms,
birth to a fetus. The internal reproductive organs include the vagina, and actually increase the risk for infections and irritation. Indeed, the
uterus, Fallopian (uterine) tubes, and ovaries. The external organs — American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommend that
collectively called the vulva — include the clitoris and labia. people do not douche and that they allow the vagina to maintain its
normal healthy population of protective microbial flora.

UTERUS
The uterus (commonly called the womb) is a pear-shaped, muscular
organ that is about 7.6 cm (3 in.) long. It is located above the vagina
and behind the bladder in the center of the pelvis. The position of the
uterus in the pelvis is stabilized by several ligaments and bands of
supportive tissue. The uterus is where a fetus develops during
gestation, and the organ provides mechanical protection and support
for the developing offspring. Contractions of the muscular wall of the
uterus are responsible for pushing the fetus out of the uterus during
childbirth.

PARTS OF THE UTERUS

As shown in Figure 22.6.3, the lower end of the uterus forms the
cervix, which is also called the neck of the uterus. The cervix is about
Figure 22.6.2 : Structures of the internal female reproductive organs. 2.5 cm (1 in.) long and protrudes downward into the vagina. A small
canal runs the length of the cervix, connecting the uterine cavity with
The vagina is an elastic, muscular canal leading from its opening in the
the lumen of the vagina. This allows semen deposited in the vagina to
vulva to the neck of the uterus, called the cervix. It is about 7.5 cm (3.0
enter the uterus, and a baby to pass from the uterus into the vagina
in.) long at the front, and about 9 cm (3.5 in.) long at the back. The
during birth. Glands in the cervix secrete mucus that varies in water
vagina accommodates the penis and is the site where sperm are usually
content and thickness, so it can function either as a barrier to keep
ejaculated during sexual intercourse. In the context of pregnancy and
microorganisms out of the uterus during pregnancy or as a transport
natural (vaginal) childbirth, the vagina is also referred to as the birth
medium to help sperm enter the uterus around the time of ovulation.
canal. In addition, it channels the flow of menstrual blood from the
The rest of the uterus above the cervix is called the body of the uterus.
uterus.
The upper end of the uterus is connected with the two Fallopian tubes.
STRUCTURE OF THE VAGINA TISSUES OF THE UTERUS
The vagina, shown at the bottom of Figure 22.6.2, is a muscular canal
(approximately 10 cm long) that serves as the entrance to the

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As indicated in Figure 22.6.3, the uterus consists of three tissue layers, OVARIES
called the endometrium, myometrium, and perimetrium. The ovaries are the gonads. Paired ovals, they are each about 2 to 3 cm
The endometrium is the innermost tissue layer of the uterus. It in length, about the size of an almond. The ovaries are located within
consists of epithelial tissue, including mucous membranes. This the pelvic cavity and are supported by many ligaments. The ovaries are
layer thickens during each menstrual cycle and, unless an egg is the ovum-producing organs of the internal reproductive system. The
fertilized, sloughs off during the following menstrual period. If an ovary is an ovum-producing reproductive organ, typically found in
egg is fertilized, the thickened endometrium is maintained by pairs. Ovaries are analogous to testes in that both are gonads and
hormones and provides nourishment to the embryo. As gestation endocrine glands. Ovaries secrete both estrogen and progesterone.
progresses, the endometrium develops into the maternal portion of Estrogen is responsible for the appearance of secondary sex
the placenta. The placenta is a temporary organ that consists of a characteristics of females at puberty and for the maturation and
mass of maternal and fetal blood vessels through which the maintenance of the reproductive organs in their mature functional state.
mother’s and fetus’s blood exchange substances. Progesterone functions with estrogen by promoting menstrual cycle
The myometrium is the middle layer of the uterus. It consists changes in the endometrium.
mostly of a thick layer of smooth muscle tissue. Powerful
contractions of the smooth muscle allow the uterus to contract and
expel an infant during childbirth.
The perimetrium is the outermost layer of the uterus. It covers the
outer surface of the uterus. This layer actually consists of two layers
of epithelium that secrete fluid into the space between them. The
fluid allows for small movements of the uterus within the pelvis,
without causing it to rub against other organs.

Figure 22.6.4 : External female genitalia (vulva)

VULVA
The external reproductive structures are referred to collectively as the
vulva (Figure 22.6.4). The mons pubis is a pad of fat that is located at
the anterior, over the pubic bone. After puberty, it becomes covered in
pubic hair. The labia majora (labia = “lips”; majora = “larger”) are
folds of hair-covered skin that begin just posterior to the mons pubis.
The thinner and more pigmented labia minora (labia = “lips”; minora
= “smaller”) extend medially to the labia majora. Although they
naturally vary in shape and size, the labia minora serve to protect
Figure 22.6.3 : The thick walls of the uterus are composed of layers of
tissues known as endometrium, myometrium, and perimetrium. the urethra and the entrance to the reproductive tract.
The superior, anterior portions of the labia minora come together to
FALLOPIAN TUBES encircle the clitoris (or glans clitoris), an organ that originates from the
The Fallopian tubes are two thin tubes that lie between the ovaries and same cells as the glans penis and has abundant nerves that make it
the uterus. The Fallopian tubes are not attached to the ovaries, but their important in sexual sensation and orgasm. The hymen is a thin
broad upper ends — called infundibula — lie very close to the ovaries. membrane that sometimes partially covers the entrance to the vagina.
The infundibula also have fringe-like extensions called fimbriae that An intact hymen cannot be used as an indication of “virginity”; even at
move in a waving motion to help guide eggs from the ovaries into the birth, this is only a partial membrane, as menstrual fluid and other
Fallopian tubes. The lower ends of the Fallopian tubes are attached to secretions must be able to exit the body, regardless of penile-vaginal
the upper part of the body of the uterus on either side of the body. They intercourse. The vaginal opening is located between the opening of the
open into the uterus. urethra and the anus. It is flanked by outlets to the Bartholin’s glands
The Fallopian tubes are made up of multiple tissue layers. The (or greater vestibular glands).
innermost layer consists of mucosal epithelium. The epithelium is
covered with cilia, which can move in a sweeping motion to help eggs
move through the tube from the ovary to the uterus. In between the
ciliated cells of the epithelium are cells that secrete a fluid called
tubular fluid. This fluid contains nutrients for sperm, eggs, and zygotes.
The secretions in the tubular fluid also remove certain molecules from
the plasma membrane of sperm so they are better able to penetrate an
egg. Other layers of the Fallopian tubes consist of connective tissue
and smooth muscle. Contractions of the smooth muscle allow
peristalsis to help move eggs through the tubes.

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 SUMMARY
The female reproductive system is made up of internal and external
organs that function to produce haploid gametes called eggs, secrete
female sex hormones (such as estrogen), and carry and give birth to
a fetus.
The vagina is an elastic, muscular canal that can accommodate the
penis. It is also where sperm are usually ejaculated during sexual
intercourse. The vagina is the birth canal, and it channels the flow
of menstrual blood from the uterus. A healthy vagina has a balance
of symbiotic bacteria and an acidic pH.
The uterus is a muscular organ above the vagina where a fetus
develops. Its muscular walls contract to push out the fetus during
Figure 22.6.5 : External and internal view of a vulva childbirth. The cervix is the neck of the uterus that extends down
into the vagina. It contains a canal connecting the vagina and uterus
BREASTS for sperm, or for an infant to pass through. The innermost layer of
the uterus — the endometrium — thickens each month in
preparation for an embryo, but is shed in the following menstrual
period if fertilization does not occur.
The Fallopian tubes extend from the uterus to the ovaries. Waving
fimbriae at the ovary ends of the Fallopian tubes guide ovulated
eggs into the tubes where fertilization may occur as the eggs travel
to the uterus. Cilia and peristalsis help eggs move through the
tubes. Tubular fluid helps nourish sperm as they swim up to the
tubes toward eggs.
The ovaries are gonads that produce eggs and secrete sex
hormones, including estrogen. Nests of cells called follicles in the
ovarian cortex are the functional units of ovaries. Each follicle
Figure 22.6.6 : The breasts are not really reproductive organs, but they surrounds an immature egg. At birth, a baby girl’s ovaries contain
play a reproductive role as mammary glands that can produce milk to at least a million eggs, and they will not produce any more during
feed an infant her lifetime. During a woman’s reproductive years, one egg
The breasts are not directly involved in reproduction, but because they typically matures and is ovulated each month.
contain mammary glands, they can provide nourishment to an infant The vulva is a general term for external reproductive organs. The
after birth. The breasts overlay major muscles in the chest from which vulva includes the clitoris, two pairs of labia, and openings for the
they project outward in a conical shape. The two main types of tissues urethra and vagina. Secretions from Bartholin’s glands near the
in the breast are adipose (fat) tissue and glandular tissue that produces vaginal opening lubricate the vulva.
milk. As shown in Figure 22.6.6, each mature breast contains many The breasts are not technically reproductive organs, but their
lobules, where milk is produced and stored during pregnancy. mammary glands produce milk to feed an infant after birth. Milk
During nursing (or lactation), the milk drains into ducts and sacs, drains through ducts and sacs, and out through the nipple when a
which in turn converge at the nipple. Milk exits the breast through the baby sucks.
nipple in response to the suckling action of an infant. The nipple is
surrounded by a more darkly pigmented area called the areola. The REVIEW
areola contains glands that secrete an oily fluid, which lubricates and 1. State the general functions of the female reproductive system.
protects the nipple during breastfeeding. 2. Describe the vagina and its reproductive functions.
In 2018, during a survey, the respondents mentioned about two 3. Outline the structure and basic functions of the uterus.
protocols of lactation induction in a trans woman, Zil Goldstein
4. What is the endometrium? How does it change during the monthly
and Newman-Goldfarb protocols, which was initially designed for a
cycle?
cis woman to nurse a baby born to a surrogate mother. The Zil
Goldstein protocol starts with 10 mg domperidone (a drug) three times 5. Relate features of the Fallopian tubes to the functions of these
daily while the Newman-Goldfarb protocol recommends 10 mg structures.
domperidone four times daily. Both regimens subsequently increase the 6. Define ovary.
dose to 20 mg four times daily. Since domperidone is not approved by 7. Identify the functional units of the ovaries.
the Food and Drug Administration, the patients obtain the drug 8. Discuss the timing of egg production and ovulation in the context of
elsewhere. Both regimens also utilize estradiol and progesterone sex a female’s lifetime.
hormones. Subsequently, the physical stimulation of the nipples is
9. What is the vulva? What structures does it include?
recommended for milk production. Informal reports of trans women
who induced lactation have emerged recently. However, there are no 10. Why are breasts included in discussions of reproduction, if they are
data to support any of the other reports. There is a critical gap in not organs of the female reproductive system?
evidence-based medicine for this population.

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11. What is the function of the folds in the mucous membrane lining of 2. Female reproductive organs by The Open University, licensed CC
the vagina? BY-NC-SA 4.0
12. What are two ways in which the female reproductive system 3. Uterus regions by The Open University, licensed CC BY-NC-SA
protects itself from pathogens? 4.0
4. Vulva by The Open University, licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
13. True or False: The fallopian tube runs through the cervix and
5. Vulva by OpenStax, licensed CC BY 3.0
allows sperm to enter the uterus.
6. Breast diagram by NCI NIH, public domain via Wikimedia
14. True or False: The nipple and the areola are not the same things. Commons
15. Immature eggs are located in __________, which are located 7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
within _________ . 3.0
8. Some text is adapted from Trautner, Emily et al. “Knowledge and
EXPLORE MORE practice of induction of lactation in trans women among
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17794#Explore_More professionals working in trans health.” International breastfeeding
journal vol. 15,1 63. 16 Jul. 2020, doi:10.1186/s13006-020-00308-
ATTRIBUTIONS
6; CC BY 4.0
1. Cattien stone yoni by Binh Giang, public domain via Wikimedia
Commons

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22.7: MENSTRUAL CYCLE
TABOO TOPIC years of age and still be considered normal. The average age is
The banner in Figure 22.7.1 was carried in a 2014 march in Uganda generally later in the developing world, and earlier in the developed
as part of the celebration of Menstrual Hygiene Day. Menstrual world. This variation is thought to be largely attributable to nutritional
Hygiene Day is an awareness day on May 28 of each year that aims differences.
to raise awareness worldwide about menstruation and menstrual The cessation of menstrual cycles at the end of a woman’s reproductive
hygiene. Maintaining good menstrual hygiene is difficult in years is termed menopause. The average age of menopause is 52
developing countries like Uganda because of taboos on discussing years, but it may occur normally at any age between about 45 and 55
menstruation and the lack of availability of menstrual hygiene years of age. The age of menopause varies due to a variety of
products. Poor menstrual hygiene, in turn, can lead to biological and environmental factors. It may occur earlier as a result of
embarrassment, degradation, and reproductive health problems in certain illnesses or medical treatments.
females. May 28 was chosen as Menstrual Hygiene Day because of
VARIATION IN THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
its symbolism. May is the fifth month of the year that symbolizes
the five days of bleeding during menstruation each month. The 28th The length of the menstrual cycle — as well as its phases — may vary
day was chosen because the menstrual cycle averages about 28 considerably, not only among different individuals but also from month
days. to month for a given person. The average length of time between the
first day of one menstrual period and the first day of the next menstrual
period is 28 days, but it may range from 21 days to 45 days. Cycles are
considered regular when a woman’s longest and shortest cycles differ
by less than eight days. The menstrual period itself is usually about five
days long, but it may vary in length from about two days to seven days.

OVARIAN CYCLE
The events of the menstrual cycle that take place in the ovaries make
up the ovarian cycle. It consists of changes that occur in the follicles
of one of the ovaries. The ovarian cycle is divided into the following
three phases: the follicular phase, ovulation, and luteal phase. These
phases are illustrated in Figure 22.7.2.

Figure 22.7.1 : WaterforPeople Uganda celebration of Menstrual

Hygiene Day in 2014

WHAT IS THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE?

The menstrual cycle refers to natural changes that occur in the female
reproductive system each month during the reproductive years. The
cycle is necessary for the production of eggs and the preparation of the Figure 22.7.2 : The phases and days of the ovarian cycle are shown in
uterus for pregnancy. It involves changes in both the ovaries and the this diagram. The ovarian cycle depicted in the diagram represents a
uterus and is controlled by pituitary and ovarian hormones. Day 1 of cycle in which fertilization does not occur so the corpus luteum
the cycle is the first day of the menstrual period, when bleeding from degenerates during the luteal phase.
the uterus begins as the built-up endometrium lining the uterus is shed. FOLLICULAR PHASE
The endometrium builds up again during the remainder of the cycle,
The follicular phase is the first phase of the ovarian cycle. It generally
only to be shed again during the beginning of the next cycle if
lasts about 12 to 14 days for a 28-day menstrual cycle. During this
pregnancy does not occur. In the ovaries, the menstrual cycle includes
phase, several ovarian follicles are stimulated to begin maturing, but
the development of a follicle, ovulation of a secondary oocyte, and the
usually only one — called the Graafian follicle — matures completely
degeneration of the follicle if pregnancy does not occur. Both uterine
so it is ready to release an egg. The other maturing follicles stop
and ovarian changes during the menstrual cycle are generally divided
growing and disintegrate. Follicular development occurs because of a
into three phases, although the phases are not the same in the two
rise in the blood level of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which is
organs.
secreted by the pituitary gland. The maturing follicle releases estrogen,
MENARCHE AND MENOPAUSE the level of which rises throughout the follicular phase. You can see
these and other changes in hormone levels that occur during the
The female reproductive years are delineated by the start and stop of
menstrual cycle in the chart in Figure 22.7.2.
the menstrual cycle. The first menstrual period usually occurs around
12 or 13 years of age, an event that is known as menarche. There is
considerable variation among individuals in the age of menarche. It
may occasionally occur as early as eight years of age or as late as 16

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 The events of the menstrual cycle that take place in the uterus make up
the uterine cycle. This cycle consists of changes that occur mainly in
the endometrium, which is the layer of tissue that lines the uterus. The
uterine cycle is divided into the following three phases: menstruation,
proliferative phase, and secretory phase. These phases are illustrated in
Figure 22.7.4.

Figure 22.7.3 : FSH and estrogen increase during the first half of the
menstrual cycle. LH surges shortly before ovulation occurs due to the
rise in estrogen.

OVULATION
Ovulation is the second phase of the ovarian cycle. It usually occurs Figure 22.7.4 : The uterine cycle begins with menstruation, which starts
around day 14 of a 28-day menstrual cycle. During this phase, the on day 1 of the cycle.
Graafian follicle ruptures and releases its egg. Ovulation is stimulated
by a sudden rise in the blood level of luteinizing hormone (LH) from MENSTRUATION
the pituitary gland. This is called the LH surge. You can see the LH Menstruation (also called the menstrual period or menses) is the first
surge in the top hormone graph above. The LH surge generally starts phase of the uterine cycle. It occurs if fertilization has not taken place
around day 12 of the cycle and lasts for a day or two. The surge in LH during the preceding menstrual cycle. During menstruation, the
is triggered by a continued rise in estrogen from the maturing follicle in endometrium of the uterus, which has built up during the preceding
the ovary. During the follicular phase, the rising estrogen level actually cycle, degenerates and is shed from the uterus. The average loss of
suppresses LH secretion by the pituitary. However, by the time the blood during menstruation is about 35 mL. The flow of blood is often
follicular phase is nearing its end, the level of estrogen reaches a accompanied by uterine cramps, which may be severe in some people.
threshold level above which this effect is reversed, and estrogen
PROLIFERATIVE PHASE
stimulates the release of a large amount of LH. The surge in LH
matures the egg and weakens the wall of the follicle, causing the fully The proliferative phase is the second phase of the uterine cycle.
developed follicle to release its secondary oocyte. During this phase, estrogen secreted by cells of the maturing ovarian
follicle causes the lining of the uterus to grow, or proliferate. Estrogen
LUTEAL PHASE also stimulates the cervix of the uterus to secrete larger amounts of
The luteal phase is the third and final phase of the ovarian cycle. It thinner mucus that can help sperm swim through the cervix and into
typically lasts about 14 days in a 28-day menstrual cycle. At the the uterus, making fertilization more likely.
beginning of the luteal phase, FSH and LH cause the Graafian follicle
SECRETORY PHASE
that ovulated the egg to transform into a structure called a corpus
luteum. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which in turn The secretory phase is the third and final phase of the uterine cycle.
suppresses FSH and LH production by the pituitary and stimulates the During this phase, progesterone produced by the corpus luteum in the
continued buildup of the endometrium in the uterus. How this phase ovary stimulates further changes in the endometrium so it is more
ends depends on whether or not the egg has been fertilized. receptive to implantation of a blastocyst. For example, progesterone
increases blood flow to the uterus and promotes uterine secretions. It
If fertilization has not occurred, the falling levels of FSH and LH
also decreases the contractility of smooth muscle tissue in the uterine
during the luteal phase cause the corpus luteum to atrophy, so its
wall.
production of progesterone declines. Without a high level of
progesterone to maintain it, the endometrium starts to break down. MY BODY: MENSTRUATORS, NOT MENSTRUATING WOMEN
By the end of the luteal phase, the endometrium can no longer be Within the field of critical menstruation studies, we must pay
maintained, and the next menstrual cycle begins with the shedding attention to our depictions of menstruation and menstruators, and
of the endometrium (menses). the knowledge we produce in the pursuit to de-stigmatize
If fertilization has occurred so a zygote forms and then divides to menstruation. Not all women menstruate, for example, trans
become a blastocyst, the outer layer of the blastocyst produces a women, postmenopausal women, pregnant women, and those
hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin. This hormone is experiencing amenorrhea, and not all who menstruate are women,
very similar to LH and preserves the corpus luteum. The corpus for example, transmen. Experiences of menstruating later in life
luteum can then continue to secrete progesterone to maintain the vary among menstruators as well. Some do not suffer from their
new pregnancy. periods in direct relation to their gender identity. Others do, as they
disidentify with the body as a whole and/or with certain body parts
UTERINE CYCLE such as the genitalia or the uterus, or with the bodily function of
menstruation. This suffering is sometimes related to gender
dysphoria. Testosterone treatments are a method adopted by some

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 trans menstruators to get rid of unwanted bleeding. Preventing the 3. What organs are involved in the menstrual cycle? What hormones
menstrual period is not necessarily the main reason for using control the cycle?
testosterone, but it can be one among several desired outcomes. 4. Identify the two major events that mark the beginning and end of the
Menstruators are of a variety of gender identities (far beyond those reproductive period in females. When do these events typically occur?
who identify as trans) and, hence, menstruation cannot be equated
5. Discuss the average length of the menstrual cycle and menstruation,
singularly with cis/womanhood.
as well as variations that are considered normal.
6. Define the ovarian cycle.
SUMMARY
7. Summarize the phases of the ovarian cycle.
The menstrual cycle refers to natural changes that occur in the
female reproductive system each month during the reproductive 8. Compare and contrast events that occur in the ovaries and uterus,
years, except when an individual is pregnant. The cycle is necessary depending on whether or not an egg is fertilized during the menstrual
for the production of eggs and the preparation of the uterus for cycle.
pregnancy. It involves changes in both the ovaries and uterus and is 9. Define the uterine cycle.
controlled by pituitary hormones (FSH and LH) and ovarian 10. Give an overview of the phases of the uterine cycle.
hormones (estrogen and progesterone).
11. If the LH surge did not occur in a menstrual cycle, what do you
The female reproductive period is delineated by menarche, or the
think would happen? Explain your answer.
first menstrual period, which usually occurs around age 12 or 13;
and by menopause, or the cessation of menstrual periods, which 12. Give one reason why FSH and LH levels drop in the luteal phase of
typically occurs around age 52. A typical menstrual cycle averages the menstrual cycle.
28 days in length but may vary normally from 21 to 45 days. The 13. What does the follicle that housed the ovulated egg become in the
average menstrual period is five days long but may vary normally luteal phase of the menstrual cycle?
from two to seven days. These variations in the menstrual cycle 14. True or False: Day 1 of the menstrual cycle is when the secondary
may occur both between women and within individual women from oocyte is released from its follicle.
month to month. 15. True or False: The secretory phase of the uterine cycle generally
The events of the menstrual cycle that take place in the ovaries aligns with the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle.
make up the ovarian cycle. It includes the follicular phase (when a
follicle and its egg mature due to rising levels of FSH), ovulation EXPLORE MORE
(when the egg is released from the ovary due to a rise in estrogen https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17796#Explore_More
and a surge in LH), and the luteal phase (when the follicle is
transformed into a structure called a corpus luteum that secretes ATTRIBUTIONS
progesterone). In a 28-day menstrual cycle, the follicular and luteal 1. Menstrual Hygiene Day by Water for People, CC BY 2.0 via
phases typically average about two weeks in length, with ovulation Wikimedia Commons
generally occurring around day 14 of the cycle. 2. Ovarian cycle by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
The events of the menstrual cycle that take place in the uterus make 3. Menstrual cycle by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
up the uterine cycle. It includes menstruation, which generally Commons
occurs on days 1 to 5 of the cycle and involves shedding of 4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
endometrial tissue that built up during the preceding cycle; the 3.0
proliferative phase, during which the endometrium builds up again 5. Some text is adapted from Rydström K. (2020) Degendering
until ovulation occurs; and the secretory phase, which follows Menstruation: Making Trans Menstruators Matter. In: Bobel C.,
ovulation and during which the endometrium secretes substances Winkler I.T., Fahs B., Hasson K.A., Kissling E.A., Roberts TA.
and undergoes other changes that prepare it to receive an embryo. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Menstruation Studies.
Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-
REVIEW 15-0614-7_68; CC BY 4.0.
1. What is the menstrual cycle?
2. Why is the menstrual cycle necessary in order for pregnancy to
occur?

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22.8: FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
WAITING EXPECTANTLY
A mother-to-be waits patiently for her fetus to grow as her belly
swells. Reproduction is all about making babies, and the female
reproductive system is specialized for this purpose. Its functions
include producing gametes called eggs, secreting sex hormones
(such as estrogen), providing a site for fertilization, gestating a
fetus if fertilization occurs, giving birth to a baby, and breastfeeding
a baby after birth. The only thing missing is sperm.

Figure 22.8.2: Formation of a secondary oocyte that may become a

zygote begins with mitosis of an oogonium. This is followed by two
meiotic cell divisions. In humans, the first polar body does not undergo
the second meiotic division illustrated here.

MATURATION OF A FOLLICLE
Figure 22.8.1: Pregnant woman Beginning in puberty, about once a month, one of the follicles in an
ovary undergoes maturation, and an egg is released. As the follicle
EGG PRODUCTION matures, it goes through changes in the numbers and types of its cells.
The primary oocyte within the follicle also resumes meiosis. It
At birth, ovaries contain all the eggs that will ever be produced, which
completes meiosis I, which began long before birth, to form a
may include a million or more eggs. The eggs don't start to mature,
secondary oocyte and a smaller cell, called the first polar body. Both
however, until a female enters puberty and attains sexual maturity.
the secondary oocyte and the first polar body are haploid cells. The
After that, one egg typically matures each month and is released from
secondary oocyte has most of the cytoplasm from the primary oocyte
an ovary. This continues until menopause (cessation of monthly
and is much larger than the first polar body, which soon disintegrates
periods), typically by age 52. By then, viable eggs may be almost
and disappears. The secondary oocyte begins meiosis II, but only
depleted, and hormone levels can no longer support the monthly cycle.
completes it if the egg is fertilized.
During the reproductive years, which of the two ovaries releases an egg
in a given month seems to be a matter of chance. Occasionally, both RELEASE OF AN EGG
ovaries will release an egg at the same time. If both eggs are fertilized, It typically takes 12 to 14 days for a follicle to mature in an ovary, and
the offspring are fraternal twins (dizygotic, or "two-zygote," twins), for the secondary oocyte to form. Then, the follicle bursts open and the
and they are no more alike genetically than non-twin siblings. ovary ruptures, releasing the secondary oocyte from the ovary. This
OOGENESIS event is called ovulation. The now-empty follicle starts to change into
a structure called a corpus luteum. The expelled secondary oocyte is
The process of producing eggs in the ovaries of a fetus carrying XX
usually swept into the nearby Fallopian tube by its waving, fingerlike
chromosomes is called oogenesis. Eggs are haploid gametes, and their
fimbriae.
production occurs in several steps that involve different types of cells,
as summarized in Figure 22.8.2. Oogenesis is completed long before UTERINE CHANGES
birth. It occurs when diploid germ cells called oogonia (singular, While the follicle is maturing in the ovary, the uterus is also
oogonium) undergo mitosis. Each such cell division produces two undergoing changes to prepare it for an embryo if fertilization occurs.
diploid cells. One is called the primary oocyte, and the other is retained For example, the endometrium gets thicker and becomes more
to help maintain a reserve of oogonia. The primary oocyte, in turn, vascular. Around the time of ovulation, the cervix undergoes changes
starts to go through the first cell division of meiosis (meiosis I). that help sperm reach the oocyte to fertilize it. The cervical canal
However, it does not complete meiosis I until much later. Instead, it widens, and the cervical mucus becomes thinner and more alkaline.
remains in a resting state, nestled within a tiny, immature follicle in the These changes help promote the passage of sperm from the vagina into
ovary until the person goes through puberty. the uterus and make the environment more hospitable to sperm.

FERTILIZATION — OR NOT

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Fertilization of an egg by a sperm normally occurs in a Fallopian tube, offspring. Most nutrients are needed in greater amounts by a pregnant
most often in the part of the tube that passes above the ovary (Figure individual to meet fetal needs, but some are especially important,
22.8.3). In order for fertilization to occur, sperm must “swim” from the including folic acid, calcium, iron, and omega-3 fatty acids. A healthy
vagina where they are deposited, through the cervical canal to the diet, along with prenatal vitamin supplements, is recommended for the
uterus, and then through the body of the uterus to one of the Fallopian best pregnancy outcome. A pregnant person should also avoid
tubes. Once sperm enters a Fallopian tube, tubular fluids help carry ingesting substances (such as alcohol) that can damage the developing
them through the tube toward the secondary oocyte at the other end. offspring, especially early in the pregnancy when all of the major
The secondary oocyte also functions to promote fertilization. It releases organs and organ systems are forming.
molecules that guide the sperm and allow the surface of the egg to When counted from the first day of the last menstrual period, the
attach to the surface of the sperm. The egg can then absorb the sperm, average duration of pregnancy is about 40 weeks (38 weeks when
allowing fertilization to occur. counted from the time of fertilization), but a pregnancy that lasts
between 37 and 42 weeks is still considered within the normal range.
From the point of view of the maternal organism, the total duration of
pregnancy is typically divided into three periods, called trimesters,
each of which lasts about three months. This division of the total period
of gestation is useful for summarizing the typical changes during
pregnancy. From the point of view of the developing offspring,
however, the major divisions are different. They are the embryonic and
fetal stages. The offspring is called an embryo from the time it implants
in the uterus through the first eight weeks of life. After that, it is called
a fetus for the duration of the pregnancy.

FIRST TRIMESTER
The first trimester begins at the time of fertilization and lasts for the
next 12 weeks. Even before a pregnant person knows they are
pregnant, they may experience signs and symptoms of pregnancy. They
may notice a missed menstrual period, and they may also experience a
tender nipple area, increased appetite, and more frequent urination.
Figure 22.8.3 : This diagram shows the structures through which sperm Many individuals also experience nausea and vomiting in the first
must pass if fertilization of an egg is to occur. It also shows the event of
trimester. This is often called “morning sickness,” because it
fertilization, and where fertilization usually occurs.
commonly occurs in the morning, but it may occur at any time of day.
IF FERTILIZATION OCCURS Some lose weight during the first trimester because of morning
If the secondary oocyte is fertilized by a sperm as it passes through the sickness.
Fallopian tube, the secondary oocyte quickly completes meiosis II,
SECOND TRIMESTER
forming a diploid zygote and another polar body. (This second polar
body, like the first, normally breaks down and disappears.) The zygote The second trimester occurs during weeks 13 to 28 of pregnancy. A
then continues the journey through the Fallopian tube to the uterus, pregnant person may feel more energized during this trimester. If she
during which it undergoes several mitotic cell divisions. By the time it experienced nausea and vomiting during the first trimester, these
reaches the uterus up to five days after fertilization, it consists of a ball symptoms often subside during the second trimester. Weight gain starts
of cells called a blastocyst. Within another day or two, the blastocyst occurring during this trimester, as well. By about week 20, the fetus is
implants itself in the endometrium lining the uterus, and gestation getting large enough that the mother can feel its movements. The photo
begins. on the left in Figure 22.8.4 shows a pregnant woman at week 26,
toward the end of the second trimester. (For comparison, the same
IF FERTILIZATION DOES NOT OCCUR woman is shown on the right of Figure 22.8.4 at the end of the third
What happens if the secondary oocyte is not fertilized by a sperm as it trimester.)
passes through the Fallopian tube? It continues on its way to the uterus
without ever completing meiosis II. It is likely to disintegrate within a
THIRD TRIMESTER
few days while still in the Fallopian tube. Any remaining material will The third trimester occurs during weeks 29 through birth (at about 40
be shed from the woman’s body during the next menstrual period. weeks). During this trimester, the uterus expands rapidly, making up a
larger and larger portion of the woman's abdomen. Weight gain is also
PREGNANCY more rapid. During the third trimester, the movements of the fetus
Pregnancy is the carrying of one or more offspring from fertilization become stronger and more frequent, and they may become disruptive
until birth. This is one of the major functions of the female to the mother. As the fetus grows larger, its weight and the space it
reproductive system. It involves virtually every other body system takes up may lead to symptoms in the mother such as back pain,
including the cardiovascular, urinary, and respiratory systems, to name swelling of the lower extremities, more frequent urination, varicose
just three. The maternal organism plays a critical role in the veins, and heartburn. By the end of the third trimester, the woman's
development of the offspring. They must provide all the nutrients and abdomen often will transform in shape as it drops, due to the fetus
other substances needed for normal growth and development of the turning to a downward position before birth so its head rests on the
offspring, and they must also remove the wastes excreted by the

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cervix. This relieves pressure on the upper abdomen, but reduces
bladder capacity and increases pressure on the pelvic floor and rectum.

Figure 22.8.4 : The same woman is shown in both photos: on the left at
week 26 of the pregnancy, and on the right at week 40 of the pregnancy

CHILDBIRTH
Near the time of birth, the amniotic sac — a fluid-filled membrane that
encloses the fetus within the uterus — breaks in a gush of fluid. This is
commonly called “breaking water.” Labor usually begins within a day
of this event, although it may begin prior to it. Labor is the general
term for the process of childbirth in which regular uterine contractions
push the fetus and placenta out of the body. Labor can be divided into
three stages, which are illustrated in Figure 22.8.5: dilation, birth, and
after birth.
1. During the dilation stage of labor, uterine contractions begin and
become increasingly frequent and intense. The contractions push
the baby’s head (most often) against the cervix, causing the cervical
canal to dilate, or become wider. This lasts until the cervical canal
has dilated to about 10 cm (3.9 in.) in width, which may take 12 to
20 hours — or even longer. The cervical canal must be dilated to
this extent in order for the baby’s head to fit through it.
2. During birth, the baby descends (usually headfirst) through the
cervical canal and vagina, and into the world outside. This is the
stage when the mother generally starts bearing down during the
contractions to help push out the fetus. This stage may last from Figure 22.8.5 : The three stages of labor are dilation of the cervix, the
about 20 minutes to two hours or more. Usually, within a minute or birth of the baby, and the delivery of the afterbirth (placenta)
less of birth, the umbilical cord is cut, so the baby is no longer Delivery is a matter of concern for all individuals, however, additional
connected to the placenta. concerns arise for individuals with disabilities. According to a study
3. During the afterbirth stage, the placenta is delivered. This stage done by Lipson and Rogers, delivery decisions for disabled individuals
may last from a few minutes to a half hour. are made arbitrarily without their content. They are forced to deliver
via cesarean section because they think that a disabled person wouldn't
be able to handle the process.

NURSING
Although the breasts or chest are not classified as organs of the
reproductive system, they nonetheless may play an important role in
reproduction. The physiological function of the nipples is lactation or
the production of milk to feed an infant. This function is illustrated in
Figure 22.8.6. Besides nutrients, the milk provides hormones,
antibodies, and other substances that help ensure a healthy start after
birth.
Figure 22.8.6 shows the correct way for an infant to suck the nipples to
stimulate the letdown of milk from the mammary glands. The letdown
of milk when an infant sucks at the nipple is one of the few examples
of positive feedback in the human organism. Sucking causes a release
from the posterior pituitary gland of the hypothalamic hormone
oxytocin. Oxytocin, in turn, causes milk to flow from the alveoli in the
glands where milk is produced, through the milk ducts, and into the
milk sacs behind the areola. You can trace this route of milk in Figure

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22.8.6. The baby can suck the milk out of the sacs through the nipple, maturation, and for the development of female secondary sex
where they converge. The release of milk stimulates the baby to characteristics. Estrogen is also needed to help regulate the menstrual
continue sucking, which in turn keeps the milk flowing. cycle and ovulation throughout the reproductive years. Estrogen is
produced primarily by follicular cells in the ovaries. During pregnancy,
estrogen is also produced by the placenta. There are actually three
forms of estrogen in the human female: estradiol, estriol, and estrone.
1. Estradiol is the predominant form of estrogen during the
reproductive years. It is also the most potent form of estrogen.
2. Estriol is the predominant form of estrogen during pregnancy. It is
also the weakest form of estrogen.
3. Estrone is the predominant form of estrogen in post-menopausal
women. It is intermediate in strength between the other two forms
of estrogen.

PROGESTERONE
Progesterone stands for “pro-gestational hormone.” It is synthesized
and secreted primarily by the corpus luteum in the ovary. Progesterone
plays many physiological roles but is best known for its role during
pregnancy. In fact, it is sometimes called the “hormone of pregnancy.”
Among other functions, progesterone prepares the uterus for pregnancy
each month by building up the uterine lining. If pregnancy occurs,
progesterone helps maintain the pregnancy in a number of ways, such
as decreasing the maternal immune response to the genetically different
embryo and decreasing the ability of uterine muscle tissue to contract.
Progesterone also prepares the mammary glands for lactation during
pregnancy, and withdrawal of progesterone after birth is one of the
triggers of milk production.
FEATURE: MYTH VS. REALITY
There are many myths associated with pregnancy. Most are
harmless, but some may put the pregnant woman or fetus at risk. As
Figure 22.8.6 : The physiological function of the human breast is to always, knowledge is power.
provide nourishment and other substances to an infant. Myth: You should avoid petting your cat during pregnancy.
In 2018, during a survey, the respondents mentioned about two Reality: Cat feces may be contaminated with microscopic parasites
protocols of lactation induction in a trans woman, Zil Goldstein that can cause a disease called toxoplasmosis. Pregnant women
and Newman-Goldfarb protocols, which was initially designed for a who contract this disease are at risk of stillbirth, miscarriage, or
cis woman to nurse a baby born to a surrogate mother. The Zil giving birth to an infant with serious health problems. Pregnant
Goldstein protocol starts with 10 mg domperidone (a drug) three times women should not have contact with a cat’s litter box or feces, but
daily while the Newman-Goldfarb protocol recommends 10 mg petting a cat poses no real risk of infection.
domperidone four times daily. Both regimens subsequently increase the
Myth: You should not dye your hair during pregnancy, because the
dose to 20 mg four times daily. Since domperidone is not approved by
chemicals can harm the fetus.
the Food and Drug Administration, the patients obtain the drug
elsewhere. Both regimens also utilize estradiol and progesterone sex Reality: Whereas some chemicals (such as certain pesticides) have
hormones. Subsequently, the physical stimulation of the nipples is been shown to be associated with birth defects, there is no evidence
recommended for milk production. Informal reports of trans women that using hair dye during pregnancy increases this risk.
who induced lactation have emerged recently. However, there are no Myth: A pregnant woman needs to eat for two, so she should
data to support any of the other reports. There is a critical gap in double her pre-pregnancy caloric intake.
evidence-based medicine for this population. Reality: Throughout a typical pregnancy, a person needs only
about 300 extra calories per day, on average, to support her growing
SEX HORMONES fetus. Most of the extra calories are needed during the last trimester
Traditionally, a person carrying XX chromosomes is considered when the fetus is growing most rapidly. Doubling her caloric intake
Female sex. Female reproduction could not occur without sex during pregnancy is likely to cause too much weight gain, which
hormones released by the ovaries. These hormones include estrogen can be detrimental to her baby. Babies that weigh much more than
and progesterone. the average 7.5 pounds at birth are more likely to develop diabetes
and obesity in later life.
ESTROGEN
Myth: Women who are pregnant have strange food cravings, such
Before birth, estrogen is released by the gonads in fetuses with XX
as ice cream with pickles.
chromosomes and leads to the development of female reproductive
organs. At puberty, estrogen levels rise and are responsible for sexual Reality: Some women do have food cravings during pregnancy, but
they are not necessarily cravings for strange foods or unusual food

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 combinations. For example, a pregnant woman might crave starchy by the infant stimulates the release of the hypothalamic hormone
foods for a few weeks, or she may be put off by certain foods that oxytocin from the posterior pituitary, which causes the flow of
she loved before pregnancy. milk. The release of milk stimulates the baby to continue sucking,
Myth: A pregnant woman has skin that glows. which in turn keeps the milk flowing. This is one of the few
examples of positive feedback in the human organism.
Reality: Pregnancy can actually be hard on the skin and its
The ovaries produce sex hormones, including estrogen and
appearance. Besides stretch marks on the abdomen and breasts,
progesterone. Estrogen is responsible for sexual differentiation
pregnancy may lead to spider veins, varicose veins, new freckles,
before birth, as well as for sexual maturation and the development
darkening of moles, and acne flare-ups. In addition, as many as 75
of secondary sex characteristics at puberty. It is also needed to help
percent of pregnant women experience chloasma, which is the
regulate the menstrual cycle and ovulation after puberty and until
emergence of blotchy brown patches of skin on the face due to high
menopause. Progesterone prepares the uterus for pregnancy each
estrogen levels. Chloasma is often referred to as the “mask of
month during the menstrual cycle and helps maintain the pregnancy
pregnancy.”
if fertilization occurs.
Myth: Men cannot carry a baby.
Reality: Transgender men can get pregnant using alternative REVIEW
methods. 1. What is oogenesis? How does it occur?
2. Describe the maturation of an ovarian follicle.
SUMMARY 3. Define ovulation.
Oogenesis is the process of producing eggs in the ovaries of a fetus
4. What is happening in the uterus while a follicle in the ovary is
carrying XX chromosomes. Oogenesis begins when a diploid
maturing?
oogonium divides by mitosis to produce a diploid primary oocyte.
The primary oocyte begins meiosis I and then remains at this stage 5. After a secondary oocyte is ovulated from the ovary, it may or may
in an immature ovarian follicle until after birth. By birth, ovaries not be fertilized. Contrast what happens next in each of these different
contain all the eggs she will ever produce, numbering at least a outcomes.
million. 6. What is pregnancy, and what is the role of the maternal organism in
After puberty, one follicle a month matures, and its primary oocyte pregnancy?
completes meiosis I to produce a secondary oocyte, which begins 7. What is the average duration of pregnancy? Identify the trimesters of
meiosis II. During ovulation, the mature follicle bursts open, and pregnancy.
the secondary oocyte leaves the ovary and enters a Fallopian tube.
8. Define labor. What event is often a sign that labor will soon begin?
While a follicle is maturing in an ovary each month, the
9. Identify the stages of labor.
endometrium in the uterus is building up to prepare for an embryo.
Around the time of ovulation, cervical mucus becomes thinner and 10. Describe the physiological function of female breasts. How is this
more alkaline to help sperm reach the secondary oocyte. function controlled?
If the secondary oocyte is fertilized by a sperm, it quickly 11. Identify the functions of the female sex hormones estrogen and
completes meiosis II and forms a diploid zygote, which will progesterone.
continue through the Fallopian tube. The zygote will go through 12. True or False: All of the developing gametes in an ovary complete
multiple cell divisions before reaching and implanting in the uterus. meiosis I at the time of puberty.
If the secondary oocyte is not fertilized, it will not complete meiosis
13. True or False: After fertilization, meiosis II is completed, and then
II, and it will soon disintegrate.
mitosis occurs.
Pregnancy is the carrying of one or more offspring from
fertilization until birth. The maternal organism must provide all the 14. A fertilized egg that has not yet implanted in the uterus is called
nutrients and other substances needed by the developing offspring, a(n) ________________.
and also remove its wastes. She should also avoid exposures that A. embryo
could potentially damage the offspring, especially early in the B. zygote
pregnancy when organ systems are developing.
C. fetus
The average duration of pregnancy is 40 weeks (from the first day
D. secondary oocyte
of the last menstrual period) and is divided into three trimesters of
about three months each. Each trimester is associated with certain 15. Describe the roles of the cervix in fertilization and childbirth.
events and conditions that a pregnant woman may expect, such as
morning sickness during the first trimester, feeling fetal movements EXPLORE MORE
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for the first time during the second trimester, and rapid weight gain
in both fetus and mother during the third trimester.
ATTRIBUTIONS
Labor, which is the general term for the birth process, usually
1. Pregnant woman by Øyvind Holmstad, CC BY-SA 4.0 via
begins around the time the amniotic sac breaks and its fluid leaks
Wikimedia Commons
out. Labor occurs in three stages: dilation of the cervix, the birth of
2. Oogenesis by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
the baby, and delivery of the placenta (afterbirth).
Commons
The physiological function of nipples in the chest area is lactation
3. Fertilization by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of
or the production of milk to feed an infant. Sucking on the nipples
Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).

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 DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. licensed CC BY 7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0 via Wikimedia Commons 3.0
4. Pregnancy comparison by Maustrauser, public domain via 8. Some text is adapted from Trautner, Emily et al. “Knowledge and
Wikimedia Commons practice of induction of lactation in trans women among
5. Stages of labor by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia professionals working in trans health.” International breastfeeding
Commons journal vol. 15,1 63. 16 Jul. 2020, doi:10.1186/s13006-020-00308-
6. Let down reflex by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia 6; CC BY 4.0
Commons

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22.9: DISORDERS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
VACCINATING AGAINST CANCER
Can a vaccine prevent cancer? In the case of cervical cancer, it can.
Cervical cancer is one of three disorders of the female reproductive
system described in detail in this concept. Of the three, only
cervical cancer can be prevented with a vaccine.

Figure 22.9.2 : Cancer of the cervix

CERVICAL CANCER PREVALENCE AND DEATH RATES

Worldwide, cervical cancer is the second most common type of
cancer (after breast cancer) and the fourth most common cause of
cancer death. In the United States and other high-income nations, the
widespread use of cervical cancer screening has detected many cases of
Figure 22.9.1 : Getting a vaccine
precancerous cervical changes and has dramatically reduced rates of
cervical cancer deaths. About three-quarters of cervical cancer cases
CERVICAL CANCER occur in developing countries, where routine screening is less likely
Cervical cancer occurs when cells of the cervix (neck of the uterus) because of cost and other factors. Cervical cancer is also the most
grow abnormally and develop the ability to invade nearby tissues or common cause of cancer death in low-income countries.
spread to other parts of the body, such as the abdomen or lungs. Figure
22.9.2 shows the location of the cervix and the appearance of normal

and abnormal cervical cells when examined with a microscope.

Figure 22.9.3: The presence of HPV may allow cervical cells with mutations to divide, resulting in the formation of a tumor.

More than 90 percent of cases of cervical cancer are caused at least in

SYMPTOMS OF CERVICAL CANCER part by human papillomavirus (HPV), which is a sexually transmitted
Early in the development of cervical cancer, there are typically no virus that also causes genital warts. Figure 22.9.3 shows how HPV
symptoms. As the disease progresses, however, symptoms are likely to infection can cause cervical cancer by interfering with a normal cell
occur. The symptoms may include abnormal vaginal bleeding, pelvic division checkpoint. When HPV is not present, cervical cells
pain, or pain during sexual intercourse. Unfortunately, by the time containing mutations are not allowed to divide, so the cervix remains
symptoms start to occur, cervical cancer has typically progressed to a healthy. When HPV is present, however, cervical cells with mutations
stage at which treatment is less likely to be successful. may be allowed to divide, leading to uncontrolled growth of mutated
cells and the formation of a tumor.
CERVICAL CANCER CAUSES AND RISK FACTORS

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Other risk factors for cervical cancer include smoking, a weakened
immune system (for example, due to HIV infection), use of birth
control pills, becoming sexually active at a young age, and having
many sexual partners. However, these risk factors are less important
than HPV infection. Instead, the risk factors are more likely to increase
the risk of cervical cancer in individuals who are already infected with
HPV. For example, among HPV-infected, current and former smokers
have roughly two to three times the incidence of cervical cancer as
non-smokers. Passive smoking is also associated with an increased risk
of cervical cancer but to a lesser extent.

DIAGNOSIS OF CERVICAL CANCER Figure 22.9.4 : The yeast Candida albicans — shown here growing on
a culture plate — is one of the most common causes of vaginitis.
Diagnosis of cervical cancer is typically made by looking for
microscopic abnormal cervical cells in a smear of cells scraped off the CAUSES OF VAGINITIS
cervix. This is called a Pap smear. If cancerous cells are detected or About 90 percent of cases of vaginitis are caused by infection with
suspected in the smear, this test is usually followed up with a biopsy to
microorganisms. Most commonly, vaginal infections are caused by the
confirm the Pap smear results. Medical imaging (by CT scan or MRI, yeast Candida albicans (Figure 22.9.4). Such infections are referred to
for example) is also likely to be done to provide more information, as vaginal candidiasis. Other possible causes of vaginal infections
such as whether the cancer has spread. include bacteria, especially Gardnerella vaginalis, and some single-
celled parasites, notably the protist parasite Trichomonas vaginalis,
PREVENTION OF CERVICAL CANCER
which is usually transmitted through vaginal intercourse. The risk of
It is now possible to prevent HPV infection with a vaccine. The first vaginal infections may be greater in those who wear tight clothing, are
HPV vaccine was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration taking antibiotics for another condition, use birth control pills, or have
in 2006. The vaccine protects against the strains of HPV that have the improper hygiene. Poor hygiene allows organisms that are normally
greatest risk of causing cervical cancer. It is thought that widespread present in the stool (such as yeast) to contaminate the vagina. Most of
use of the vaccine will prevent up to 90 percent of cervical cancer the remaining cases of vaginitis are due to irritation by — or allergic
cases. Current recommendations are to be given the vaccine between reactions to — various products. These irritants may include condoms,
the ages of nine and 26. (All sexes should be vaccinated against HPV, spermicides, soaps, douches, lubricants, and even semen. Using
because the virus may also cause cancer of the penis and certain tampons or soaking in hot tubs may be additional causes of this type of
other cancers.) The vaccine is effective only if it is given before HPV vaginitis.
infection has occurred. Using condoms during sexual intercourse can
also help prevent HPV infection and cervical cancer, in addition to DIAGNOSIS OF VAGINITIS
preventing pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (such as Diagnosis of vaginitis typically begins with symptoms reported by the
HIV). patient. This may be followed by a microscopic examination or culture
Even for those who have received the HPV vaccine, there is still a of the vaginal discharge in order to identify the specific cause. The
small risk of developing cervical cancer. Therefore, it is recommended color, consistency, acidity, and other characteristics of the discharge
that individuals with cervix continue to be examined with regular Pap may be predictive of the causative agent. For example, infection with
smears. Candida albicans may cause a cottage cheese-like discharge with a low
pH, whereas infection with Gardnerella vaginalis may cause a
TREATMENT OF CERVICAL CANCER discharge with a fish-like odor and a high pH.
Treatment of cervical cancer generally depends on the stage at which
the cancer is diagnosed, but it is likely to include some combination of PREVENTION OF VAGINITIS
surgery, radiation therapy, and/or chemotherapy. Outcomes of Prevention of vaginitis includes wearing loose cotton underwear that
treatment depend largely on how early the cancer is diagnosed and helps keep the vulva dry. Yeasts and bacteria that may cause vaginitis
treated. For surgery to cure cervical cancer, the entire tumor must be tend to grow best in a moist environment. It is also important to avoid
removed with no cancerous cells found at the margins of the removed the use of perfumed soaps, personal hygiene sprays, and douches, all of
tissue on microscopic examination. If cancer is found and treated very which may upset the normal pH and bacterial balance in the vagina. To
early when it is still in the microscopic stage, the five-year survival rate help avoid vaginitis caused by infection with Trichomonas vaginalis,
is virtually 100 percent. the use of condoms during sexual intercourse is advised.

VAGINITIS TREATMENT OF VAGINITIS

Vaginitis is inflammation of the vagina — and sometimes the vulva, as The appropriate treatment of vaginitis depends on the cause. In many
well. Symptoms may include a discharge that is yellow, gray, or green; cases of vaginitis, there is more than one cause, and all of the causes
itching; pain; and a burning sensation. There may also be a foul vaginal must be treated to ensure a cure.
odor and pain or irritation with sexual intercourse. Yeast infections of the vagina are typically treated with topical anti-
fungal medications, which are available over the counter. The
medications may be in the form of tablets or creams that are
inserted into the vagina. Depending on the particular medication

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 used, treatment may involve one, three, or seven days of
application.
Bacterial infections of the vagina are usually treated with
antibiotics. These may be taken orally as pills or applied topically
to the vagina in creams.
Trichomonas vaginalis infections of the vagina are generally treated
with a single dose of an oral antibiotic. Sexual partners should be
treated at the same time, and intercourse should be avoided for at
least a week until both partners have completed treatment and been
followed-up by a physician.

ENDOMETRIOSIS
Endometriosis is a disease in which endometrial tissue, which
normally grows inside the uterus, grows outside of the uterus (Figure
22.9.5). Most often, the endometrial tissue grows around the ovaries,

Fallopian tubes, and uterus. In rare instances, the tissue may grow
elsewhere in the body. The areas of endometriosis typically bleed each
month during the menstrual period, and this often results in Figure 22.9.6 : Laparoscopy: visually inspecting the abdomen for
endometrial growths is the most reliable way to diagnose endometriosis
inflammation, pain, and scarring. An estimated six to ten percent of
individuals with the uterus are believed to have endometriosis. It is
most common in their thirties and forties, and only rarely occurs before CAUSES OF ENDOMETRIOSIS
menarche or after menopause. The causes of endometriosis are not known for certain, but several risk
factors have been identified, including a family history of
endometriosis. People who have a genetic relationship with a person
with endometriosis have about six times the normal risk of developing
the disease themselves. It has been suggested that endometriosis results
from mutations in several genes. It is likely that endometriosis is
multifactorial, involving the interplay of several factors.
At the physiological level, the predominant idea for how endometriosis
comes about is retrograde menstruation. This happens when some of
the endometrial debris from a menstrual flow exits the uterus through
the Fallopian tubes, rather than through the vagina. The debris then
attaches itself to the outside of organs in the abdominal cavity, or to the
lining of the abdominal cavity itself. Retrograde menstruation,
however, does not explain all cases of endometriosis, so other factors
are apparently involved. Suggestions include environmental toxins and
autoimmune responses.

Figure 22.9.5 : In endometriosis, endometrial tissue may grow outside

DIAGNOSIS OF ENDOMETRIOSIS
the uterus and cause health problems such as pain, bleeding, scarring, Diagnosis of endometriosis is usually based on self-reported symptoms
and infertility and a physical examination by a doctor, often combined with medical
imaging, such as ultrasonography. The only way to definitively
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF ENDOMETRIOSIS
diagnose endometriosis, however, is through visual inspection of the
The main symptom of endometriosis is pelvic pain, which may range
endometrial tissue. This can be done with a surgical procedure called
from mild to severe. There appears to be little or no relationship
laparoscopy, in which a tiny camera is inserted into the abdomen
between the amount of endometrial tissue growing outside the uterus
through a small incision (Figure 22.9.6). The camera allows the
and the severity of the pain. For many with the disease, the pain occurs
physician to visually inspect the area where endometrial tissue is
mainly during menstruation. However, nearly half of those affected
suspected.
have chronic pelvic pain. The pain of endometriosis may be caused by
bleeding in the pelvis, which triggers inflammation. Pain can also TREATMENT OF ENDOMETRIOSIS
occur from internal scar tissue that binds internal organs to each other. The most common treatments for endometriosis are medications to
Another problem often associated with endometriosis is infertility, or control the pain, and surgery to remove the abnormal tissue. Frequently
the inability to conceive or bear children. Among patients with used pain medications are non-steroidal inflammatory drugs
endometriosis, up to half may experience infertility. Infertility can be (NSAIDS), such as naproxen. Opiates may be used in cases of severe
related to scar formation or to anatomical distortions due to the pain. Laparoscopy can be used to surgically treat endometriosis, as
abnormal endometrial tissue. Other possible symptoms of well as to diagnose the condition. In this type of surgery, an additional
endometriosis may include diarrhea or constipation, chronic fatigue, small incision is made to insert instruments that the surgeon can
nausea and vomiting, headaches, and heavy or irregular menstrual manipulate externally in order to burn (cauterize) or cut away the
bleeding. endometrial growths. In younger patients who want to have children,

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surgery is conservative to keep the reproductive organs intact and Later, symptoms (such as abnormal vaginal bleeding and pain) are
functional. However, with conservative surgery, endometriosis recurs likely.
in 20 to 40 percent of cases within five years of the surgery. In older Most cases of cervical cancer occur because of infection with
patients who have completed childbearing, hysterectomy may be human papillomavirus (HPV), so the HPV vaccine is expected to
undertaken to remove all or part of the internal reproductive organs. greatly reduce the incidence of the disease. Other risk factors
This is the only procedure that is likely to cure endometriosis and include smoking and a weakened immune system. A Pap smear can
prevent relapses. diagnose cervical cancer at an early stage. Where Pap smears are
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY done routinely, cervical cancer death rates have fallen dramatically.
A Pap smear is a method of cervical cancer screening used to detect Treatment of cervical cancer generally includes surgery, which may
potentially pre-cancerous and cancerous cells in the cervix. It is the be followed by radiation therapy or chemotherapy.
most widely used screening test for this type of cancer, and it is Vaginitis is an inflammation of the vagina. A discharge is likely,
very effective. The test may also detect vaginal infections and and there may be itching and pain. About 90 percent of cases of
abnormal endometrial cells, but it is not designed for these vaginitis are caused by infection with microorganisms, typically by
purposes. the yeast Candida albicans. A minority of cases are caused by
irritants or allergens in soaps, spermicides, or douches.
If you are sexually active, you should start receiving routine Pap
Diagnosis of vaginitis may be based on characteristics of the
smears by age 21. Because most cases of cervical cancer are caused
discharge, which can be examined microscopically or cultured.
by infection with human papillomavirus (HPV), which is a sexually
Treatment of vaginitis depends on the cause and is usually an oral
transmitted infection, there is little or no benefit to screening people
or topical anti-fungal or antibiotic medication.
who have not had vaginal intercourse. Starting at age 21, general
Endometriosis is a disease in which endometrial tissue grows
guidelines are for Pap smears to be repeated every three years until
outside the uterus. This tissue may bleed during the menstrual
age 50, and then every five years until age 65. Screening may be
period and cause inflammation, pain, and scarring. The main
discontinued after age 65 if the last three Pap smears were normal.
symptom of endometriosis is pelvic pain, which may be severe.
If a person has a complete hysterectomy so they no longer have a
Endometriosis may also lead to infertility.
cervix, there is also no need for further Pap smears. On the other
Endometriosis is thought to have multiple causes, including genetic
hand, if a person has had a history of abnormal Pap smears or
mutations. Retrograde menstruation may be the immediate cause of
cancer, they will likely be screened more frequently. Pap smears
endometrial tissue escaping the uterus and entering the pelvic
can be done safely during the first several months of pregnancy and
cavity. Endometriosis is usually treated with surgery to remove the
resumed about three months after childbirth. Generally, better
abnormal tissue and medication for pain. If surgery is more
results are obtained if Pap smears are not done during menstruation.
conservative than hysterectomy, endometriosis may recur.
If you’ve never had a Pap smear, knowing what to expect may help
prepare you for the procedure. The patient lies on the examining REVIEW
table with their feet in “stirrups” to hold the legs up and apart. An 1. What is cervical cancer? Worldwide, how prevalent is it, and how
instrument called a speculum is inserted into the vagina to hold does it rank as a cause of cancer deaths?
back the vaginal walls and give access to the cervix. A tiny amount 2. Identify the symptoms of cervical cancer.
of tissue is brushed off the cervix and smeared onto a microscope 3. What are the causes of — and risk factors for — cervical cancer?
slide. The speculum is then removed, and the procedure is over. 4. What roles can Pap smears and HPV vaccines play in preventing
The slide is later examined under a microscope for abnormal cells. cervical cancer cases and cervical cancer deaths?
Some people experience light spotting or mild diarrhea after a Pap 5. How is cervical cancer treated?
smear, but most have no lasting effects. 6. Define vaginitis and identify its symptoms.
Pap smears are uncomfortable and may be somewhat painful for 7. What are some of the causes of vaginitis? Which cause is
some people. there may also be a pelvic exam where doctors insert responsible for most of the cases?
their fingers into the vagina during the Pap smear test. If you 8. How is vaginitis diagnosed and treated?
experience pain during a Pap smear, tell your health care provider. 9. What is endometriosis, and what are its symptoms?
Many steps can be taken to minimize the pain, which might include 10. Discuss possible causes of endometriosis.
using a smaller speculum, using warm instruments and a lubricant, 11. How is endometriosis treated? Which treatment is most likely to
and applying a topical anesthetic such as lidocaine to the cervix prevent the recurrence of the disorder?
before obtaining the smear. Any pain is generally very brief, and 12. Which disorder below is the most likely to cause symptoms,
the potential reward is worth it. Pap tests are estimated to reduce up specifically during menstruation?
to 80 percent of cervical cancer deaths. One of the lives saved could A. endometriosis
be your own. B. cervical cancer
C. HPV infection
SUMMARY D. vaginitis
Cervical cancer occurs when cells of the cervix grow abnormally 13. True or False: Yeast infections are normally treated with
and develop the ability to invade nearby tissues or spread to other antibiotics.
parts of the body. Worldwide, cervical cancer is the second-most 14. True or False: In the absence of HPV, there are no mutated cells in
common type of cancer and the fourth most common cause of the cervix.
cancer deaths. Early on, cervical cancer often has no symptoms.

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15. In the case of infection with Trichomonas vaginalis, why is the EXPLORE MORE
woman’s sexual partner usually treated at the same time? https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17797#Explore_More

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22.10: INFERTILITY
FAMILY PORTRAIT must implant in the uterus. If there is a problem with any of these steps,
This family portrait in Figure 22.10.1 shows that human societies infertility can result.
value having children. Indeed, for most people, parenthood is an A couple’s infertility may be due to a problem with either partner. As
important life goal. Unfortunately, some people are unable to shown in Figure 22.10.2, about 30 percent of infertility cases are due
achieve that goal because of infertility. to female infertility, and about 30 percent are due to male infertility.
Most of the remaining 40 percent of cases are due to a combination of
male and female problems or unknown causes.

CAUSES OF MALE INFERTILITY

Male infertility occurs when there are no or too few sperms, or when
the sperms are not healthy and motile and cannot travel through the
female reproductive tract to fertilize an egg. A common cause of
inadequate numbers or motility of sperm is varicocele, which is an
enlargement of blood vessels in the scrotum. This may raise the
temperature of the testes and adversely affect sperm production. In
other cases, there is no problem with the sperm, but there is a blockage
in the male reproductive tract that prevents the sperm from being
ejaculated.
Factors that increase a man’s risk of infertility include heavy alcohol
use, drug abuse, cigarette smoking, exposure to environmental toxins
(such as pesticides or lead), certain medications, serious diseases (such
as kidney disease), and radiation or chemotherapy for cancer. Another
risk factor is advancing age. Male fertility normally peaks in the mid-
twenties and gradually declines after about age 40, although it may
never actually drop to zero.
Figure 22.10.1: Family portrait
CAUSES OF FEMALE INFERTILITY
WHAT IS INFERTILITY? Female infertility generally occurs due to one of two problems: failure
to produce viable eggs by the ovaries, or structural problems in the
Infertility is the inability of a sexually mature adult to reproduce by
Fallopian tubes or uterus. The most common cause of female infertility
natural means. For scientific and medical purposes, infertility is
is a problem with ovulation. Without ovulation, there are no eggs to be
generally defined as the failure to achieve a successful pregnancy after
fertilized. Anovulatory cycles (menstrual cycles in which ovulation
at least one year of regular, unprotected sexual intercourse. Infertility
does not occur) may be associated with no or irregular menstrual
may be primary or secondary. Primary infertility applies to cases in
periods, but even regular menstrual periods may be anovulatory for a
which an individual has never achieved a successful pregnancy.
variety of reasons. The most common cause of anovulatory cycles is
Secondary infertility applies to cases in which an individual has had at
polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), which causes hormone imbalances
least one successful pregnancy, but fails to achieve another after trying
that can interfere with normal ovulation. Another relatively common
for at least a year. Infertility is a common problem. About ten percent
cause of anovulation is primary ovarian insufficiency. In this condition,
(6.1 million) of U.S. women aged 15 to 44 have difficulty getting or
the ovaries stop working normally and producing viable eggs at a
staying pregnant.
relatively early age, generally before the age of 40.
CAUSES OF INFERTILITY Structural problems with the Fallopian tubes or uterus are less common
causes of infertility. The Fallopian tubes may be blocked as a result of
endometriosis. Another possible cause is a pelvic inflammatory
disease, which occurs when sexually transmitted infections spread to
the Fallopian tubes or other female reproductive organs (Figure
22.10.3). The infection may lead to scarring and blockage of the

Fallopian tubes. If an egg is produced and the Fallopian tubes are

functioning — and a woman has a condition such as uterine fibroids —
implantation in the uterus may not be possible. Uterine fibroids are
non-cancerous clumps of tissue and muscle that form on the walls of
Figure 22.10.2: Infertility affects males as often as females and that the the uterus.
cause of infertility often is unexplained
Factors that increase a woman’s risk of infertility include tobacco
Pregnancy is the result of a multi-step process. In order for a normal smoking, excessive use of alcohol, stress, poor diet, strenuous athletic
pregnancy to occur, an egg must be released from one of the ovaries, training, and being overweight or underweight. Advanced age is even
the egg must go through a Fallopian tube, a sperm must fertilize the more problematic for females than males. Female fertility normally
egg as it passes through the Fallopian tube, and then the fertilized egg peaks in the mid-twenties, and continuously declines after age 30 and

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until menopause around the age of 52, after which the ovary no longer It is possible to correct blocked Fallopian tubes or uterine fibroids with
releases eggs. About one-third of couples in which the woman is over surgery. Ovulation problems, on the other hand, are usually treated
age 35 have fertility problems. In older women, more cycles are likely with hormones that act either on the pituitary gland or on the ovaries.
to be anovulatory, and the eggs may not be as healthy. Hormonal treatments that stimulate ovulation often result in more than
one egg being ovulated at a time, thus increasing the chances of a
person conceiving with twins, triplets, or even higher multiple births.
Multiple fetuses are at greater risk of being born too early or having
health and developmental problems. The mother is also at greater risk
of complications arising during pregnancy. Therefore, the possibility of
multiple fetuses should be weighed in making a decision about this
type of infertility treatment.

Figure 22.10.3: An infection of the Fallopian tubes may cause scarring

and blockage of the tubes, so sperm cannot reach eggs for fertilization.

DIAGNOSING CAUSES OF INFERTILITY

Diagnosing the cause(s) of a couple’s infertility often requires testing
both partners for potential problems. The semen is likely to be
examined for the number, shape, and motility of sperm. If problems are
found with sperm, further studies are likely to be done, such as medical
Figure 22.10.4: This figure shows one way ART procedures may be
imaging to look for structural problems with the testes or ducts. used to treat infertility. An egg is removed from the female
In individuals with ovaries and uterus, the first step is most often reproductive tract, injected with sperm from her partner, and allowed to
develop into an embryo in the lab. Then, the embryo is placed inside
determining whether ovulation is occurring. This can be done at home
the woman’s uterus for implantation and development during the
by carefully monitoring body temperature (it rises slightly around the remainder of gestation.
time of ovulation) or using a home ovulation test kit, which is available
over the counter at most drugstores. Whether or not ovulation is ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY
occurring can also be detected with blood tests or ultrasound imaging Some cases of infertility are treated with assisted reproductive
of the ovaries. If ovulation is occurring normally, then the next step technology (ART). This is a collection of medical procedures in which
may be an X-ray of the Fallopian tubes and uterus to see if there are eggs and sperms are removed to be manipulated in ways that increase
any blockages or other structural problems. Another approach to the chances of fertilization occurring. The eggs and sperm may be
examining the reproductive tract for potential problems is laparoscopy. injected into one of the Fallopian tubes for fertilization to take place in
In this surgical procedure, a tiny camera is inserted into the abdomen vivo (in the body). More commonly, however, the eggs and sperm are
through a small incision. This allows the doctor to directly inspect the mixed together outside the body so fertilization takes place in vitro (in
reproductive organs. a test tube or dish in a lab). The latter approach is illustrated in Figure
22.10.4. With in vitro fertilization, the fertilized eggs may be allowed

TREATING INFERTILITY to develop into embryos before being placed in the woman’s uterus.
Infertility often can be treated successfully. The type of treatment ART has about a 40 percent chance of leading to a live birth in women
depends on the cause of infertility. under the age of 35, but only about a 20 percent chance of success
after the age of 35. Some studies have found a higher-than-average risk
TREATING MALE INFERTILITY
of birth defects in children produced by ART procedures, but this may
Medical problems that interfere with sperm production may be treated
be due to the generally higher ages of the parent — not the
with medications or other interventions that may lead to the resumption
technologies used. Same-sex couples take advantage of the ART
of normal sperm production. If, for example, if an infection is
process to expand their family.
interfering with sperm production, antibiotics may resolve the problem.
If there is a blockage in the ejaculation of sperm, surgery may be able OTHER APPROACHES
to remove the blockage. Alternatively, the sperm may be removed from Other approaches for certain causes of infertility and same-sex couples
his body and then used for the artificial insemination of their partner. In include the use of a surrogate mother, a gestational carrier, or sperm
this procedure, the sperms are injected into the uterus. donation.
TREATING FEMALE INFERTILITY A surrogate mother is a woman who agrees to become pregnant
using the man’s sperm and her own egg. The child, who will be the

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 biological offspring of the surrogate and the male partner, is given More than 14 million people in the United States have polycystic
up at birth for adoption by the couple. Surrogacy might be selected ovary syndrome (PCOS), an endocrine disorder with a genetic basis
by women with no eggs or unhealthy eggs. A woman who carries a that is the most common cause of infertility. Most patients with
mutant gene for a serious genetic disorder might choose this option PCOS grow many small cysts on their ovaries. The cysts are not
to ensure that the defective gene is not passed on to the offspring. usually harmful, but they lead to hormone imbalances, such as
A gestational carrier is a woman who agrees to receive a higher-than-normal levels of testosterone in affected individuals.
transplanted embryo from a couple and carry it to term. The child, The hormonal imbalances are the primary cause of infertility
who will be the biological offspring of the couple, is given to the associated with PCOS. The disorder also increases the risk of a
parents at birth. A gestational carrier might be used by women who whole slew of other serious health problems, including endometrial
have normal ovulation but no uterus, or who cannot safely carry a cancer, heart disease, high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, asthma,
fetus to term because of a serious health problem (such as kidney obesity, depression, and anxiety.
disease or cancer). This method is commonly used by gay men Despite the prevalence of PCOS and its serious potential effects,
couples. until recently, its cause was poorly understood. There were also no
Sperm donation is the use of sperm from a fertile man (generally effective early diagnostic or treatment strategies for it. All that
through artificial insemination) for cases in which the male partner appears to be changing now. A review of the research literature on
in a couple is infertile, or in which a woman seeks to become PCOS published in 2016 provides new insights into causes,
pregnant without a male partner. A lesbian couple may use donated diagnosis, and treatment for the disorder.
sperm to enable one of them to become pregnant and have a child.
Among the research cited in the review is promising new work on
Sperm can be obtained from a sperm bank, which buys and stores
nonhuman animal models, including monkeys and mice. One line
sperm for artificial insemination, or a male friend or another
of research suggests that PCOS may be programmed into a fetus
individual may donate sperm to a specific woman.
during the second trimester of pregnancy. Another line of research
indicates that hair taken from an infant can be analyzed for early
SOCIAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES RELATING TO
risk factors for PCOS, even though PCOS symptoms do not show
INFERTILITY
up until puberty. In addition, the research is helping scientists
For people who have a strong desire for children of their own, identify a constellation of genes that are suspected to play a role in
infertility may lead to deep disappointment and depression. Individuals PCOS.
who are infertile may even feel biologically inadequate. Partners in
The new research on PCOS is important for those who suffer from
infertile couples may argue and feel resentment toward each other, and
the disorder and its consequences, including infertility and life-
married couples may get divorced because of infertility. Infertility
threatening chronic conditions (such as heart disease and diabetes).
treatments — especially ART procedures — are generally time-
The hope is that such research will lead to new ways of diagnosing
consuming and expensive. The high cost of the treatments can put them
PCOS at an early age, when medical interventions and lifestyle
out of the financial reach of many couples.
choices may be used to head off the more serious complications. It
ETHICAL CONCERNS is likely that the research will also eventually lead to new and more
Some people question whether the allocation of medical resources to effective treatment options for the millions of people who battle
infertility treatments is justified and whether the resources could be PCOS.
better used in other ways. The status of embryos that are created in
vitro and then not used for pregnancy is another source of debate. SUMMARY
Some people oppose their destruction on religious grounds, and Infertility is the inability of a sexually mature adult to reproduce by
couples may sometimes argue about what should be done with their natural means. It is defined scientifically and medically as the
extra embryos. Ethical issues are also raised by procedures that failure to achieve a successful pregnancy after at least one year of
increase the chances of multiple births, because of the medical and regular, unprotected sexual intercourse.
developmental risks associated with multiple births. About 30 percent of infertility in couples is due to female sex
infertility and another 30 percent is due to male sex infertility. In
INFERTILITY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
the remaining cases, a couple’s infertility is due to problems in both
Infertility is an under-appreciated problem in the poorer nations of the partners, or to unknown causes.
world, because of assumptions about overpopulation problems and Male infertility occurs when there are no or too few healthy, motile
high birth rates in developing countries. In fact, infertility is at least as sperm. This may be caused by problems with spermatogenesis, or
great a problem in developing as in developed countries. High rates of by blockage of the male reproductive tract that prevents sperm from
health problems and inadequate health care in the poorer nations being ejaculated. Risk factors for male infertility include heavy
increase the risk of infertility. At the same time, infertility treatments alcohol use, smoking, certain medications, and advancing age, to
are usually not available — or are far too expensive — for the vast name just a few.
majority of people who may need them. In addition, in many Female infertility occurs due to failure to produce viable eggs by
developing countries, the production of children is highly valued. the ovaries, or structural problems in the Fallopian tubes or uterus.
Children may be needed for family income generation and economic Polycystic ovary syndrome is the most common cause of failure to
security of the elderly. It is not uncommon for infertility to lead to produce viable eggs. Endometriosis and uterine fibroids are
social stigmatization, psychological problems, and abandonment by possible causes of structural problems in the Fallopian tubes and
spouses. uterus. Risk factors for female infertility include smoking, stress,
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS poor diet, and older age, among others.

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 Diagnosing the cause(s) of a couple’s infertility generally requires 9. Describe two similarities between the causes of male and female
testing both the man and the woman for potential problems. For infertility.
men, semen is likely to be examined for adequate numbers of 10. True or False: A person who already has a biological child can
healthy, motile sperm. For women, signs of ovulation are suffer from infertility.
monitored, for example, with an ovulation test kit or ultrasound of 11. True or False: ART always involves fertilization outside of the
the ovaries. For both partners, the reproductive tract may be body.
medically imaged to look for blockages or other abnormalities. 12. Explain the difference between males and females in terms of how
Treatments for infertility depend on the cause. For example, if a age affects fertility.
medical problem is interfering with sperm production, medication 13. If a woman has no viable eggs, which method below is the most
may resolve the underlying problem so sperm production is likely to help her and her partner have a baby?
restored. Blockages in either the male or the female reproductive A. gestational carrier
tract can often be treated surgically. If there are problems with B. surrogate mother
ovulation, hormonal treatments may stimulate ovulation. C. in vitro fertilization
Some cases of infertility are treated with assisted reproductive D. in vivo fertilization
technology (ART). This is a collection of medical procedures in
14. Do you think that taking medication to stimulate ovulation is likely
which eggs and sperm are taken from the couple and manipulated
to improve fertility in cases where infertility is due to
in a lab to increase the chances of fertilization occurring and an
endometriosis? Explain your answer.
embryo forming. Other approaches for certain causes of infertility
15. If a semen sample shows no sperm, what is a possible cause?
include the use of a surrogate mother, gestational carrier, or sperm
A. blockage in the male reproductive tract
donation.
B. lack of spermatogenesis
Infertility can negatively impact a couple socially and
C. PCOS
psychologically, and it may be a major cause of marital friction or
D. A and B
even divorce. Infertility treatments may raise ethical issues relating
to the costs of the procedures and the status of embryos that are
EXPLORE MORE
created in vitro,but not used for pregnancy. Infertility is an under- https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17798#Explore_More
appreciated problem in developing countries, where birth rates are
high and children have high economic — as well as social — value. ATTRIBUTIONS
In these countries, poor health care is likely to lead to more 1. Family Portrait by taylormackenzie via flickr.com CC BY-SA 2.0
problems with infertility and fewer options for treatment. 2. Causes of infertility by Häggström, Mikael (2014). "Medical
gallery of Mikael Häggström 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
REVIEW DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.008. ISSN 2002-4436. Public Domain.
1. What is infertility? How is infertility defined scientifically and via Wikimedia Commons
medically? 3. Pelvic Inflammatory Disease by Blausen.com staff (2014).
2. What percentage of infertility in couples is due to male infertility? "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of
What percentage is due to female infertility? Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.
3. Identify causes of and risk factors for male infertility. CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
4. Identify causes of and risk factors for female infertility. 4. Assisted Reproductive Technology by Blausen.com staff (2014).
5. How are the causes of infertility in couples diagnosed? "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of
6. How is infertility treated? Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-
7. Discuss some of the social and ethical issues associated with 4436. CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
infertility or its treatment. 5. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
8. Why is infertility an under-appreciated problem in developing 3.0
countries?

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22.11: CONTRACEPTION
FAMILY PLANNING PIONEER
Her name was Marie Stopes, and she was a British author and
WHAT IS CONTRACEPTION?
paleobotanist who lived from 1880 to 1958. She is pictured here in About a century after Married Love, more than half of all fertile
her lab next to her microscope. Stopes made significant married couples worldwide use some form of contraception.
contributions to science and was the first woman on the faculty of Contraception, also known as birth control, is any method or device
the University of Manchester in England. Her primary claim to used to prevent pregnancy. Birth control methods have been used for
fame was her work as a family planning pioneer. centuries, but safe and effective methods only became available in the
20th century, in part because of the work of people like Marie Stopes.
Many different birth control methods are currently available, but they
differ considerably in their effectiveness at preventing pregnancy. The
effectiveness of contraception is generally expressed as the failure rate,
which is the percentage of women who become pregnant using a given
method during the first year of use. Virtually no one uses any method
of birth control perfectly, so the failure rate with typical use is almost
always higher — and often much higher — than the failure rate with
perfect use. For example, with the perfect use, a birth control method
might have a failure rate of just one percent, whereas, with typical use,
Figure 22.11.1: Marie Stopes in her laboratory in 1904 the failure rate might be 25 percent. For comparison, there is an
Along with her husband, Stopes founded the first birth control average one-year pregnancy rate of 85 percent if no contraception is
clinic in Britain. She also edited a newsletter called Birth Control used.
News, which gave explicit practical advice on how to avoid All methods of birth control have potential adverse effects, but their
unwanted pregnancies. In 1918, she published a sex manual titled health risks are less than the health risks associated with pregnancy.
Married Love. The book was controversial and influential, bringing Using contraception to space the children in a family is also good for
the subject of contraception into wide public discourse for the first the children’s health and development, as well as for the health of the
time. mother.

Figure 22.11.2: A comparison of different contraceptive methods and devices in terms of their effectiveness at preventing pregnancies with
typical use
Types of birth control methods include barrier methods, hormonal
TYPES OF CONTRACEPTION AND THEIR methods, intrauterine devices, behavioral methods, and sterilization.
EFFECTIVENESS
With the exception of sterilization, all of these methods are reversible.

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Examples of each type of birth control method and their failure rates HORMONAL METHODS
with typical use are described below. Much of the information is also Hormonal contraception is the administration of hormones to prevent
summarized in Figure 22.11.2. ovulation. Hormones can be taken orally in birth control pills,
implanted under the skin, injected into a muscle, or received
BARRIER METHODS transdermally from a skin patch.
Barrier methods are devices that are used to physically block sperm
Hormonal methods are currently available only for individuals with
from entering the uterus. They include condoms and diaphragms.
uterus and ovaries. Birth control pills are the most common form of
CONDOMS hormonal contraception. There are two types of pills: the combined pill
Condoms are the most commonly used method of birth control (which contains both estrogen and progesterone) and the progesterone-
globally. There are condoms for vaginas and penises, but penis only pill. Both types of pills inhibit ovulation and thicken cervical
condoms are more widely used, less expensive, and more readily mucus. The failure rate of birth control pills is only about one percent
available. Both types of condoms are pictured in Figure 22.11.3. or less if used perfectly. However, the failure rate rises to about ten
percent with typical use, because individuals do not always remember
to take the pill at the same time every day. The combined pill is
associated with a slightly increased risk of blood clots, but a reduced
risk of ovarian and endometrial cancers. The progesterone-only pill
does not increase the risk of blood clots, but it may cause irregular
menstrual periods. It may take a few weeks or even months for fertility
to return to normal after long-term use of birth control pills.

Figure 22.11.3: (left) Rolled up penis condom. (right) An unrolled INTRAUTERINE DEVICES
vagina condom An intrauterine device (IUD) is a T-shaped or coiled plastic structure
Whichever type of condom is used, it must be put in place before that is inserted into the uterus via the vagina and cervix that contains
sexual intercourse occurs. Condoms work by physically blocking either copper or a hormone. You can see an IUD in the uterus in the
ejaculated sperm from entering the vagina of the sexual partner. With drawing in Figure 22.11.5. An IUD is inserted by a physician and may
typical use, penis condoms have an 18 percent failure rate, and vagina be left in place for months or even years. A physician also must
condoms have a 21 percent failure rate. Unlike virtually all other birth remove an IUD, using the strings attached to the device. The copper in
control methods, condoms also help prevent the spread of sexually copper IUDs prevents pregnancy by interfering with the movement of
transmitted infections (STIs), in addition to helping to prevent sperm so they cannot reach and fertilize an egg. The copper may also
pregnancy. prevent implantation in the unlikely circumstance of a sperm managing
to reach and fertilize an egg.
DIAPHRAGMS
Diaphragms, like the one in Figure 22.11.4, ideally prevent sperm
from passing through the cervical canal and into the uterus. A
diaphragm is inserted vaginally before sexual intercourse occurs and
must be placed over the cervix to be effective. It is usually
recommended that a diaphragm be covered with spermicide before
insertion for extra protection. It is also recommended that the
diaphragm be left in place for at least six hours after intercourse. The
failure rate of diaphragms with typical use is about 12 percent, which is
about half that of condoms. However, diaphragms do not help prevent
the spread of STIs, and their use is also associated with an increased
frequency of urinary tract infections.

Figure 22.11.5: An IUD is placed inside the uterus by a doctor and left
in place to provide long-acting but reversible contraception.
The hormones in hormonal IUDs prevent pregnancy by thickening
cervical mucus and trapping sperm. The hormones may also interfere
with ovulation, so there is no egg to fertilize. For both types of IUDs,
the failure rates are less than one percent, and failure rates with typical
use are virtually the same as failure rates with perfect use. Their
effectiveness is one reason that IUDs are among the most widely used
forms of reversible contraception. Once removed, even after long-term
use, fertility returns to normal immediately. On the other hand, IUDs
do have a risk of complications, including increased menstrual
bleeding and more painful menstrual cramps. IUDs are also
occasionally expelled from the uterus, and there is a slight risk of
Figure 22.11.4: A diaphragm is pictured here beside a U.S. quarter
coin for size comparison. The diaphragm should fit snugly over the perforation of the uterus by the IUD.
cervix so it blocks sperm from entering the cervical canal.

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BEHAVIORAL METHODS Fertility awareness methods involve estimating the most fertile days
The least effective methods of contraception are behavioral methods. of the menstrual cycle and then avoiding unprotected vaginal
They involve regulating the timing or method of intercourse to prevent intercourse on those days. The most fertile days are generally a few
the introduction of sperm into the uterus, either altogether or when an days before ovulation occurs, the day of ovulation, and another day or
egg may be present. Behavioral methods include fertility awareness two after that. Unless unprotected sex occurs on those days, pregnancy
methods and withdrawal. Abstinence from sexual activity, or at least is unlikely. Techniques for estimating the most fertile days include
from vaginal intercourse, is sometimes considered a behavioral monitoring and detecting minor changes in basal body temperature or
method, as well — but it is unlikely to be practiced consistently enough cervical secretions. This requires daily motivation and diligence, so it
by most people to prevent pregnancy. Even teens who receive is not surprising that typical-use failure rates of these methods are at
abstinence-only sex education do not have reduced rates of pregnancy. least 20 to 25 percent, and for some individuals may be as high as
Abstinence is also ineffective in cases of non-consensual sex. using no contraception at all (85 percent).

FERTILITY AWARENESS METHODS

Figure 22.11.6: A woman’s basal body temperature rises slightly when ovulation occurs and stays slightly elevated until the start of the next
menstrual period.

Basal body temperature is the lowest body temperature when the body swim through the cervical canal). By recognizing the changing
is at rest (usually during sleep). It is most often estimated by a characteristics of cervical mucus, ovulation timing can be predicted.
temperature measurement taken immediately upon awakening in the From this information, it can be determined when to avoid unprotected
morning and before any physical activity has occurred. Basal body sex to prevent pregnancy.
temperature normally rises after ovulation occurs, as shown in Figure
WITHDRAWAL
22.11.6. The increase in temperature is small but consistent and may
Withdrawal (also called coitus interruptus) is the practice of
be used to determine when ovulation occurs, around which time
withdrawing the penis from the vagina before ejaculation occurs. The
unprotected intercourse should be avoided to prevent pregnancy.
main risk of the withdrawal method is that penis is not withdrawn in a
However, basal body temperature only shows when ovulation has
timely manner. The fluid typically released from the penis before
already occurred, and it cannot predict in advance when ovulation will
ejaculation occurs may also contain some sperm. In addition, if sperms
occur. Sperm can live for up to a week in the female reproductive tract,
are ejaculated just outside of the vagina, there is a chance they will be
so determining the occurrence of ovulation only after the fact is a
able to enter the vagina and travel up to fertilize an egg. For all these
major drawback of this method.
reasons, the withdrawal method has a relatively high failure rate of
Monitoring cervical mucus has the potential for being more effective
about 22 percent with typical use.
than monitoring basal body temperature because it can predict
ovulation ahead of time. As ovulation approaches, cervical secretions STERILIZATION
usually increase in the amount and become thinner (which helps sperm

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 More than half of all fertile couples worldwide use contraception
(birth control), which is any method or device used to prevent
pregnancy. Different methods of contraception vary in their
effectiveness, typically expressed as the failure rate, or the
percentage of women who become pregnant using a given method
during the first year of use. For most methods, the failure rate with
typical use is much higher than the failure rate with perfect use.
Types of birth control methods include barrier methods, hormonal
methods, intrauterine devices, behavioral methods, and sterilization.
Except for sterilization, all of the methods are reversible. All of the
methods have health risks, but they are less than the risks of
pregnancy.
Figure 22.11.7: The red line (F) shows where each vas deferens (K) is Barrier methods are devices that block sperm from entering the
clamped or cut in a vasectomy. The other structures are A. penis, B. uterus. They include condoms and diaphragms. Of all birth control
urethra, C. scrotum, D. testis, E. epididymis, G. prostate, H. seminal
vesicle, I. bladder, J. pubic bone methods, only condoms can also prevent the spread of sexually
transmitted infections.
The most effective contraceptive method is sterilization. In both sexes, Hormonal methods involve the administration of hormones to
sterilization generally involves surgical procedures that are considered prevent ovulation. Hormones can be administered in various ways,
irreversible. Additional surgery may be able to reverse a sterilization such as in an injection, through a skin patch, or — most commonly
procedure, but there are no guarantees. Male sterilization is generally — in birth control pills. There are two types of birth control pills:
less invasive and less risky than female sterilization. those that contain estrogen and progesterone, and those that contain
only progesterone. Both types are equally effective, but they have
MALE STERILIZATION
different potential side effects.
Male sterilization is usually achieved with a vasectomy. In this
An intrauterine device (IUD) is a small T-shaped plastic structure
surgery, the vas deferens from each testis is clamped, cut, or otherwise
containing copper or a hormone that is inserted into the uterus by a
sealed (Figure 22.11.8). This prevents sperm from traveling from the
physician and left in place for months or even years. It is highly
epididymis to the ejaculatory ducts and being ejaculated from the
effective even with typical use, but it does have some risks, such as
penis. The same amount of semen will still be ejaculated, but it will not
increased menstrual bleeding and, rarely, perforation of the uterus.
contain any sperm, making fertilization impossible. After a vasectomy,
Behavioral methods involve regulating the timing or method of
the testes continue to produce sperm, but the sperms are reabsorbed. It
intercourse to prevent the introduction of sperm into the female
usually takes several months after a vasectomy for all remaining sperm
reproductive tract, either altogether or when an egg may be present.
to be ejaculated or reabsorbed. In the meantime, another method of
In fertility awareness methods, unprotected intercourse is avoided
birth control should be used.
during the most fertile days of the cycle, as estimated by basal body
FEMALE STERILIZATION temperature or the characteristics of cervical mucus. In withdrawal
The procedure undertaken for female sterilization is usually tubal (coitus interruptus), the penis is withdrawn from the vagina before
ligation. The Fallopian tubes may be tied or cut in a surgical ejaculation occurs. Behavioral methods are the least effective
procedure, which permanently blocks the tubes. Alternatively, tiny methods of contraception.
metal implants may be inserted into the Fallopian tubes in a Sterilization is the most effective contraceptive method, but it
nonsurgical procedure. Over time, scar tissue grows around the requires a surgical procedure and may be irreversible. Male sterility
implants and permanently blocks the tubes. Either method stops eggs is usually achieved with a vasectomy, in which the vas deferens are
from traveling from the ovaries through the Fallopian tubes, where clamped or cut to prevent sperm from being ejaculated in semen.
fertilization usually takes place. Female sterility is usually achieved with a tubal ligation, in which
the Fallopian tubes are clamped or cut to prevent sperm from
EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION reaching and fertilizing eggs.
Emergency contraception is any form of contraception used after
Emergency contraception is any form of contraception that is used
unprotected vaginal intercourse. One method is the “morning after”
after unprotected vaginal intercourse. One method is the so-called
pill, which is a high-dose birth control pill that can be taken up to
“morning-after” pill. This is essentially a high-dose birth control pill
five days after unprotected sex. Another method is an IUD, which
that helps prevent pregnancy by temporarily preventing ovulation. It
can be inserted up to five days after unprotected sex.
works only if ovulation has not already occurred, and when taken
within five days after unprotected sex. The sooner the pill is taken, the
REVIEW
more likely it is to work. Another method of emergency contraception
is the IUD. An IUD that is inserted up to five days after unprotected 1. Define contraception. Globally, how prevalent is the use of
sex can prevent nearly 100 percent of pregnancies. It keeps sperm from contraception by fertile married couples?
reaching and fertilizing an egg or inhibits implantation if an egg has 2. How is the effectiveness of contraceptive methods typically
already been fertilized. The IUD can then be left in place to prevent measured?
future pregnancies. 3. List five different types of birth control methods. Which (if any)
methods are reversible? Which (if any) methods can prevent the
SUMMARY spread of sexually transmitted infections, as well as pregnancies?
4. What are barrier methods? Give two examples.

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 5. Describe hormonal contraception. What is the most commonly used 12. If a newly developed method of contraception had a 35 percent
form of hormonal contraception? failure rate, would you consider this to be an effective method?
6. What is an IUD? Explain your answer.
7. Generally, describe behavioral methods of contraception, and 13. Which method of contraception prevents ovulation?\
identify two specific behavioral methods. A. female condom
8. Discuss sterilization as a birth control method. How is sterilization B. tubal ligation
typically achieved in males? In females? C. birth control pill
9. What is emergency contraception? When is it used? What are the D. fertility awareness method
two forms of emergency contraception?
14. True or False: A vasectomy prevents the production of sperm.
10. How does the thickness of cervical mucus relate to fertility? How
15. True or False: If a man and woman have unprotected intercourse
do two methods of contraception take advantage of this
four days before ovulation occurs, the woman cannot get pregnant.
relationship?
11. Arrange the following methods of contraception in order of typical EXPLORE MORE
effectiveness, from the least effective to most effective: birth https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17799#Explore_More
control pill; fertility awareness method; IUD; male condom

ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Marie Stopes, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
2. Effectiveness of Contraceptive Methods by Center for Disease Control, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
3. Condom rolled by Tom Hannen, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
Female condom by Anka Grzywacz, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
4. contraceptive diaphragm by Axfean2, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
5. Intrauterine Device (IUD) by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
6. Menstrual cycle by Isometrik, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
7. Vasectomy by Rhcastilhos, CC0 via Wikimedia Commons
8. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0

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22.12: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: TRYING TO CONCEIVE AND CHAPTER
SUMMARY
fertility and is used as part of a more comprehensive fertility
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: TRYING TO assessment by some physicians.
CONCEIVE Dr. Bashir also recommended that Isabella use a home ovulation
The person in Figure 22.12.1 is holding a home pregnancy test. The predictor kit. This is another relatively cheap and easy way to assess
two pink lines in the middle are the type of result that Isabella and ovulation. Most ovulation predictor kits work by detecting the hormone
Omar are desperately hoping to see themselves one day—a positive LH in urine using test strips, like the ones shown in Figure 22.12.2.
pregnancy test. At the beginning of the chapter, you learned that Why can this predict ovulation? Think about what you have learned
Isabella and Omar have been actively trying to get pregnant for a year, about how ovulation is triggered. Rising levels of estrogen from the
which, as you now know, is the timeframe necessary for infertility to maturing follicle in the ovary causes a surge in the level of LH secreted
be diagnosed. from the pituitary gland, which triggers ovulation. This surge in LH
can be detected by the home kit, which compares the level of LH
in urine to that of a control on the strip. After the LH surge is detected,
ovulation will typically occur within one to two days.

Figure 22.12.1: Pregnancy test

Isabella and Omar tried having sexual intercourse on day 14 of her
menstrual cycle to optimize their chances of having his sperm meet her
egg. Why might this not be successful, even if they do not have fertility
Figure 22.12.2: Ovulation test strips. The pink line towards the right in
problems? As you have learned, although the average menstrual cycle
both strips is the control line that is used as a comparison to the test
is 28 days, with ovulation occurring around day 14, many women vary line that detects LH in the woman’s urine, located to the left of the
widely from these averages (either consistently or variably) from control line. In the top strip, the test line is barely visible, indicating
month to month. Recall, for example, that menstrual cycles may vary that LH levels are low. In the bottom strip, the light pink line on the left
from 21 to 45 days in length, and a woman’s cycle is considered to be indicates that the level of LH is starting to increase. When the test line
regular if it varies within as many as eight days from shortest to longest is equal in intensity to, or darker than, the control line, the LH surge is
cycle. This variability means that ovulation often does not occur on or likely occurring.
around day 14, particularly if the woman has significantly shorter,
By tracking her BBT and using the ovulation predictor kit, Isabella has
longer, or irregular cycles—as Isabella does. Therefore, by aiming for
learned that she is most likely ovulating—but not in every cycle, and
day 14 without knowing when Isabella is actually ovulating, they may
sometimes she ovulates much later than day 14. Because frequent
not be successful in helping Omar’s sperm encounter Isabella’s egg.
anovulatory cycles can be a sign of an underlying hormonal disorder,
Lack of ovulation entirely can also cause variability in menstrual cycle such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) or problems with the
length. As you have learned, the regulation of the menstrual cycle pituitary or other glands that regulate the reproductive system, Dr.
depends on an interplay of hormones from the pituitary and ovary, Bashir orders blood tests for Isabella and sets up an appointment for a
including FSH and LH from the pituitary and estrogen and physical exam.
progesterone from the ovary—specifically from the follicle which
But because Isabella is sometimes ovulating, the problem may not lie
surrounds the maturing egg and becomes the corpus luteum after
solely with her. Recall that infertility occurs in equal proportions in all
ovulation. Shifts in these hormones and processes can affect ovulation
sexes, and can be due to problems in both partners. This is why it is
and menstrual cycle length. This is why Isabella was concerned about
generally recommended that both partners get assessed for fertility
her long and irregular menstrual cycles. If there is a sign that she is not
issues when they are having trouble getting pregnant after a year of
ovulating, that could be the reason why she is having trouble getting
trying.
pregnant.
Therefore, Omar proceeds with the semen analysis that Dr. Bashir
In order to get a better idea of whether Isabella is ovulating, Dr. Bashir
recommended. In this process, the man provides a semen sample by
recommended that she take her basal body temperature (BBT) each
ejaculating into a cup or special condom, and the semen is then
morning before getting out of bed, and track it throughout her
examined under a microscope. As you have learned, the semen is then
menstrual cycle. As you have learned, BBT typically rises slightly and
checked for sperm number, shape, and motility. Sperm with an
stays high after ovulation. While tracking BBT is not a particularly
abnormal shape or trouble moving will likely have trouble reaching
effective form of contraception, since the temperature rise occurs only
and fertilizing an egg. A low amount of sperm will also reduce the
after ovulation, it can be a good way to see whether a person is
chances of conception. In this way, a semen analysis can provide
ovulating at all. Although not every individual will see a clear shift in
insight into the possible underlying causes of infertility. For instance, a
BBT after ovulation, it is a relatively easy way to start assessing
low sperm count could indicate problems in sperm production or a

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blockage that is preventing sperm from being emitted from the penis. CHAPTER SUMMARY
Further testing would have to be done to dissociate between these two In this chapter, you learned about the male and female reproductive
possible causes. systems. Specifically, you learned that:
The reproductive system is the human organ system responsible for
the production and fertilization of gametes and the carrying of a
fetus.
Both male and female reproductive systems have organs called
gonads (testes in males, ovaries in females) that produce gametes
(sperm or eggs) and sex hormones (such as testosterone and
estrogen). Sex hormones are endocrine hormones that control the
prenatal development of sex organs, sexual maturation at puberty,
and reproduction after puberty.
The reproductive system is the only organ system that is
significantly different between male and female sexes. A Y-
chromosome gene called SRY is responsible for undifferentiated
embryonic tissues developing into a male reproductive system.
Without a Y chromosome, the undifferentiated embryonic tissues
develop into a female reproductive system.
Male and female reproductive systems are different at birth but
immature and nonfunctioning. Maturation of the reproductive
system occurs during puberty when hormones from the
hypothalamus and pituitary gland stimulate the gonads to produce
sex hormones again. The sex hormones, in turn, cause the changes
of puberty.
Figure 22.12.3 : The image compares normal sperm to malformed Male reproductive system organs include the testes, epididymis,
sperm penis, vas deferens, prostate gland, and seminal vesicles.
Omar had been worried that past injuries to his testes may have The two testes are sperm- and testosterone-producing male
affected his fertility. As you have learned, the testes are where sperm gonads. They are contained within the scrotum, a pouch that
are produced, and because they are external to the body, they are hangs down behind the penis. The testes are filled with
vulnerable to injury. In addition to physical damage to the testes and hundreds of tiny, tightly coiled seminiferous tubules, where
other parts of the male reproductive tract, a testicular injury could sperm are produced. The tubules contain sperm in different
potentially cause the creation of antibodies against a person's own stages of development, as well as Sertoli cells, which secrete
sperm. As you have learned, Sertoli cells lining the seminiferous substances needed for sperm production. Between the tubules
tubules are tightly packed so that the developing sperm are normally are Leydig cells, which secrete testosterone.
well-separated from the body’s immune system. However, in the case The two epididymes are contained within the scrotum. Each
of an injury, this barrier can be breached, which can cause the creation epididymis is a tightly coiled tubule where sperms mature and
of anti-sperm antibodies. These antibodies can hamper fertility by are stored until they leave the body during an ejaculation.
killing the sperm or otherwise interfering with their ability to move or The two vas deferens are long, thin tubes that run from the
fertilize an egg. When infertility is due to such antibodies, it is called scrotum up into the pelvis. During ejaculation, each vas
“immune infertility.” deferens carries sperm from one of the epididymes to one of the
However, Omar’s semen analysis shows that he has normal numbers of pair of ejaculatory ducts.
healthy sperm. Dr. Bashir recommends that while they investigate The two seminal vesicles are glands within the pelvis that
whether Isabella has an underlying medical issue, she continues to secrete fluid through ducts into the junction of each vas deferens
track her BBT and use ovulation predictor kits to try to pinpoint when and ejaculatory duct. This alkaline fluid makes up about 70
she is ovulating. She recommends that once Isabella sees an LH surge, percent of semen, the sperm-containing fluid that leaves the
the couple try to have intercourse within three days to maximize their penis during ejaculation. Semen contains substances and
chances of conception. If Isabella is found to have a medical problem nutrients that sperm need to survive and “swim” in the female
that is inhibiting ovulation, depending on what it is, they may either reproductive tract.
address the problem directly, or she can take medication that stimulates The prostate gland is located just below the seminal vesicles and
ovulation, such as clomiphene citrate (often sold under the brand name surrounds the urethra and its junction with the ejaculatory ducts.
Clomid). This medication works by increasing the amount of FSH The prostate secretes an alkaline fluid that makes up close to 30
secreted by the pituitary. percent of semen. The prostatic fluid contains a high
Fortunately, tracking ovulation at home and timing intercourse concentration of zinc, which sperm need to be healthy and
appropriately was all Isabella and Omar needed to do to finally get motile.
pregnant! After their experience, they, like you, now have a much The ejaculatory ducts form where the vas deferens joins with the
deeper understanding of the intricacies of the reproductive system and ducts of the seminal vesicles in the prostate gland. They connect
the complex biology that is involved in the making of a new human the vas deferens with the urethra. The ejaculatory ducts carry
organism.

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 sperm from the vas deferens whereas the secretions from the the penis. Vacuum pumps or penile implants may be used to
seminal vesicles and prostate gland form semen. treat ED if other types of treatment fail.
The paired bulbourethral glands are located just below the Epididymitis is inflammation of the epididymis. It is a common
prostate gland. They secrete a tiny amount of fluid into semen. disorder, especially in young men. It may be acute or chronic
The secretions help lubricate the urethra and neutralize any and is often caused by a bacterial infection. Treatments may
acidic urine it may contain. include antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs, and painkillers.
The penis is the external male organ that has the reproductive Treatment is important to prevent the possible spread of
function of intromission, which is delivering sperm to the infection, permanent damage to the epididymis or testes, and
female reproductive tract. The penis also serves as the organ that even infertility.
excretes urine. The urethra passes through the penis and carries Prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer in men and
urine or semen out of the body. Internally, the penis consists the second leading cause of cancer death in men. If there are
largely of columns of spongy tissue that can fill with blood and symptoms, they typically involve urination, such as frequent or
make the penis stiff and erect. This is necessary for sexual painful urination. Risk factors for prostate cancer include older
intercourse so intromission can occur. age, family history, high-meat diet, and sedentary lifestyle,
Parts of a mature sperm include the head, acrosome, midpiece, and among others.
flagellum. The process of producing sperm is called Prostate cancer may be detected by a physical exam or a
spermatogenesis. This normally starts during puberty and continues high level of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in the blood,
uninterrupted until death. but a biopsy is required for a definitive diagnosis. Prostate
Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules in the testes cancer is typically diagnosed relatively late in life and is
and requires high concentrations of testosterone. Sertoli cells in usually slow growing, so no treatment may be necessary. In
the testes play many roles in spermatogenesis, including younger patients or those with faster-growing tumors,
concentrating testosterone under the influence of follicle- treatment is likely to include surgery to remove the prostate,
stimulating hormone (FSH) from the pituitary gland. followed by chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy.
Spermatogenesis begins with a diploid stem cell called a Testicular cancer, or cancer of the testes, is the most common
spermatogonium, which undergoes mitosis to produce a primary cancer in males between the ages of 20 and 39 years. It is more
spermatocyte. The primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis I to common in males of European than African ancestry. A lump or
produce haploid secondary spermatocytes, and these cells in- swelling in one testis, fluid in the scrotum, and testicular pain or
turn, undergo meiosis II to produce spermatids. After the tenderness are possible signs and symptoms of testicular cancer.
spermatids grow a tail and undergo other changes, they become Testicular cancer can be diagnosed by a physical exam and
sperm. diagnostic tests, such as ultrasound or blood tests. Testicular
Before sperms are able to “swim,” they must mature in the cancer has one of the highest cure rates of all cancers. It is
epididymis. The mature sperms are then stored in the typically treated with surgery to remove the affected testis,
epididymis until ejaculation occurs. and this may be followed by radiation therapy, and/or
Ejaculation is the process in which semen is propelled by peristalsis chemotherapy. Normal male reproductive functions are still
in the vas deferens and ejaculatory ducts from the urethra in the possible after one testis is removed if the remaining testis is
penis. healthy.
Leydig cells in the testes secrete testosterone under the control of
The female reproductive system is made up of internal and external
luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland. Testosterone is
organs that function to produce haploid female gametes called eggs,
needed for male sexual development and to maintain normal
secrete female sex hormones (such as estrogen), and carry and give
spermatogenesis after puberty. It also plays a role in the prostatatic
birth to a fetus.
function and the ability of the penis to become erect.
Female reproductive system organs include the ovaries, Fallopian
Disorders of the male reproductive system include erectile
tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, and labia.
dysfunction (ED), epididymitis, prostate cancer, and testicular
The vagina is an elastic, muscular canal that can accommodate
cancer.
the penis. It is where sperm are usually ejaculated during sexual
ED is a disorder characterized by the regular and repeated
intercourse. The vagina is also the birth canal, and it channels
inability of a sexually mature male to obtain and maintain an
the flow of menstrual blood from the uterus. A healthy vagina
erection. ED is a common disorder that occurs when normal
has a balance of symbiotic bacteria and an acidic pH.
blood flow to the penis is disturbed or there are problems with
The uterus is a muscular organ above the vagina where a fetus
the nervous control of penile engorgement or arousal.
develops. Its muscular walls contract to push out the fetus
Possible physiological causes of ED include aging, illness, during childbirth. The cervix is the neck of the uterus that
drug use, tobacco smoking, and obesity, among others. extends down into the vagina. It contains a canal connecting the
Possible psychological causes of ED include stress, vagina and uterus for sperm or an infant to pass through. The
performance anxiety, and mental disorders. innermost layer of the uterus, the endometrium, thickens each
Treatments for ED may include lifestyle changes, such as month in preparation for an embryo but is shed in the following
stopping smoking and adopting a healthier diet and regular menstrual period if fertilization does not occur.
exercise. However, the first-line treatment is prescription The Fallopian tubes extend from the uterus to the ovaries.
drugs such as Viagra® or Cialis® that increase blood flow to Waving fimbriae at the ovary ends of the Fallopian tubes guide
ovulated eggs into the tubes where fertilization may occur as the

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 eggs travel to the uterus. Cilia and peristalsis help eggs move oxytocin from the posterior pituitary, which causes the flow of
through the tubes. Tubular fluid helps nourish sperm as they milk. The release of milk stimulates the baby to continue sucking,
swim up the tubes toward eggs. which in turn keeps the milk flowing. This is one of the few
The ovaries are gonads that produce eggs and secrete sex examples of positive feedback in the human organism.
hormones including estrogen. Nests of cells called follicles in The ovaries produce female sex hormones, including estrogen and
the ovarian cortex are the functional units of ovaries. Each progesterone. Estrogen is responsible for sexual maturation and
follicle surrounds an immature egg. At birth, a baby girl’s secondary sex characteristics at puberty. It is also needed to help
ovaries contain at least a million eggs, and they will not produce regulate the menstrual cycle and ovulation after puberty until
any more during her lifetime. One egg matures and is typically menopause. Progesterone prepares the uterus for pregnancy each
ovulated each month during a woman’s reproductive years. month during the menstrual cycle and helps maintain the pregnancy
The vulva is a general term for external female reproductive if fertilization occurs.
organs. The vulva includes the clitoris, two pairs of labia, and The menstrual cycle refers to natural changes that occur in the
openings for the urethra and vagina. Secretions from Bartholin’s female reproductive system each month during the reproductive
glands near the vaginal opening lubricate the vulva. years, except when a woman is pregnant. The cycle is necessary for
The breasts are technically not reproductive organs, but their the production of eggs and the preparation of the uterus for
mammary glands produce milk to feed an infant after birth. pregnancy. It involves changes in both the ovaries and uterus and is
Milk drains through ducts and sacs and out through the nipple controlled by pituitary hormones (FSH and LH) and ovarian
when a baby sucks. hormones (estrogen and progesterone).
Oogenesis is the process of producing eggs in the ovaries of a The female reproductive period is delineated by menarche, or
female fetus. Oogenesis begins when a diploid oogonium divides the first menstrual period, which usually occurs around age 12
by mitosis to produce a diploid primary oocyte. The primary oocyte or 13; and by menopause, or the cessation of menstrual periods,
begins meiosis I and then remains at this stage in an immature which typically occurs around age 52. A typical menstrual cycle
ovarian follicle until after birth. averages 28 days in length but may vary normally from 21 to 45
After puberty, one follicle a month matures and its primary oocyte days. The average menstrual period is five days long but may
completes meiosis I to produce a secondary oocyte, which begins vary normally from two to seven days. These variations in the
meiosis II. During ovulation, the mature follicle bursts open and the menstrual cycle may occur both between women and within
secondary oocyte leaves the ovary and enters a Fallopian tube. individual women from month to month.
While a follicle is maturing in an ovary each month, the The events of the menstrual cycle that take place in the ovaries
endometrium in the uterus is building up to prepare for an embryo. make up the ovarian cycle. It includes the follicular phase, when
Around the time of ovulation, cervical mucus becomes thinner and a follicle and its egg mature due to rising levels of FSH;
more alkaline to help sperm reach the secondary oocyte. ovulation, when the egg is released from the ovary due to a rise
If the secondary oocyte is fertilized by a sperm, it quickly in estrogen and a surge in LH; and the luteal phase, when the
completes meiosis II and forms a diploid zygote, which will follicle is transformed into a structure called a corpus luteum
continue through the Fallopian tube. The zygote will go through that secretes progesterone. In a 28-day menstrual cycle, the
multiple cell divisions before reaching and implanting in the uterus. follicular and luteal phases typically average about two weeks in
If the secondary oocyte is not fertilized, it will not complete meiosis length, with ovulation generally occurring around day 14 of the
II, and will soon disintegrate. cycle.
Pregnancy is the carrying of one or more offspring from The events of the menstrual cycle that take place in the uterus
fertilization until birth. The maternal organism must provide all the make up the uterine cycle. It includes menstruation, which
nutrients and other substances needed by the developing offspring, generally occurs on days 1 to 5 of the cycle and involves
and also remove its wastes. She should also avoid exposures that shedding of endometrial tissue that built up during the preceding
could potentially damage the offspring, especially early in the cycle; the proliferative phase, during which the endometrium
pregnancy when organ systems are developing. builds up again until ovulation occurs; and the secretory phase,
The average duration of pregnancy is 40 weeks (from the first which follows ovulation and during which the endometrium
day of the last menstrual period) and is divided into three secretes substances and undergoes other changes that prepare it
trimesters of about three months each. Each trimester is to receive an embryo.
associated with certain events and conditions that a pregnant Disorders of the female reproductive system include cervical
woman may expect, such as morning sickness during the first cancer, vaginitis, and endometriosis.
trimester, feeling fetal movements for the first time during the Cervical cancer occurs when cells of the cervix grow
second trimester, and rapid weight gain in both fetus and mother abnormally and develop the ability to invade nearby tissues, or
during the third trimester. spread to other parts of the body. Worldwide, cervical cancer is
Labor, which is the general term for the birth process, usually the second-most common type of cancer in females and the
begins around the time the amniotic sac breaks and its fluid fourth-most common cause of cancer death in females. Early on,
leaks out. Labor occurs in three stages: dilation of the cervix, cervical cancer often has no symptoms; later, symptoms such as
the birth of the baby, and delivery of the placenta (afterbirth). abnormal vaginal bleeding and pain are likely.
The physiological function of female breasts is lactation or the Most cases of cervical cancer occur because of infection
production of breastmilk to feed an infant. Sucking on the breast by with human papillomavirus (HPV), so the HPV vaccine is
the infant stimulates the release of the hypothalamic hormone expected to greatly reduce the incidence of the disease.

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 Other risk factors include smoking and a weakened immune Treatments for infertility depend on the cause. For example, if a
system. A Pap smear can diagnose cervical cancer at an medical problem is interfering with sperm production,
early stage. Where Pap smears are done routinely, cervical medication may resolve the underlying problem so sperm
cancer death rates have fallen dramatically. Treatment of production is restored. Blockages in either the male or the
cervical cancer generally includes surgery, which may be female reproductive tract can often be treated surgically. If there
followed by radiation therapy or chemotherapy. are problems with ovulation, hormonal treatments may stimulate
Vaginitis is an inflammation of the vagina. A discharge is likely, ovulation.
and there may be itching and pain. About 90 percent of cases of Some cases of infertility are treated with assisted reproductive
vaginitis is caused by infection with microorganisms, typically technology (ART). This is a collection of medical procedures in
by the yeast Candida albicans. A minority of cases are caused which eggs and sperm are taken from the couple and
by irritants or allergens in products such as soaps, spermicides, manipulated in a lab to increase the chances of fertilization
or douches. occurring and an embryo forming. Other approaches for certain
causes of infertility include the use of a surrogate mother,
Diagnosis of vaginitis may be based on characteristics of the
gestational carrier, or sperm donation.
discharge, which can be examined microscopically or
cultured. Treatment of vaginitis depends on the cause and is Infertility can negatively impact a couple socially and
usually an oral or topical anti-fungal or antibiotic psychologically, and it may be a major cause of marital friction or
medication. even divorce. Infertility treatments may raise ethical issues relating
Endometriosis is a disease in which endometrial tissue grows to the costs of the procedures and the status of embryos that are
outside the uterus. This tissue may bleed during the menstrual created in vitro but not used for pregnancy. Infertility is an under-
period and cause inflammation, pain, and scarring. The main appreciated problem in developing countries where birth rates are
symptom of endometriosis is pelvic pain, which may be severe. high and children have high economic as well as a social value. In
Endometriosis may also lead to infertility. these countries, poor health care is likely to lead to more problems
with infertility and fewer options for treatment.
Endometriosis is thought to have multiple causes, including
More than half of all fertile couples worldwide use contraception
genetic mutations. Retrograde menstruation may be the
(birth control), which is any method or device used to prevent
immediate cause of endometrial tissue escaping the uterus
pregnancy. Different methods of contraception vary in their
and entering the pelvic cavity. Endometriosis is usually
effectiveness, typically expressed as the failure rate, or the
treated with surgery to remove the abnormal tissue and
percentage of women who become pregnant using a given method
medication for pain. If surgery is more conservative than
during the first year of use. For most methods, the failure rate with
hysterectomy, endometriosis may recur.
typical use is much higher than the failure rate with perfect use.
Infertility is the inability of a sexually mature adult to reproduce by Types of birth control methods include barrier methods, hormonal
natural means. It is defined scientifically and medically as the methods, intrauterine devices, behavioral methods, and sterilization.
failure to achieve a successful pregnancy after at least one year of Except for sterilization, all of the methods are reversible.
regular, unprotected sexual intercourse.
Barrier methods are devices that block sperm from entering the
About 30 percent of infertility in couples is due to female infertility,
uterus. They include condoms and diaphragms. Of all birth
and another 30 percent is due to male infertility. In the remaining
control methods, only condoms can also prevent the spread of
cases, a couple’s infertility is due to problems in both partners or to
sexually transmitted infections.
unknown causes.
Hormonal methods involve the administration of hormones to
Male infertility occurs when there are no or too few healthy, motile
prevent ovulation. Hormones can be administered in various
sperm. This may be caused by problems with spermatogenesis or
ways, such as in an injection, through a skin patch, or, most
by blockage of the male reproductive tract that prevents sperm from
commonly, in birth control pills. There are two types of birth
being ejaculated. Risk factors for male infertility include heavy
control pills: those that contain estrogen and progesterone, and
alcohol use, smoking, certain medications, and advancing age, to
those that contain only progesterone. Both types are equally
name just a few.
effective, but they have different potential side effects.
Female infertility occurs due to failure to produce viable eggs by
An intrauterine device (IUD) is a small T-shaped plastic
the ovaries or structural problems in the Fallopian tubes or uterus.
structure containing copper or a hormone that is inserted into the
Polycystic ovary syndrome is the most common cause of failure to
uterus by a physician and left in place for months or even years.
produce viable eggs. Endometriosis and uterine fibroids are
It is highly effective even with typical use, but it does have
possible causes of structural problems in the Fallopian tubes and
some risks, such as increased menstrual bleeding and, rarely,
uterus. Risk factors for female infertility include smoking, stress,
perforation of the uterus.
poor diet, and older age, among others.
Behavioral methods involve regulating the timing or method of
Diagnosing the cause(s) of a couple’s infertility generally requires
intercourse to prevent the introduction of sperm into the female
testing both the man and the woman for potential problems. For
reproductive tract, either altogether or when an egg may be
men, semen is likely to be examined for adequate numbers of
present. In the fertility awareness methods, unprotected
healthy, motile sperm. For women, signs of ovulation are
intercourse is avoided during the most fertile days of the cycle
monitored, for example, with an ovulation test kit or ultrasound of
as estimated by basal body temperature or the characteristics of
the ovaries. For both partners, the reproductive tract may be
cervical mucus. In withdrawal, the penis is withdrawn from the
medically imaged to look for blockages or other abnormalities.

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 vagina before ejaculation occurs. Behavioral methods are the 12. Progesterone is relatively high...
least effective methods of contraception. A. in the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle
Sterilization is the most effective contraceptive method, but it B. in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle
requires a surgical procedure and may be irreversible. Male C. during pregnancy
sterility is usually achieved with a vasectomy, in which the vas D. B and C
deferens are clamped or cut to prevent sperm from being
13. If a woman is checking her basal body temperature each morning as
ejaculated in semen. Female sterility is usually achieved with a
a form of contraception, and today is day 12 of her menstrual cycle
tubal ligation, in which the Fallopian tubes are clamped or cut to
and her basal body temperature is still low, is it safe for her to have
prevent sperm from reaching and fertilizing eggs.
unprotected sexual intercourse today? Why or why not?
Emergency contraception is any form of contraception that is
14. True or False: If a young woman does not get pregnant after nine
used after unprotected vaginal intercourse. One method is the
months of regular, unprotected intercourse, the couple will be
“morning after” pill, which is a high-dose birth control pill that
diagnosed with infertility.
can be taken up to five days after unprotected sex. Another
15. True or False: In the developing male fetus, the gonads start out as
method is an IUD, which can be inserted up to five days after
ovaries, but then differentiate into testes because of the Y
unprotected sex.
chromosome.
In this chapter, you learned how the male and female reproductive 16. True or False: A cause of endometriosis can be retrograde
systems work together to produce a zygote. In the next chapter, you menstruation, where some of the endometrial tissue flows backward
will learn about how the human organism grows and develops from the uterus out through the Fallopian tubes.
throughout life—from a zygote all the way through old age. 17. Where are sperm produced?
A. the seminal vesicles
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW B. the spermatogonium
1. Which glands produce semen? What is the rough percentage of C. the epididymis
each fluid in semen? D. the seminiferous tubules
2. What is one reason why semen's alkalinity assists in reproduction?
18. Which of the following methods of contraception is the most
3. True or False: The hormones FSH and LH are involved in effective, while also being reversible? A. withdrawal B. tubal
regulating the female reproductive system, but not the male ligation C. intrauterine device D. condoms
reproductive system. 19. Where is a diaphragm placed? How does it work to prevent
4. True or False: A majority of American males have some cancerous pregnancy?
cells in their prostate gland by age 80. 20. Why are the testes located outside of the body?
5. True or False: The secretory phase of the menstrual cycle is when
21. Why is it important to properly diagnose the causative agent when a
menstruation occurs. woman has vaginitis?
6. Menarche is: 22. True or False: When a baby nurses, the stimulation negatively
A. the part of the menstrual cycle known as a period feeds back to decrease milk flow to the nipple.
B. the first menstrual period 23. True or False: Part of the penis is located inside of the male body.
C. the conclusion of menstrual periods when a woman is around 50 24. What is the best description of what occurs at menopause?
D. an anovulatory menstrual cycle A. Eggs stop maturing in the ovaries on a monthly basis.
7. Where are sperm located when they develop tails? B. Oogenesis stops occurring.
A. the testes C. Ovulated eggs cannot be fertilized, so they are automatically
B. the epididymis reabsorbed.
C. the vas deferens D. The endometrium can no longer support a fetus, so fertilized
D. the seminal vesicles eggs cannot implant.
8. For each of the descriptions below, choose whether it applies to the 25. The transition from spermatid to sperm involves
male or female reproductive systems. A. mitosis
A. The gametes are present at birth. B. meiosis I
B. Gametogenesis begins at puberty. C. meiosis II
C. The gametes complete meiosis II upon fertilization. D. no cell division
D. The mature gametes have a reduced amount of cytoplasm. 26. Describe two ways in which sperm can move through the male
9. What are three things that pass through the cervical canal of and/or female reproductive tracts.
females, going in either direction?
10. If a man and a woman have unprotected vaginal intercourse, what ATTRIBUTIONS
are the structures of the female reproductive tract, in order, that 1. Dos Rayitas by Esparta Palma, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
sperm would move through? (Assume that these sperm do not die 2. Urine-based ovulation test by Sapp, public domain via Wikimedia
prematurely before they reach their final destination.) Commons
11. Other than where the cancer originates, what is one difference 3. Abnormal sperm by Xenzo, CC BY-SA 3.0, Wikimedia Commons
between the prostate and testicular cancer? 4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
23: HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
This chapter describes how the human organism grows and develops from fertilization through
death. The following stages of life are described in detail: germinal stage, embryonic stage, fetal
stage, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

23.1: CASE STUDY: HOW OUR BODIES CHANGE THROUGHOUT LIFE

Paul and Vanessa are shocked to discover that their toddler Lucas' blood lead level is 10 µg/dL,
which is considered high. Since Vanessa is three months pregnant, they are worried about whether
Vanessa was also exposed to lead. If so, what effects could it have on the developing baby?

23.2: GERMINAL STAGE

The germinal stage of development is the first and shortest of the stages of the human lifespan.
The main events in this stage of development are illustrated in the figure below and described in detail in the rest of this concept. The
germinal stage lasts a total of eight to nine days. It begins in a Fallopian tube when an ovum is fertilized by a sperm to form a zygote
(day 0). The germinal stage continues as the zygote undergoes several initial cell divisions to a morula.

23.3: EMBRYONIC STAGE

In many cultures, marriage - along with birth and death - is considered the most pivotal life event. For pioneering developmental
biologist Lewis Wolpert, however, these life events are overrated. According to Wolpert, "It is not birth, marriage, or death, but
gastrulation, which is truly the most important time in your life." Gastrulation is a major biological event that occurs early in the
embryonic stage of human development.

23.4: FETAL STAGE

This mother-to-be is holding an ultrasound image of her fetus. She is nearly nine months pregnant, so the fetus is fully developed and
almost ready to be born. The fetus has grown tremendously and changed in many other ways since it was a tiny embryo seven months
previously.

23.5: INFANCY
Infancy refers to the first year of life after birth, and an infant is defined as a human being between birth and the first birthday. The
term baby is usually considered synonymous with infant, although it is commonly applied to the young of other animals, as well as
humans. Human infants seem weak and helpless at birth, but they are actually born with a surprising range of abilities. Most of their
senses are quite well developed, and they can also communicate their needs by crying.

23.6: CHILDHOOD
Legally, childhood is defined as the period of minority, which lasts from birth until adulthood (majority). The age of majority varies
by place and purpose. For example, in the United States, at age 18, you are considered an adult for military service, but a minor for
buying alcohol. Biologically, childhood is defined as the stage of a human organism between birth and adolescence.

23.7: ADOLESCENCE AND PUBERTY

Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood. It is generally considered to start with puberty, during
which sexual maturation occurs and adolescents go through a spurt in growth. In many children, however, puberty actually begins
during the stage called pre-adolescence, which covers the ages 11 to 12 years. Puberty may begin before adolescence, but it usually
continues for several years, well into the adolescent stage, which ends during the late teens.

23.8: ADULTHOOD
This family image includes an elderly woman and her young-adult daughters and granddaughters from the Hmong ethnic group in
Laos. Grandmother and daughters are adults, but they are obviously far apart in age. What ages define the beginning and end of
adulthood?

23.9: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: LEAD DANGER AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

Earlier in this chapter, you met Paul, Vanessa, and Lucas, who were concerned by elevated levels of lead in Lucas' blood. Many
experts agree that preventing lead exposure and more widespread blood lead level screening is critical to prevent permanent damage
to children’s health. Infancy and early childhood is a wonderful time of tremendous growth and change in a person’s lifespan, but it is
also a time that is highly vulnerable to damage—with potential lifelong consequences.

1 4/25/2021
23.1: CASE STUDY: HOW OUR BODIES CHANGE THROUGHOUT LIFE
CASE STUDY: LEAD DANGER
Instead of using a phone to make a call, the infant in Figure 23.1.1 is
using it for a purpose more suited to their current stage of life—to
relieve the pain of teething. Although this may look cute, the tendency
that infants and young children have of putting objects in their mouths
makes them particularly vulnerable to being exposed to toxic
substances in their environment that can seriously—and sometimes
permanently—damage their health.

Figure 23.1.1 : Baby with a phone in its mouth

One such toxic substance is lead. Lead is a metal that can be found
throughout the environment—including inside homes—and is toxic to Figure 23.1.2 : Lead can be found in paint, water pipes, jewelry, home
remedies, etc.
humans. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC), there are about a half million children in the U.S. between the Lead exposure in infants and young children can cause a variety of
ages of one and five who have blood lead levels above 5 micrograms adverse health effects, some of which may not be noticeable until later
per deciliter (µg/dL), the level at which steps should be taken to reduce in childhood. These effects include developmental delays, lower IQ,
lead exposure. There is no known safe blood level of lead in children. hyperactivity, behavior and learning problems, slowed growth, hearing
problems, and anemia. When there is a very high level of exposure,
This is why Paul, the father of a toddler named Lucas, brings Lucas to
serious immediate consequences of lead poisoning can occur, such as
his pediatrician, Dr. Morrison, to test his blood for lead. Eighteen-
seizures, coma, and even death.
month-old Lucas seems to be healthy, but the detrimental effects of
lead exposure are often not apparent until later in life, so many medical Paul and Vanessa are very concerned, not only for Lucas but also
professionals routinely screen children for lead toxicity between the because Vanessa is three months pregnant. They are worried about
ages of one and two. whether Vanessa was also exposed to lead. If so, what effects could it
have on the developing baby? Dr. Morrison shares their concern and
Paul and his wife Vanessa are shocked to find out that Lucas’ blood
strongly recommends that Vanessa get her blood tested for lead. Paul
lead level is 10 µg/dL, which is considered high. Medical treatment for
wonders if he should get tested, as well. Dr. Morrison says that testing
lead poisoning is not recommended in children who do not have
Paul is less urgent than testing Vanessa, especially since Lucas’ lead
symptoms unless their blood level is at or over 45 µg/dL. However, Dr.
level is not extremely high and Paul is not having any symptoms of
Morrison tells Paul and Vanessa that they must take action to limit any
lead poisoning—but if there is a source of lead in the home, it would be
further exposure, such as finding and eliminating the source of lead and
good for him to be tested eventually.
limiting Lucas’ contact with potential lead-containing substances.
Sources of lead that children may be exposed to include deteriorating Lead clearly can cause significant adverse health effects, but its impact
lead-based paint, dust from peeling and cracking paint, water from lead varies depending on the stage of life of the person exposed. Although
pipes, toys, and jewelry, among others. Figure 23.1.2 illustrates some lead exposure can cause health problems in adults, exposure to low
possible sources and routes of lead exposure in the home. One reason levels of lead usually has much more of an impact on humans in earlier
that young children are particularly susceptible to lead exposure is that developmental stages, such as the embryo, fetus, infants, and young
they tend to put objects and unwashed hands into their mouths, which children. As you read this chapter, you will learn about these early
can directly introduce lead objects or lead-containing dust into their stages, as well as the later stages of adolescence, early and middle
bodies. adulthood, and old age. Many changes occur across a human’s lifespan,
including physical characteristics, motor and cognitive abilities,
behavior, and susceptibility to damage and disease.

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At the end of this chapter, you will learn how Lucas likely became Infancy, which is the first year of life—and the physical, motor,
exposed to lead, whether his parents and developing sibling have been sensory, and cognitive changes that occur during this time period
exposed, the potential impact on the family members at their different Childhood, which is defined biologically as the period between
life stages, and what they—and you—can do to protect against the birth and adolescence—and the physical, cognitive, behavioral, and
dangerous effects of lead exposure. social changes that occur at different sub-stages of childhood
Adolescence, which is the period between childhood and adulthood.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW: HUMAN GROWTH AND This stage includes puberty—the period when sexual and physical
DEVELOPMENT maturation occurs—as well as further maturation of the brain, a
In this chapter, you will learn about the growth and development of stronger sense of personal identity, and changes in relationships.
humans from fertilization to old age. Specifically, you will learn about: The stages of adulthood—early, middle, and old age—and the
The germinal stage of human development, which starts at physical, cognitive, and social changes that typically occur during
fertilization; goes through the early cell divisions and these times
developmental stages of the zygote, morula, and blastocyst; and Susceptibility to diseases and common causes of death at different
ends when the blastocyst implants in the uterus to become an stages of adulthood, along with possible causes of aging
embryo As you read the chapter, think about the following questions:
The embryonic stage, which starts at implantation and lasts until the 1. Vanessa is three months pregnant. What are the major
eighth week after fertilization. This period involves significant developmental events that have occurred in her pregnancy so far? If
growth and changes in the developing embryo, which occur through she has been exposed to lead, what effects might it have on her
processes such as gastrulation, neurulation, and organogenesis. developing offspring?
The three germ layers (which ultimately develop into different 2. Lead exposure in infants and toddlers can cause developmental
tissues of the body), and the extraembryonic tissues which nourish delays and other effects that may only become obvious later in
and protect the developing embryo and fetus, including the yolk childhood. What do you think is meant by a developmental delay?
sac, amnion, and placenta Why do you think that some of the effects of lead are only
The fetal stage, which starts at the ninth week after fertilization and noticeable at older ages?
lasts until birth. This stage includes the final stages of prenatal 3. Why is Dr. Morrison less concerned about Paul’s lead level than he
growth and development, including the functioning of most organs is about Vanessa’s and Lucas’ levels?
and sensory systems.
The differences between fetal and postnatal blood circulation and ATTRIBUTIONS
hemoglobin, due to the lungs not being used until birth 1. Yummies by cplbasilisk, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
Factors that affect fetal growth, birth weight, and viability 2. Lead Infographic by Center for Disease Control, public domain
Characteristics of newborns, and how health is assessed at birth 3. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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23.2: GERMINAL STAGE
EXPERIENCED NEWBORN obtained from cell cytoplasm or secretions in the Fallopian tube or
This newborn baby is just starting out in life. They have their whole uterus.
life ahead of them!
PROCESSES IN THE GERMINAL STAGE
Actually, that’s not really true. While most of their life is still ahead
The germinal stage involves several different processes that change an
of them — including life stages of infancy, childhood, adolescence,
egg and sperm first into a zygote, and then into an embryo. The
and adulthood — this newborn baby is not just starting out in life.
processes include fertilization, cleavage, blastulation, and implantation.
They are already nine months old, and what happened to
them during those nine months will help shape the rest of their life. FERTILIZATION
Some of the shortest — but most important — life stages occur
before birth. These stages include the germinal, embryonic, and
fetal stages. This concept focuses on the earliest of all human life
stages: the germinal stage.

Figure 23.2.1 : newborn

WHAT IS THE GERMINAL STAGE?

Figure 23.2.3 : This drawing represents a mechanism of sperm–egg
interaction.
Fertilization takes place when a haploid sperm successfully enters a
haploid egg and triggers the egg to complete meiosis II. The sperm also
undergoes changes. Its tail falls off, and its nucleus fuses with the
nucleus of the egg. Fertilization results in a single diploid cell called a
zygote. The nucleus of the zygote contains 46 chromosomes: 23
chromosomes from the nucleus of the egg, and 23 chromosomes from
the nucleus of the sperm.
Fertilization usually takes place in the ovary end of a Fallopian tube.
Successful fertilization is enabled by three processes: chemotaxis,
adhesion, and digestion.
1. Chemotaxis is a chemical process in which chemical signals from
the egg direct the movement of sperm toward the egg.
2. Once a sperm reaches the egg, adhesion occurs. In this process, a
Figure 23.2.2 : The germinal stage of human development begins with sperm “sticks” to the egg, which is enabled by sperm-receptor
fertilization in a Fallopian tube and ends with implantation in the
uterus. proteins on the egg. Adhesion causes reactions that block the entry
of additional sperm. For example, the egg releases enzymes that
The germinal stage of development is the first and shortest of the
digest sperm-receptor proteins on the surface of the egg, preventing
stages of the human lifespan. The main events in this stage of
other sperm from adhering to the egg.
development are illustrated in Figure 23.2.2 and described in detail in
3. After a sperm adheres to the egg, digestive enzymes in the
the rest of this concept. The germinal stage lasts a total of eight to nine
acrosome on the head of the sperm break down the zona pellucida
days. It begins in a Fallopian tube when an ovum is fertilized by a
of the egg. The zona pellucida is a protein layer surrounding the
sperm to form a zygote (day 0). The germinal stage continues as the
cell membrane of the egg (Figure 23.2.3). Digestion of the zona
zygote undergoes several initial cell divisions to form a solid ball of
pellucida allows the sperm to enter the egg. The zona pellucida will
cells called a morula (days 3-4). It then continues as the morula
continue to contain the developing zygote until the end of the
undergoes additional changes to become a hollow ball of cells called a
germinal stage.
blastocyst (days 5-7). The germinal stage ends when the blastocyst
implants in the endometrium of the uterus (days 8-9). After CLEAVAGE
implantation occurs, the blastocyst is called an embryo, and it will soon By the second day after fertilization, the single-celled zygote
obtain nutrients from the mother’s blood via a temporary organ called undergoes mitosis to form two daughter cells. Mitosis continues taking
the placenta. In the germinal stage, however, nutrients must be place every 12 to 24 hours to produce the first four cells, then eight,

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and as many as sixteen cells by day 4. These early mitotic divisions are These changes allow finger-like projections (called villi) of the
called cleavage. By day 4, the cells form a solid ball called a morula trophoblast to penetrate into the endometrium. The projections pull the
(see Figure 23.2.4). Although cleavage results in more cells, the blastocyst — now called an embryo — into the endometrium until it is
overall mass of cells making up the morula is still the same size as the fully covered by endometrial epithelium.
initial zygote because the cells are confined within the zona pellucida.
A large amount of cytoplasm in the original zygote becomes
subdivided among the multiple cells of the morula.

BLASTULATION

Figure 23.2.4 : This image shows a morula consisting of eight cells on

day 4 after fertilization. The image also shows a blastocyst consists of
two types of differentiated cells (inner cell mass and trophoblast) and a
fluid-filled cavity (blastocoele).
Blastulation is the process of changing the morula into a blastocyst. It
occurs from roughly day 5 to day 7 after fertilization. During
blastulation, the morula changes from a solid ball of undifferentiated Figure 23.2.5 : Until implantation occurs, the blastocyst is not
connected to the maternal organism’s cells or blood supply. After
cells into a fluid-filled ball of differentiated cells, as shown in Figure
implantation, the placenta develops to connect the embryo to the
23.2.4. The major parts of the fully formed blastocyst are the
mother’s blood.
embryoblast, trophoblast, and blastocoele. The blastocyst remains
confined within the zona pellucida until it is ready to implant in the SUMMARY
endometrium. The germinal stage of development is the first and shortest of the
The embryoblast (inner cell mass) consists of a mass of cells inside stages of the human lifespan. It lasts roughly eight to nine days,
the blastocyst. These cells migrate to one end (or pole) of the beginning with fertilization and ending with implantation in the
blastocyst. Embryoblast cells are differentiated cells that will endometrium of the uterus, after which the developing organism is
eventually develop into the embryo. called an embryo.
The trophoblast is the outer cell layer of the blastocyst. Trophoblast The germinal stage involves several different processes that change
cells are differentiated cells that will implant in the uterus and an egg and sperm first into a zygote, and then into an embryo. The
eventually develop into the fetal portion of the placenta and other processes include fertilization, cleavage, blastulation, and
extraembryonic (outside of the embryo) tissues. implantation.
The blastocoele is a cavity formed by the migration of embryoblast Fertilization takes place when a haploid sperm successfully enters a
cells to one pole of the blastocyst. The blastocoele fills with fluid haploid egg and results in a single diploid cell called a zygote. This
secreted by trophoblast cells. usually occurs in a Fallopian tube. Successful fertilization is
enabled by the processes of chemotaxis, adhesion, and digestion.
IMPLANTATION Cleavage refers to the first several mitotic cell divisions of the
Around day 8 or 9 after fertilization, implantation begins. Implantation zygote. It takes place in the Fallopian tube and results in a solid ball
is the process in which a blastocyst becomes embedded in the of undifferentiated cells called a morula. The morula forms by
endometrium of the uterus (see Figure 23.2.5). Implantation is approximately the fourth day after fertilization.
triggered by contact between the blastocyst and endometrium. In Blastulation is the process in which the morula changes into a fluid-
response to this contact, trophoblast cells start to proliferate and filled ball of differentiated cells called a blastocyst. It generally
“hatch” from the zona pellucida. The hatched trophoblast cells start occurs during days 5 to 7 after fertilization. The major parts of the
secreting enzymes that digest the mucosa covering the endometrium blastocyst are an internal cell mass called the embryoblast (which
and break down the extracellular matrix between endometrial cells. will develop into the embryo), an external layer of cells called the

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 trophoblast (which will develop into the fetal part of the placenta 13. Put the following events in order of when they occur during early
and other extraembryonic structures), and a fluid-filled cavity human development, from earliest to latest:
called a blastocoele. A. differentiation of cells
Implantation is the process in which the blastocyst becomes B. cleavage
embedded in the endometrium of the uterus. It occurs around day 8 C. implantation
or 9 after fertilization when trophoblast cells “hatch” from the zona D. adhesion
pellucida and penetrate the endometrium.
14. Which has the most cells?
REVIEW A. blastocoele
B. embryoblast
1. Define the germinal stage of human development.
C. morula
2. Name four processes that occur during the germinal stage.
D. blastocyst
3. Describe three processes that enable successful fertilization after
ovulation occurs and sperm enter the Fallopian tube.
EXPLORE MORE
4. What is cleavage? Where does it take place? What is its end result? https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17804#Explore_More
5. What is blastulation? How does the morula change during this
process? ATTRIBUTIONS
6. Identify the major parts of the blastocyst. 1. Newborn by amsferguson, Pixabay license
7. Define implantation. When and how does implantation occur? 2. Human fertilization by Ttrue12, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
8. List the stages of the developing human organism, in order, from Commons
fertilization to the end of implantation. 3. Sperm fertilization by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via
9. Explain why cells in the zygote are smaller on day 3-4 after Wikimedia Commons
fertilization than they were on day 2. 4. Embryonic development by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0
10. True or False: The zona pellucida disintegrates as the morula 5. Implantation by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
becomes a blastocyst. Commons
11. True or False: Some cells in the blastocyst do not become part of 6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
the embryo. 3.0
12. Why do you think it is important that only one sperm fertilizes each
egg? What mechanism helps ensure that this happens properly?

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23.3: EMBRYONIC STAGE
THE MOST IMPORTANT TIME IN YOUR LIFE? these changes, its cells continuously undergo mitosis, allowing the
In many cultures, marriage — along with birth and death — is embryo to grow in size, as well as complexity.
considered the most pivotal life event. For pioneering
inner cell
polar body mass
pronuclei
blastocoelic

developmental biologist Lewis Wolpert, however, these life events cavity

trophoblast

are overrated. According to Wolpert, "It is not birth, marriage, or inner cell

death, but gastrulation, which is truly the most important time in zona
blastomere
tight cell
junction

Day 1: Fertilisation Day 2: Cleavage Day 3: Compaction Day 4: Differentiation Day 5: Cavitation
your life." Gastrulation is a major biological event that occurs early epiblast

in the embryonic stage of human development. hypoblast

trophoblast
uterine
epithelium

bilaminar
disc

Day 12: Bilaminar Day 9: cell mass Day 7: Implantation Day 6: Zona hatching
disc formation differentiation
amniotic sac trophoectoderm umbilical cord
exocoelom
chorion

amnion
primitive
streak

mesoderm
embryo
ectoderm
yolk sac digestive tract
mesoderm chorion
endoderm
Day 12: Mesoderm formation Day 18: Mesoderm spreading Day 23: Amniotic sac enlargment

Figure 23.3.1 : Wedding couple in Kandy Sri Lanka Figure 23.3.3 : The first few weeks of embryogenesis in humans.
During the second week after fertilization, a two-layered embryonic
disc forms from the cells of the embryoblast. The end of the second
DEFINING THE EMBRYONIC STAGE week after fertilization, the two-layered embryonic disc has formed a
After a blastocyst implants in the uterus around the end of the first third cell layer by the migration of epiblast cells at the primitive streak.
week after fertilization, its internal cell mass, which was called the FORMATION OF THE EMBRYONIC DISC
embryoblast, is now known as the embryo. The embryonic stage lasts
At about day 9 after fertilization, the embryoblast differentiates into
through the eighth week following fertilization, after which the embryo
two groups of cells, called the epiblast and the hypoblast (Figure
is called a fetus. The embryonic stage is short, lasting only about seven
23.3.3). Epiblast cells form a mass close to one end of the trophoblast,
weeks in total, but developments that occur during this stage bring
and hypoblast cells form a lower cell layer. By day 12, the epiblast
about enormous changes in the embryo. During the embryonic stage,
cells have migrated away from the trophoblast to form a cavity called
the embryo becomes not only bigger but also much more complex.
the amniotic cavity. The migration of epiblast cells also pushes the
Figure 23.3.2 shows early- and late-stage embryos for comparison. It is
hypoblast downward. These cell movements result in what is called an
no exaggeration to say that the embryonic stage lays the necessary
embryonic disc. As you can see in the day 12 image in the figure, the
groundwork for all of the remaining stages of life.
embryonic disc consists of two layers of cells, so it is called a
bilaminar (two-layered) disc.

GASTRULATION
Late in the second week after fertilization, the bilaminar embryonic
disc develops a third cell layer in a process called gastrulation.
Gastrulation begins with the formation of the primitive streak, which is
a linear band of cells down the middle of the embryo that forms by the
migration of epiblast cells. The formation of the primitive streak
establishes bilateral symmetry and gives the embryo a head-to-tail and
front-to-back orientation.
Cells from the epiblast move into the primitive streak and undergo a
transition to stem cells, which can differentiate into a variety of
different types of cells. As the epiblast cells keep moving and
Figure 23.3.2 : An eight to nine-week-old embryo transitioning, they form a new layer of cells, which is called the
mesoderm. This layer lies between the outer layer of epiblast cells —
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT now called the ectoderm — and the inner layer of hypoblast cells, now
Starting in the second week after fertilization, the embryo starts to called the endoderm. These three cell layers are referred to as the germ
develop distinct cell layers, form the nervous system, make blood cells, layers of the embryo, and they form three overlapping flat discs.
and form many organs. By the end of the embryonic stage, most organs Each of the three germ layers of the embryo will eventually give rise to
have started to form, although they will continue to develop and grow different cells, tissues, and organs that make up the entire organism,
in the next stage (that of the fetus). As the embryo undergoes all of which is illustrated in Figure 23.3.4. For example, the inner layer (the
endoderm) will eventually form cells of many internal glands and

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organs, including the lungs, intestines, thyroid, pancreas, and bladder. Following gastrulation, the next major development in the embryo is
The middle layer (the mesoderm) will form cells of the heart, blood, neurulation, which occurs during weeks three and four after
bones, muscles, and kidneys. The outer layer (the ectoderm) will form fertilization. This is a process in which the embryo develops structures
cells of the epidermis, nervous system, eyes, inner ears, and many that will eventually become the nervous system. Neurulation is
connective tissues. illustrated in Figure 23.3.5. It begins when a structure of differentiated
cells called a neural plate forms from the ectoderm opposite the
primitive streak. Two neural plate borders separate the neural plate
from the rest of the ectoderm. The neural plate then starts to fold
inward until its borders converge, forming what is now called the
neural crest. The cells of the neural crest will later differentiate and
form most of the peripheral nervous system. The convergence of the
neural plate borders also results in the neural plate forming a tube,
called the neural tube. Most of the neural tube will eventually become
the spinal cord. The neural tube also develops a bulge at one end,
which will later become the brain.

ORGANOGENESIS
In addition to neurulation, gastrulation is followed by organogenesis,
when organs develop within the newly formed germ layers. Most
organs start to develop during the third to eighth weeks following
fertilization. They will continue to develop and grow during the
following fetal period.
The heart is the first functional organ to develop in the embryo. As
shown in Figure 23.3.6, primitive blood vessels start to develop in the
mesoderm during the third week after fertilization. A couple of days
later, the heart starts to form in the mesoderm when two endocardial
tubes grow. The tubes migrate toward each other and fuse to form a
single primitive heart tube. By about day 21 or 22, the tubular heart
starts to beat and pump blood, even as it continues to develop. By day
23, the primitive heart has formed five distinct regions. These regions
Figure 23.3.4 : This diagram shows some of the cell types that will
will develop into the chambers of the heart and the septa (walls) that
develop from each of the three embryonic germ layers: the endoderm,
mesoderm, and ectoderm. separate them by the end of the eighth week after fertilization.
The final phase of gastrulation is the formation of the primitive gut that
will eventually develop into the gastrointestinal tract. A tiny hole,
called a blastopore, develops in one side of the embryo. The blastopore
deepens and becomes the anus. The blastopore continues to tunnel
through the embryo to the other side, where it forms an opening that
will become the mouth. With a functioning digestive tube, gastrulation
is now complete.

NEURULATION

Figure 23.3.6 : The heart starts to develop during the third week after
fertilization and continues to develop and grow throughout the
remainder of the embryonic stage.

OTHER DEVELOPMENTS IN THE EMBRYO

Several other major developments that occur during the embryonic
stage are summarized chronologically below, starting with the fifth
week after fertilization.
Figure 23.3.5 : The process of neurulation, in which embryonic
structures form that will eventually become the nervous system WEEK FIVE

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By week five after fertilization, the embryo measures about 4 mm (0.16 hearing problems, cognitive deficits, growth problems, and liver
in.) in length and has begun to curve into a C shape. During this week, and spleen damage.
the following developments take place: Radiation from diagnostic X-rays or radiation therapy in the
Grooves called pharyngeal arches form. These will develop into the mother: Radiation may damage DNA and cause mutations in
face and neck. embryonic germ cells. When mutations occur at such an early stage
The inner ears begin to form. of development, they are passed on to daughter cells in many
Arm buds are visible. tissues and organs, which is likely to have severe impacts on the
The liver, pancreas, spleen, and gallbladder start to form. offspring.
Nutritional deficiencies: A maternal diet lacking certain nutrients
WEEK SIX
may cause birth defects. The birth defect called spina bifida is
By week six after fertilization, the embryo measures about 8 mm (0.31 caused by a lack of folate when the nervous system is first forming,
in.) in length. During the sixth week, some of the developments that which happens early in the embryonic stage. In this disorder, the
occur include: neural tube does not close completely and may lead to paralysis
The eyes and nose start to develop. below the affected region of the spinal cord.
Leg buds form and the hands form as flat paddles at the ends of the
arms. EXTRAEMBRYONIC STRUCTURES
The precursors of the kidneys begin to form. Several structures form simultaneously with the embryo. These
The stomach starts to develop. structures help the embryo grow and develop. These extraembryonic
WEEK SEVEN
structures include the placenta, chorion, yolk sac, and amnion.
By week seven, the embryo measures about 13 mm (0.51 in.) in length. PLACENTA
During this week, some of the developments that take place include: The placenta is a temporary organ that provides a connection between
The lungs begin to form. a developing embryo (and later the fetus) and the mother. It serves as a
The arms and legs have lengthened, and the hands and feet have conduit from the maternal organism to the offspring for the transfer of
started to develop digits. nutrients, oxygen, antibodies, hormones, and other needed substances.
The lymphatic system starts to develop. It also passes waste products (such as urea and carbon dioxide) from
The primary prenatal development of the sex organs begins. the offspring to the mother’s blood for excretion from the body of the
mother.
WEEK EIGHT
By week eight — which is the final week of the embryonic stage — the
embryo measures about 20 mm (0.79 in.) in length. During this week,
some of the developments that occur include:
Nipples and hair follicles begin to develop.
External ears start to form.
The face takes on a human appearance.
Fetal heartbeat and limb movements can be detected by ultrasound.
All essential organs have at least started to form.

GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS TO

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
The embryonic stage is a critical period of development. Events that Figure 23.3.7 : The placenta is a lifeline that develops between the
occur in the embryo lay the foundation for virtually all of the body’s embryo and mother. It allows the transfer of substances between them.
The amniotic cavity is surrounded by a membrane called the amnion,
different cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Genetic defects or which forms as a sac around the developing embryo. The yolk sac
harmful environmental exposures during this stage are likely to have nourishes the early embryo, and the chorion develops into the fetal
devastating effects on the developing organism. They may cause the portion of the placenta.
embryo to die and be spontaneously aborted (also called a miscarriage). The placenta starts to develop after the blastocyst has implanted in the
If the embryo survives and goes on to develop and grow as a fetus, it is uterine lining. The placenta consists of both maternal and fetal tissues.
likely to have birth defects. The maternal portion of the placenta develops from the endometrial
Environmental exposures are known to have adverse effects on the tissues lining the uterus. The fetal portion develops from the
embryo include: trophoblast, which forms a fetal membrane called the chorion
(described below). Finger-like villi from the chorion penetrate the
Alcohol consumption: Exposure of the embryo to alcohol from the
endometrium. The villi begin to branch and develop blood vessels from
mother’s blood can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Children
the embryo.
born with this disorder may have cognitive deficits, developmental
delays, behavioral issues, and distinctive facial features. As shown in Figure 23.3.7, maternal blood flows into the spaces
Infection by rubella virus: In adults, rubella (German measles) is a between the chorionic villi, allowing the exchange of substances
relatively mild disease, but if the virus passes from an infected between the fetal blood and the maternal blood without the two sources
mother to her embryo, it may have severe consequences. The virus of blood actually intermixing. The embryo is joined to the fetal portion
may cause fetal death, or result in a diversity of birth defects, such of the placenta by a narrow connecting stalk. This stalk develops into
as heart defects, microcephaly (abnormally small head), vision and the umbilical cord, which contains two arteries and a vein. Blood from

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the fetus enters the placenta through the umbilical arteries, exchanges body weight, cognitive deficits, and behavioral problems, among
gases and other substances with the mother’s blood, and travels back to others. The risk of FASDs and their severity if they occur depend
the fetus through the umbilical vein. on the amount and frequency of alcohol consumption, and also on
the age of the embryo or fetus when the alcohol is consumed.
CHORION, YOLK SAC, AND AMNION Generally, greater consumption earlier in pregnancy is more
Besides the placenta, the chorion, yolk sac, and amnion also form detrimental. However, there is no known amount, frequency, or
around or near the developing embryo in the uterus. Their early time at which drinking is known to be safe during pregnancy. The
development in the bilaminar embryonic disc is illustrated in Figure good news is that FASDs are completely preventable by abstaining
23.3.7.
from alcohol during pregnancy and while trying to conceive.
Chorion: The chorion is a membrane formed by extraembryonic
mesoderm and trophoblast. The chorion undergoes rapid SUMMARY
proliferation and forms the chorionic villi. These villi invade the The embryonic stage of human development lasts from the time of
uterine lining and help form the fetal portion of the placenta. implantation of the blastocyst in the uterus (around the end of the
Yolk Sac: The yolk sac (or sack) is a membranous sac attached to first week after fertilization) until the end of the eighth week after
the embryo and formed by cells of the hypoblast. The yolk sac fertilization. Besides an increase in size, some of the changes that
provides nourishment to the early embryo. After the tubular heart occur in the embryo include the formation of three cell layers,
forms and starts pumping blood during the third week after development of the nervous system, and an initial formation of
fertilization, the blood circulates through the yolk sac, where it most organs.
absorbs nutrients before returning to the embryo. By the end of the During the second week after fertilization, the embryoblast
embryonic stage, the yolk sac will have been incorporated into the differentiates into two groups of cells, called the epiblast and the
primitive gut, and the embryo will obtain its nutrients from the hypoblast. Cell migration results in the formation of a two-layered
mother’s blood via the placenta. (bilaminar) embryonic disc.
Amnion: The amnion is a membrane that forms from By the end of the second week after fertilization, gastrulation
extraembryonic mesoderm and ectoderm. It creates a sac, called the occurs. In this process, the two-layered embryonic disc develops a
amniotic sac, around the embryo. By about the fourth or fifth week third cell layer and a primitive gut. The three cell layers are germ
of embryonic development, amniotic fluid begins to accumulate layers that will give rise to different cells throughout the body. The
within the amniotic sac. This fluid allows free movements of the endoderm (inner layer) will eventually develop into cells of most
fetus during the later stages of pregnancy and also helps cushion the internal glands and organs, the mesoderm (middle layer) will
fetus from potential injury. develop into cells of organs (such as the bones, muscles, and heart),
and the ectoderm (outer layer) will later develop into skin cells and
FEATURE: MY HUMAN BODY nerve cells.
Assume that you’ve been trying to conceive for many months and Neurulation begins in the third week after fertilization. In this
that you have just found out that you’re finally pregnant. You may process, which takes about two weeks, the embryo forms structures
be tempted to celebrate the good news with a champagne toast, but that will eventually become the nervous system. A structure called
it’s not worth the risk. Alcohol can cross the placenta and enter the the neural tube forms that will later develop into the spinal cord and
embryo’s (or fetus’) blood. In essence, when a pregnant woman brain, and a structure called the neural crest forms that will later
drinks alcohol, so does her unborn child. Alcohol in the embryo (or develop into peripheral nerves.
fetus) may cause many abnormalities in growth and development. Organogenesis, or the formation of organs, also begins during the
third week after fertilization. It continues through the end of the
embryonic stage, by which time most organs have at least started to
develop. The heart is the first functional organ to develop in the
embryo. The heart starts to beat and pump blood by the end of the
third week, but it continues to develop for several more weeks.
Other developments that occur in the embryo during the fifth
through eighth weeks after fertilization include limb and digit
formation; formation of ears, eyes, and other facial features; and the
main prenatal development of the sex organs.
The embryonic stage is a critical period of development. Genetic
defects or harmful environmental exposures (such as alcohol or
radiation) during this stage are likely to have devastating effects.
Several extraembryonic structures form at the same time as the
embryo, helping the embryo to grow and develop. These structures
include the placenta, chorion, yolk sac, and amnion.
The placenta is a temporary organ consisting of both fetal and
Figure 23.3.8 : Fetal Alcohol syndrome facial recognition
maternal tissues that provides a connection between the
A child exposed to alcohol in utero may be born with a fetal alcohol
embryo’s and mother’s blood for the exchange of substances.
spectrum disorder (FASD), the most severe of which is fetal alcohol
The chorion is a membrane that helps form the fetal portion of
syndrome (FAS). Signs and symptoms of FAS may include
the placenta.
abnormal craniofacial appearance (Figure 23.3.8), short height, low

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 The yolk sac provides nourishment to the early embryo until the B. formation of the three germ layers
placenta develops. C. formation of the primitive streak
The amnion is a membrane that forms a fluid-filled sac around D. incorporation of the yolk sac into the embryo
the embryo and helps protect it. 13. True or False: The nervous system develops from the same germ
layer as skin cells do.
REVIEW 14. True or False: Leg buds are formed during gastrulation.
1. When does the embryonic stage occur? 15. What are two tissues produced by the hypoblast?
2. Name a few of the major developments that occur during the
embryonic stage. EXPLORE MORE
3. What is the embryonic disc? When and how does it form? https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17805#Explore_More
4. Define gastrulation. When does it occur?
5. Identify the three embryonic germ layers. Give examples of specific ATTRIBUTIONS
cell types that originate in each germ layer. 1. Wedding couple in Kandy Sri Lanka by Peter van der Sluijs, CC
6. What happens during neurulation? When does it occur? BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
7. Define organogenesis. When does organogenesis take place in the 2. Human embryo by Anatomist 90, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
embryo? Commons
8. What is the first functional organ to develop in the embryo? When 3. Human embryogenesis byJrockley, public domain via Wikimedia
does this organ start to function? Commons
9. Identify some of the developments that take place during weeks 4. Germ layer table by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
five through eight of the embryonic stage. Commons
10. List three environmental exposures that may cause birth defects 5. Neural crest by Abitua, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
during the embryonic stage. 6. Embryonic development of the heart by OpenStax College, CC BY
11. Identify extraembryonic structures that form at the same time as the 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
embryo and help the embryo grow and develop. Give a function of 7. Placenta development by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via
each structure. Wikimedia Commons
12. Put the following events in order of when they occur, from earliest 8. FASD by Teresa Kellerman, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
to latest: Commons
A. formation of the neural tube 9. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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23.4: FETAL STAGE
HELLO, BABY
This mother-to-be is holding an ultrasound image of her fetus. She
is nearly nine months pregnant, so the fetus is fully developed and
almost ready to be born. The fetus has grown tremendously and
changed in many other ways since it was a tiny embryo seven
months previously.

Figure 23.4.2 : This 7-week old embryo has not yet entered the
fetal stage.

Figure 23.4.1 : mother-to-be holding an ultrasound image

Figure 23.4.3 : This fetus is just entering its ninth week after
fertilization.
DEFINING THE FETAL STAGE
A fetus is a prenatal human being between the embryonic stage and
birth. The fetal stage extends from the beginning of the ninth week
after fertilization to about 38 weeks after fertilization, which is the
average time of birth. The fetal stage lasts a total of approximately 30
weeks. Figure 23.4.2 shows a seven-week-old embryo that is just
getting ready to begin the fetal stage of development.

FETAL DEVELOPMENT
The image in Figure 23.4.3 shows a fetus at the start of week 9, the
first week of the fetal stage. The fetus is shown larger than its actual
size, which from crown to rump is only about 3.2 cm (1.3 in.) long.
Figure 23.4.4 : A computer-generated image of an 11-week-
Even at this early age, however, the fetus has developed to the point of old fetus
being recognizable as a human being. It possesses virtually all of the
major body organs. However, most of the organs are not yet fully
developed and functional, and some are not yet situated in their final
anatomical locations. These final developments will occur during the
remainder of the fetal stage.

Figure 23.4.5 : A model of a fetus at 38 weeks after

fertilization.

WEEKS 9 TO 15
During weeks 9 to 15, the fetus’s reproductive organs develop rapidly.
The external genitals of male and female fetuses are rather similar in

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appearance at first, but they will be clearly differentiated by week 12.
During weeks 27 to 38 after fertilization, the bones of the fetus
At that point, the biological sex of the fetus can be determined withcomplete their development. The fetus also grows rapidly during these
almost 100 percent accuracy using obstetric ultrasound. Figure 23.4.4 s
final weeks, and its body fat increases substantially. Its formerly
shows a fetus at 11 weeks. wrinkled skin starts to plump out as layers of subcutaneous fat are
Other developments that usually occur in the fetus during weeks 9 to deposited.
15 after fertilization include the following: Additional changes that occur in the fetus during weeks 27 to 38
Facial development continues. The eyelids form, the ears move include the following:
toward their final position on the sides of the head, and tooth buds The fetus’s head hair grows thicker and coarser while the
appear. lanugo is shed. The waxy vernix covering the fetus becomes
Fine, colorless hair called lanugo starts to grow on the fetus’s thicker at first, but most of it will disappear by birth.
face. It will eventually cover most of the body until it is shed close In preparation for breathing after birth, the fetus will
to the time of birth. repeatedly mimic breathing by moving the diaphragm. By about
The thyroid gland matures and starts producing thyroid week 32, the lungs are likely to be fully developed so the fetus can
hormones. The liver and pancreas also start producing their breathe on its own, should it be born this early.
secretions. The fetus can not only hear and feel touch, but its eyes can now
The kidneys start functioning. The amniotic fluid the fetus detect light. In fact, the pupils can constrict and dilate in response
swallows can now pass out of the body as urine. to light.
The fetus is very active. This is the result of uncontrolled During this phase, the fetus sleeps much of the time. Its brain,
movements and twitches that occur as the muscles, brain, and however, is continuously active.
nervous pathways develop. The fetus may move its limb, make a By the end of week 38, the fetus measures about 51 cm (20 in.) long. A
fist with its fingers, and make sucking motions with its mouth. 38-week fetus is pictured in Figure 23.4.5.
Generally, brain activity can be detected during these early weeks
of the fetal stage. FETAL CIRCULATION
WEEKS 16 TO 26 The heart and blood vessels that form the cardiovascular system are
among the earliest organs to develop in the embryo. They continue to
Many important changes occur in the fetus during weeks 16 to 26 after
develop in complexity and grow in size during the fetal stage.
fertilization. Some of the specific developments that occur during
However, until birth, the circulation of blood in the fetus is different
weeks 16 to 26 include the following.
than the postnatal circulation will be, primarily because the lungs are
The brain and sensory nerves develop to the point that the fetus
not yet in use. The fetus cannot breathe the air because it is floating in
has a sense of touch. This may lead to the fetus stroking its face,
amniotic fluid. Instead, the fetus obtains oxygen from the mother’s
touching its limbs, and even sucking its thumb.
blood via the placenta and umbilical cord.
The eyes and ears continue to develop. The eyes move to a
forward-facing position, and the retinas develop. The ears also PRENATAL CIRCULATION
move to their final position, and the outer ears are now elevated The fetal circulation before birth is illustrated in the figure below.
above the surface of the head. Development of the middle ear and Oxygen-rich blood from the placenta is carried to the fetus by the
auditory nerve allows the fetus to hear. It can hear both internal umbilical vein. Some of the blood flows through a fetal vein called the
sounds (such as the mother’s heartbeat) and external sounds (such ductus venosus, which carries the blood to the inferior vena cava. In
as voices). The fetus may even be startled by loud noises. turn, the vena cava carries blood to the right atrium of the heart.
The fetus’s bones have already been developing, but they now Throughout the fetal stage, there is an opening between the right and
start to ossify, beginning with the clavicles and bones in the legs. left atria, called the foramen ovale, which allows most of the blood
The bone marrow also develops and starts producing blood cells. reaching the right atrium to flow directly into the left atrium, thus
Prior to this time, blood cells were produced by the liver and bypassing the pulmonary circulation. Blood that enters the left atrium
spleen. is pumped into the left ventricle, and from there through the aorta, the
Alveoli form in the lungs. These functional units of the lungs must major artery that carries blood to the rest of the body. Blood that
be fully developed before an infant can breathe air after birth. reaches the umbilical arteries flows back through the umbilical cord to
Considerable muscle development occurs. The fetus’s the placenta, where carbon dioxide and other waste products from the
movements become more forceful, and the movements stimulate fetus enter the maternal circulation.
further development of the muscles.
The intestines develop sufficiently that small amounts of sugars
can be absorbed from the amniotic fluid that is swallowed.
Virtually all of the fetus’s nutrients, however, still come from the
mother’s blood via the placenta.
The fetus develops a thick waxy coating called vernix. This
coating protects the fetus’s skin from becoming chapped or irritated
by amniotic fluid.

WEEKS 27 TO 38

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 FETAL GROWTH AND BIRTH WEIGHT
The size of the fetus generally increases linearly during the fetal stage,
up until the last week or two before birth. At that time, the rate of
growth typically tapers off, and fetal size plateaus. This is the normal
pattern of fetal growth, but it may not occur in every case. In fact, there
is considerable variation in the growth of the human fetus, because the
growth rate may be influenced by many factors. Fetal growth
retardation, generally referred to as intrauterine growth restriction
(IUGR), occurs when the fetus fails to grow at a normal rate.

FACTORS AFFECTING FETAL GROWTH

Factors that adversely affect the growth rate of the fetus and increase
the risk of IUGR include those relating to the mother, the fetus, and/or
the placenta, which normally supplies the growing fetus with virtually
everything it needs.
MATERNAL FACTORS
Maternal factors that may lead to IUGR include low pre-pregnancy
Figure 23.4.6 : This drawing shows the major parts of the body weight; poor mental state (such as depression or a high level of
cardiovascular system late in the fetal stage of development. Prenatal stress); and use of tobacco, alcohol, or illicit drugs. Certain medical
blood circulation differs from postnatal blood circulation because the
fetal lungs are not functioning and blood is shunted away from the conditions in the mother can also increase the risk of IUGR, including
lungs. some types of heart, lung, blood, and autoimmune diseases. For
Not all of the blood reaching the right atrium through the ductus example, maternal diabetes and hypertension are both risk factors for
venosus passes directly into the left atrium via the foramen ovale. A IUGR in the fetus. The single most important maternal factor leading
small amount of blood is pumped from the right atrium into the right to IUGR is poor nutrition during pregnancy.
ventricle, and from the right ventricle into the pulmonary arteries. A FETAL FACTORS
fetal artery called the ductus arteriosus directs most of this blood away Fetal factors that may affect fetal growth include inherited genetic
from the nonfunctioning lungs by shunting blood from the pulmonary disorders in the fetus. For example, a fetus with Down syndrome is
trunk to the aorta. likely to have a slower-than-normal rate of prenatal growth. Another
POSTNATAL CIRCULATION fetal factor that may cause IUGR is an infection of the fetus by bacteria
or viruses that are transmitted from the mother. Examples include
After birth, as the newborn takes the first breath, the blood circulation
infections such as rubella, herpes simplex, chickenpox, HIV, and Zika
suddenly changes. There is decreased resistance in the lungs now that
virus.
the infant is surrounded by air instead of amniotic fluid. The lowered
resistance allows more blood to flow into the pulmonary arteries from PLACENTAL FACTORS
the right atrium and ventricle, and less to flow through the foramen A problem with the placenta, generally called placental insufficiency, is
ovale into the left atrium. Blood now travels to the lungs through the the leading cause of IUGR. It may result from inadequate maternal
pulmonary arteries and then back to the heart through the pulmonary blood flow to the placenta or an abnormally thin placenta, among other
veins to the left atrium. This produces an increase in pressure in the left factors. Placental insufficiency reduces the supply of oxygen and
atrium that forces the foramen ovale to close. Once the foramen ovale nutrients reaching the fetus, thereby decreasing the rate of fetal growth.
closes, blood can no longer flow through it and bypass the pulmonary
circulation. The ductus arteriosus is no longer needed to shunt blood BIRTH WEIGHT
away from the lungs, and it normally closes within a day or two of The fetal growth rate is one of two major factors that determine the
birth. The ductus venosus usually closes within another couple of days. weight of the fetus at birth, or birth weight, which averages about 3.4
kg (7.5 lb.) in a full-term infant. The other factor that determines
FETAL HEMOGLOBIN birthweight is the length of gestation. Infants born before full term,
The blood that is transported through the fetal circulation is also which is defined as 36-40 weeks after fertilization, are usually smaller
different than the blood after birth. In particular, fetal hemoglobin has a than full-term infants because they have spent less time growing in the
different structure than the so-called adult hemoglobin that is produced uterus. Pre-term birth is one of the major causes of low birth weight,
after birth. Hemoglobin is the vital oxygen-binding protein in red blood which is defined as a birth weight lower than 2.5 kg (5.5 lb.),
cells that allows blood to transport oxygen through the circulation to regardless of gestational age. Low birth weight increases the risk of
cells throughout the body. Fetal hemoglobin can bind with oxygen at death shortly after birth. As many as 30 percent of deaths in the first
lower oxygen pressures than can adult hemoglobin. This allows fetal month of life occur in preterm infants. Holding the length of gestation
hemoglobin to bind with oxygen from the mother’s blood in the constant, a newborn may be classified as small for gestational age,
placenta, where the oxygen pressure is lower than it is in the lungs. appropriate for gestation age, or large for gestational age. Fetuses that
After birth, the newborn stops producing fetal hemoglobin and starts did not grow adequately before birth may end up being small for
producing adult hemoglobin. Adult hemoglobin completely replaces gestational age, even when they are born at full term.
fetal hemoglobin by roughly six months after birth.
VIABILITY OF THE FETUS

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Fetal viability refers to the point in fetal development at which the of ossification of the bones, and considerable muscle development.
fetus is likely to be able to survive outside the uterus. When babies are The bone marrow also starts producing blood cells, and waxy
born too early, they have an elevated risk of dying within the first few vernix develops to cover the fetus’s skin.
hours to weeks of life. The main causes of early mortality in pre-term Fetal developments that occur between weeks 27 and 38 include
infants are inadequately developed respiratory and nervous systems. further development of the skeletal system, rapid body growth, and
For babies born at 23 weeks of gestation, the chances of surviving are a substantial increase in body fat. Head hair grows thicker and
only between 20 and 35 percent, and survival is possible only with coarser while the lanugo is shed. Vernix first increases and then
intensive, advanced medical care. For babies born at 25 weeks of disappears, usually before birth. The eyes develop to the point that
gestation, the survival chances are much greater — as high as 70 the fetus can detect light. By the end of week 38, the fetus averages
percent — but again, intensive medical intervention is needed (see the about 51 cm (20 in.) in length.
newborn infant in Figure 23.4.7. The chances of survival are much The heart and blood vessels are among the earliest organs to
better after 26 weeks of gestation. More than 90 percent of babies develop and function, but the circulation of blood in the fetus is
survive if they are born after 26 weeks and receive any necessary different than the postnatal circulation will be because the lungs are
medical care. What a difference just three weeks makes! not yet in use. Fetal hemoglobin is also different than adult
hemoglobin. Fetal hemoglobin can bind with oxygen at lower
pressures, which enables it to bind with oxygen from the mother’s
blood in the placenta.
The size of the fetus generally increases linearly during the fetal
stage, up until the last week or two before birth, when the rate of
growth typically tapers off. Fetal growth deficit, called intrauterine
growth restriction (IUGR), may occur because of maternal, fetal, or
placental factors. Placental insufficiency is the leading cause of
IUGR.
The average weight of a full-term infant at birth is 3.4 kg (7.5 lb).
Low birth weight is defined as a weight at birth of less than 2.5 kg
(5.5 lb). Low birth weight is a major cause of mortality shortly after
birth. It may occur because of IUGR or pre-term birth.
Viability of the fetus refers to the point in fetal development at
which the fetus is likely to survive outside the uterus. More than 90
percent of babies survive if they are born after 26 weeks and
receive any necessary medical care. Babies born even a few weeks
earlier have a much lower chance of surviving, mainly due to
inadequately developed respiratory and nervous systems.

REVIEW
1. Define fetus. Delineate the fetal stage.
Figure 23.4.7 . The newborn infant pictured here was born at 25 weeks 2. Describe the fetus at the beginning of the fetal stage.
after fertilization. She must remain on a ventilator in intensive care
until her lungs mature enough for her to breathe on her own. 3. ist some of the fetal developments that occur between weeks 9 and
15 after fertilization.
SUMMARY 4. Give examples of fetal changes that occur during weeks 16 through
A fetus is a prenatal human being between the embryonic stage and 26 after fertilization.
birth. The fetal stage extends from the beginning of week 9 after 5. Identify several developments that take place in the fetus between
fertilization to about 38 weeks after fertilization, which is the week 27 and birth.
average time of birth. 6. How and why is fetal blood circulation different from postnatal
At the start of the fetal stage, the fetus is recognizable as a human circulation?
being, and possesses virtually all of the major body organs, 7. Compare and contrast fetal and adult hemoglobin.
although most of them are not yet fully developed and functional. 8. Outline the typical pattern of fetal growth in size.
The organs will continue to grow and develop during the fetal 9. What is IUGR? What is its leading cause?
stage. 10. What is the average weight of a full-term infant at birth? How is
Fetal developments that occur between weeks 9 and 15 after low birth weight defined, and what are the two major causes of low
fertilization include differentiation of the reproductive organs. The birth weight?
thyroid, liver, pancreas, and kidneys also start functioning. The 11. Define fetal viability. At what age is a fetus likely to be viable?
fetus is very active during this period, but the movements are 12. Put the following events in order of when they occur, from earliest
mostly uncontrolled. Fine hair called lanugo starts to grow on the to latest:
face, and will eventually cover the body as well. A. The kidneys start functioning.
Fetal developments that occur between weeks 16 and 26 after B. The ductus arteriosis closes.
fertilization include the development of the senses of touch and C. The fetus begins to detect light.
hearing, the initial formation of alveoli in the lungs, the beginning D. The fetus begins to hear.

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13. True or False: A fetus can produce urine. 3. 9-Week Human Embryo from Ectopic Pregnancy by Ed Uthman,
14. True or False: The umbilical artery carries oxygenated blood to the licensed CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
fetus. 4. fetus at the 11th gestational week - 3D HD live rendered image by
15. If a baby is born at 30 weeks, what is one type of medical Araujo Júnior E, Santana EF, Nardozza LM, Moron AF - Radiol
intervention that might be necessary to keep the baby alive? Bras (2015 Jan-Feb) CC BY-NC 3.0 via SciELO
Explain your answer. 5. Eesti Tervishoiu Muuseum Estonian Health Care Museum Tallinn
Estonia 2016 by A. Currell, licensed CC BY-NC 2.0 via Flickr
EXPLORE MORE 6. Fetal Circulation by OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17806#Explore_More Commons
7. Premature infant by ceejayoz, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
ATTRIBUTIONS Commons
1. Ultrasound by Public Domain Images, Pixabay license 8. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
2. Human Embryo (7th week of pregnancy) by Ed Uthman, licensed 3.0
CC BY 2.0 via Flickr

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23.5: INFANCY
WHAT A LIFE! easy-to-measure traits, and for each trait is given a score of 0, 1, or 2
Sleep, cry, eat, repeat. Oh, the life of an infant. Newborn infants (where 0 is the worst value and 2 is the best). After an infant is
actually do spend most of their time in these three “pursuits.” assessed on each trait, the values of all five traits are added together to
However, by the end of their first year, they have greatly expanded yield the Apgar score. The highest (best) possible score is 10, but a
their repertoire. By their first birthday, infants are typically starting score of 7 or higher is considered normal. A score of 4-6 is considered
to walk and talk, and they are spending about as much time awake fairly low, and a score of 3 or lower is considered critically low. The
as asleep. Clearly, infancy is a time of tremendous change. purpose of the Apgar test is to determine quickly whether a newborn
needs immediate medical care. It is not designed to predict long-term
health issues.

Figure 23.5.1 : baby sleeping

DEFINING INFANCY
Infancy refers to the first year of life after birth, and an infant is
defined as a human being between birth and the first birthday. The term Figure 23.5.3 : This newborn infant, with vernix still coating her
forehead and shoulders, is being given an Apgar test right after birth.
baby is usually considered synonymous with an infant, although it is The stethoscope on her chest is being used to detect and measure her
commonly applied to the young of other animals, as well as humans. heart rate. This is one of five traits that will be assessed for her Apgar
Human infants seem weak and helpless at birth, but they are actually score.
born with a surprising range of abilities. Most of their senses are quite The five traits that are assessed in an Apgar test are listed in Table
well developed, and they can also communicate their needs by crying, 23.5.1. The table also shows how the acronym APGAR can be used to
like the three-day-old baby in Figure 23.5.2. During their first year, help remember the five traits.
infants develop many other abilities, some of which are described in Table 23.5.1 : Apgar Test
this concept. They also grow more rapidly during their first year than Acronym
Trait Score of 0 Score of 1 Score of 2
they will at any other time during the rest of their life. (APGAR)
A= blue or pale blue at extremities; extremities and body
skin color
Appearance all over body pink both pink
>100 beats per
P = Pulse heart rate absent <100 beats per minute
minute
reflex no response
G= grimace on suction or
irritability to cry on stimulation
Grimace aggressive stimulation
grimace stimulation
A= flexed arms and legs
activity none some flexion
Activity that resist extension
R= respiratory
absent weak, irregular gasping strong, robust cry
Respiration effort

UMBILICAL CORD
The umbilical cord of a newborn infant contains the umbilical arteries
and vein. The cord will normally be cut within seconds of birth,
Figure 23.5.2 : just a few days old, this baby already knows how to
leaving a stub about 3-5 cm (1-2 in.) long (Figure 23.5.4). The
communicate his needs to his caregivers by crying
umbilical stub will dry out, shrivel, darken, and spontaneously fall off
NEONATE within about three weeks of birth. This will become the navel after it
A newborn infant is called a neonate up until the first four weeks after fully heals.
birth. A neonate, like the crying baby pictured in Figure 23.5.2, does
not usually look like the plump, chubby-cheeked “Gerber baby” that
most people envision when they hear the term "baby."

STATUS OF THE NEWBORN: APGAR SCORE

Immediately after birth, a simple test called an Apgar test, is
administered to an infant to evaluate its transition from the uterus to the
outside world (Figure 23.5.3). The newborn is assessed on each of five

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 Many regions of the neonate’s skull have not yet been converted to
bone, leaving “soft spots” known as fontanels (Figure 23.5.6). The
two largest fontanels are the diamond-shaped anterior (frontal)
fontanel, located at the top front of the skull, and the smaller triangular-
shaped posterior (occipital) fontanel, located at the back of the head.
During birth, the fontanels enable the bony plates of the skull to move
and change shape, allowing the child's head to pass through the birth
canal. Right after birth, the head may be temporarily misshapen for this
reason. The ossification of the bones of the skull causes the posterior
fontanel to close during the first two or three months after birth, and
the anterior fontanel to close by nine to 18 months after birth.

Figure 23.5.4 : The umbilical cord is cut right after birth, leaving a
short stub that will wither away and form the navel within a month.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

NEONATE
Right after birth, a newborn’s skin is wet. It may be covered with
streaks of blood, and coated with patches of waxy white vernix. The
newborn may also have peeling skin on the wrists, hands, ankles, and
feet. Some newborns still have the fine, colorless hair called lanugo,
but it usually disappears within the first month after birth. Infants may Figure 23.5.6 : The neonate’s skull viewed from the top shows the
be born with a full head of hair, or they may have very little hair, or frontal (anterior) fontanel (above the face) and the occipital (posterior)
even be bald. A newborn’s body proportions are distinctive, as well. fontanel (toward the back of the head).
The shoulders and hips are relatively wide, and the arms and legs are
SIZE AND GROWTH OF THE NEONATE
relatively long compared to the rest of the body. In addition, the
abdomen protrudes slightly. In the wealthier nations of the world, the total body length of a full-
term infant at birth normally ranges between 46 and 56 cm (18 and 22
in.), with an average of 51 cm (20 in.). The birthweight of a full-term
infant normally ranges from 2.5 to 4.5 kg (5.5 to 10 lb), with an
average of 3.4 kg (7.5 lb). For pre-term infants, these numbers are
likely to be lower, because these infants have had a shorter period of
prenatal growth.
During the first week following birth, it is normal for the weight of a
neonate to decrease by about three to seven percent of the birth weight.
For example, a baby born at an average weight of 3.4 kg (7.5 lb) might
weigh only 3.2 kg (7.1 lb) by the seventh day after birth. This loss of
weight is a normal result of the resorption and urination of the fluid
that initially fills the lungs. A contributing factor may be a delay of a
few days before feeding becomes well established, which is also
Figure 23.5.5 : By drawing the human figure at various ages (from birth
normal. After the first week, a healthy neonate should start to gain up
to adulthood) all the same size, the differences in body proportions are
easier to see. to 20 g (0.7 oz) per day.
A newborn’s head, especially the cranium, is very large in proportion
NEONATE SENSES
to the body. As shown in Figure 23.5.5, the newborn head makes up
Some senses in newborns are already relatively well developed. Other
about one-quarter of the baby’s total body length, whereas the head of
senses are still immature and need to develop further after birth.
an adult makes up only about one-seventh of the adult’s total body
length. The body is drawn to be the same length (height) at each age to SENSE OF TOUCH IN THE NEONATE
make the differences in body proportion — and especially head size —
more apparent.

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Newborns have a well-developed sense of touch, and they usually NEWBORN REFLEXES
respond positively to soft stroking and cuddling. Gentle rocking back Newborns have a number of instinctive behaviors, or reflexes, that
and forth, massages, and warm baths are also positively received by help them survive. Crying is one example. It is instinctive in newborn
neonates, and they may calm a crying infant. Newborns can often infants, who may use it to express a variety of feelings, such as hunger,
comfort themselves by sucking their thumb, finger, or a pacifier. discomfort, overstimulation, or loneliness. The need to suckle is also
instinctive. They have a sucking reflex that allows them to extract milk
VISION IN THE NEONATE
from the mother’s nipple or from the nipple on a bottle right after birth.
Newborns' vision is not yet fully developed. Both the retinas and the
In addition, infants have an instinctive behavior known as the rooting
parts of the brain involved in vision are still immature. Most newborns
reflex that helps them find the nipple by touch. When an infant’s cheek
are only able to focus on objects that are directly in front of their face
is stroked or it rubs against an object, the baby automatically turns its
and about 46 cm (18 in.) away. However, this is sufficient for the infant
head in that direction to find the nipple.
to see the mother’s face, as well as the areola and nipple. When a
newborn is not feeding, sleeping, or crying, it is generally staring at Infants are born with other reflexes that aid them in maintaining close
objects within its visual range. Usually, anything that is shiny, has physical contact with their caregiver. These reflexes help them hold
sharp contrasting colors, or has a complex pattern will catch an infant’s onto the caregiver so they are less likely to fall, and also so they can
eye. However, the neonate, like the infant pictured in Figure 23.5.7, satisfy their basic need for constant physical contact. Two of these
has a clear preference for looking at human faces above all else. reflexes are the Moro reflex and the grasping reflex.
The Moro reflex is an instinctive behavior that is normally present
in an infant from birth up until about three or four months of age. It
occurs in response to a sudden loss of support when the infant feels
as though it is falling. It involves three distinct components:
suddenly spreading out the arms, bringing the arms back in toward
the body, and, usually, crying. If the baby really were falling, these
motions might help it reach out and grab its mother or another
caregiver.
The grasping reflex is the instinctive grasping of a finger or other
object that is placed in the palm of an infant. This reflex actually
arises before birth and is present until an infant is about five or six
months of age. It may help an infant grip and hang on to the mother
or another caregiver.

Figure 23.5.7 : The eyes of this breastfeeding neonate are intently

focused on the mother’s face.
Newborns have limited color perception. About three-quarters of
newborns can distinguish red, but fewer than half can distinguish
green, yellow, or blue. Color perception, however, improves quickly
after birth. A newborn infant also lacks depth perception, which is the
ability to see in three dimensions. This ability starts to develop only
after an infant becomes mobile later in infancy. It continues to develop
throughout early childhood.

HEARING IN THE NEONATE

A sense of hearing is well developed at birth. Newborns usually
respond more readily to female than male voices, and the sound of
voices, especially the mother’s voice, may have a soothing effect on
the infant. Sounds that the infant heard before birth — such as the
Figure 23.5.8 : The grasping reflex in this four-month-old infant gives
parent’s breathing and heartbeat — are also comforting to the newborn. it a surprisingly strong grip. This reflex is already present at birth.
Loud or sudden noises, on the other hand, are likely to startle and
frighten a newborn. The neonate also responds to sounds of potential MILESTONES IN INFANT DEVELOPMENT
danger — such as angry voices of adults, thunder, or the cries of other Many developments occur during infancy. These include developments
infants — with greater attention. They may turn toward the sounds and in several areas — motor skills, sensory abilities, and cognitive
blink their eyes. abilities. Infants vary in the exact timing of these developments, but the
sequence of the developments is usually similar from one infant to
TASTE AND SMELL IN THE NEONATE another.
Newborns can respond to different tastes, including sweet, sour, bitter,
and salty tastes. They generally show a preference for sweet tastes. TWO MONTHS
They also show a preference for the smell of foods that their mother ate During the first two months after birth, an infant normally develops the
regularly during pregnancy. Presumably, this occurs because amniotic ability to hold their head erect and steady when they are held in an
fluid changes taste with different foods eaten by the mother. upright position. They will also develop the ability to roll from their

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side to their back. They are likely to start cooing and babbling at their
parents and other people they know, and they will also start smiling at FOUR MONTHS
their parents (Figure 23.5.9). By the end of the fourth month after birth, an infant can roll from front
to side, lift their head 90 degrees while lying prone, sit up with support,
and hold their head steady for brief periods. They will turn their head
toward sounds and follow objects with their eyes. They will start to
make vowel sounds and begin to laugh. They may even squeal with
delight.

SIX MONTHS
Around six months of age, an infant is normally able to pick up objects
and transfer them from hand to hand. They can also pull themselves
Figure 23.5.9 : A baby’s first smile is an early milestone in infant
development. into a sitting position. Their vision will have improved so it is now
almost as acute as adult vision. The infant will also start noticing colors
and start to show the ability to discriminate depth. They are likely to
enjoy vocal play and may start making two-syllable sounds such as
“mama” or “dada.” They may also start to show anxiety toward
strangers.

TEN MONTHS

Figure 23.5.10: This ten-month old infant has just learned to crawl
By about ten months of age, an infant can wiggle and crawl, like the
infant pictured in Figure 23.5.10, and can sit unsupported. If
they drop a toy they will look for it, and they can now pick up objects
with a pincer grasp (using the tips of the thumb and forefinger).
They babble in a way that starts to resemble the cadences of speech.
They are likely to exhibit fear around strangers.

TWELVE MONTHS
By the end of the first year, an infant normally can stand while holding
onto furniture or someone’s hand. They may even be starting to walk,
as the infant in Figure 23.5.11. When they drop toys, they watch where
the toys go. The babies may cooperate with dressing, and they may
wave goodbye. They may also babble a few words repeatedly and
show that they understand simple commands.

Figure 23.5.11: Using a push toy for balance and support allows this
one-year-old to take a few steps.

DENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE FIRST YEAR

The deciduous (baby) teeth generally start to emerge around six
months of age. The emergence of teeth is called teething. While the

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teeth are close to emerging through the gums, the gums may become Not all body parts and organs grow at the same rate during infancy. The
red, swollen, and painful. The baby is likely to drool and be fussy head and trunk normally show the greatest growth. This allows for
during the few days it takes for the teeth to finally emerge. The baby rapid growth and development of the brain, heart, and lungs. At birth,
might also refuse to eat or drink because of the discomfort. The two the baby’s brain is already about one-quarter of its future adult size, but
lower central incisors usually emerge first at about six months, it normally increases to about three-quarters of its adult size by the end
followed by the two upper central incisors at about eight months. The of the first year. The kidneys also develop rapidly during infancy, so by
four lateral incisors (two upper and two lower) emerge at roughly ten the end of the first year, they are functioning at an adult level. The
months. reproductive system goes through a short period of rapid growth soon
after birth but thereafter grows very slowly until puberty.
PHYSICAL GROWTH IN THE FIRST YEAR
INFANT MORTALITY
Of all stages in life, infancy is associated with a higher risk of death
than any other stage, except old age. Worldwide, the major causes of
death in infancy include dehydration, infection, birth defects, and
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Deaths that occur during the
first year of life are referred to as infant mortality. At a population
level, infant mortality is measured by the infant mortality rate, which
is defined as the number of infant deaths per one thousand live births.
The infant mortality rate is regarded as a very important measure of the
level of health in a nation. The level of health, in turn, usually reflects a
nation’s wealth, because wealth is associated with access to medical
care, socioeconomic conditions that promote health, and public health
Figure 23.5.12: The 50th percentile for the rate of increase practices. Not surprisingly, there is a well-documented inverse
(mm/month) in height is shown in this graph separately for male sex relationship between national wealth and the infant mortality rate. The
(blue) and female sex (red) from birth to age 20 years. The 50th graph below shows this relationship clearly. In the graph in Figure
percentile is the height below which 50 percent of individuals in a 23.5.13, wealth is measured as the gross domestic product (GDP) per
population fall. The graph clearly shows that growth is more rapid
during the first year of life than it is at any other time. person (per capita), as expressed in U.S. dollars. As the graph shows,
the highest levels of infant mortality occur in the poorest countries, and
Infancy is the period of most rapid growth after birth. Growth during
as wealth rises, the infant mortality rate falls sharply.
infancy is even faster than it is during puberty when the adolescent
growth spurt occurs, as shown in the graph in Figure 23.5.12.

GROWTH IN WEIGHT AND LENGTH

Following the initial weight loss right after birth, an infant normally
gains an average of about 28 g (1 oz) per day during the first two
months. Then, weight gain slows somewhat, and the infant normally
gains about 0.45 kg (1 lb) per month during the remainder of the first
year. At this rate of weight gain, an infant generally doubles its birth
weight by six months after birth and triples its birth weight by 12
months after birth.
Growth in overall body length is also very rapid during infancy,
especially in the first few months. Infants normally grow about 2.5 cm
(1.0 in.) per month during the first six months. During the second six Figure 23.5.13: The infant mortality rate is a good measure of the
months, they normally grow about 1.2 cm (0.5 in.) per month. At this health effects of wealth — or lack thereof — in a population.
rate of growth in length, an infant may close to double its birth length
by the end of the first year! FEATURE: RELIABLE SOURCES
During doctor visits throughout the first year of life, a baby’s weight Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is the unexplained death,
and length are measured. The baby’s values are compared to standard usually during sleep, of a seemingly healthy infant. In the U.S.,
weight and length values for infants of the same age to assess whether SIDS is one of the leading causes of death in the first year of life,
the baby is growing normally. The actual weight and length are with about two thousand infants dying in the U.S. each year from
generally considered to be less important than evidence showing that SIDS. The cause of SIDS is unknown, although scientists suspect
the baby is failing to grow normally between visits. Babies that grow that immaturity or abnormality of the part of the brain that controls
too slowly may have a health problem or maybe undernourished. If this arousal from sleep and breathing may be involved. Researchers
goes uncorrected, it can produce permanent deficits in size. On the have also identified several factors that increase the risk of SIDS.
other hand, a faster-than-normal increase in weight may result in the Some risks include male sex, pre-term birth, low birth weight,
infant becoming too heavy and being at greater risk of obesity later in exposure to secondhand smoke, and sleeping on the stomach.
life. Certain practices — such as placing an infant on its back to sleep
and not using pillows or blankets in the crib — can help reduce the
VARIATIONS IN GROWTH risk of SIDS.

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 Go online to learn more about SIDS. Find reliable sources that 1. Define infancy, infant, and neonate.
answer the following questions. 2. What is an Apgar test? When and why is it administered?
1. What current research is being undertaken to better understand 3. Describe what happens to the umbilical cord after birth.
the cause of SIDS? What risk factors or areas of concern are 4. What are some physical characteristics of a neonate?
being investigated? 5. What are the average length and weight of a well-nourished, full-
2. How can parents reduce the risk of SIDS in their infants? Which term newborn?
three reliable sources of information on SIDS would you 6. Why do newborns typically lose some weight in the first week after
recommend to new parents to raise their awareness of SIDS and birth?
how to reduce the risk of SIDS in their infants? 7. Describe newborn sensory abilities.
8. Identify some of the reflexes that are present in newborn infants,
and how they help the newborn survive.
SUMMARY 9. Identify a milestone in infant development that typically occurs by
Infancy refers to the first year of life after birth. An infant is defined each of the ages below. In general, how does the timing of
as a human being between birth and the first birthday. A newborn developmental milestones vary among infants at the ages of two
baby is called a neonate up until the first four weeks after birth. months, four months, six months, ten months, and one year
Immediately after birth, an Apgar test is administered to an infant to 10. Outline dental development in the first year.
determine whether the newborn needs urgent medical care. The 11. Describe growth during infancy.
baby is scored on five traits, including skin color and heart rate. The 12. Define the infant mortality rate, and explain its significance.
umbilical cord is also cut within seconds of birth, leaving a stub 13. A mother brings her six-month-old to visit the pediatrician. She is
that will eventually dry out and fall off, forming the naval. concerned that he does not weigh nearly as much as his cousin, who
Newborns may or may not have vernix or lanugo covering the skin, is the same age. What is one piece of information that the
and they may or may not have head hair. Their body proportions are pediatrician would likely want to know in order to help assess
distinctive, and the head is very large relative to the body. Soft whether the infant’s weight is a concern?
spots in the skull called fontanels — which allow the head to 14. A baby is born and a nurse immediately records the observations
change shape slightly to fit through the birth canal — gradually below. What is this baby’s APGAR score? Is this score considered
ossify after birth. normal? Explain your answer.
A well-nourished, full-term newborn averages about 51 cm (20 in.)
A. Its skin is blue at the extremities, but the body is pink.
in length and has an average birth weight of 3.4 kg (7.5 lb). A
B. Its heart rate is 98 beats per minute.
newborn typically loses a small amount of weight in the first week,
C. Baby cries on stimulation.
but after that, a healthy neonate should start gaining weight rapidly.
D. Baby has flexed arms and legs that resist extension.
Newborns have well-developed senses of touch and hearing, and
E. Baby has a strong, robust cry.
they can respond to different tastes and smells. However, their
sense of vision is not yet fully developed. Their visual acuity is
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poor, and they also have limited color and depth perception. https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17807#Explore_More
Infants are born with several reflexes that help them survive the
first few months of life: crying for communication, suckling, and ATTRIBUTIONS
the rooting reflex (which helps them find a nipple). The Moro and 1. Baby sleeping by ULOVInteractive, Pixabay license
grasping reflexes help them maintain close physical contact with 2. Newborn crying by Evan-Amos, public domain via Wikimedia
the mother or another caregiver. Commons
Many important developments in motor, sensory, and cognitive 3. New born by Bigroger27509, public domain via Wikimedia
abilities occur during infancy. There is variation among infants in Commons
the exact timing of these developments, but the sequence in which 4. Doorknippen navelstreng by Mech, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
they occur is usually similar. Commons
The deciduous teeth generally start to emerge around six months of 5. Male figures showing proportons in five ages by
age. This is called teething, and it may cause discomfort and http://wellcomeimages.org/Wellcome, CC BY 4.0 via Wikimedia
fussiness. Typically, all of the upper and lower incisors emerge Commons
during the first year. 6. Skull at birth by Henry Gray, public domain via Wikimedia
Infancy is the period of most rapid growth after birth. A healthy, Commons
well-nourished infant generally triples his birth weight and doubles 7. Breastfeeding by capsulanudes via Pixabay license
his birth length by the first birthday. The head and trunk normally 8. Child's hand by Tembinkosi Sikupela via Unsplash license
grow most rapidly, allowing rapid growth and development of the 9. Infant smiling, public domain via pxhere
brain, heart, and lungs. 10. Baby crawling by Bualong Pata, public domain via Wikimedia
Infancy is associated with a higher risk of death than any other life Commons
stage, except old age. The infant mortality rate — defined as the 11. Learning to walk by Shaun MItchem, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
number of infant deaths per one thousand live births — is an Commons
important measure of the level of health in a nation. It tends to be 12. Human height growth per month by Cantus, CC0 via Wikimedia
inversely correlated with a nation’s wealth. Commons
13. Infant mortality v GDP by Donaharr2, public domain via
REVIEW Wikimedia Commons

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14. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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23.6: CHILDHOOD
CHILD LABOR A toddler is a child between the ages of one and three years old. The
The kids in Figure 23.6.1 from 1911 are just children. All of them toddler years are a time of great physical, cognitive, and psychosocial
are between eight and 12 years old — years you no doubt spent in development. The deciduous dentition continues to erupt during these
elementary and middle school. For the children in the picture, those years, and growth in size is still fairly rapid, especially between the
years were spent as coal workers in a Pennsylvania mine. Their job ages of one and two years, although it is considerably slower than it
was to separate impurities from coal by hand. For ten hours each was during infancy. The children in Figure 23.6.2 show physical and
day, six days a week, they would sit on wooden seats, perched over motor development that is typical of toddlers at this age: walking with
chutes and conveyor belts, picking impurities out of the coal. The help.
use of children to do this work began in the mid-1860s, before PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN TODDLERS
mandatory child education and child labor laws had been passed in
By their first birthday, most toddlers can pull themselves up to a
the United States. Although public disapproval of the employment
standing position and walk with help, if not alone. They can also sit
of children as coal workers existed by the mid-1880s, the practice
down without assistance. They have the motor skills needed to bang
did not end in the United States until the 1920s.
two blocks together, turn through the pages of a book by flipping
several pages at a time, and use a pincer grasp to pick up objects. They
may be able to drink from a cup, but probably not without frequent
spills. They may also be able to play with a ball by rolling or tossing it.
By the age of two years, toddlers can typically walk sideways and
backward. They can also run, although they are likely to fall down
often like the kids in Figure 23.6.2. Two-year-old toddlers can walk up
and down stairs on both feet, one step at a time, while holding on to a
rail or someone’s hand. They have the fine motor skills needed to build
Figure 23.6.1 : Child labor a tower of blocks that is six blocks high. They have also mastered
drinking from a cup and can control a spoon well enough to feed
DEFINING CHILDHOOD themselves. In addition, they may be toilet trained, at least during
This example of child labor from the early 1900s shows how greatly waking hours.
attitudes toward children and childhood have changed over the past By the age of three years, children have reached the end of the toddler
century in the United States. Children used to be thought of as small stage. Their gross motor skills have progressed to the point that they
versions of adults who should work to help support the family or at are good at climbing, and they can now climb stairs one foot per step.
least “earn their keep.” We now know that children differ from adults They have the fine motor skills needed to handle small objects and to
in many ways besides their size, and we generally think of childhood as do simple puzzles. They can copy a circle and build a tower of blocks
an idyllic time dominated by play, fun, and learning. However, even nine blocks high. They are also able to undress with assistance.
now, the definition of childhood varies. To start, childhood can be
defined legally or biologically.
Legally, childhood is defined as the period of minority, which lasts
from birth until adulthood (majority). The age of majority varies by
place and purpose. For example, in the United States, at age 18, you
are considered an adult for military service, but a minor for buying
alcohol.
Biologically, childhood is defined as the stage of a human
organism between birth and adolescence. The first year of life is
called infancy and is covered in the concept Infancy. The remaining Figure 23.6.2 : These children are apparently relishing his newly
years until adolescence are loosely divided into early childhood developed ability for bipedal locomotion.
(one to five years), middle childhood (six to ten years), and pre-
adolescence (11-12 years).

EARLY CHILDHOOD
Early childhood follows infancy, which ends at the first birthday. The
first part of early childhood is toddlerhood when a child begins
speaking and taking steps independently. Toddlerhood ends around age
three when the child becomes less dependent on caretakers for basic
needs. Early childhood continues with the preschool stage, which ends
Figure 23.6.3 : This two-year-old toddler loves to run, even when
at about age five.
they fall.
TODDLERS
COGNITIVE AND PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN
TODDLERS

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One-year-old toddlers can use one- and two-syllable words (such as healthy children in the United States. Children who are smaller than
“ball” and “mama") and they can understand several other words. They these values may still be well nourished and healthy because stature is
can follow simple commands, especially if the commands are given determined by genes, as well as the environment. Children of small
with associated gestures. They can probably bring you a toy if you parents tend to be small as well.
point at it and say, “Please bring me the toy.” They understand that Table 23.6.5 : Weight and Height of Toddlers
objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. They connect Age (years) Weight (kg) Weight (lbs) Height (cm) Height (in.)
names with objects and use gestures or words to refer to objects or 1 8.3 – 10.4 18.3 - 22.9 72.4 – 77.5 28.2 - 30.2
actions, such as pointing at a book, raising their arms to be picked up, 2 10.6 – 13.1 23.3 - 28.8 84.3 – 89.9 32.9 - 35.1
or saying “cup.” In addition, they can mimic actions, such as covering 3 12.9 – 15.6 28.4 - 34.3 91.4 – 98.0 35.6 - 38.2
the eyes while playing peekaboo. They experience separation anxiety
and may cling to their parents. Children at this age do not play with Toddlers generally experience about a 52 percent increase in weight
other children, although they may play alongside them, like the from age one to age three, which is a much slower gain in weight than
toddlers pictured in Figure 23.6.4. the nearly 200 percent increase in weight from birth to age one year. In
terms of height, there is about a 26 percent increase from age one to
Two-year-old toddlers can use as many as 50 words, and they generally
age three. Again, this is a much slower rate of growth than the nearly
understand at least a couple of hundred more words. They can obey
100 percent increase in height during the first year after birth.
simple verbal commands and help dress and undress. They understand
physical relationships, such as flipping a switch to turn on a light. They
PRESCHOOLERS
can search for hidden objects, solve problems through trial and error,
The preschool stage of early childhood generally refers to the ages four
and mimic adult behaviors, for example, by feeding a doll. They also
to five years — however, in some disciplines, such as psychology, the
demonstrate self-recognition (in a mirror), attachment to parents, and
preschool stage may be extended to age six or seven.
anxiety when separated from parents. On the other hand, they may start
showing signs of independence. They frequently use the word “no” and PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN PRESCHOOLERS
may throw temper tantrums. Although temper tantrums may be a way
By the age of four, children typically can go downstairs one foot per
of expressing strong emotions toddlers do not yet have the ability to
step, skip on one foot, and pedal and steer a wheeled toy such as a
express verbally, they may also be a way of showing growing
tricycle. They can climb ladders and playground equipment, and they
independence and testing boundaries
can run around obstacles with ease. They are able to build a tower with
Three-year-old toddlers are able to speak in short simple sentences and ten or more blocks and thread small wooden beads on a string. They
ask questions. They also easily learn new words, including people’s can also reproduce some shapes and letters, and they can hold a crayon
names. They attempt to sing along with songs. They can anticipate or marker with a tripod grasp as in Figure 23.6.5.
routines and are well on their way to being completely toilet trained.
By this age, toddlers can show preferences for toys or foods and know
how to play games with simple rules. This is also the age at which
many children start to have imaginary companions.

Figure 23.6.5 : A four-year-old child can grip a crayon with a tripod

grasp.
By the age of five, children can skip on alternate feet and may learn to
Figure 23.6.4 : These toddlers are playing side by side but are not walk on a balance beam and turn somersaults. They can catch a ball
actually playing with each other.
thrown from a meter away, touch their toes without bending the knees,
TODDLER DENTITION and balance on either foot with good control for about ten seconds.
By the age of one year, toddlers have up to eight deciduous teeth — They can also build a three-dimensional structure with blocks by
generally the four upper and four lower incisors. Between about 12 copying from a picture or model, cut on a line with scissors, and
months and 15 months of age, the lower lateral incisors usually demonstrate good control with a pencil or marker. By this age, children
emerge. The four first molars typically emerge between ten and 16 begin to color within the lines and can reproduce many shapes and
months and the four canines between 16 and 20 months. The remaining letters. Some children are already learning to ride a bicycle, usually
deciduous dentition — the four second molars — generally emerge with training wheels.
between 20 and 30 months of age. There is considerable individual COGNITIVE AND PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN
variation in the ages at which the deciduous teeth emerge, but the PRESCHOOLERS
sequence at which they emerge is similar in most children.
The fourth year is generally the age at which young children ask the
GROWTH OF TODDLERS most questions. Their speech is almost entirely intelligible by this age,
and they are beginning to use the correct past tense of verbs. They can
Table 23.6.5 shows typical weight and height ranges for toddlers at
talk about objects, people, and events that are not present. They can
ages one, two, and three years old. The values are for well-nourished,

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also recite simple songs and rhymes and state their first and last name Muscle strength and coordination also improve from ages six to ten
(and sometimes their phone number!). They are likely to be able to years, and movements become more controlled and graceful. During
count to 20 and may be starting to read very simple books with just a this period, children typically learn to ride a bicycle without training
few words on each page. They can dress and undress with assistance, wheels (see Figure 23.6.7). They also typically learn to jump rope, hit
and attend to their own toilet needs. They may insist on trying to do a baseball, and kick a soccer ball. They may learn more complex skills,
things independently but tend to become easily frustrated when as well, such as playing basketball, dancing, or playing a musical
problems arise. They typically enjoy role-playing and make-believe instrument.
activities, and they can cooperate with others and participate in group
activities. By this age, they are beginning to establish close
relationships with playmates.
Five-year-old children generally have a vocabulary of at least 1,500
words, produce sentences of at least five to seven words, and can
define words by function (e.g., a bed is to sleep in). They can recognize
the humor in simple jokes, make up jokes and riddles, and enjoy
making other people laugh. They can identify and name several colors,
sort objects on the basis of two qualities (such as color and shape), and
place objects in order by size. They can count past 20 and often up to Figure 23.6.7 : This child has just started riding a bike without training
100, and they may recognize the numerals one to ten. They know what wheels.
calendars and clocks are for, and some may be starting to tell time.
COGNITIVE AND PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN
They can also recognize and identify coins and may be starting to
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
count money. In addition, they are able to dress and undress alone.
The period from six to ten years is a time of important cognitive
Children of this age often have just one or two “best” friends, and they
changes. Generally, children in this age range develop more mature and
may show affection and care toward others, such as another child who
logical ways of thinking. They gradually develop the ability to consider
is hurt.
multiple parts of problems, although their thinking is still concrete,
GROWTH OF PRESCHOOLERS rather than abstract. Children in this age range also develop the ability
By the time children pass their fourth birthday, their rate of growth has to concentrate for increasing lengths of time. Whereas a six-year-old
slowed considerably. During the preschool years, children typically might be able to focus on a task for just 15 minutes and follow a series
gain about 1.8 to 2.7 kg (4 to 6 lb.) per year and grow about 5.1 to 7.6 of only three commands, a ten-year-old might be able to focus on a
cm (2 to 3 in.) per year. By the age of five, the majority of children task for more than an hour and follow a series of at least five
weigh between 16.5 and 20.3 kg (36.3 and 44.7 lb.) and stand about commands. Language skills also improve during these years. A six-
105 to 114 cm (41.3 to 44.2 in.) tall. year-old typically uses complete but simple sentences with an average
of only about six words. A ten-year-old uses much longer and more
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD complex sentences with virtually the same grammar and pronunciation
Middle childhood is the life stage between early childhood and pre- as adults.
adolescence. It covers the ages of six to ten years when most children Emotionally, children aged six to ten years may be somewhat fragile.
are in elementary school. Children within this age bracket are more Their self-esteem may change rapidly depending on how they think
independent and physically active than they were in the preschool others perceive them, especially their peers, as peer acceptance
years, but few have experienced any of the physical changes of becomes increasingly important during these years. If children aren’t
puberty. Children in this range are more involved with friends and are chosen for a team or are snubbed by a friend, for example, their self-
learning to think in more complex ways than during their preschool esteem may plummet. Children in this age range also develop body
years. Although progress in most major areas of development is modesty and express an increasing desire for privacy. Although school-
relatively gradual during middle childhood, the cumulative differences age children sometimes seem like small adults as they buckle down to
between children aged six and those aged ten are substantial (Figure schoolwork and take on new responsibilities at home, they can also
23.6.6). revert to more immature emotions and behaviors. They may sometimes
seem as stubborn and unreasonable as toddlers during the “terrible
twos,” and the occasional tantrum may still occur.
From the ages of six to ten, children go from playing with same-gender
friends to starting to play in mixed-gender groups. They may still like
playing alone, but friends become increasingly important. They may
enjoy playing on a sports team, like the Little League Baseball player
in the picture below, or they may participate in scouts or other formal
peer groups. They are generally good at cooperating and sharing,
although they sometimes exhibit jealousy toward their peers or
Figure 23.6.6 : (left) Six-year-old child and (right) Ten-year-old child. siblings.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Physically, the first several years of middle childhood are a time of
steady development in abilities, such as agility, balance, and endurance.

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 Figure 23.6.9 : This happy-go-lucky six-year-old just lost their first
baby tooth, their left lower central incisor.

GROWTH IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD AND PRE-

ADOLESCENCE
Figure 23.6.8 : In middle childhood, many children enjoy participating For most children, physical growth is slow and steady during middle
in sports or other peer-group activities. childhood, although there may be a few brief growth spurts separated
by periods of slower growth. In middle childhood, children generally
PRE-ADOLESCENCE gain an average of about 3.2 kg (7 lb.) per year and increase in height
The age range from about 11 to 12 years is called pre-adolescence or by an average of about 5.8 cm (2.3 in.) per year. By the age of 12, the
the “tweens,” and children in this age range are commonly called average child weighs about 41 kg (91 lb.) and has a height of about 150
preteens. Pre-adolescence is considered a unique stage of development cm (59 in.). There is very little difference in size between different
because it coincides with the start of puberty, although few of the sexes at this age. Some of the weight gain during middle childhood
obvious physical changes of puberty, such as sexual maturation, have generally reflects an increase in muscle mass relative to the muscle
yet to occur. mass of the preschool child. Some children may begin the adolescent
Pre-adolescence is also a time of significant cognitive and psychosocial growth spurt during pre-adolescence, but most of this period of rapid
development. This is typically when young people finally develop the growth occurs during adolescence.
ability to think abstractly. They can think beyond their personal
experiences, and they can view the world less in terms of absolutes, FEATURE: RELIABLE SOURCES
such as right or wrong, black or white. Pre-adolescents also develop the
In most of the United States, today’s kindergarten is yesterday’s
ability to identify the cause and effect sequences, although they still
first grade in terms of the academic skills that children are expected
may not be able to infer motives or to reason hypothetically. Relative to
to master. This suggests that pre-K (pre-school) programs are the
earlier ages in middle childhood, preteens tend to:
new kindergarten. Many studies have demonstrated that children
Have a more realistic and less fantasy-based view of life: They who attend quality pre-K programs not only do better throughout
may worry about a scary media event (such as kidnapping), but the remainder of their school years but also tend to be more
they no longer fear the monster under the bed. They may want to be successful as adults. Such studies provided the impetus in many
an engineer — rather than a wizard— when they grow up. states to fund public pre-K education for all students who cannot
Think and act more reasonably and less emotionally: They afford private pre-K programs.
might earn money to buy what they want, rather than throw a
A study reported in 2016 has caused many people to reconsider the
tantrum when it isn’t given to them on demand.
value of pre-K education. Undertaken in Tennessee by researchers
Start developing a sense of identity: They may have increased
at Vanderbilt University, the study found that the state’s newly
feelings of independence and individuality, and no longer feel like
funded voluntary program for low-income preschoolers had only
just “one of the family.”
fleeting benefits. Children who attended the program did better in
Care more about their appearance and what they wear.
the first year of school than control-group children who did not
Start to have romantic feelings toward a peer, and may
attend a pre-K program. However, by third grade, children in the
experience “puppy love.”
control group had actually surpassed the children who had attended
DENTITION IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD AND PRE- the state’s pre-K program.
ADOLESCENCE Not surprisingly, the Tennessee study was very controversial, and it
Middle childhood is the time when the deciduous teeth loosen and fall has raised a number of questions. Have the long-touted benefits of
out, and most of the permanent teeth emerge. The first deciduous teeth pre-K education been over-rated? Does pre-K education really have
to fall out are generally the eight incisors, which are typically lost no lasting impact on children and their success in school and life?
between the ages of six and eight (Figure 23.6.9). The incisors are Is investing in public pre-K programs a waste of limited
followed by the eight premolars, which are generally lost between the educational dollars? Or is the real issue high-quality pre-K versus
ages of nine and 12, and by the four canines, which are generally lost low-quality pre-K? The Tennessee pre-K program that was the
between the ages of ten and 13. The second permanent molars focus of the Vanderbilt study has been criticized for being poorly
generally emerge between the ages of 11 and 13. The only permanent executed and under-funded. Would a higher-quality pre-K program
teeth that emerge later are the third molars (or wisdom teeth) which have produced the positive results found in several other studies?
generally emerge in late adolescence or early adulthood. And why did the children who attended the program initially do
better than the control group, but then later perform worse? Was
something about the education they were receiving at the

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 kindergarten through third-grade level "undoing" the benefits of 3. Define early childhood. What are its two main divisions?
pre-K? 4. Give examples of the range of developments that occur during early
Research the issue of pre-K education and its pros and cons. Try to childhood.
find the most up-to-date, evidence-based studies and discussions of 5. How does the rate of physical growth during early childhood
the issue. After finding several reliable resources, form your own compare to the growth rate during infancy?
conclusions about the value of pre-K education. Keep in mind that 6. What changes in dentition occur during early childhood?
a reasonable conclusion need not be definitive. In other words, it 7. Define middle childhood and identify the range of years it covers.
may be appropriate to conclude that there is not yet enough reliable 8. Describe some of the changes that take place during middle
evidence to assess whether or not pre-K programs are a good childhood.
investment. Your conclusion should also be open to revision as new 9. What is pre-adolescence, and when does it occur?
evidence becomes available. 10. What are some of the main developmental events that happen in
pre-adolescence?
11. Summarize changes in dentition and body size that occur during
SUMMARY
middle childhood and pre-adolescence.
Legally, childhood is defined as the period of minority, from birth
12. If a toddler weighs 20 pounds at one year of age, which of the
to the age of majority, or adulthood. Biologically, childhood is
choices below is most likely her weight at age three, assuming
defined as the stage of a human organism between birth and
typical growth?
adolescence. Following infancy, biological childhood includes early
childhood, middle childhood, and pre-adolescence. A. 22 pounds
Early childhood is the life stage between infancy and middle B. 25 pounds
childhood. It is divided into toddlerhood (ages one to three) and the C. 30 pounds
preschool years (ages three to five). D. 40 pounds
Early childhood is a time of great physical, cognitive, and 13. Describe how the interaction between peers changes from the
psychosocial development. Children go from just starting to walk beginning to the end of biological childhood.
and using a word or two at age one, to riding a bike and using 1,500 14. True or False: By the age of ten, boys are significantly larger than
words at age five. While the one-year-old toddler clings to her girls, on average.
parents, the five-year-old preschooler runs off to play with her 15. True or False: Tantrums only occur during the early childhood
friends. years.
Physical growth is slower in early childhood than it was in infancy,
but still relatively rapid, especially in the toddler years. The EXPLORE MORE
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remaining deciduous dentition also erupts during early childhood.
Middle childhood is the life stage between early childhood and pre-
ATTRIBUTIONS
adolescence. It covers the ages of six to ten years when most
1. Child labor coal by Lewis Hine, public domain via Wikimedia
children are in elementary school. During middle childhood,
Commons
children are more independent and physically active than they were
2. Friends by Cheryl Holt, via Pixabay license
in the preschool years. They become more involved with friends
3. Toddler running and falling by Jamie Campbell, licensed CC BY
and develop more sophisticated language and cognitive abilities.
2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
Pre-adolescence is the life stage between middle childhood and
4. Playing with Xylophones by Donnie Ray Jones, licensed CC BY
adolescence or ages 11 to 12. It coincides with the start of puberty,
2.0 via Flickr
although few of the obvious physical changes of puberty have yet
5. Child drawing by D. Sharon Pruitt, licensed CC BY 2.0 via
to occur. It is also a time of significant cognitive and psychosocial
Wikimedia Commons
development. Pre-adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly,
6. Operation good heart by US Army, public domain via Wikimedia
start to develop a sense of identity, and may experience “puppy
Commons
love.”
During both middle childhood and pre-adolescence, the deciduous Lena Zavaroni by Nationaal Archief, CC0 via Wikimedia
teeth are lost and replaced by most of the permanent dentition. Commons
Physical growth and motor development are usually slow, but 7. Boy on bicyle by cegoh via Pixabay license
steady during these two stages of childhood, but some children may 8. Children playing released CC0 via Pxhere
begin the adolescent growth spurt during pre-adolescence. 9. Smile with missing tooth by crimfants, licensed CC BY 2.0 via
Wikimedia Commons
REVIEW 10. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
1. Contrast legal and biological definitions of childhood. 3.0
2. List the stages of biological childhood.

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23.7: ADOLESCENCE AND PUBERTY
RISK TAKERS ovaries). The main pituitary hormones are follicle-stimulating hormone
The surfing teens in Figure 23.7.1 are tempting fate by trying to (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). FSH stimulates the testes to
surf as close to each other as they can. Collisions with other surfers produce sperm and follicles in the ovaries to mature and secrete
or surfboards cause the greatest number of surfing-related injuries. estrogen. LH stimulates the testes to secrete testosterone and the
Surfing is risky enough without making it more dangerous by doing ovaries to secrete estrogen. Testosterone and estrogen, in turn,
stunts like this. Taking unnecessary risks is usually thought to be a stimulate the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics
hallmark of adolescence. and contribute to the spurt in physical growth.

Figure 23.7.2 : Hormonal regulation of the male reproductive

Figure 23.7.1 : Surfing Teenagers system: GnRH stimulates the production of FSH and LH, which act on
the testes to begin spermatogenesis and to develop secondary sex
DEFINING ADOLESCENCE characteristics. In turn, the testes' production of testosterone and the
hormone inhibin inhibit the release of GnRH, FSH, and LH in a
Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and negative feedback loop.
adulthood. It is generally considered to start with puberty, during which
sexual maturation occurs and adolescents go through a spurt in growth. PUBERTY IN MALE SEXES
In many children, however, puberty actually begins during the stage
I

<2,5
called pre-adolescence, which covers the ages 11 to 12 years. Puberty 3
may begin before adolescence, but it usually continues for several
years, well into the adolescent stage, which ends during the late teens.
Besides the physical changes of puberty, adolescence is also a time of

2,5-3,2
significant cognitive and psychosocial changes. Many of these changes
continue through the end of adolescence after most of the physical
II 4

changes of puberty have already taken place.

PUBERTY III
3,6
10
Puberty is the period during which humans become sexually mature.
Besides maturation of the primary sex organs (those involved directly
in reproduction), secondary sex characteristics also emerge during
4,1-4,5

puberty. Adolescents with a high level of testosterone in their blood IV 16

develop masculine traits (such as facial hair), and adolescents with a
high amount of estrogen in their blood develop feminine traits (such as
breasts). In addition, there is a period of rapid body growth during
V
>4,5

25
puberty, which results in sexual dimorphism in adult body size,
composition, and shape.
When does puberty occur? The timing of puberty depends in part on Figure 23.7.3: Changes in the external genitalia in male sexes during
biological sex, with puberty typically occurring earlier in female sex puberty are classified in the stages shown here
than male sex. Besides biological sex, the timing of puberty is In the United States, puberty in biological male sexes generally begins
influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Although there is between the ages of 11 and 12 years and is usually over by the age of
considerable individual variation in the age of onset, duration, and 18. During puberty, the testes and scrotum start to increase in size first,
tempo of the physical changes of puberty, the sequence of these followed by the penis. At the same time that the penis is growing, the
changes is relatively consistent among individuals. seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands are also growing
HORMONAL CONTROL OF PUBERTY and developing. Secondary sex characteristics, such as pubic hair, also
develop. Additional physical changes that occur in boys during puberty
As shown in Figure 23.7.2, the changes of puberty are triggered by the
include the appearance of facial and body hair and deepening of the
hypothalamus in the brain. For unknown reasons, the hypothalamus
voice as the vocal cords increase in size. Visible changes in the external
starts releasing pulses of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).
male genitalia are illustrated in Figure 23.7.3. The stages show the
This hormone travels directly to the anterior pituitary gland and
sequence in which the changes occur. Stage I represents the pre-
stimulates it to secrete hormones that target the gonads (testes and
pubertal stage at about age 11, and stage V represents the adult stage

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after the completion of puberty at about ages 16 to 18 years. The first proportions. The adolescent growth spurt is controlled by hormones,
ejaculation generally occurs by the age of 13 years. Even this early in including growth, thyroid, and sex hormones.
puberty, the semen may contain some sperm. Although full fertility
GROWTH IN HEIGHT
may not be gained for another year or two, boys are generally fertile
Average growth rates in height for boys and girls are represented by the
before they have completed their adolescent growth and achieved an
graph in Figure 23.7.5. The average boy and girl do not differ
adult appearance.
significantly from each other in growth rate before the AGS begins.
PUBERTY IN FEMALES However, by the time they have attained their final adult height, the
Puberty in biological female sexes typically begins a couple of years average female is about 13 cm (5.1 in.) shorter than the average male.
earlier than puberty in males. In the United States, females begin One reason is that the AGS occurs earlier in girls than in boys, so girls
puberty between the ages of nine and ten. Visible, external changes experience a shorter period of childhood growth, making them shorter,
begin first, including the growth and development of the breasts and on average, when they begin the AGS in height. Another reason is that
pubic hair. As shown in Figure 23.7.4, changes in these traits are the peak height velocity (maximum rate of growth in height) is lower
traditionally divided into five stages, where stage I is the child stage for the average girl than it is for the average boy.
prior to the start of puberty (around age eight or nine years) and stage
V is the adult stage at the end of puberty (around age 14 to 16 years).
About two years after breast development begins, the internal
reproductive organs — including the uterus and vagina — start to grow
and develop.

II
Figure 23.7.5 : The 50th percentile for the rate of increase (mm/month)
in height is shown in this graph separately for males (blue) and females
(red) from birth to age 20 years. The 50th percentile is the height below

III
which 50 percent of individuals in a population fall. The graph clearly
shows the AGS for each biological sex. Growth during the AGS is
almost as rapid as it was during the toddler years (1-3 years), although
not as rapid as it was during infancy (0-1 year).
In boys, the AGS in height usually starts at about the age of 11 years.

IV The peak height velocity in boys occurs at about age 13.5 when growth
in height is about 10.3 cm (4 in.) per year on average. Growth in height
in boys ceases by about age 18 (or a bit later) when the ends of the long
bones finally ossify at the epiphyses, so additional growth in height is
no longer possible.
V In girls, the AGS in height usually starts by the age of roughly 9.5
years. The peak height velocity in girls occurs at about age 11.5 years
when growth in height is about 9 cm (3.5 in.) per year on average.
Figure 23.7.4 : Visible physical changes in female breasts and pubic
hair occur during puberty in the stages shown here. Growth in height in girls is completed by about 16 years (if not earlier)
when the closure of the epiphyses prevents any additional growth in
One of the most significant changes in females during puberty is
height.
menarche, which is the first menstrual period. It marks the beginning of
menstruation. In the United States, menarche occurs at an average age The accelerated rate of growth during the AGS happens at different
of 12.4 years. However, there is considerable variation in this age, with times for various parts of the body, but it occurs in the same predictable
menarche at any age between eight and 16 considered normal. It sequence for both sexes. Generally, the extremities — including the
generally takes a few years after menarche occurs before ovulation head, hands, and feet — experience rapid growth first, followed by the
starts occurring regularly and a female becomes fertile, although arms and legs, and then by the trunk and shoulders. This non-uniform
occasionally, ovulation starts earlier. Unlike males, most females attain growth may make the adolescent body seem awkward and
their adult size and appearance before they can reproduce. disproportionate until growth is completed.
GROWTH IN WEIGHT
ADOLESCENT GROWTH SPURT
Growth in weight shows a similar spurt during adolescence as growth
The period of rapid growth in body size that occurs during puberty is
in height. Growth in weight occurs partly because of the growth in
called the adolescent growth spurt (AGS). Both height and weight
height, but growth in muscle, bone, and (for girls especially) body fat
increase at a rate that is faster than at any time since early childhood.
also contributes to the growth in weight. In boys, the AGS in weight
There are also significant changes in body composition and body

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lags behind the AGS in height by about three months, whereas in girls
the lag time is about six months.
DEVELOPMENT OF SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN ADULT BODY
COMPOSITION AND SHAPE
During the adolescent growth spurt, greater growth in muscles and
bones occurs in males than females, and especially in the upper body.
In males, the shoulders and chest broaden relative to the hips, whereas
the reverse occurs in females: the pelvis and hips widen relative to the
shoulders and chest. Male muscles may continue to grow and gain in
strength for a year or more after growth in height is finished. Females
also experience a major increase in body fat during adolescence,
especially in the breasts and hips. All of these sex differences in growth
during puberty account for the sexual dimorphism in adult human body Figure 23.7.6 : The prefrontal cortex (PFC) consists of three regions,
two of which are labeled in this drawing: the dorsolateral PFC and the
composition and shape. Please note that the terms males and females
orbitofrontal PFC. (CC BY-NC 3.0; Natalie M. Zahr, Ph.D., and Edith
refer to only biological sexes. A biological female may identify as a V. Sullivan, Ph.D. via Wikimedia.org)
male and a biological male may identify as a female. Most children at
this age fully understand their gender identity (see Chapter 22). Some PSYCHOSOCIAL CHANGES
start transitioning before puberty and never go through biological The psychological and social changes that occur during adolescence
puberty. are almost as marked as the physical changes associated with puberty.
During adolescence, most teens develop a stronger sense of personal
GROWTH IN OTHER BODY SYSTEMS
identity and start to develop their own system of moral and ethical
The circulatory and respiratory systems also undergo rapid growth and
values. Teens also generally develop a greater perception of their
development during the adolescent growth spurt. Both the heart and
feelings of self-esteem and an increased awareness of body image.
lungs increase in size and capacity. These and other changes lead to
Most teens become more separated emotionally from their parents, and
increased strength and tolerance for exercise and tend to occur to a
they may try to test the limits on their independence by breaking rules.
greater degree in males than females.
At the same time, they generally spend much more time with their
peers, and peer influence and acceptance is very important, especially
COGNITIVE AND PSYCHOSOCIAL CHANGES
early in adolescence. As a consequence, most teens exhibit a strong
DURING ADOLESCENCE
desire to conform to their peer group.
Most of the physical changes of puberty occur relatively early in
During adolescence, as sexual maturation progresses, there is an
adolescence. Many other changes — including cognitive and
increased awareness of sexuality. This is typically the time when young
psychosocial changes — occur throughout adolescence.
people (like the couple pictured below) become involved in romantic
CHANGES IN THE BRAIN AND COGNITION relationships for the first time. By late adolescence, a romantic
The brain does not increase in size very much during adolescence. relationship with a significant other may become more important than
Instead, most of the increase in brain size after birth occurs early in relationships with other peers.
childhood. By the age of six, the brain has already attained about 90
percent of its adult size. The brain does, however, become significantly
more complex during adolescence. In particular, the number of folds in
the cerebral cortex of the brain increases. A process called “synaptic
pruning” also occurs. In this process, unused pathways are eliminated.
At the same time, myelination increases. Overall, the brain becomes
more efficient and functional during adolescence, which in turn brings
about major cognitive changes.
Adolescence is a time of rapid cognitive development. By the age of 15 Figure 23.7.7 : These 15-year olds are involved in their first romantic
relationship.
or so, many adolescents have basic thinking abilities comparable to
those of adults. They demonstrate similar levels of attention, memory, The age at which adolescents go through the physical changes of
processing speed, and organization. Cognitive development may puberty may have an important influence on their psychosocial
continue into the early 20s, as increasing capacity for insight and development. Going through puberty early can lead to poor body
judgment develops through experience. image, low self-esteem, and unhealthy behaviors (such as frequent
dieting). They are more likely to engage in other unhealthy behaviors,
Some of the most significant changes in the brain during adolescence
such as smoking, drinking alcohol, and early involvement in sexual
occur in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), which is the part of the cerebral
activity. Late puberty tends to be more difficult than early puberty.
cortex that covers the front part of the frontal lobes (see Figure 23.7.6).
Those who mature later than their peers may feel physically inferior
This part of the brain is involved in such functions as decision making,
and develop poor body image and low self-esteem.
information processing, abstract reasoning, problem-solving,
evaluating risks and rewards, planning ahead, and controlling impulses. WHY ARE TEENS RISK-TAKERS?
These are the so-called executive functions of the brain, and they During adolescence, teens develop the ability to think like adults,
mature throughout adolescence as the PFC develops. including the ability to evaluate risks and rewards in similar ways as

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adults. If this is the case, then why do adolescents tend to be risk- The adolescent growth spurt (AGS) is a period of rapid growth in
takers? One possible answer is that adolescents have different values height and weight. It also includes significant changes in body
than adults, and therefore make different decisions about risky composition and shape. Sex differences in the AGS result in sexual
behaviors. For example, they may give more weight to social rewards dimorphism in adult size, body composition, and shape.
and peer pressure when evaluating risks and rewards. Although the brain does not increase very much in size during
Another possible answer is that adolescents are genetically adolescence, it does become more complex. The cerebral cortex
programmed to be risk-takers. Some scientists have suggested that becomes more folded and unused pathways are eliminated. The
there might be an evolutionary benefit to an increased propensity for most significant changes occur in the prefrontal cortex, which
risk-taking in adolescence. The scientists argue that without a controls executive functions, such as decision making, abstract
willingness to take risks, adolescents might not have the motivation or reasoning, and impulse control. By the age of 15 or so, many
confidence to leave their family of origin and start a family of their adolescents have basic thinking abilities comparable to those of
own. adults.
Psychosocial changes that occur during adolescence include the
development of a stronger sense of personal identity and a personal
FEATURE: MYTH VS. REALITY
system of moral and ethical values. Adolescents also become more
There are many commonly held ideas about teens that are not emotionally separated from their parents, while peers and peer
backed up by scientific evidence. It is important for teens, their influence become more important to them. Many teens also become
parents, and their teachers and coaches to be aware of these involved in romantic relationships for the first time.
misconceptions.
Myth: Teens can eat anything and still not gain weight because REVIEW
they are growing so rapidly. 1. Define adolescence.
Reality: Many teens eat too much food or the wrong foods and end 2. What is puberty, and what happens during puberty?
up gaining too much weight. In fact, the rate of obesity in teenagers 3. What causes puberty to begin, and what causes most of the physical
has tripled since 1980. changes of puberty?
Myth: Teens listen only to their friends. 4. When does puberty begin in boys and girls? What are some of the
obvious physical changes that occur first?
Reality: Teens actually report that their parents or the other caring
5. What is the adolescent growth spurt?
adults in their lives are the greatest influences on their behavior.
6. Relate sex differences in the adolescent growth spurt to adult sexual
This is especially the case when it comes to sexual behavior.
dimorphism.
Myth: Teens engage in arguments with their parents because they 7. Describe changes in the brain that occur during adolescence, and
like to “push their buttons.” relate these changes to cognitive development in teens.
Reality: Adults tend to take arguments personally and therefore 8. Outline psychosocial changes that occur during adolescence.
interpret teen behavior in this way. However, adolescents are more 9. How does early puberty tend to affect girls, and how does late
likely to view arguments as a means of self-expression. Teens may puberty tend to affect boys?
argue with their parents in order to help establish their own sense of 10. If adolescents develop the ability to evaluate risks and rewards as
identity, rather than to annoy the adults. adults do, why might teens be more likely than adults to take risks?
11. True or False: Sex hormones are involved in sexual maturity, but
SUMMARY not overall physical growth.
Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and 12. True or False: In both sexes, the hands are some of the first areas to
adulthood. It is generally considered to begin with puberty, undergo the adolescent growth spurt.
although, in many children, puberty actually begins during pre- 13. What is one secondary sex characteristic that develops during
adolescence (ages 11-12 years). Adolescence also includes puberty in both males and females?
significant cognitive and psychosocial changes, some of which 14. Do you think that an individual boy can start puberty earlier than an
continue past the physical changes of puberty and into the late individual girl? Why or why not?
teens. 15. When does puberty generally end in males and females?
Puberty is the period during which children become sexually
mature.
EXPLORE MORE
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17808#Explore_More
Puberty starts when the hypothalamus starts releasing pulses of
gonadotropin-releasing hormone, which triggers the pituitary gland ATTRIBUTIONS:
to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
1. Two surfing teens by Mike Baird, licensed CC BY 2.0 via
hormone (LH). FSH and LH, in turn, stimulate the gonads to
Wikimedia Commons
develop and release sex hormones. Sex hormones bring about most
2. Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction by Lumen Learning,
of the other changes of puberty.
licensed CC BY 4.0
In boys, puberty generally begins between the ages of 11 and 12,
3. Tanner scale - male by J.McHardy, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
when the external genitals and pubic hair start to develop. In girls,
Commons
puberty generally begins between the ages of nine and ten, when
4. Tanner scale - female by J.McHardy, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
the breasts and pubic hair start to develop.
Commons
5. Human height graph by Cantus, CC0 via Wikimedia Commons

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6. Prefrontal cortex by Zahr and Sullivan, public domain via 8. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
Wikimedia Commons 3.0
7. Me and my girlfriend by Andrebortoli, public domain via
Wikimedia Commons

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23.8: ADULTHOOD
MULTI-GENERATIONS EARLY ADULTHOOD
This family image includes an elderly woman and her young-adult Early adulthood coincides more-or-less with the 20s and early 30s.
daughters and granddaughters from the Hmong ethnic group in During early adulthood, people generally form intimate relationships,
Laos. Grandmother and daughters are adults, but they are obviously both in friendship and in love. Many people become engaged or marry
far apart in age. What ages define the beginning and end of during this time. Often, they are completing their education and
adulthood? becoming established in a career.
Strength and physical performance typically reach their peak between
20 and 35 years of age (see Figure 23.8.3). All sexes reach their peak
fertility in the 20s, and for females, fertility starts declining in the 30s.
Health problems in young adults tend to be relatively minor. Cancer is
rare in this stage of adulthood, but there are a few exceptions, notably
testicular cancer, cervical cancer, and Hodgkin’s lymphoma. The most
common causes of death in young adulthood are homicides, car
crashes, and suicides.

Figure 23.8.1: Black H'mong family Grandmother, mother,

grandkids Sapa Vietnam

DEFINING ADULTHOOD
Adulthood is the life stage between adolescence and death, but
assigning exact ages to the beginning and end of adulthood is not easy.
The event that marks the end of adulthood (death) is clear cut, but the Figure 23.8.3 : In 2010 at the age of 30, Serena Williams became the
oldest female tennis player to be ranked number one in the world. Most
age at which it occurs varies considerably. The beginning of adulthood
professional tennis players peak in their 20s.
is equally difficult to identify exactly. A person may be physically
mature and a biological adult by age 16 or so, but not defined as an MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
adult by law until older ages. For example, in the U.S., you cannot join Middle adulthood lasts from roughly the mid-30s to the mid-60s.
the armed forces or vote until age 18, and you cannot take on many Note that this age range is longer than the stage of life commonly
legal and financial responsibilities until age 21. called “middle age,” which is usually considered to range from about
45 to 65. During middle adulthood, many people raise a family and
STAGES OF ADULTHOOD strive to attain career goals. Community involvement is also common
in this life stage.

Figure 23.8.2 : This 110-year-old man has been an adult for more than Figure 23.8.4 : World-renowned psychologist Dr. Ellen Langer was 61
90 years. years old when this photo was taken. Nearing the end of middle
Adulthood is generally the longest stage of life, potentially lasting for adulthood, she was at the height of her career, and her most influential
work — a book named Counterclockwise — was about to be
up to 80 years, or even longer. The man in Figure 23.8.2, for example,
published. The book deals with the subject of aging.
is pictured celebrating his 110 th
birthday, so he has already
Middle adulthood is the stage when most people start showing physical
experienced over nine decades of adulthood! Although most physical
signs of aging, such as wrinkles and gray hair, like the gray-haired
growth and maturation are finished by the time adulthood starts, many
woman inFigure 23.8.4. Typically, vision, strength, aerobic
changes occur during these decades of life. As a result, adults of
performance, maximal heart rate, and reaction time also start to decline
different ages may be quite different from one another. Therefore, it
during middle adulthood, although there is great individual variation in
makes sense to divide the long period of adulthood into stages, such as
the ages at which these changes occur.
the stages of early adulthood, middle adulthood, and old age.

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Fertility continues to decline until menopause occurs, typically around their current age and gender. In the United States in 2015, life
age 52, after which they are is no longer fertile. Fertility in male sexes expectancy at birth was 77 years for males and 82 years for females.
starts to decline after age 40. Most middle adults start to diminish in Life expectancy is just an average, and many people outlive the life
height — especially females who have osteoporosis, which is common expectancy value for their year of birth and gender. In fact, by the year
after menopause. Up to 1 cm of height per decade may be lost. Some 2050, a projected half a million Americans will be at least 100 years
people experience a small degree of cognitive loss during middle old, thanks to a large number of baby boomers and advances in health
adulthood, but this usually goes unnoticed, because life experiences care. Is there an upper limit on old age? In 2016, scientists identified
and accumulating wisdom generally compensate for the loss. Middle the maximum human lifespan as 115 years on average, with an
adulthood is also the time when many people develop chronic diseases absolute upper limit of 125 years. These numbers may increase if
such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, or cancer. These scientists learn how to slow down aging. This requires understanding
diseases are the chief causes of death in middle adulthood. the causes of aging.
OLD AGE
CAUSES OF AGING
Old age begins in the mid-60s and lasts until the end of life. Most
Why do we decline in so many ways as we age? Why is there an upper
people over 65 years of age have retired from work, freeing up their
limit on the human lifespan? The causes of aging (and ultimately
time for hobbies, grandchildren, and other interests. On the other hand,
death) are not known for certain, but a number of factors have been
retirement may lead to less social contact and loneliness. Many elderly
proposed. These factors fall into two general categories: programmed
adults may also be exposed to prejudicial treatment because of their
factors and damage-related factors.
age (ageism). For these and other reasons, depression is very common
during old age, and people over the age of 65 have the highest rate of PROGRAMMED FACTORS
suicide.
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE CHANGES IN OLD AGE
Physical declines that started in middle age continue during old age.
Declines generally occur in stamina, strength, reflex times, and the
senses. As they grow older, most people become increasingly frail,
with loss of muscle mass and lessened mobility. However, there are
many exceptions. Some people remain fit and active in old age. The
man in Figure 23.8.5 is an outstanding example.

Figure 23.8.6 : The white spots at the ends of these gray human
chromosomes are telomeres. Cells lose the ability to divide when their
telomeres become too short through repeated previous cell divisions.
Programmed factors follow a biological timetable and maybe a
continuation of the timetable that regulates childhood growth and
Figure 23.8.5 : Fauja Singh was 96 years old when this photo was taken development. An example of a programmed factor is the shortening of
in 2007. Singh took up marathon running when he was 89 years old telomeres. Telomeres are regions of repetitive nucleotide sequences at
and continued running competitively until the age of 102. As of 2016,
he still held world records for the 90+ age group in several different the ends of chromosomes (Figure 23.8.6). They may normally serve a
running events. He has attributed his amazing abilities in old age to variety of functions, such as protecting chromosomes from fusion with
never smoking or drinking alcohol, eating a vegetarian diet, avoiding neighboring chromosomes. Telomeres become shorter each time a cell
fried foods, going to bed early, and thinking positive thoughts. divides, and when telomeres become too short, the cell stops dividing
Many people suffer from multiple chronic health conditions in old age. and dies.
The immune system becomes less efficient, increasing the risk of
serious illnesses, such as cancer and pneumonia. As people age, the DAMAGE-RELATED FACTORS
number of brain cells also decreases. Nearly half of those over the age Damage-related factors include internal and external assaults on the
of 85 years exhibit at least mild cognitive impairment. Diseases such as organism that produce cumulative damage to DNA or cells. Many
Alzheimer’s disease that cause serious and permanent losses of mental damage-related factors have been proposed, including the following:
function also become more common. Exposure to environmental mutagens: Mutagens may damage
AGE AT DEATH DNA, and DNA damage can prevent cells from dividing. There are
several checkpoints in the cell cycle where cell division is halted if
Old age ends at death, but when is death likely to occur? The average
DNA damage is detected.
age at death is reflected in the statistical measure known as life
Accumulation of waste products in cells: Waste products may
expectancy. Life expectancy is defined as the average time an
interfere with normal cellular metabolism. The amount of waste
individual is expected to live. It is based on the year of their birth and
might reach a level at which cells can no longer function.

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 excessive amounts of highly reactive chemicals called free become very serious in cases of disorders such as Alzheimer’s
radicals (for example, OH-): Free radicals can damage DNA and disease.
cells, and contribute to diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular The average age at death is given by the statistical measure called
disease. These diseases are major causes of death in the latter life expectancy, which varies by birth year and gender. For people
decades of life. Some causes of excess free radicals include born in the United States in 2015, life expectancy was 77 years for
exposure to environmental pollutants, drinking alcohol, eating trans males and 82 years for females. Increasing numbers of Americans
fats, and smoking tobacco. are living to be older than 100. The average maximum human
FEATURE: RELIABLE SOURCES lifespan is estimated to be 115 years, with an absolute upper limit of
125 years.
The causes of aging (and ultimately death) are not known for
certain. Factors that have been proposed fall into two general
categories: programmed factors and damage-related factors. An
example of the former is the shortening of telomeres, and an
example of the latter is mutations in DNA due to exposure to
environmental mutagens.

REVIEW
1. Define adulthood.
Figure 23.8.7 : This man’s weight is at the lower end of the normal 2. Why is it difficult to give exact ages for the beginning and end of
range for his height. Maintaining a low body weight might help him adulthood?
live longer by slowing the aging process — or at least it might if the 3. List the stages of adulthood.
calorie-restriction theory of anti-aging is correct. In this context, 4. Describe the stage of early adulthood.
calorie restriction refers to eating a low-calorie diet while still
maintaining proper nutrient intake. Calorie restriction, in turn, leads 5. What is the age range of people in middle adulthood, and what are
to low body weight. some of the changes that typically occur during this life stage?
Popular media outlets sell books, diets, and programs that promote 6. Define old age, and describe this stage of life.
the calorie-restriction theory of anti-aging. They make money by 7. What does life expectancy measure? Identify two factors that
telling people how and why to eat less in order to live longer. Is this influence life expectancy. What was the life expectancy of
just hype or wishful thinking? Or are there real longevity benefits to Americans born in 2015?
calorie restriction? Research reliable sources to find answers to 8. What is the maximum human lifespan?
these questions. 9. Discuss possible causes of aging.
10. A 40-year-old person is typically considered to be
SUMMARY A. in old age
B. middle-aged
Adulthood is the stage of life between adolescence and death. The
C. in middle adulthood
age at which death occurs varies considerably. The age at which
D. B and C
adulthood starts varies depending on whether adulthood is defined
as biologically or legally. Adulthood is usually the longest stage of 11. Compare the chief causes of death between early adulthood and
life, potentially lasting for many decades. It is generally divided middle adulthood.
into stages, such as the stages of early adulthood, middle adulthood, 12. Why do you think scientists are studying how to lengthen
and old age. telomeres?
Early adulthood coincides more-or-less with the 20s and early 30s. 13. Free radicals and mutagens both cause damage to what structures?
During this stage, many people complete their education, start a 14. True or False: Once a person reaches adulthood, their height stays
career, and form intimate relationships. They may marry and start a constant.
family. Strength and physical performance typically reach their 15. True or False: Life expectancy is generally lower in females than in
peak during early adulthood, as does fertility in females. males.
Middle adulthood lasts from about the mid-30s to the mid-60s.
Many adults raise a family and attain career goals during this stage. EXPLORE MORE
https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17810#Explore_More
This is also the stage when most people start showing physical
signs of aging and experience physical declines, including a decline ATTRIBUTIONS
in fertility. Some cognitive loss may also occur, and many people
1. Black H'mong family by Bob Tubbs, public domain via Wikimedia
develop chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes during middle
Commons
adulthood.
2. Shelby Harris by Rikeshia Davidson, public domain via Wikimedia
Old age begins in the mid-60s and lasts until death. Most people
Commons
over the age of 65 have retired and have more free time. Some may
3. Serena Williams by Wikigo, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
have less social contact and experience loneliness, and many
4. Ellen Langer by Robert Scoble CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
experience ageism. Physical declines that started in middle
Commons
adulthood continue during old age. Most people become
increasingly frail and have a greater risk of serious illnesses such as 5. Fauja Singh by Mithrandirthewise, public domain via
cancer. Cognitive impairment is common in old age and may Wikimedia Commons

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6. Telomere caps by U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome 7. Male borderline underweight by Fredrik public domain via
Program, public domain via Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons
8. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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23.9: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: LEAD DANGER AND CHAPTER
SUMMARY
when they first moved in, and they had sanded and painted over many
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: LEAD DANGER areas. Dry sanding over lead paint can create large amounts of lead
The Michigan National Guard Members in Figure 23.9.1 are on a dust. The inspectors believe this was likely the source of Lucas’ lead
mission, but they are defending residents from a different type of threat exposure since their water supply and other possible sources were ruled
than you might expect—lead in their drinking water. This picture was out. Since Lucas is a toddler and was crawling around, playing on the
taken in January 2016 in Flint, Michigan, during what is widely known floor, and putting hands and objects in his mouth during and after the
as the “Flint water crisis.” The crisis started when the city’s water period of sanding—all of which are normal toddler behaviors, but ones
source was switched to a new source that had highly corrosive water. that can make children at this age more susceptible to lead poisoning.
The corrosive water caused lead in pipes to be leached into residents’ What about Vanessa, Lucas’ mother, who is three months pregnant?
drinking water. As you learned at the beginning of this chapter, lead is Fortunately, her blood lead level turned out to be relatively low—3
highly toxic and particularly dangerous to young children, so this was µg/dL. Under 5 µg/dL is considered normal, although there is no
(and continues to be) a major public health crisis. In order to help known safe level. As you have learned, her developing offspring is
protect residents’ health, the National Guard was deployed to distribute considered a fetus at this stage. It has recently completed the
clean water, water filters, and lead test kits door to door. embryonic stage, which is when the major events of gastrulation,
neurulation, and organogenesis occur to create the three germ layers,
the nervous system, and most of the organs of the human body.
Additionally, limbs, facial features, and sex organs have started to
develop by this time, as well as the extraembryonic structures (such as
the placenta and amnion) that protect and nourish the developing
embryo and fetus. Because so many major developmental events occur
during the early stages of pregnancy, exposure to toxic substances
during this period can cause severe damage or even death of the
embryo or fetus. Lead exposure during pregnancy can cause impaired
growth, impaired neural development, low birth weight, spontaneous
Figure 23.9.1 : Michigan National Guard Members abortion (miscarriage), and stillbirth.
Contaminated water is just one source of possible lead exposure. There This is why Vanessa, Paul, and Dr. Morrison were concerned that
are many other sources, and one of the most common is lead-based Vanessa might have been exposed to lead. Lead can cross the placenta
paint. Lead-based paint was banned by the U.S. government for use in from the blood of the mother to the fetus. Also, lead stored in the
housing in 1978, but many older homes still have this paint under mother’s bones from prior exposure can become liberated during
newer layers, as shown in the graph below. Lead paint and associated pregnancy as her body breaks down the bone for calcium to form the
dust can be exposed when paint deteriorates, or when renovations bones of the fetus. This effect can be minimized if the pregnant woman
occur. In fact, in 2014, the CDC estimated that 24 million housing units gets enough calcium from her diet instead. Finally, lead can be
in the U.S. had deteriorating lead-based paint and associated dust. transmitted through breast milk, so it is very important that pregnant
and lactating women be tested for lead if they are at risk of being
exposed to it.
What about Paul, Lucas’ father? While lead exposure can cause a
variety of adverse health effects in adults—including problems in
memory and concentration; headache; high blood pressure; and
abdominal, joint, and muscle pain—these symptoms typically only
occur at higher lead levels than those that are dangerous for children.
Because the bodies and brains of adults have generally completed their
development by early adulthood, there is usually less of an impact of
poisons like lead that affects developmental processes than there is for
Figure 23.9.2 : Graph from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) showing the percentage of homes containing lead-based paint as infants and young children who are still undergoing rapid development.
a function of when they were built. Most of the homes (87%) built However, lead exposure can cause lowered sperm count and
before 1940 have lead-based paints; 69% of homes built between 1940 increase the production of abnormal sperm in adult men, so if Paul
and 1959 have lead-based paints; only 24% of homes built from 1960–
wants to have more children, he may want to get his lead level
1977 have lead-based paints.
checked.
Vanessa, Paul, and their 18-month-old son Lucas—whom you learned
about in the beginning of this chapter—live in a home built before Because Vanessa’s lead level is not high, it is likely that Paul’s level is
1978. Therefore, exposure to lead paint or lead-containing dust might not high either, although it still would be a good idea for him to get
be the source of Lucas’ elevated blood lead level. Lucas’ pediatrician tested. In general, adults are less exposed to lead than children, because
Dr. Morrison recommended that they get their home inspected for lead. they are less likely to engage in behaviors such as putting unwashed
The results show that their home does have lead paint underneath other hands or non-food objects into their mouths. Physiologically, adults
layers. Even though the paint is not currently cracking or peeling, it did also absorb less lead into their bloodstream than children, due to

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differences in their breathing rate and gut absorption. One exception is
adults who have jobs that expose them to lead, such as lead smelter
workers, automotive repair workers, construction workers, and
plumbers. Adults in high-risk occupations should take precautions to
limit their exposure, and they may need to get tested on a periodic basis
— particularly if they are pregnant or plan to get pregnant. They should
also take safety measures such as changing clothes and showering
before coming home since people who work with lead can unwittingly
bring lead dust home on their clothes, shoes, and skin, and expose
children and other family members.
As you may recall, Lucas’s lead level was 10 µg/dL, which is a cause
for concern. Now that Vanessa and Paul have identified the most likely
source of exposure—paint dust generated during sanding—they can
take steps to prevent future exposure. This includes frequent mopping Figure 23.9.3 : Lead exposure can cause lower IQ, decreased attention
and wet-wiping of flat surfaces (such as window sills) to remove dust; span, and poor performance in school
cleaning around doors and other areas where friction can generate paint Lead exposure in children is a serious public health problem. You can
dust; frequently inspecting paint for any damage or deterioration, and go online to read about the current status of the Flint water crisis, as
using only lead-safe certified professionals for any future painting or well as the problem of childhood lead exposure more generally. Many
repairs. They will also make sure that Lucas washes his hands experts agree that preventing lead exposure and more widespread blood
frequently and that he eats a balanced diet. Nutrients such as iron, lead level screening is critical to prevent permanent damage to
calcium, and vitamin C can inhibit the absorption of lead or help children’s health. Infancy and early childhood is a wonderful time of
protect the body from the damaging effects of lead, so it is particularly tremendous growth and change in a person’s lifespan, but it is also a
important that children eat a nutritious diet when there is lead in the time that is highly vulnerable to damage—with potential lifelong
home. There are many other steps you can take to prevent lead consequences.
exposure, which you can find online from the U.S. EPA, the CDC, and
other reliable sources. CHAPTER SUMMARY
Dr. Morrison will closely monitor Lucas to make sure his blood lead In this chapter, you learned about the growth and development of
level goes down and that his development is occurring normally. Lead humans, from fertilization to old age. Specifically, you learned that:
can cause developmental delays. As you have learned, as children The germinal stage of development is the first and shortest of the
grow, they go through typical stages of development, including the stages of the human lifespan. It lasts between eight and nine days,
acquisition of specific motor, language, and cognitive skills around beginning with fertilization and ending with implantation in the
certain ages. When these milestones are not achieved within a typical endometrium of the uterus, after which the developing organism is
timeframe, it is considered a developmental delay. By assessing Lucas’ called an embryo.
developmental milestones, Dr. Morrison can help monitor whether The germinal stage involves several different processes that change
Lucas’ early lead exposure has affected his development. Many of the an egg and sperm first into a zygote, and then into an embryo. The
impacts of lead exposure in infancy and toddlerhood are not obvious processes include fertilization, cleavage, blastulation, and
until later in life as the brain develops further and starts carrying out implantation.
more complex tasks. Early lead exposure can lead to later learning Fertilization takes place when a haploid sperm successfully
disabilities, behavioral problems, and lower IQ. The effects on the enters a haploid egg and results in a single diploid cell called a
nervous system are generally irreversible, although therapies such as zygote. This usually occurs in a Fallopian tube. Successful
speech or behavioral therapies may help the child function better. Lead fertilization is enabled by the processes of chemotaxis,
can also cause other types of medical problems such as anemia, hearing adhesion, and digestion.
problems, and delayed puberty. Figure 23.9.3 illustrates some of the Cleavage refers to the first several mitotic cell divisions of the
problems that lead exposure can cause in children. zygote. It takes place in the Fallopian tube and results in a solid
ball of undifferentiated cells called a morula. The morula forms
by about the fourth day after fertilization.
Blastulation is the process in which the morula changes into a
fluid-filled ball of differentiated cells called a blastocyst. It
generally occurs during days 5 to 7 after fertilization. The major
parts of the blastocyst are an internal cell mass called the
embryoblast (which will develop into the embryo), an external
layer of cells called the trophoblast (which will develop into the
fetal part of the placenta and other extraembryonic structures),
and a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoele.
Implantation is the process in which the blastocyst becomes
embedded in the endometrium of the uterus. It occurs around
day 8 or 9 after fertilization when trophoblast cells “hatch” from
the zona pellucida and penetrate the endometrium.

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 The embryonic stage of human development lasts from the time of most of them are not yet fully developed and functional. The organs
implantation until the end of the eighth week after fertilization. will continue to grow and develop during the fetal stage.
Besides an increase in size, some of the changes that occur in the Fetal developments that occur between weeks 9 and 15 after
embryo include the formation of three cell layers, development of fertilization include differentiation of the reproductive organs.
the nervous system, and the initial formation of most organs. The thyroid, liver, pancreas, and kidneys also start functioning.
During the second week after fertilization, the embryoblast The fetus is very active during this period, but the movements
differentiates into two groups of cells, called the epiblast and the are mostly uncontrolled. Fine hair called lanugo starts to grow
hypoblast. Cell migration results in the formation of a two- on the face and will eventually cover the body as well.
layered (bilaminar) embryonic disc. Fetal developments that occur between weeks 16 and 26 after
By the end of the second week after fertilization, gastrulation fertilization include the development of the senses of touch and
occurs. In this process, the two-layered embryonic disc develops hearing, the initial formation of alveoli in the lungs, beginning
a third cell layer and a primitive gut. The three cell layers are of ossification of the bones, and considerable muscle
germ layers that will give rise to different cells throughout the development. The bone marrow also starts producing blood
body. The endoderm (inner layer) will eventually develop into cells, and waxy vernix develops to cover the fetus’s skin.
cells of most internal glands and organs; the mesoderm (middle Fetal developments that occur between weeks 27 and 38 include
layer) will develop into cells of organs such as the bones, further development of the skeletal system, rapid body growth,
muscles, and heart; and the ectoderm (outer layer) will later and a substantial increase in body fat. Head hair grows thicker
develop into the skin and nervous system cells. and coarser while the lanugo is shed. Vernix first increases and
Neurulation begins in the third week after fertilization. In this then disappears, usually before birth. The eyes develop to the
process, which takes about two weeks, the embryo forms point that the fetus can detect light.
structures that will eventually become the nervous system. A The heart and blood vessels are among the earliest organs to
structure called the neural tube forms that will later develop into develop and function, but the circulation of blood in the fetus is
the spinal cord and brain, and a structure called the neural crest different than the postnatal circulation will be because the lungs are
forms that will later develop into peripheral nerves. not yet in use. Fetal hemoglobin is also different than adult
Organogenesis, or the formation of organs, also begins during hemoglobin. Fetal hemoglobin can bind with oxygen at lower
the third week after fertilization. It continues through the end of pressures, which enables it to bind with oxygen from the mother’s
the embryonic stage, by which time most organs have at least blood in the placenta.
started to develop. The heart is the first functional organ to The size of the fetus generally increases linearly during the fetal
develop in the embryo. The heart starts to beat and pump blood stage up until the last week or two before birth, when the rate of
by the end of the third week, but it continues to develop for growth typically tapers off. Fetal growth deficit, called intrauterine
several more weeks. growth restriction (IUGR), may occur because of maternal, fetal, or
Other developments that occur in the embryo during the fifth placental factors. Placental insufficiency is the leading cause of
through eighth weeks after fertilization include limb and digit IUGR.
formation; formation of ears, eyes, and other facial features; and The average weight of a full-term infant at birth is 3.4 kg (7.5 lb).
the main prenatal development of the sex organs. Low birthweight is defined as a weight at birth of less than 2.5 kg
The embryonic stage is a critical period of development. (5.5 lb). Low birth weight is a major cause of mortality shortly after
Genetic defects or harmful environmental exposures (such as birth. It may occur because of IUGR or pre-term birth.
alcohol or radiation) during this stage are likely to have Viability of the fetus refers to the point in fetal development at
devastating effects. which the fetus is likely to survive outside the uterus. More than 90
Several extraembryonic structures form at the same time as the percent of babies survive if they are born after 26 weeks and
embryo and help the embryo grow and develop. They include receive any necessary medical care. Babies born even a few weeks
the placenta, chorion, yolk sac, and amnion. earlier have a much lower chance of surviving, mainly due to
The placenta is a temporary organ consisting of both fetal inadequately developed respiratory and nervous systems.
and maternal tissues that provides a connection between the Immediately after birth, an Apgar test is administered to determine
embryo’s and mother’s blood for the exchange of whether the newborn needs urgent medical care. The baby is scored
substances. on five traits, including skin color and heart rate. The umbilical
The chorion is a membrane that helps form the fetal portion cord is also cut within seconds of birth, leaving a stub that will
of the placenta. eventually dry out and fall off, forming the naval.
The yolk sac provides nourishment to the early embryo until Infancy refers to the first year of life after birth. An infant is defined
the placenta develops. as a human being between birth and the first birthday. A newborn
The amnion is a membrane that forms a fluid-filled sac baby is called a neonate up until the first four weeks after birth.
around the embryo and helps protect it. Newborns may or may not have vernix or lanugo covering the
A fetus is a prenatal human being between the embryonic stage and skin, and they may or may not have head hair. Their body
birth. The fetal stage extends from the beginning of week 9 after proportions are distinctive, and the head is very large relative to
fertilization to about 38 weeks after fertilization, which is the the body. Soft spots in the skull called fontanels — which allow
average time of birth. the head to change shape slightly to fit through the birth canal
At the start of the fetal stage, the fetus is recognizable as a human — gradually ossify after birth.
being and possesses virtually all of the major body organs, although

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 A well-nourished, full-term newborn averages about 51 cm (20 Pre-adolescence is the life stage between middle childhood and
in.) in length and has an average birth weight of 3.4 kg (7.5 lb). adolescence or ages 11 to 12 years. It coincides with the start of
A newborn typically loses a small amount of weight in the first puberty, although few of the obvious physical changes of
week, but after that, a healthy neonate should start gaining puberty have yet to occur. It is also a time of significant
weight rapidly. cognitive and psychosocial development. Pre-adolescents
Newborns have well-developed senses of touch and hearing, develop the ability to think abstractly, start to develop a sense of
and they can respond to different tastes and smells. However, identity, and may experience “puppy love.”
their sense of vision is not yet fully developed, their visual During both middle childhood and pre-adolescence, the
acuity is poor, and they have limited color and depth perception. deciduous teeth are lost and replaced by most of the permanent
Infants are born with several reflexes that help them survive the dentition. Physical growth and motor development are usually
first few months of life. They include crying for slow but steady during these two stages of childhood, but some
communication, suckling, and the rooting reflex, which helps children may begin the adolescent growth spurt during pre-
them find a nipple. The Moro and grasping reflexes help them adolescence.
maintain close physical contact with the mother or another Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and
caregiver. adulthood. It is generally considered to start with puberty, although
Many important developments in motor, sensory, and cognitive in many children, puberty actually begins during pre-adolescence.
abilities occur during infancy. There is variation among infants Adolescence includes significant cognitive and psychosocial
in the exact timing of these developments, but the sequence in changes, some of which continue past the physical changes of
which they occur is usually similar. puberty and into the late teens.
The deciduous teeth generally start to emerge around six months
Puberty is the period during which children become sexually
of age. This is called teething, and it may cause discomfort and
mature. It includes maturation of the primary sex organs, the
fussiness. Typically, all of the upper and lower incisors emerge
development of secondary sex characteristics, and the
during the first year.
adolescent growth spurt.
Infancy is the period of most rapid growth after birth. A healthy,
Puberty starts when the hypothalamus starts releasing pulses of
well-nourished infant generally triples his birth weight and
gonadotropin-releasing hormone, which triggers the pituitary
doubles his birth length by the first birthday. The head and trunk
gland to secrete follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and
normally grow most rapidly, allowing rapid growth and
luteinizing hormone (LH). FSH and LH, in turn, stimulate the
development of the brain, heart, and lungs.
gonads to develop and release sex hormones. Sex hormones
Infancy is associated with a higher risk of death than any other
bring about most of the other changes of puberty.
life stage except old age. The infant mortality rate — defined as
In boys, puberty generally begins between the ages of 11 and
the number of infant deaths per one thousand live births — is an
12, when the external genitals and pubic hair start to develop. In
important measure of the level of health in a nation. It tends to
girls, puberty generally begins between the ages of nine and ten,
be inversely correlated with a nation’s wealth.
when the breasts and pubic hair start to develop.
Legally, childhood is defined as the period of minority, from birth The adolescent growth spurt (AGS) is a period of rapid growth
to the age of majority, or adulthood. Biologically, childhood is in height and weight. It also includes significant changes in
defined as the stage of a human organism between birth and body composition and shape. Girls start the growth spurt earlier
adolescence. Following infancy, biological childhood includes early than boys and typically have a somewhat lower peak growth
childhood, middle childhood, and pre-adolescence. rate. Sex differences in the AGS result in sexual dimorphism in
Early childhood is the life stage between infancy and middle adult size, body composition, and shape. Other body systems
childhood. It is divided into toddlerhood (ages one to three) and also undergo rapid growth and development during the AGS.
the preschool years (ages three to five). Although the brain does not increase very much in size during
Early childhood is a time of great physical, cognitive, and adolescence, it does become more complex. The cerebral cortex
psychosocial development. Children go from just starting to becomes more folded, and unused pathways are eliminated. The
walk and using a word or two at age one to riding a bike and most significant changes occur in the prefrontal cortex, which
using 1,500 words at age five. While the one-year-old toddler controls executive functions, such as decision making, abstract
clings to her parents, the five-year-old preschooler runs off to reasoning, and impulse control. By the age of 15 or so, many
play with her friends. adolescents have basic thinking abilities comparable to those of
Physical growth is slower in early childhood than it was in adults.
infancy, but still relatively rapid, especially in the toddler years. Psychosocial changes that occur during adolescence include the
The remaining deciduous dentition also erupts during early development of a stronger sense of personal identity and a
childhood. personal system of moral and ethical values. Adolescents also
Middle childhood is the life stage between early childhood and become more emotionally separated from their parents, while
pre-adolescence. It covers the ages of six to ten when most peers and peer influence become more important to them. Many
children are in elementary school. During middle childhood, teens also become involved in romantic relationships for the
children are more independent and physically active than they first time.
were in the preschool years. They become more involved with Adulthood is the stage of life between adolescence and death. The
friends and develop more sophisticated language and cognitive age at which death occurs varies considerably. The age at which
abilities. adulthood starts varies depending on whether adulthood is defined

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 biologically or legally. Adulthood is usually the longest stage of 5. Compare and contrast blastulation and gastrulation.
life, potentially lasting for many decades. It is generally divided 6. What is the term that refers to the first several mitotic divisions of
into stages, such as the stages of early adulthood, middle adulthood, the zygote?
and old age. 7. At what point does the prenatal human start getting nutrients from
Early adulthood coincides more-or-less with the 20s and early its mother? How did it get nutrients before this point?
30s. During this stage, many people complete their education, 8. True or False: Blood does not normally mix between the mother
start a career, and form intimate relationships. They may marry and the fetus.
and start a family. Strength and physical performance typically 9. True or False: Adolescents have the highest rate of suicide of any
reach their peak during early adulthood, as does fertility in age group.
females. 10. True or False: The adolescent growth spurt is the most rapid period
Middle adulthood lasts from about the mid-30s to the mid-60s. of growth that occurs after birth.
Many adults raise a family and attain career goals during this 11. Hypothetically, what do you think would happen if a fetus had
stage. This is also the stage when most people start showing adult hemoglobin instead of fetal hemoglobin? Explain your
physical signs of aging and experience physical declines, answer.
including a decline in fertility. Some cognitive loss may also 12. For each of the stages or events below, identify approximately when
occur, and many people develop chronic diseases such as type 2 they occur:
diabetes during middle adulthood. A. neonate
Old age begins in the mid-60s and lasts until death. Most people B. fetus
over the age of 65 have retired and have more free time. Some C. middle childhood
may have less social contact and experience loneliness, and D. menopause
many experience ageism. Physical declines that started in 13. True or False: A fetus can usually survive if it is born at 26 weeks
middle adulthood continue during old age. Most people become and without any medical intervention.
increasingly frail and have a greater risk of serious illnesses 14. True or False: FSH and LH are involved in the onset of puberty in
such as cancer. Cognitive impairment is common in old age and males.
may become very serious in cases of disorders such as 15. Which cells in the blastocyst ultimately become muscle cells? Trace
Alzheimer’s disease. the development of these cells through gastrulation, naming each
The average age at death is given by the statistical measure called tissue they develop into along the way.
life expectancy, which varies by birth year and gender. For people 16. The chorion:
born in the United States in 2015, life expectancy was 77 years for A. helps form the fetal portion of the placenta
males and 82 years for females. Increasing numbers of Americans B. is a sac that contains fluid that surrounds and protects the fetus
are living to be older than 100. The average maximum human C. protects the developing zygote
lifespan is estimated to be 115 years, with an absolute upper limit of D. is the lining of the uterus where implantation occurs
125 years. 17. Pituitary tumors can affect the timing of the onset of puberty,
The causes of aging (and ultimately death) are not known for causing it to occur abnormally early or late. Why do you think this
certain. Factors that have been proposed fall into two general might happen?
categories: programmed factors and damage-related factors. An 18. Why is it particularly important for a pregnant woman to avoid
example of the former is the shortening of telomeres; an example of exposure to toxins during the embryonic stage of her pregnancy?
the latter is mutations in DNA due to exposure to environmental 19. The neural tube develops into the:
mutagens.
A. peripheral nerves
In this chapter, you learned about the stages of human development and B. spinal cord
some of the factors — such as exposure to poisons like lead — that can C. brain
damage the human organism. A disease is clearly a major factor that D. B and C
affects human health and lifespan. Read the next chapter to learn more
20. What do you think would be more concerning—a five percent
about diseases in human populations, including causes, effects,
weight loss of an infant in the first week after birth, or a five
treatments, and prevention of major types of diseases.
percent weight loss between the infant's third and fourth weeks after
birth? Explain your answer.
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW
21. What factors would you need to take into consideration to
1. At which stages in the human lifespan do deciduous teeth, determine whether a 16-year-old should be considered an adult?
permanent teeth, and wisdom teeth generally emerge? 22. Name a disease that is more common in old age than in other stages
2. What is the shortest stage in the human lifespan? How long is it, of life.
and when does it occur? 23. Describe some of the cognitive changes that occur between the ages
3. What is generally the longest stage in the human lifespan? Why of six and ten.
might this stage not be the longest for a given individual? 24. Telomeres:
4. Which implants into the lining of the uterus?
A. develop into extraembryonic tissues such as the placenta
A. zygote B. are regions at the ends of chromosomes
B. gastrula C. are regions of bone growth during childhood and adolescence
C. blastocyst D. turn into the primitive streak in the embryo
D. morula

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25. What are two characteristics of a newborn’s head that differ from 4. beginning of organogenesis
that of adults? 5. loss of grasping reflex
26. The zona pellucida:
A. surrounds the cell membrane of the egg ATTRIBUTIONS
B. surrounds the developing zygote 1. Michigan National Guard by The National Guard, CC BY 2.0 via
C. surrounds the developing fetus Wikimedia Commons
D. A and B 2. Lead-based paints graph by Environmental Protection Agency,
27. Put the following events in order of when they typically occur public domain
during the human lifespan, from earliest to latest: 3. Prevent lead poisoning by Centers for Disease Control, public
domain
1. menarche
4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
2. loss of deciduous teeth
3.0
3. loss of muscle mass

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
24: ECOLOGY
This chapter introduces the fundamentals of ecology, describes terrestrial and aquatic biomes, and
outlines ecosystem processes and their value to humans. The chapter also describes interspecific
relationships in communities, how energy flows through ecosystems, and how matter is recycled
through ecosystems.

24.1: CASE STUDY: THE WEB OF LIFE

Camille grew up in a rural farming community, and both of her parents worked on a local farm.
When pesticides were being applied to the crops, her parents had to use special protective
equipment such as coveralls, gloves, and respirators. This is because many pesticides, which are
substances that protect plants from damage and destruction by pests such as insects, can be
hazardous to human health.

24.2: INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY

Ecology is the study of how living things interact with each other and with their environment. Although it is a science in its own right,
ecology has areas of overlap with many other sciences, including biology, geography, geology, and climatology.

24.3: ECOSYSTEMS
An ecosystem is a set of interacting components that form a complex whole including all of its living things and its nonliving
environment. The nonliving environment includes abiotic factors such as temperature, water, sunlight, and minerals in the soil. A
community is the biotic part of an ecosystem.

24.4: COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIPS

A community is the biotic part of an ecosystem and consists of all the populations of all the species that live and interact in the
ecosystem. Populations of different species generally interact in a complex web of relationships.

24.5: ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEMS

There are two basic types of organisms in terms of how they obtain energy: autotrophs and heterotrophs. Autotrophs (a.k.a producers)
are organisms that use energy directly from the sun or from chemical bonds. Heterotrophs (a.k.a consumers) are organisms that obtain
energy from other living things.

24.6: CYCLES OF MATTER

The water and chemical elements that organisms need continuously cycle through ecosystems, passing repeatedly through their biotic
and abiotic components. These cycles are called biogeochemical cycles because they are cycles of chemicals that include both
organisms (bio) and abiotic components such as the ocean or rocks (geo).

24.7: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN POPULATIONS

We know more about the human population and how it has grown than we know about the population of any other species thanks to
demography, which is the scientific study of human populations. Demography encompasses the size, distribution, and structure of
populations.

24.8: POPULATION DYNAMICS

Populations are dynamic. They are continuously gaining individuals through births and losing individuals through deaths. Populations
may also gain or lose significant numbers of individuals through migration, when people either enter or leave a population. All of
these factors together determine whether and how quickly a population grows.

24.9: CLIMATE CHANGE

There is no longer any doubt that our planet is growing warmer and that human actions are the primary cause. There is also no
question that if we don't do something about it soon, the consequences will be devastating.

24.10: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: ORGANIC AND CHAPTER SUMMARY

Camille, who you read about in the beginning of the chapter, asks herself questions like this whenever she goes food shopping. If
organic agricultural practices are significantly better for the environment, she would like to buy organic food products at least some of
the time. But are they better? And if so, how?

1 4/25/2021
24.1: CASE STUDY: THE WEB OF LIFE
farm resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity
CASE STUDY: FARMING FOR BALANCE in accordance with the USDA organic regulations.” This statement
Camille grew up in a rural farming community, and both of her parents indicates to Camille that organic agricultural practices are beneficial
worked on a local farm. Camille prefers she/her/hers pronouns. When for the environment, but how exactly do they provide these benefits?
pesticides were being applied to the crops, as in Figure 24.1.1, her
parents had to use special protective equipment such as coveralls,
gloves, and respirators. This is because many pesticides, which are
substances that protect plants from damage and destruction by pests
such as insects, can be hazardous to human health if inhaled,
consumed, or absorbed through the skin. Camille began to wonder—if
pesticides can be dangerous to humans, do they have negative effects
on other animals and the rest of the environment?

Figure 24.1.3 : USDA organic logo

As you read this chapter, you will learn about the science of ecology—
that is, the study of the complex relationships between living organisms
and the environment around them. You will see how interactions
between different species and non-living components of the
environment can come into balance, and how drastic changes can occur
when this balance is altered. By the end of the chapter, you will have a
better understanding of what is meant by resource recycling, ecological
balance, and biodiversity, and the importance of these concepts. Then
in the conclusion to this case study, you will learn specifically how
Figure 24.1.1 : Pesticide application on leaf lettuce in Yuma, AZ. these concepts relate to organic agricultural practices. This information
As an adult, Camille notices that some food items in the grocery store can help you, as well as Camille, make a more informed decision about
are labeled with a seal indicating they are organic—like the seal in whether to choose organic foods.
Figure 24.1.3. Camille knows that organic food is generally grown
without synthetic (man-made) pesticides, and she likes the idea of CHAPTER OVERVIEW: ECOLOGY
buying organic food to support this kind of agriculture. However, she In this chapter, you will learn about ecology and how it relates to
also notices that organic food tends to be slightly more expensive than humans. Specifically, you will learn about:
conventionally-produced food, so she wants to learn more about what How the biological world is organized into nested ecological
“organic” means and whether organic agricultural practices are really hierarchies including the individual, population, community,
better for the environment as a whole. ecosystem, biome, and biosphere.
Basic concepts in ecology including the ecosystem, niche, habitat,
and the competitive exclusion principle.
The goods and services ecosystems provide to humans, including
food and oxygen production.
The types of relationships between species in a community,
including different types of symbiotic relationships, predation, and
competition. The effect of community relationships on the
evolution of adaptations and the extinction of species.
The two basic types of organisms in terms of how they obtain
energy: autotrophs (producers) and heterotrophs (consumers).
Figure 24.1.2 : Manito Park in Spokane, WA. Types of heterotrophs including herbivores, omnivores, carnivores,
Camille does some research online and finds out that organic food and decomposers.
products in the U.S. are regulated by the U.S. Department of How energy flows through ecosystems from producers up through
Agriculture (USDA). The USDA has a detailed set of requirements that food chains and webs.
describe the practices that farmers must use in order to label their food Trophic levels, which are the feeding positions in a food chain or
products as organic. These include not using most synthetic chemical web, starting with producers at the first trophic level and moving up
substances, such as pesticides or fertilizer, on crops. Organic meat must through higher levels of consumers.
come from animals that are fed organic feed and meet various other How the amounts of energy and biomass change from lower to
criteria. On the USDA’s National Organic Program website, Camille higher trophic levels.How matter cycles through ecosystems in the
notices the statement: “Organic is a labeling term for food or other form of biogeochemical cycles of water, carbon, nitrogen, and
agricultural products that have been produced using cultural, phosphorus.
biological, and mechanical practices that support the cycling of on-

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 Demography, which is the scientific study of human populations As you read the chapter, think about the following questions:
including size, geographic distribution, and structure, such as the 1. The use of some pesticides has been shown to kill bees. How could
number of people in different age groups in the population. this affect an ecosystem?
The age-sex structure of populations and how this may provide 2. Synthetic fertilizers often have high amounts of nitrogen and
insight into political and socioeconomic change. phosphorus. Why do these fertilizers contain these elements? Can
Exponential growth compared to logistic growth, the latter of which you predict any ecological disturbance that an excess amount of
slows as the population reaches a size called the carrying capacity. these elements might cause?
How the human population may currently be near the carrying 3. Organic agricultural methods generally increase soil quality. What
capacity, which could result in environmental damage, disease, war, is soil quality, and how does it relate to biodiversity and
and famine; and how these negative effects are exacerbated by biogeochemical cycles?
excessive use of resources by wealthier countries.
How zero population growth and strategies to reduce the fertility ATTRIBUTIONS
rate can help mitigate problems caused by overpopulation. 1. Pesticide application by Jeff Vanuga, public domain via Wikimedia
Projections of future human population growth and how these Commons
predictions are made. 2. Pesticide spraying by jetsandzepplins, licensed CC BY 2.0 via
Global climate change, and how human activities have intensified flickr
the greenhouse effect, causing global warming. Projections of 3. USDA organic seal, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
future global warming; potential impacts of global warming on 4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
humans such as increased coastal flooding, lack of food and water, 3.0
and violence; and how we can lessen the threat by moving away
from fossil fuels towards cleaner sources of energy.

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24.2: INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY
WHAT THE ...?
You can certainly be excused for not recognizing the red-tipped
organisms in Figure 24.2.1. They were not even discovered until
1977. Called tube worms, they live on the deep ocean floor,
thousands of meters below the water’s surface. They cluster around
hydrothermal vents that spew out hot mineral water. The
environment around the vents would be deadly for most other
organisms. Minerals in the vent water are toxic, the weight of ocean
water above creates tremendous pressure, and it’s always very cold
and completely dark. Without sunlight, photosynthesis isn’t even
possible. Yet the vents support thriving communities of diverse
Figure 24.2.2 : An important role of ecology is identifying, and forging
species, many of which live nowhere else on Earth. Besides tube plans to protect, endangered species, like the Madagascar lemur
worms, they include equally strange ghost fish and crabs with eyes pictured here. Ecological assessments have determined that of all the
on their back. How have these organisms adapted to living in the world's endangered animals, Madagascar’s lemurs are among the
harsh environment around hydrothermal vents? How do they obtain species that are closest to extinction. Knowledge such as this is a
necessary first step in preventing the extinction of these primates.
energy without sunlight and photosynthesis? How do the various
vent species interact? Finding answers to questions such as these is The environment of an organism includes two types of factors: biotic
the domain of ecology. and abiotic.
Biotic factors are the living aspects of the environment. They
consist of other organisms, including members of the same and
different species.
Abiotic factors are the nonliving aspects of the environment. They
include factors such as sunlight, soil, temperature, and water.
Consider as an example the relationship between leafhoppers and ants
(Figure 24.2.3). Ants “herd” leafhoppers and use their excretions for
food, much as a dairy farmer herds cows and use their milk.
Leafhoppers suck sap from plants and excrete excess liquid as a sugary
Figure 24.2.1 : Photo of one of the largest concentrations of Riftia fluid called honeydew. As the honeydew passes out of a leafhopper’s
pachyptila observed, with anemones and mussels colonizing in
close proximity. anus, the ant “farmer” feeds on the fluid.

WHAT IS ECOLOGY?
Ecology is the study of how living things interact with each other and
with their environment. Although it is a science in its own right,
ecology has areas of overlap with many other sciences, including
biology, geography, geology, and climatology. It is also closely related
to genetics and ethology (the study of animal behavior). In addition,
evolutionary concepts of adaptation and natural selection are the
cornerstones of modern ecological theory. Figure 24.2.3 : The ant and leafhopper in this photo have a mutually
Some of the phenomena that ecologists study include the interactions beneficial relationship. Where they are most likely to interact is
influenced by the amount of available shade.
of organisms, the flow of energy and recycling of matter through living
things, and the biodiversity and distribution of organisms relative to the The leafhoppers in the “herd” also benefit from their relationship with
environment. There are many practical applications of ecology. Among the “farmer.” The ant protects the leafhoppers from potential predators
others, they include the conservation of endangered species (Figure such as wasps. The amount of shade in the environment, which is an
24.2.2), natural resource management, urban planning, and human
abiotic factor, is an important influence on the leafhoppers and ants.
health. Environments with at least 50 percent shade are more densely
populated by ants and leafhoppers than sunnier environments. Some
LIVING THINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT species of “herder” ants even construct shelters to provide shade for
Despite their tremendous diversity, all organisms have the same basic their “herds.”
needs: energy and matter. These must be obtained from the
environment. Therefore, organisms are not closed systems. They
ECOLOGICAL HIERARCHY
depend on and are influenced by their environment. Studying all living things and their environments would be a huge
undertaking. Generally, the study of ecology is made more manageable
by organizing the biological world into a nested hierarchy. Below the
level of the individual organism, the hierarchy ranges from genes to

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cells, to tissues, to organs, to organ systems. These levels of the The ecosystem is one of the most important concepts in ecology and
hierarchy are typically the focus of biology, genetics, physiology, and often the focus of ecological studies. It consists of all the biotic and
similar sciences. abiotic factors in an area and their interactions. While an ecosystem is a
real system in nature, it is often artificially delineated by researchers.
For example, depending on an ecologist’s research focus, a lake could
be considered an ecosystem, but so could a dead log, like the one in
Figure 24.2.5. Both the lake and the log contain a variety of species
that interact with each other and with abiotic factors.

Figure 24.2.5 : Dead logs like this one are called “nurse logs” because
they provide a suitable site for the growth of mosses, small plants, and
many other kinds of organisms. The organisms that live in and on the
Figure 24.2.4 : This figure shows levels of organization in nature, from log are part of the same ecosystem.
the individual organism to the biosphere. Many individuals make up a
When it comes to energy, ecosystems are not closed. They need
population. Many populations make up a community. A community
and its environment make up the ecosystem. Ecosystems are part of a constant inputs of energy. Most ecosystems get energy from sunlight. A
biome. All the biomes on earth make up the biosphere. small minority, including hydrothermal vent ecosystems, get energy
Ecology typically focuses on the living world at and above the level of from chemical compounds. Unlike energy, the matter is not constantly
the individual organism. These levels are illustrated in Figure 24.2.4 added to ecosystems. Instead, it is recycled. Water and elements such
and defined as follows: as carbon and nitrogen are used over and over again.
A population consists of all the individual organisms of the same NICHE
species that live and interact in the same area. For example, all of
One of the most important concepts associated with ecosystems is the
the angelfish living in the same area of the ocean make up the
niche. A niche refers to the role of a species in its ecosystem. It
angelfish population.
includes all the ways that the species interacts with the biotic and
A community refers to all of the populations of different species
abiotic factors of the ecosystem. Two important aspects of any species’
that live and interact in the same area. The aquatic community that
niche are its sources of energy and nutrients and how it obtains them.
includes the angelfish also includes the populations of other species
For example, the jumping spider in Figure 24.2.6 is a carnivore (meat
of fish, corals, and many other organisms.
eater) that obtains food by preying on insects such as flies.
An ecosystem includes all the living things in a given area, together
with the nonliving environment. The nonliving environment
includes abiotic factors such as water, minerals, and sunlight.
A biome is a group of similar ecosystems with the same general
type of physical environment anywhere in the world. Terrestrial
biomes are generally delineated by climate and major types of
vegetation. Examples of terrestrial biomes include tropical
rainforests and deserts. Aquatic biomes are generally defined by the
distance from shore and the depth of water. Examples of aquatic
biomes include the shallow water near shore (littoral zone) and the
deepest water at the bottom of a body of water (benthic zone).
The biosphere includes every part of Earth where life exists,
Figure 24.2.6 : This jumping spider has captured and is consuming a
including all the land, water, and air where living things can be long-legged green fly. What the spider eats and how it obtains it are
found. The biosphere is the largest ecological category and consists important aspects of its ecological niche.
of many different biomes.
HABITAT
BASIC IDEAS IN ECOLOGY Another fundamental aspect of a species’ niche is its habitat. The
A number of concepts and principles are basic to the study of ecology. habitat is the natural environment in which a species lives and to
They include the ecosystem, niche, habitat, and competitive exclusion which it is adapted. A species’ habitat includes any factors of the
principle. environment — including both biotic and abiotic factors — that are
related directly or indirectly to the use of the environment by the
ECOSYSTEM species.

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Species may have general or specific habitat requirements. For that must be obtained from the environment, so organisms are not
example, small white butterflies in the species Pieris rapae (Figure closed systems. The environment of an organism includes biotic
24.2.7; on the left) are found on all continents of the world except factors, which are the living aspects of the environment, and abiotic
Antarctica. Their larvae can feed on many different plant species, and factors, which are the nonliving aspects of the environment.
the butterflies themselves thrive in any open location. In contrast, large Ecologists generally organize the biological world in a nested
blue butterflies in the species Phengaris arion (Figure 24.2.7; on the hierarchy. Above the level of the individual organism, from the
right) are found only in certain types of grassland areas. Their larvae least to most inclusive, the levels of this hierarchy are the
can feed only on species in the plant genus Thymus. In addition, population, community, ecosystem, biome, and biosphere. The
because of their complex life cycle, the butterflies can live only in biosphere consists of every part of Earth where life exists, including
areas in which certain ant species also reside. the land, water, and air.
Basic ideas in ecology include the ecosystem, niche, habitat, and
competitive exclusion principle. An ecosystem consists of all the
biotic and abiotic factors in an area and their interactions. A niche
is the role of a species in its ecosystem and habitat is the natural
environment in which a species lives and to which it is adapted.
The competitive exclusion principle states that two different species
cannot occupy the same niche in the same place for very long.

REVIEW
1. Define ecology.
2. Why are individual organisms not closed systems?
3. Compare and contrast biotic and abiotic environmental factors, and
give examples of each type of factor.
4. Describe the nested hierarchy by which ecologists organize the
biological world.
5. What is the biosphere?
6. Define ecosystem.
7. Describe the niche concept in ecology.
8. How is the habitat of a species defined?
9. State the competitive exclusion principle.
Figure 24.2.7 : (right) Pieris rapae butterflies have general habitat 10. Compare and contrast the roles of energy and matter in an
requirements, so they can live in many different ecosystems. (left) ecosystem.
Phengaris arion butterflies have very specific habitat requirements, so 11. Which of the following can contain more than one species for an
they can live only in a limited number of ecosystems.
extended period of time? Explain your answer.
COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE A. A niche
A given area may contain many different species, but each species B. A community
must have a different niche. Two different species cannot occupy the C. A population
same niche in the same place for very long. This is known as the D. An ecosystem
competitive exclusion principle. If two species were to occupy the 12. Do you think there can be an ecosystem in an urban environment,
same niche, what would happen? The two species would compete with such as a city? Why or why not?
one another for the same food or other limiting resources in the 13. True or False. The jumping spider and its prey occupy the same
environment. Eventually, one species might outcompete and replace niche.
the other. Alternatively, one species might evolve somewhat different 14. True or False. The same type of biome can exist in different
adaptations to a similar but different niche so they could continue to locations on the planet.
live in the same area. 15. Why is the study of climate-related to the study of ecology?

SUMMARY EXPLORE MORE

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and with their environment. All organisms need energy and matter

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24.3: ECOSYSTEMS
ANOTHER DAY, ANOTHER DUNG BALL
The black beetle in Figure 24.3.1 has made a ball from the dung
(feces) of a mammal and is rolling it away from the dung pile. After
forming a ball from the dung, the beetle rolls the ball in a straight
line, despite all obstacles, to a safe location so other dung beetles
can’t steal it. Dung beetles can roll dung balls that are up to ten
times their own weight. What do they do with all that dung?
Generally, they bury it. Then, depending on the species of dung
beetle, they either use the dung ball as a source of stored food or lay
their eggs inside it. In the latter case, when larvae hatch from the
eggs, they have a nutritious food source handy. Yum! Figure 24.3.2 : Tiny insects called aphids live on and feed off this leaf.
Along with bacteria, they form a miniature leaf ecosystem.

ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES
Ecosystem processes move energy and matter through the biotic and
abiotic components of the system. These processes begin with primary
production by producers. The energy that flows through almost all
ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun and enters ecosystems
through the process of photosynthesis. This process is carried out by
Figure 24.3.1 : Dung Beetle
producers that may include plants, certain microbes, and/or algae.
Why focus on this poop-consuming insect? Dung beetles play a These producers capture energy from sunlight and use it to turn
very important role in agricultural areas as well as in many natural inorganic carbon dioxide (from the atmosphere) and water into organic
ecosystems. By burying and consuming dung, they improve carbon molecules and oxygen.
nutrient recycling and soil structure. They also protect livestock
from pests such as flies that would otherwise be attracted by dung.
Dung beetles save the American cattle industry an estimated $380
million a year by burying livestock feces. This is just one of a
multitude of valuable services that are provided to humans by
ecosystems and their organisms.

WHAT IS AN ECOSYSTEM?
Like other systems, an ecosystem is a set of interacting components Figure 24.3.3 : Fungi like these are the primary decomposers of plant
that form a complex whole. The interacting components of an litter in many ecosystems.
ecosystem are all of its living things and its nonliving environment.
MINERAL NUTRIENT RECYCLING
The nonliving environment includes such abiotic factors as
Ecosystems continually take in energy from the wider environment
temperature, water, sunlight, and minerals in the soil. A community is
around them. Mineral nutrients, on the other hand, are mostly recycled
the biotic part of an ecosystem. It consists of all the populations of all
within ecosystems among living things and abiotic components of
the species that live and interact in the ecosystem. The abiotic and
ecosystems. Nitrogen in the atmosphere, for example, is taken up by
biotic parts of an ecosystem are linked together by flows of energy and
certain soil bacteria, which change the nitrogen to a form that plants
cycles of nutrients through the system.
can use. From plants, nitrogen cycles to animals and eventually to
There is no widely agreed upon way to delineate a specific ecosystem.
decomposers, which return nitrogen to the soil. In most terrestrial
Theoretically, ecosystems can vary tremendously in size. Consider a
ecosystems, nitrogen is a limiting factor in plant growth. A limiting
forest as an example. It might cover hundreds or even thousands of
factor is any factor that constrains the population size of one or more
acres, forming a large ecosystem in which an individual tree is of little
species in an ecosystem. Because most terrestrial ecosystems are
consequence. However, an individual tree can also be considered an
nitrogen-limited, nitrogen cycling is an important control on ecosystem
ecosystem, with millions of organisms living in and on it, ranging from
production. Other nutrients that are recycled within ecosystems include
microbes to small mammals. Even a single leaf can be considered an
phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium.
ecosystem. Several generations of an aphid population can exist over
the lifespan of the leaf, as in Figure 24.3.2. Each of the aphids, in turn, ECOSYSTEM GOODS AND SERVICES
supports a diverse community of bacteria.
Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people
depend. Without healthy natural ecosystems, we could not survive as a
species.

ECOSYSTEM GOODS

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Ecosystem goods include tangible, material products of ecosystem
processes, including foods such as wild game and fruits, construction FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS
materials such as wood and bamboo, and medicinal plants such as the One of the biggest and potentially most devastating mysteries
willow tree pictured in Figure 24.3.4. Ecosystem goods also include taking place in ecosystems in recent years is the decline of honey
less tangible things, such as ecosystem features that provide tourist bees. Beekeepers normally expect some of their honey bees to die
attractions and recreational opportunities. The genes in wild plants and off from one season to the next, but recent is double the losses in
animals are another ecosystem good. These organisms provide a the past. The dramatic reduction in honey bee populations has made
storehouse of genetic material that can be used to improve domestic the news not only because it is so shocking in its devastation but
species. also because of the extremely valuable ecosystem service that
honey bees provide as pollinators. Beekeepers must spend more
money to try to keep their bees alive and to start new colonies to
replace those that have died out. This cost is passed on to farmers
who make use of honey bee pollinators. Ultimately, the cost is
passed on to consumers like you.
Researchers are desperately trying to find the answer to the
mysterious demise of honey bees so they can devise plans to protect
them. One possible cause that has been identified recently is a
parasitic mite of the aptly named species Varroa destructor. Shown
Figure 24.3.4 : Many wild plants make chemical compounds that have
in Figure 24.3.6, this mite has been called the “vampire” of the bee
proven to be useful as human medicines. Leaves of willow trees like
this one have been used for pain and fever relief for more than 2,000 world because it feeds on the insect equivalent of blood (called
years. The leaves contain a compound that is now made artificially and hemolymph) of both adult and juvenile honey bees. Imagine a
sold as aspirin. blood-sucking mosquito the size of a dinner plate attacking you for
your blood. That’s about how large the vampire mites are relative to
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
their honey bee hosts. Worse yet, individual bees are often attacked
The services ecosystems provide maybe even more important than the
by multiple mites. In addition, besides sucking the bee’s “blood,”
goods, yet they have traditionally been taken for granted. They include
the mites also transmit other pathogens that suppress the bee host’s
processes that maintain the water cycle, provide oxygen to the air,
immune system. No wonder the mites are taking such a toll on
remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, filter pollutants from
honey bee populations!
water, and pollinate crops. These services not only have economic
value; they are also invaluable for the maintenance of human life.
As an example, consider the ecosystem service of pollination. Most
flowering plants require help from pollinators such as insects and birds
to produce fruit and seeds. Pollinators play an essential role in the
production of more than 150 food crops in the United States, including
almost all fruit and grain crops, from apples to alfalfa. The single most
important pollinator of crops is the honey bee (like the one pictured in
Figure 24.3.5). Honey bees provide an estimated 1.6 billion dollars of
natural pollinating services to agriculture in the United States alone.

Figure 24.3.6 : Parasitic Varroa mites on a honey bee pupa

Chemicals called miticides are available that can kill Varroa mites.
Unfortunately, honey bees are also adversely affected by the
chemicals. The use of miticides may even be contributing to honey
bee mortality. Another problem is that the mites are developing
resistance to the most commonly used miticides. One potential
strategy currently under investigation is to breed honey bees that
are naturally resistant to the mites. However, that strategy may take
a long period of time to come to fruition, if indeed it does.
In the meantime, another strategy can be implemented. That
Figure 24.3.5 : A honey bee is small and may seem insignificant, but strategy is to strengthen honey bee immune systems by providing
the pollination services it provides are extremely important. bees with a greater variety of easily accessible forage plants.
Evidence suggests that when honey bees have optimal nutrition,
they are better able to deal with mites and other potential causes of
mortality. However, modern agribusiness and the growth of cities
have decreased the amount and variety of natural flowering plants
that bees need to thrive. You don’t have to be a beekeeper or
scientist to help counter this trend and contribute to honey bee

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 health and survival. If you are a homeowner, you can grow 1. Define ecosystem, and identify the components that make up an
wildflowers in your yard, making sure to include species that bloom ecosystem.
at different times of the year. 2. How do ecosystems function?
3. What materials are recycled in ecosystems?
SUMMARY 4. Define and give examples of ecosystem goods and services.
An ecosystem is a set of interacting components that form a 5. Why do you think farmers sometimes use a fertilizer that contains
complex whole. The interacting components of an ecosystem nitrogen on their crops?
include its community of living things (biotic components) and 6. Decomposers:
nonliving environmental factors such as water and sunlight (abiotic A. A. are primary producers.
components). B. B. do not play important roles in ecosystems.
Ecosystem processes move energy and matter through the biotic C. C. help recycle nutrients in an ecosystem.
and abiotic components of an ecosystem, starting with primary D. D. are usually abiotic.
production by producers such as plants. Through photosynthesis,
plants capture energy from sunlight and make organic molecules EXPLORE MORE
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from inorganic compounds.
Mineral nutrients, including nitrogen and phosphorus, are recycled
ATTRIBUTIONS
among the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems. In most
1. Dung beetle by Bayhaus via Pixabay license
terrestrial ecosystems, nitrogen is a limiting factor in plant growth
2. Aphidoidea by Thomas Bresson, licensed CC BY 3.0 via
and primary production. A limiting factor is any factor that
Wikimedia Commons
constrains the population size of one or more of an ecosystem’s
3. Mushrooms by adeg via Pixabay license
species.
4. Weeping willow by daledbe via Pixabay license
Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which our
5. Honey bee by Orangeaurochs, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
species depends. Ecosystem goods range from foods to recreational
Commons
opportunities. Ecosystem services range from providing oxygen to
6. Vorroa mites, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
the air to pollinating crops.
7. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
REVIEW 3.0

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24.4: COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIPS
CLOWNING AROUND gathering the pollen, they disperse some of the pollen to other flowers
If you saw the movie Finding Nemo, then you probably recognize and pollinate them. Humans have a mutualistic relationship with many
the colorful fish in Figure 24.4.1. The Marlin character in the species of intestinal bacteria. The bacteria gain a safe home with lots of
movie was based on fish like these. Commonly referred to as available nutrients. In return, the bacteria provide their human host
clownfish, they are shown here swimming around the waving with vitamins, help with digestion, protection from harmful bacteria, or
tentacles of animals called sea anemones. Sea anemones are other goods or services.
predators that kill any prey that come too close by injecting poison
with their tentacles. The anemones don’t harm the clownfish,
perhaps because they are coated with mucus. But why do clownfish
“hang out” with anemones? One reason is for food. The clownfish
eat the remains of the anemones’ prey after they finish feeding.
Another reason is for safety. Clownfish are safe near anemones
because potential predators are scared off by the poison tentacles.
Anemones also benefit from having clownfish nearby. Clownfish
help anemones catch food by attracting prey with their bright
colors, and clownfish feces provide nutrients to anemones. The Figure 24.4.2: Pollination of plants by honey bees is an example of a
mutualistic symbiotic relationship.
relationship between clownfish and anemones is an example of a
community relationship.
COMMENSALISM
Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which an individual from
one of the species benefits while an individual from the other species is
unaffected. For example, some types of tiny insects called mites attach
themselves to larger flying insects for transportation. The mites benefit
from the free ride, and the larger insects are unaffected. Various biting
lice and fleas feed harmlessly on the feathers of birds and on sloughed-
off flakes of skin from mammals. Numerous birds (such as the cattle
egret in Figure 24.4.3) feed on insects and small mammals that are
Figure 24.4.1 : The clownfish Amphiprion ocellaris. Photo is from a disturbed by large grazing mammals or a farmer’s plow. Plasmodium
coral reef near the Japanese island Sesoko and taken 2 m below the protists that cause human malaria and the mosquitoes that transmit
water surface. In the background is the giant carpet anemone them have a commensal relationship. The protists need the mosquitoes
Stichodactyla gigantea with which the clownfish forms a
symbiosis. to get from one human host to another, but the mosquitoes are not
affected by the protists.
WHAT IS A COMMUNITY?
A community is the biotic part of an ecosystem. It consists of all the
populations of all the species that live and interact in the ecosystem. It
also includes their relationships with each other. All organisms in an
ecosystem are connected in one way or another. In fact, populations of
different species generally interact in a complex web of relationships.
Relationships between species in communities are important factors in
natural selection and help shape the evolution of the interacting
species. There are three major types of community relationships:
symbiosis, predation, and competition. Figure 24.4.3 : This cattle egret catches insects and small mammals that
are disturbed by the grazing zebra.
SYMBIOSIS
Symbiosis is a close relationship between two organisms of different PARASITISM
species in which at least one of the organisms benefits. For the other Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which an organism from one
organism, the relationship may be beneficial or harmful, or it may have species, called the parasite, benefits, while an organism from the other
no effect. There are three basic types of symbiosis: mutualism, species, called the host, is harmed. Many species of animals are
commensalism, and parasitism. parasites, at least during some stage of their life cycle. Most species are
also hosts to one or more parasites. Some parasites live on the surface
MUTUALISM of their host. Others live inside their host. They may enter the host
Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which individuals from both through a break in the skin or in food or water. For example,
species benefit. The relationship between clownfish and anemones roundworms are parasites of mammals, including humans, cats, and
described above is an example of mutualism. Pollination of plants by dogs. Figure 24.4.4 shows adult roundworms clogging part of a human
pollinators such as bees is another example, as shown in Figure 24.4.2. small intestine. The worms produce huge numbers of eggs, which are
Pollinators collect pollen from flowers for food. In the process of

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passed in the host’s feces to the environment. Other individuals may be A predator-prey relationship tends to keep the populations of both
infected by swallowing the eggs in contaminated food or water. species in balance. Each population is a limiting factor on the other
Some parasites kill their host. The roundworms in the human intestine population. This is shown in the graph in Figure 24.4.6. As the prey
in Figure 24.4.4 would most likely have killed their host were it not for population increases, there is more food for predators. Therefore, after
surgical intervention. However, most parasites do not kill their host. It’s a slight lag time, the predator population increases as well. As the
easy to understand why. If a parasite kills its host, the parasite is also number of predators increases, more prey is captured. As a result, the
likely to die. Instead, the majority of parasites cause relatively minor prey population starts to decrease. Then, as fewer prey become
damage to their host. available, the predator population declines as well. This type of
interaction might continue indefinitely.

Figure 24.4.4 : This photo shows a segment of the small intestine that
was surgically removed from a three-year-old child in South Africa.
The intestine is filled with adult roundworms. Remarkably, the child Figure 24.4.6 : Predator and prey populations are limiting factors on
survived. each other’s growth. As prey population size increases, so does
predator population size. However, when the predator population size
PREDATION is large enough, this causes the prey to decrease. As the prey
population decreases, so does the predator population size.
Predation is a community relationship in which organisms in one
species, called the predator, consume tissues of organisms in another ADAPTATIONS TO PREDATION
species, called the prey. Often this means killing the prey and eating all Both predators and prey are likely to have adaptations to predation that
or most of the prey organism. You can see a graphic example of this in evolve through natural selection. Predator adaptations help them
Figure 24.4.5. In this example, a snake is a predator and the prey is a capture prey, whereas prey adaptations help them avoid predators. A
large lizard. The snake is swallowing the live lizard whole. Prey common adaptation in both predators and prey is camouflage. Several
species are not always killed by their predators. For example, many examples are shown in Figure 24.4.7. Camouflage in prey helps them
animals such as deer and cattle graze on plants without usually killing hide from their predators. Camouflage in predators helps them sneak
them. Another example of this type of predation is a mosquito feeding up on or entrap their prey.
on a human organism’s blood.
Predators are often prey on their own. For example, blue jays prey on
insects and may, in turn, be preyed upon by snakes. Snakes may also
have predators, such as hawks. Examples of the few predators that are
not also prey include sperm whales, tigers, and crocodiles.

Figure 24.4.5 : This snake predator has caught and is in the process of
consuming a large lizard prey.

PREDATOR-PREY POPULATION DYNAMICS

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 Figure 24.4.8 : Specialization in Anole Lizards. Many species of anole
lizards prey on insects in tropical rainforests. Competition among them
has led to the evolution of specializations. Some anole prey on insects
on the forest floor. Others prey on insects in trees. This allows the
different species of anoles to live in the same area without competing.

FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS

Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease that affects millions
of people worldwide and causes thousands of deaths each year. It is
caused by parasitic flatworms called schistosomes. The disease is
spread by contact with fresh water that is contaminated with the
larval stage of the parasites. The parasite larvae are released into
the water by infected freshwater snails, which are also hosts of the
parasites. Infection occurs when the tiny larvae penetrate human
skin.
After schistosome larvae gain entrance to the human body, they
develop into adult worms in their host’s veins. Female adults
release eggs inside the human host. Some of the eggs may become
Figure 24.4.7 : Can you see the crab in the photo on the left? It looks trapped in body tissues, causing an immune reaction and major
very similar to its sandy background. There is a praying mantis insect damage to internal organs. Other eggs pass out of the human host
in the middle photo, but it looks so much like the dead leaves around it
through urine or feces. If the eggs enter a body of water and infect
that it is virtually invisible. In the photo on the right, it is hard to see
where one zebra ends and another one begins because of their stripes. freshwater snails, the cycle of transmission and human infection is
This may confuse a predator, giving the zebras a chance to flee. likely to be repeated. Schistosomiasis is especially common among
children in developing countries (like the child in Figure 24.4.9)
INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION because they are more likely to play in contaminated water. Other
Interspecific competition is a community relationship in which high-risk groups include farmers, fishermen, and people who must
organisms from different species rely on the same limiting resource in use contaminated water for household purposes.
their ecosystem. The resource might be food, water, sunlight, or space,
among others.

OUTCOMES OF INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION

Interspecific competition is the basis of the competitive exclusion
principle, which states that two different species cannot occupy the
same niche in the same place for very long. Interspecific competition is
likely to have one of two possible evolutionary outcomes: extinction of
one species or the evolution of greater specialization in both species.
Interspecific competition often leads to extinction. The species that is
less well adapted may get fewer of the limiting resource that both
species need. As a result, members of that species are less likely to
survive, and the species may go extinct.
Instead of extinction, interspecific competition sometimes leads to
Figure 24.4.9 . This child has fluid in this abdominal cavity causing
greater specialization in both species. Specialization occurs when his abdomen to protrude. This is evidence of liver and blood vessel
competing species evolve different adaptations. For example, they may damage due to infection with schistosome parasites.
evolve adaptations that allow them to use different food sources or to Although drugs are available to cure schistosomiasis, most people
obtain food at different times of the day. Figure 24.4.8 illustrates an who have been infected and cured are likely to be reinfected
example of this outcome of interspecific competition. because of continued unavoidable contact with contaminated water.
Researchers are trying to develop a vaccine to prevent transmission
of the parasites but so far without success. That’s where a
bioengineer at Stanford University comes in. Professor Manu
Prakash has been studying schistosome parasites with novel

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 approaches to understand how the parasites move through the water principle and may lead to the extinction of one species or greater
to infect human hosts. specialization in both species.
At the end of 2016, Professor Prakash published preliminary results
of his research. He found that schistosome larvae have a completely REVIEW
unique way of swimming. The larvae have a forked tail that they 1. In the context of the ecosystem, what is a community?
hold perpendicular to their body while they swim against gravity to 2. Identify the three major types of community relationships.
reach water near the surface. Using mathematical modeling and 3. What is symbiosis?
robotics, Professor Prakash was able to show that this particular 4. Name three different types of symbiosis.
swimming technique is the optimal way for the larvae to quickly 5. Define mutualism and describe an example.
reach surface water where they are most likely to encounter a 6. Why is the relationship between cattle egrets and grazing mammals
human being to infect. Schistosome larvae have no feeding organs, an example of commensalism?
so they must find a human host within about 12 hours or they will 7. Define parasitism and give an example.
die. Professor Prakash hopes that the detailed understanding of how 8. What is predation, and what is an example of predation?
the parasites swim may lead to a way to slow them down so they 9. Explain the relationship between predator and prey populations.
cannot reach and infect a human host within this 12-hour window. 10. How can predators and prey influence each other’s evolution?
11. What is an interspecific competition?
SUMMARY 12. What are two possible outcomes of interspecific competition?
13. True or False. In a symbiotic relationship, the two species have to
A community is the biotic part of an ecosystem. It consists of all the
physically touch each other.
populations of all the species that live in the ecosystem and their
14. True or False. The relationship between the protists that cause
relationships with each other. There are three major types of
human malaria and humans is an example of commensalism.
community relationships: symbiosis, predation, and competition.
Symbiosis is a close relationship between two organisms of
EXPLORE MORE
different species in which at least one of the organisms benefits. https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17817#Explore_More
Types of symbiosis include mutualism, commensalism, and
parasitism. ATTRIBUTIONS
Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which individuals from 1. Amphiprion ocellaris by Michael arvedlund, public domain via
both species benefit. An example is a relationship between Wikimedia Commons
clownfish and sea anemones. 2. Pollination by Louise Docker, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which an individual Commons
from one of the species benefits while the individual from the other 3. Cattle egrets by Jorge Láscar, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
species is unaffected. An example is a relationship between cattle Commons
egrets and grazing mammals, in which the egrets benefit and the 4. Intestine blocked by worms by SuSanA Secretariat, licensed CC
mammals are unaffected. BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which an organism from 5. Dolichophis jugularis by yigal gini, licensed CC BY 2.5 via
one species, called the parasite, benefits, while the organism from Wikimedia Commons
the other species, called the host, is harmed. An example is a 6. Predator-prey graph by Hana Zavadska via CK-12 licensed CC BY-
relationship between parasitic roundworms and human hosts. NC 3.0
Predation is a community relationship in which an organism of one 7. Camouflage by Thomas Hubauer, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
species, called the predator, consumes tissues of an organism in
Dead leaf mantis by Adrian Pingstone, public domain via
another species, called the prey. An example is snake predators that
Wikimedia Commons
consume prey animals such as lizards. A predator-prey relationship
Zebra Botswana by Paul Maritz, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
tends to keep the populations of both species in the balance because
Common
each population is a limiting factor on the other population. Both
8. Brown Anole by pondhawk, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
predators and prey are likely to have adaptations to predation such
as camouflage that evolves through natural selection. Anole, licensed CC0 via phxhere
Interspecific competition is a community relationship in which 9. Schistosomiasis in a child by SuSanA Secretariat, licensed CC BY
organisms from different species rely on the same limiting resource. 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
Interspecific competition is the basis of the competitive exclusion 10. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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24.5: ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEMS
Table 24.5.1 : Different types of photoautotrophs are important in different
SEA ANGEL ecosystems
It’s easy to see why the aquatic creature in Figure 24.5.1 is Type of Type of
Example Example
commonly called a sea angel. It has gossamer-like “wings” that Photoautotroph Ecosystem(s)
flutter gently and help it swim, and its diaphanous body gives it an
otherworldly appearance. Although it appears angelic, this tiny
invertebrate is actually a vicious predator. It has a secret
Typeweapon in
of Photoau… Plants Terrestrial
the form of six sharp tentacles hidden in its face. When an
unsuspecting prey drifts by, the sea angel turns into a devilish
Tree Grasses
killing machine. It lashes out its tentacles, grabs its prey, and then
slowly eats it. Predators like sea angels obtain energy from prey
organisms. This is just one of the ways that organisms obtain
Type of Photoau… Algae Aquatic
energy.

Diatoms Seaweed

Aquatic and
Type of Photoau… Bacteria
Terrestrial

Purple Bacteria
Cyanobacteria

HETEROTROPHS
Heterotrophs are organisms that obtain energy from other living things.
Like sea angels, they take in organic molecules by consuming other
organisms, so they are commonly called consumers. Heterotrophs
Figure 24.5.1 : Clione, a shell-less snail known as the Sea Butterfly include all animals and fungi as well as many protists and bacteria.
swims in the shallow waters beneath Arctic ice. Photo from the Heterotrophs can be classified by what they usually eat as herbivores,
Beaufort Sea, north of Point Barrow (Alaska) carnivores, omnivores, or decomposers.
HERBIVORES
HOW ORGANISMS OBTAIN ENERGY
Herbivores are heterotrophs that directly consume producers such as
There are two basic types of organisms in terms of how they obtain
plants or algae. They are a necessary link between producers and other
energy: autotrophs and heterotrophs.
heterotrophs such as carnivores. Examples of herbivores include deer,
AUTOTROPHS rabbits, sea urchins, grasshoppers, mice, and the larvae of many
Autotrophs are organisms that use energy directly from the sun or from insects, like the caterpillar pictured below. Herbivorous animals
chemical bonds. Commonly called producers, they use the energy and typically have mouthparts or teeth adapted to grasping or grinding the
simple inorganic compounds to produce organic molecules. Autotrophs tough materials in plants. Many herbivores have mutualistic intestinal
are vital to all ecosystems because all organisms need organic microbes that help them break down hard-to-digest plant matter.
molecules and only autotrophs can produce them from inorganic
compounds. There are two basic types of autotrophs: photoautotrophs
and chemoautotrophs.
PHOTOAUTOTROPHS
Photoautotrophs are autotrophs that use energy from sunlight to make
organic compounds by photosynthesis. Photoautotrophs include plants, Figure 24.5.2 : Leaf-eating caterpillars such as this one voraciously
munch their way through leaf after leaf.
algae, and many bacteria, as shown in the figure below. They are the
primary producers in the vast majority of ecosystems on Earth. CARNIVORES
Carnivores are heterotrophs that consume animals; examples of
CHEMOAUTOTROPHS
heterotrophs include lions, polar bears, hawks, salmon, and spiders.
Chemoautotrophs use energy from chemical bonds to make organic
Obligate carnivores (such as cats) are unable to digest plants so they
compounds by chemosynthesis. Chemoautotrophs include certain
can only eat animals. Facultative carnivores (such as dogs) can digest
bacteria and archaeans. They are the primary producers in ecosystems
plant matter but plants are not an important food source for them. Most
that form around hydrothermal vents and in hot springs.
carnivores are predators that catch and kill live animals for
consumption. Some carnivores, called scavengers, find and eat animals
that have already died, such as the prey remnants left behind by

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predators. Examples of scavengers include vultures, hyenas, and by ingesting the matter and digesting it internally. Saprotrophs
blowflies, like those in Figure 24.5.3. include fungi and single-celled protozoa. Fungi, like those in Figure
24.5.4, are the only organisms that can decompose wood.

MODELS OF ENERGY FLOW

Energy enters all ecosystems from the sun or from inorganic chemicals.
The energy then flows through ecosystems from producers, who can
use inorganic forms of energy, to consumers, who can obtain energy
only from organic compounds in other living things. Ecologists
commonly represent this flow of energy through the organisms of an
ecosystem with models such as food chains and food webs. These
models represent feeding relationships, showing who eats whom.
Figure 24.5.3 : Blowflies feast on a dead fish head Although the models are generally oversimplifications of reality, they
OMNIVORES have proven useful for testing hypotheses about ecosystems and
identifying common patterns that many ecosystems share.
Omnivores are heterotrophs that consume both plants and animals.
They include pigs, brown bears, gulls, crows, and humans. Omnivores FOOD CHAINS
actually fall on a continuum between herbivores and carnivores. Some
omnivores eat more plants than animals, whereas other omnivores eat
more animals than plants. Some organisms are seasonally omnivorous,
meaning that they eat plants in some seasons and animals in other
seasons. An example is a grizzly bear. When salmon or other fish are
plentiful, the bears are primarily carnivorous; but when berries ripen
and become plentiful, the bears are mainly herbivorous. Some
omnivores eat animals during some life stages and plants during other
life stages. For example, most tadpoles are herbivores that eat algae,
whereas adult frogs are carnivores that eat insects and other
invertebrates.
DECOMPOSERS

Figure 24.5.5 : The food chain on the left shows who eats whom in a
terrestrial ecosystem. The food chain on the right shows the same thing
for an aquatic ecosystem.
A food chain is an ecological model that represents a single pathway
through which energy flows in an ecosystem. Food chains are virtually
always simpler than what really happens in nature because most
Figure 24.5.4 : Fungi growing on a dead tree secrete enzymes that can organisms consume — and are consumed by — more than one species.
break down even tough wood fibers that no other organisms can digest.
Two examples of food chains, one terrestrial and one aquatic, are
Decomposers are heterotrophs that break down and feed on the remains shown in Figure 24.5.5. In both food chains, the organisms at the
of dead organisms and other organic wastes such as feces. In the bottom are producers. In the terrestrial food chain, the producers are
process, they release simple inorganic molecules back to the grasses, and in the aquatic food chain, the producers are tiny plants
environment. Producers can then use the molecules to make new called phytoplankton. The producers in each food chain are consumed
organic compounds. Decomposers are classified by the type of organic by herbivores. The herbivores, in turn, are consumed by carnivores,
matter they break down. Two types are detritivores and saprotrophs. which are themselves the prey of other carnivores. The top organism in
Detritivores are decomposers that ingest and digest detritus, which each food chain is a predator — called an apex predator — that is not
includes dead leaves, animal feces, and other organic debris that preyed upon by any other species.
collects on the ground or at the bottom of a body of water. Many food chains, including those pictured above, do not include
Terrestrial detritivores include earthworms and dung beetles. decomposers. However, decomposers are a significant component of
Aquatic detritivores include “bottom feeders” such as sea energy flow in every ecosystem. Decomposers break down any
cucumbers and catfish. remaining organic matter (whether from producers or consumers),
Saprotrophs are decomposers that feed on dead organic matter by using some of the energy it contains and releasing excess nutrients
secreting digestive enzymes and digesting it externally, rather than back into the environment.

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FOOD WEBS Energy is passed up a food chain or food web from lower to higher
A food web is an ecological model that represents multiple pathways trophic levels. However, as shown in the energy pyramid in Figure
through which energy flows in an ecosystem. It generally includes 24.5.7, only about 10 percent of the energy at one trophic level is

many intersecting food chains. Although food webs, like food chains, actually passed up to the next higher trophic level. The other 90 percent
are usually simplifications of reality, they do demonstrate that most of energy at each trophic level is used by organisms at that level for
organisms eat, and are eaten by, more than one species. Two examples metabolism, growth, and repair. Metabolism generates heat (thermal
of food webs, one terrestrial, and one aquatic, are shown in Figure energy), which is the energy that is lost to the environment. Some
24.5.6. Consider the grasshopper in the terrestrial food web as an energy is also lost as incompletely digested food that is excreted. The
example. It is an herbivore that consumes only plants, but the decline in energy from one trophic level to the next explains why there
grasshopper is consumed by multiple other consumers, including are rarely more than four trophic levels in a food chain or food web.
spiders, mice, birds, and frogs. There is generally inadequate energy remaining above four trophic
levels to support organisms at additional trophic levels

TROPHIC LEVELS AND BIOMASS

With less energy at higher trophic levels, it is generally the case that
fewer organisms can be supported at higher levels. Although individual
organisms tend to be larger in size at higher trophic levels, their smaller
numbers result in less biomass at higher levels. Biomass is the amount
of organic matter present in an individual organism or in all the
organisms at a given trophic level. The decrease in numbers and
biomass of organisms from lower to higher trophic levels is
represented by the ecological pyramid in Figure 24.5.7.

Figure 24.5.6 : A terrestrial food web (top) and an aquatic food web
(bottom) represent multiple feeding relationships in ecosystems.

TROPHIC LEVELS
Table 24.5.2 : Trophic Levels in Food Chains and Food Webs
Trophic
How It Obtains Energy Example
Level
1sttrophic
level: photosynthesis or chemosynthesis grass
producers
2nd trophic
level:
consumes producers rabbit
primary
consumers
3rd trophic
level:
Figure 24.5.7 : This ecological pyramid model shows the decrease in
consumes primary consumers snake numbers and biomass of organisms from lower to higher trophic
secondary
consumers
levels.
4th trophic
BIOACCUMULATION OF POLLUTANTS
level:
consumes secondary consumers hawk
One way nonbiodegradable pollutants can accumulate in the
tertiary
consumers environment is through bioaccumulation, also called biomagnification.
Nonbiodegradable pollutants that are consumed by organisms pass up
The different feeding positions in a food chain or food web are called food chains from one trophic level to the next. At each higher trophic
trophic levels. The main trophic levels are defined in Table 24.5.2. All level, they become much more concentrated. For example, the heavy
food chains and food webs have at least two or three trophic levels, one metal mercury pollutes aquatic ecosystems and becomes increasingly
of which must be producers (1st trophic level). Generally, there are a concentrated at higher trophic levels in food webs, like the one in
maximum of four trophic levels, and only rarely are there five or more Figure 24.5.8. Bioaccumulation of mercury and other
trophic levels. Most consumers actually feed at more than one trophic nonbiodegradable pollutants makes it more dangerous for people to eat
level. Humans, for example, are primary consumers when they eat higher-level consumers such as trout than to eat lower-level consumers
plants such as vegetables. They are secondary consumers when they eat such as perch
meat from herbivores such as cattle. They are tertiary consumers when
they eat secondary consumers such as salmon, which eat smaller fish.

TROPHIC LEVELS AND ENERGY

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 1. What are autotrophs? Name three types of organisms that are
autotrophs.
2. Compare and contrast photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs.
3. Define heterotroph.
4. What types of organisms are heterotrophs?
5. How are heterotrophs classified on the basis of what they consume?
6. What are food chains and food webs?
7. What are the trophic levels? Identify the different trophic levels in a
food chain or food web.
8. Why are there rarely more than four trophic levels in an ecosystem?
9. How do the numbers and biomass of organisms usually change
from lower to higher trophic levels?
10. Explain the phenomenon of bioaccumulation.
11. Herbivores are at which trophic level?
A. 1st

B. 2nd

C. 3rd

D. 4th

Figure 24.5.8 : Pollutants become more concentrated as they move up

the food chain. 12. True or False. In some food chains, chemoautotrophs are the type of
organism at the 1sttrophic level.
SUMMARY 13. True or False. Apex predators are at the trophic level that contains
All organisms need energy. There are two basic types of organisms the most energy.
in terms of how they obtain energy: autotrophs and heterotrophs. 14. Which of the following is not a heterotroph?
Autotrophs (producers) use energy directly from the sun or from A. An apple tree
chemicals to produce organic molecules. Photoautotrophs such as B. A mushroom
plants use energy from sunlight to make organic compounds by C. A tadpole
photosynthesis. Chemoautotrophs such as certain bacteria use D. A and B
energy from chemicals to make organic compounds by 15. Which of the following terms apply to humans: autotroph;
chemosynthesis. heterotroph; carnivore; omnivore; herbivore; producer; primary
Heterotrophs (consumers) obtain energy by consuming other consumer; tertiary consumer
organisms. Heterotrophs include all animals and fungi as well as
many protists and bacteria. They can be classified on the basis of EXPLORE MORE
what they consume as carnivores, which eat animals; herbivores, https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17818#Explore_More
which eat plants; omnivores, which eat both animals and plants;
and decomposers, which consume organic wastes and dead ATTRIBUTIONS
organisms. 1. Clione by Kevin Raskoff (NOAA Photo Library), public domain
The flow of energy in an ecosystem can be represented with a food via Wikimedia Commons
chain or food web. A food chain represents a single pathway 2. Raunkiærseg, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
through which energy flows in an ecosystem. A food web Tall grass by Polishname, public domain via Wikimedia
represents multiple pathways through which energy flows in an Commons
ecosystem. Diatom by Prof. Gordon T. Taylor, Stony Brook University
Feeding positions in a food chain or food web are called trophic (corp2365, NOAA Corps Collection ), public domain via
levels. The first trophic level is producers; the second trophic level Wikimedia Commons
is consumers that eat producers; the third and higher trophic levels Codium by Flyingdream, public domain via Wikimedia
are consumers that eat organisms from the trophic level below Commons
them. There are rarely more than four trophic levels. Most Phormidium by USGS, public domain
consumers actually feed at more than one trophic level. Rhodospirillum rubrum by pookypoo87, public domain via
Only about 10 percent of the energy at one trophic level actually Wikimedia Commons
passes on to the next higher trophic level. The rest of the energy is 3. Nematus ribesii feeding on leaf by Daniel Mietchen, licensed
used up at the lower trophic level or lost to the environment as heat CC0 via Wikimedia Commons
or incompletely digested food. Generally, there are fewer organisms 4. The fly feast by LASZLO ILYES, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
and less biomass at higher trophic levels. Commons
Nonbiodegradable pollutants do not break down in the 5. Fungi in Borneo by Cayce, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
environment, so they accumulate over time and become more 6. Simplified food chain by LadyofHats (Mariana Ruiz Villarreal),
damaging. They may pass from lower to higher trophic levels in dedicated CC0 via Wikimedia Commons
food chains and become increasingly concentrated. 7. Food web by LadyofHats (Mariana Ruiz Villarreal), dedicated
CC0 via Wikimedia Commons
REVIEW 8. Ecological pyramid by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0

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9. Mercury Food Chain by Bretwood Higman, CC BY 3.0 10. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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24.6: CYCLES OF MATTER
DINO WATER?
Did a dinosaur once drink the water in Figure 24.6.1? You may
have heard the claim — usually made in the context of the water
cycle — that the same water exists on Earth now as existed tens of
millions of years ago when dinosaurs roamed the planet. In fact,
dinosaurs probably did not once drink the same water molecules
that we consume today. Whereas the atoms that make up water
molecules have existed for eons, individual water molecules are
broken down and reformed too often to last that long. Nonetheless,
unlike energy, which is continuously added to Earth by the sun,
water is constantly recycled.

Figure 24.6.2 : Like other biogeochemical cycles, the water cycle has
no beginning or end. It just keeps repeating. Note that the term
Figure 24.6.1 : Water "evapotranspiration" in this diagram refers to the evaporation of water
from Earth's land and water plus the transpiration of water from the
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES leaves of plants.

The water and chemical elements that organisms need continuously MOVEMENT THROUGH THE WATER CYCLE
cycle through ecosystems, passing repeatedly through their biotic and Evaporation occurs when water on Earth’s surface changes to water
abiotic components. These cycles are called biogeochemical cycles vapor. When the sun heats water, it gives water molecules enough
because they are cycles of chemicals that include both organisms (bio) energy to escape into the atmosphere.
and abiotic components such as the ocean or rocks (geo). As matter Sublimation occurs when ice and snow change directly to water
moves through a biogeochemical cycle, it may be held for various vapor without first melting to form liquid water. Sublimation occurs
periods of time in different components of the cycle. A component of a because of the heat from the sun.
biogeochemical cycle that holds an element or water for a long period Transpiration occurs when plants release water vapor through leaf
of time is called a reservoir. For example, the deep ocean is a reservoir pores called stomata. Plants take up more water through their roots
for water. It may hold water for thousands of years. than they need for photosynthesis and other processes. Much of this
The rest of this concept takes a closer look at four particular excess water is given off via transpiration.
biogeochemical cycles: the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles Condensation is the process in which water vapor changes to liquid
water, forming water droplets. If enough water droplets are present,
WATER CYCLE they may form a visible cloud. If the droplets become large enough,
Water is essential to all living things on Earth because virtually all they fall to Earth because of gravity as precipitation, such as rain,
biochemical reactions take place in water. Water can dissolve almost snow, sleet, or hail.
anything, so it also provides an efficient way to transfer substances Precipitation that falls on land may flow over the surface of the
between and within cells. The water cycle, also known as the ground. This water is called runoff, and it may eventually flow into
hydrological cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, a body of water.
above, and below Earth’s surface. As it cycles, water moves from one Some of the precipitation that falls on land may soak into the
exchange pool or reservoir to another. In different parts of the cycle, ground and become groundwater. Groundwater may seep out of the
water exists as a liquid (water), solid (ice), or gas (water vapor). ground at a spring or into a body of water such as a lake or the
Therefore, the water cycle includes several physical processes by ocean. Some groundwater may be taken up by plant roots. Some
which water changes state. may flow deeper underground to an aquifer.

CARBON CYCLE
Carbon is the basis of life on Earth. Chains of carbon bonded together
to form the backbone of many biochemical molecules. Carbon is also
an important component of rocks and minerals, and carbon exists in the
atmosphere in compounds such as carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle is
the biogeochemical cycle in which carbon moves through the biotic
and abiotic components of ecosystems. The carbon cycle is represented
by the diagram in Figure 24.6.3.

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 carbon-containing rocks. Carbon can remain in these reservoirs for
millions of years.

NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of Earth’s atmosphere. It is also an
important element in living things. Nitrogen is needed for proteins,
nucleic acids, and many other organic molecules, including
chlorophyll, without which plants and other photoautotrophs could not
carry out photosynthesis. The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical
cycle that recycles nitrogen through the biotic and abiotic components
of ecosystems. Figure 24.6.5 shows how nitrogen cycles through a
terrestrial ecosystem. Nitrogen passes through aquatic ecosystems in a
similar cycle.

Figure 24.6.3 : Carbon moves from one carbon store to another in the
carbon cycle.
Carbon cycles quickly between organisms and the atmosphere. Cellular
respiration by living things releases carbon into the atmosphere as
carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis by producers such as plants removes
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and uses it to make organic carbon
compounds. Carbon in organic compounds moves through ecosystem
communities from producers to consumers, as modeled by food chains
and food webs that show feeding relationships. Carbon is also released
back into the environment when organisms decompose.
Several human actions release huge amounts of additional carbon into
the atmosphere. The most significant of these actions is the burning of
fossil fuels. Large amounts of carbon in the gas methane are also
released into the atmosphere from the decomposition of livestock
manure and the wastes in landfills. Some natural events can also
quickly add carbon to the atmosphere. Wildfires produce carbon
dioxide as a product of combustion, and volcanic eruptions release Figure 24.6.5 : This figure shows how nitrogen cycles between the
carbon dioxide from molten rock (magma). Large volcanic eruptions atmosphere, soil, and living things in a terrestrial ecosystem. The only
part of the cycle that does not occur naturally is the addition of nitrogen
(like the one in Figure 24.6.4) can release enormous amounts of carbon compounds to the soil in fertilizer.
dioxide in a short period of time.
Plants cannot use nitrogen gas in the air to make organic compounds
for themselves and the organisms that consume them. However, they
can use nitrogen in the form of compounds such as nitrates, which they
can absorb through their roots. The process of changing nitrogen gas to
nitrates is called nitrogen fixation. It is carried out by bacteria, called
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, that live in soil or on the roots of legumes
such as peas. Nitrogen fixation is the primary source of nitrogen used
by plants in most ecosystems.
When plants and other organisms die or release wastes, decomposers
break down their organic compounds. In the process, they release
nitrogen in the form of ammonium ions into the soil. The ammonium
ions can be absorbed by plant roots. The ions can also be changed to
nitrates by soil bacteria called nitrifying bacteria.
Figure 24.6.4 : The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington Not all of the nitrates produced by nitrogen-fixing and nitrifying
State released tremendous amounts of carbon-containing gases into the
bacteria are used by plants. Some of the nitrates are changed back to
atmosphere. nitrogen gas by soil bacteria called denitrifying bacteria. This nitrogen
Carbon generally cycles more slowly through other processes. For returns to the atmosphere, thus completing the cycle.
example, running water slowly dissolves carbon in rocks, and most of
this carbon ends up in the ocean. The top layer of ocean water SUMMARY
dissolves some carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, and carbon also Water and the chemical elements that organisms need continuously
enters ocean water from the decomposition of aquatic organisms. cycle through ecosystems. Cycles of matter are called
Carbon from these sources may settle to the bottom of the ocean as biogeochemical cycles because they include both biotic and abiotic
sediment. Over millions of years, this carbon may form fossil fuels or components and processes. Components that hold matter for short

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 periods of time are called exchange pools, and components that 1. What are biogeochemical cycles? Give examples of matter that
hold matter for long periods of time are called reservoirs. have such cycles.
The water cycle involves a water changing state as it moves from 2. Compare and contrast exchange pools and reservoirs in
one exchange pool or reservoir to another. Water changes to water biogeochemical cycles. Give an example of each.
vapor and enters the atmosphere through evaporation, sublimation, 3. How does water change as it moves through the water cycle?
and transpiration. Water vapor in the atmosphere changes to liquid Illustrate your answer with examples.
water by condensation, which may form clouds and fall back to 4. Most of Earth’s water is salt water in the ocean, and most
Earth as precipitation. Water that evaporates from the ocean renews precipitation falls back into the ocean. How is Earth’s supply of
Earth’s source of fresh water because the salt is left behind. freshwater continuously renewed?
Liquid precipitation may form runoff that eventually flows into a 5. Describe what may happen to liquid precipitation that falls on land.
body of water, or it may soak into the ground and become 6. What is an aquifer? How can people access the water in an aquifer?
groundwater. Some groundwater is stored in aquifers, which are 7. Name two reservoirs of frozen water.
layers of porous rock atop impermeable rock layers and which can 8. How does the carbon cycle between organisms and the
be tapped with wells for human use. Frozen precipitation may environment?
become part of ice caps or glaciers that store freshwater for long 9. Explain how human actions can change the carbon cycle.
periods of time. 10. Identify some of the abiotic processes that cycle carbon slowly.
Carbon cycles quickly between organisms and the environment 11. How do living things obtain nitrogen from the environment?
through cellular respiration and photosynthesis. Carbon in organic 12. How is nitrogen returned to the atmosphere to complete the
compounds moves through food chains and webs and some is nitrogen cycle?
released back to the environment by decomposers. Human actions 13. True or False. Plants are involved in the water cycle.
such as burning fossil fuels release huge amounts of additional 14. True or False. Most precipitation falls into the ocean because ocean
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. water covers much of Earth’s surface.
Most natural processes cycle carbon more slowly. Running water
slowly dissolves carbon in rocks and carries it to the ocean, and the EXPLORE MORE
top layer of ocean water dissolves carbon dioxide out of the https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17819#Explore_More
atmosphere. Carbon in ocean water may gradually settle to the
bottom, and some of this carbon may eventually be changed to
ATTRIBUTIONS
fossil fuels or sedimentary rocks that can store carbon for millions 1. Water by drfuenteshernandez via Pixabay license
of years. 2. Water cycle by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12
Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere cannot be used by plants, but Foundation, CC BY-NC 3.0
nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil or on plant roots change nitrogen gas 3. Carbon Cycle by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12
to nitrates, which plant roots can absorb. Decomposition of organic Foundation, CC BY-NC 3.0
matter releases nitrogen as ammonium ions that plants can also 4. Mount St. Helens eruption by Austin Post, Public domain, via
absorb or that nitrifying bacteria in soil can change to nitrates for Wikimedia Commons
use by plants. Denitrifying bacteria release nitrogen gas from 5. Nitrogen cycle by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12
unused nitrates, and this nitrogen enters the atmosphere and Foundation, CC BY-NC 3.0
completes the cycle. 6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0
REVIEW

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24.7: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN POPULATIONS
GROWING LIKE A WEED demographers study relationships between population characteristics
It’s been called the world’s most successful weed species because it and other factors, such as economic, social, or cultural factors. An
has grown so quickly in numbers and spread so far geographically. example is the youth bulge phenomenon described below.
Everywhere this species has gone, it has taken over local DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
ecosystems. Is the species in question a weedy plant like the
Demographic data are routinely collected by the governments of most
dandelions pictured in Figure 24.7.1? No; that dubious honor has
countries. Important sources of demographic data include vital
been given to our own species, Homo sapiens.
statistics registries. These registries track all births and deaths as well
as certain changes in status, such as marriages, divorces, and
migrations. Censuses are also important sources of demographic data.
They are usually conducted by national governments every 10 years.
For example, the United States government has been conducting a
national census every 10 years since 1790. A census has the primary
goal of counting every person in the country, but it also typically
collects information on such variables as age, sex, marital status,
education, employment status, and occupation.
Figure 24.7.1 : Dandelion
DEMOGRAPHIC MEASURES
SO MANY PEOPLE Demographers use data from vital statistics registries and censuses,
among other sources, to calculate measures of population
Our species is relatively young, with the earliest modern humans dating
characteristics. Some of these measures are useful to know as you read
back only to about 200,000 years ago. However, in a relatively short
more about human populations below and in other concepts in this
period of time since then, a total of about 108 billion people have lived
chapter. They include the following:
on planet Earth. More than 7 percent of them, or an estimated 7.6
billion people, were alive in September 2019. The number of humans birth rate — number of live births in 1 year per 1,000 people in the
on the planet is projected to increase to at least 9 billion by 2050 and population
could reach 11 billion or more by 2100! The human species also death rate — number of deaths in 1 year per 1,000 people in the
currently lives on every continent. Six of Earth’s seven continents are population
permanently inhabited on a large scale. Only Antarctica is sparsely fertility rate — the average number of live births per woman by
inhabited and without permanent settlements. the end of the childbearing years
replacement fertility rate — fertility rate at which women average
The rapid increase and spread of the human population have raised
only enough children to replace themselves and their partner in the
concerns about our continued existence as a species. Some thinkers
population
have speculated that continued rapid increase in human numbers will
life expectancy — the average age of death in a population, or the
sooner or later outstrip the resources available on planet Earth and lead
average length of life
to a population catastrophe. Some scientists think we have a long way
population growth rate (r) — the net number of people added to a
to go before that happens. Others think we have already exceeded our
population in 1 year per 100 people already in the population
limit, citing evidence of widespread environmental damage caused by
human actions and the more than 1 billion people in the world who live AGE-SEX STRUCTURE
in extreme poverty. The age-sex structure of a population is a frequently measured
population parameter. It refers to the number of individuals of each sex
STUDYING THE HUMAN POPULATION
and age group in the population. The age-sex structure of a population
We know more about the human population and how it has grown than is often represented by a special type of bar graph called a population
we know about the population of any other species thanks to pyramid. You can see two examples of population pyramids in Figure
demography, which is the scientific study of human populations. 24.7.2, the first for the sub-Saharan African country of Nigeria and the
Demography encompasses the size, distribution, and structure of second for France. Both population pyramids represent the age-sex
populations. Population structure is the proportion of people by age, distribution in the year 2015, the most recent year for which data are
sex, and, often, by other parameters as well, such as ethnicity or available. In each case, the population is distributed along the
education. Demography also encompasses population processes that horizontal axis, with males shown on the left and females on the right.
change population size and structure, including births, deaths, and The male and female populations are broken down into 5-year age
migration. groups represented as horizontal bars along the vertical axis, with the
Demography is considered to be at the crossroads of several youngest age groups at the bottom and the oldest at the top.
disciplines, including sociology, economics, epidemiology,
anthropology, and history. Besides studying current populations,
demographers reconstruct past population characteristics, such as
estimating the world population size 10,000 years ago. Demographers
also make predictions about populations in the future, such as how
many people will live in cities in 2050. In addition, many

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 heightened risk of violence and political instability. A youth bulge has
been posited as an important contributor to the rise of fascism in 20th-
century Europe, the spread of communism during the Cold War, and
the events of the Arab Spring, which began in Egypt in 2011.

Figure 24.7.3 : The 2010 population pyramid for Egypt has a youth
bulge in the young adult age groups.

SUMMARY
Since our species first evolved 200,000 years ago, a total of 108
billion human beings have lived on Earth, with 7.4 billion of them
alive in 2017 and many more predicted in the future. People
permanently live on a large scale on every continent except
Antarctica. The rapid increase and spread of the human population
raise concerns over our species’ continued existence.
Figure 24.7.2 : Population pyramids for Nigeria (left) and France
(right) in 2015 The scientific study of human populations is called demography. It
includes the study of population size, distribution, and structure. It
A great deal of information about a population can be gleaned from its
also includes the study of population dynamics, including
population pyramid because its shape changes slowly over time based
population growth and changes in population structure.
on births and deaths and, in some cases, international migration. Births
The age-sex structure of a population is the number of individuals
add people to a population only in the youngest age group, whereas
of each sex and age group in the population, typically represented
deaths remove people from all age groups of a population. The
by a bar graph called a population pyramid. The shape of a
population pyramid for Nigeria, for example, is actually pyramidal in
population pyramid reflects past births, deaths, and migrations; and
shape, with a broad base of young children and tapered sides showing
it may provide insights into political and socioeconomic change.
rapidly decreasing numbers of people at older ages. This type of
pyramid reflects a population that has high birth rates and relatively
REVIEW
high death rates. The population pyramid for France, in contrast, has a
1. Why has the human species been called the world’s most successful
nonpyramidal shape. The narrow base of children and young adults
weed species?
reflects a relatively low birth rate over the past several decades. The
2. What is demography? What aspects of the population does it study?
bulge of people in mid-to late-adulthood is evidence of higher birth
3. Identify and define six common demographic measures.
rates in previous generations (the post-World War II baby boom)
4. What is the age-sex structure of a population?
coupled with low death rates. The larger proportion of females than
5. How does a population pyramid represent the age-sex structure of a
males at older ages, which is especially pronounced in the French
population?
population pyramid, is due to the higher rates of death of males than
6. Explain what can be learned about a population from its population
females, especially in older age groups. This trend is seen in most
pyramid.
human populations.
Population pyramids may also provide insights about political and EXPLORE MORE
social stability and economic development. An example of this is the https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17820#Explore_More
so-called “youth bulge,” which is a disproportionately large cohort of
young adults, the age groups when people typically enter the labor ATTRIBUTIONS
force and electorate. As an example, you can see a youth bulge in the 1. Dandelion by Jakub Kolář, dedicated CC0 via Wikimedia
2010 population pyramid for Egypt in Figure 24.7.3. A youth bulge Commons
may cause young adults to have high rates of unemployment and social 2. Population pyramid of Nigeria 2015 by The World Factbook, public
and political alienation. These conditions, in turn, may result in a domain via Wikimedia Commons

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 Population pyramid of France 2015 by The World Factbook, 3. Egypt population by Delphi234, dedicated CC0 via Wikimedia
public domain via Wikimedia Commons Commons
4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
3.0

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24.8: POPULATION DYNAMICS
ADDING ON dependent factors are those that cause population growth to slow down
Population growth refers to changes in population size over time. when the population becomes too large and crowded. For example, the
Figure 24.8.1 illustrates one way that populations grow: adding population may start to run out of food, or crowding may lead to
babies through births. Can you think of other ways that populations infectious disease epidemics. More deaths may occur or more people
change in size in a given area? may emigrate, causing population growth to slow and population size
to level off. Curve B inFigure 24.8.2 represents this pattern of growth,
which is called logistic growth.
At what size does a population stop growing in the logistic growth
pattern? That depends on the population’s carrying capacity (Figure
24.8.2). The carrying capacity (K) is the largest population size that

can be supported by available resources without harming the

environment. Population growth hits a ceiling at that size in the logistic
growth model.

EXPONENTIAL GROWTH OF THE HUMAN POPULATION

Figure 24.8.1 : Daycare center For most of our species’ existence, the global population grew very
slowly. Then, starting a few centuries ago, the human population
started to grow exponentially. You can see this clearly in the graph in
PATTERNS OF POPULATION GROWTH
Figure 24.8.3. It took the human population many millennia to reach 1
Populations are dynamic. They are continuously gaining individuals
billion people, which occurred around 1800 CE. After that, it took only
through births and losing individuals through deaths. Populations may
a little over a century for the number to reach 2 billion. In less than
also gain or lose a significant number of individuals through migration
another century, we added another 5 billion people, reaching a total of
when people either enter or leave a population. All of these factors
7 billion people by 2012. Today, the human population is rapidly
together determine whether and how quickly a population grows.
approaching the 8 billion mark. At a global growth rate of 1.2 percent
Population growth rates may change over time. Two well-studied
in 2015, we are adding a net number of more than 80 million people
patterns of change in population growth rates are exponential and
each year. If that growth rate were to continue, the total human
logistic growth.
population would double in just 58 years.
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGISTIC GROWTH

Figure 24.8.3 : This graph gives an overview of world population

Figure 24.8.2 : Curve A represents an exponential pattern of population growth from 10,000 BCE through 2000 CE. The population shows a
growth. Note that this population increases dramatically and pattern of exponential growth over the past few hundred years.
continually. Curve B represents a logistic pattern of population growth.
This population size levels out at the carrying capacity. Is it possible for the human population to keep growing at 1.2 percent?
Under ideal conditions, populations of most species, including Homo The late-18th century economist Thomas Malthus predicted that
sapiens, have the potential for exponential growth, represented by continued rapid growth of the human population would soon outstrip
curve A in Figure 24.8.2. With exponential growth, the population food production, leading to increasing famine and higher death rates.
starts out growing slowly, but as population size increases, the growth This would be evidence that the population had reached its carrying
rate also increases. The larger the population becomes, the more capacity and could no longer keep growing. Unless population growth
quickly it grows. was reigned in before the carrying capacity was reached, Malthus
argued, there would be a population crash caused by heightened
Almost no populations live under ideal conditions. Therefore, most do
warfare, malnutrition, and disease.
not grow exponentially, at least not indefinitely. They may start
outgrowing exponentially, but sooner or later, something will limit
OVERPOPULATION
their growth. Many factors may limit population growth so it slows
down or even stops. Often, the factors are density-dependent. Density-

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Since Malthus made his dire warning, the human population has grown human carrying capacity is 7.7 billion people. The human population is
from just under a billion to more than 7 billion people. Has the human projected to reach 7.7 billion people by the year 2020. If these
population already reached or surpassed its carrying capacity? Is the estimates are correct, it suggests that the human population is at the
planet overpopulated with people? Do we have a human tipping point and must stop growing. Some human populations already
overpopulation problem? suffer shortages of food, water, and other resources; and our use and
acquisition of resources have already damaged the environment. Such
HUMAN CARRYING CAPACITY evidence suggests that we have reached our carrying capacity and there
Attempts to calculate the carrying capacity for the global human really is an overpopulation problem.
population have produced widely varying estimates. However, a meta-
analysis of 69 such studies concluded that the best estimate of the NOT JUST OVERPOPULATION

Figure 24.8.4 : The values for energy use in this map range from less than 60 kg to more than 19,000 kg of oil per person (if all energy use is
converted to its equivalent in oil.

Although many environmental problems are aggravated by the size of if women average only enough children to replace themselves and their
the human population, some experts think that over-consumption and partner in the population. This is called the replacement fertility rate. It
waste by populations in wealthy nations are worse problems than sheer ranges from just over 2 to almost 3 children per woman, depending on
human population numbers. People in the more-developed nations use the death rate. At a higher death rate, the replacement fertility rate is
resources at a rate more than 30 times greater than the rate in less- higher because fewer children survive to adulthood to replace their
developed nations, where the majority of people live today. The map in parents in the population. Even if the fertility rate falls to the
Figure 24.8.4 shows 2013 per capita energy use by nations worldwide. replacement level, however, there will still be a time lag before the
The differences in energy use are dramatic, as this map shows. If population growth rate levels off. That’s because populations that have
everyone used resources at the rate of people in developed countries, recently had high birth rates have a youthful age distribution, with a
the total human population would need more than one planet Earth to large proportion of women at peak childbearing ages. With so many
supply their demands. Reducing profligate consumption of resources young women, the population birth rate will remain high for at least
and our ecological footprint are clearly needed to help solve the another generation.
overpopulation problem.

SLOWING HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH

Environmental problems are not caused solely by human
overpopulation. However, having so many people on the planet
certainly makes problems worse, so it is important to reduce the rate of
human population growth. A widely accepted goal is an overall zero
growth rate for the human population. Zero population growth (ZPG)
occurs when the birth rate equals the death rate (assuming no net
migration for the human population as a whole). ZPG can be achieved

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 SUMMARY
Populations are dynamic. They are continuously gaining individuals
through births and losing individuals through deaths. They may also
gain or lose significant numbers of individuals through migration.
In 2015, the global human population had an average growth rate of
1.2 percent, but the growth rate varied among nations from less
than zero to greater than 3 percent. A 3 percent growth rate is high
for human populations, leading to a doubling time of just 23 years.
Rates of population growth much higher than 3 or 4 percent or
much lower than zero are generally caused by high rates of
migration.
Population growth rates may change over time. With exponential
Figure 24.8.5 : China’s population, 1961-2008 growth, the larger the population becomes, the faster it grows. With
Childbearing is a deeply important and personal decision that is logistic growth, population growth slows and levels off as the
influenced by many socioeconomic and cultural factors. Obviously, population size reaches its carrying capacity (K), which is the
trying to influence how many children women have is a complex largest population size that can be supported by available resources
problem. A top-down approach was instituted in China in 1979 when it without harming the environment.
enacted a one-child-per-woman policy. The Chinese government has For most of its existence, the human population grew very slowly.
credited the policy with reducing China’s population by 400 million It started growing exponentially a few centuries ago. It is currently
people. However, China’s fertility rate was already falling when the adding more than 80 million people per year.
policy was put into effect, so the impact of the policy is disputed. The Since the time of Malthus, there has been a concern that the human
actual growth of the Chinese population is shown in the graph in population is growing so rapidly that it will soon outstrip food
Figure 24.8.5. The tiny dip in the curve starting around 1979 suggests production and crash due to increased warfare, famine, and disease.
the policy’s impact on population growth was minimal. Estimates place the human population carrying capacity at 7.7
Unlike in China, most countries do not have direct policies to limit billion people, which we are expected to reach by 2020, suggesting
fertility rates. However, evidence from many populations shows that that there is an overpopulation problem.
women start having fewer children when there are more educational Many environmental problems are aggravated by the size of the
and economic opportunities for females, advances in gender equality, human population, although over-consumption and waste by
greater knowledge of family planning, and better access to populations in wealthy nations may be worse problems than
contraception. Needless to say, such society-wide changes are often overpopulation per se. A widely accepted goal is zero population
very difficult to achieve and require multiple approaches, but the future growth (ZPG), which occurs when birth rates match death rates
of our species may depend on them. because women average only enough children to replace
themselves and their partners. This is called the replacement
fertility rate, and it depends on the death rate.
FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS In 1979, China tried a top-down approach to reducing fertility by
Just days into his presidency on January 23, 2017, and surrounded instituting a one-child policy, but it appears to have had little effect
solely by male members of his administration, President Donald on the growth of the Chinese population. Improving women’s lives
Trump signed an executive order reinstating the so-called “Mexico in a variety of ways and increasing access to family planning have
City Policy.” This policy also referred to as the “global gag rule,” been shown to reduce fertility rates in many populations. Such
was first put into effect by President Ronald Reagan in 1984. The evidence suggests that reducing fertility is a complex problem that
policy withholds U.S. government funding from any international requires multiple approaches.
non-governmental organization that performs or promotes abortions
as a family planning option. The Mexico City Policy was rescinded REVIEW
by the Clinton Administration in 1993, reinstated by the Bush 1. Why are populations dynamic?
Administration in 2001, and rescinded again by the Obama 2. What factors determine the growth rate of the human population?
Administration in 2009. 3. Describe variation in recent human population growth rates.
While Trump’s reinstatement of the Mexico City Policy was 4. Compare and contrast exponential and logistic patterns of
praised by Republican politicians and anti-abortion activists, population growth.
Democratic politicians and abortion-rights activists reacted to it 5. Define carrying capacity.
with newsworthy alarm. They called the reinstatement a 6. Briefly summarize how the population of the human species has
“catastrophe” for women in less-developed countries, arguing that grown.
it will lead to large increases in unintended pregnancies, unsafe 7. Discuss evidence for and concerns about human overpopulation.
abortions, and neonatal and maternal deaths. 8. Define the replacement fertility rate, and explain why it depends on
The Mexico City Policy shows how politically charged the control the death rate.
of fertility can be. However, promoting family planning in high- 9. Assuming the death rate remains constant, why is there a time lag
fertility populations is an important part of the solution to the between a decrease in fertility and the slowing of population
overpopulation problem. Unless fertility is reduced to replacement growth?
levels, human populations will continue to grow. 10. Identify evidence-based factors that lead to fertility decline.

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EXPLORE MORE https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17821#Explore_More

ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Kids at daycare by Grant Barrett, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
2. Population growth patterns by Hana Zavadska via CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
3. Growth of the human population by Hana Zavadska via CK-12 CC BY-NC 3.0
4. World energy usage map by Thomasjam, CC0 via Wikimedia Commons
5. China Demography by Quilokos, Demmo, CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0

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24.9: CLIMATE CHANGE
CAN WE TAKE THE HEAT? molecules in the atmosphere, it is re-emitted by the molecules in all
This image represents the biggest problem that the human species directions. The effect is to warm Earth’s surface and the lower
has ever faced: the current trend in global warming. There is no atmosphere.
longer any doubt that our planet is growing warmer and that human Earth’s natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life on the
actions are the primary cause. There is also no question that if we planet. Without the greenhouse effect, Earth’s average temperature
don’t do something about it soon, the consequences will be would be about -18 degrees C (0 degrees F), as compared with the
devastating. Of the 17 warmest years on record, 16 of them have present average of 15 degrees C (59 degrees F). However, human
occurred since the year 2000. While record-breaking years attract activities have intensified the natural greenhouse effect by increasing
the most public attention, individual years are less significant than greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. This is known as the
the overall trend, and the upward trend in Earth’s temperature is enhanced or anthropogenic greenhouse effect, and it is causing global
alarming. The average temperature of the planet has been rising for warming.
more than a century, and its rate of increase is accelerating. The
most significant reason for Earth’s rising temperature is the human GREENHOUSE GASES
impact on the greenhouse effect. Greenhouse gases are radiatively active gases, meaning they can
absorb and re-radiate infrared energy. They include all gases with three
or more atoms. As shown in Table 24.9.1, the top three greenhouse
gases in Earth’s atmosphere are carbon dioxide (CO2),
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and methane (CH4). The table also lists
the main human activities that contribute to greater concentrations of
these and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Table 24.9.1 : Greenhouse gases ranked on the basis of their effect on the
enhanced greenhouse effect and climate change. Starred items are natural
greenhouse gases
Effect on
Gas Production
climate
Figure 24.9.1 : Earth on stove Effect on climate 60% C O2 Carbon dioxide * Burning fossil fuels, deforestation
HF Cs
Effect on climate 16% Aerosols, refrigerants
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT Hydroflurocarbons
Effect on climate 15% C H4 Methane * Organic waste, cattle, fuel production
Effect on climate 5% N2 O Nitrous oxide Fertilizer, soil, fuels
Effect on climate 2% P F Cs Perfluorcarbons Paint, textile and aluminum production
Electrical industry, rubber/MG
Effect on climate 1% S F6 Sulfur hexafluoride
production
Effect on climate 1% H2 O Water vapour * Irrigation, evaporation, ice melting

THE IMPORTANCE OF CARBON DIOXIDE

As Table 24.9.1 shows, the major greenhouse gas in terms of its effect
on climate is carbon dioxide. How much a greenhouse gas contributes
to the enhanced greenhouse effect and global warming depends on how
well it radiates heat and also on its abundance and persistence in the
atmosphere. Although HFCs and methane are much more potent
radiators of heat than carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide is much more
abundant and lasts far longer in the atmosphere.

Figure 24.9.2 : The flow of energy in an ecosystem SOURCES AND SINKS OF CARBON DIOXIDE
The greenhouse effect is the process by which the atmosphere of a Carbon dioxide enters Earth’s atmosphere largely through the burning
planet such as Earth warms the planet’s surface to a temperature above of fossil fuels. Coal produces twice as much carbon dioxide as natural
what it would be without the atmosphere. The atmosphere raises the gas, with oil being intermediate. Currently, about half of the carbon
surface temperature if it contains certain gases — called greenhouse dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels remains in the
gases — that can radiate energy down to the planet’s surface. atmosphere. The rest is taken up by plants (for photosynthesis) or
How does the greenhouse effect work? As shown in Figure 24.9.2, of dissolved by seawater. Deforestation reduces the total amount of
the total amount of solar energy available at the top of the atmosphere, carbon dioxide that is absorbed by plants, thereby increasing the
some of the energy is reflected back into space by the atmosphere or amount of carbon dioxide that remains in the atmosphere.
Earth, and some is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds. However,
MEASURING THE INCREASE IN CARBON DIOXIDE
most of the energy is absorbed by Earth’s surface, and much of this
The graph in Figure 24.9.3 is based on actual atmospheric
energy is radiated back into the atmosphere as infrared radiation, which
measurements from the premier atmospheric research facility, the
we feel as heat. If this radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gas

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Mauna Loa Observatory in Mauna Loa, Hawaii, where conditions are eruptions and movements of continents. Over the past couple of
ideal for monitoring greenhouse gases. centuries, the most important cause of climate change has been human
actions, which are causing an enhanced greenhouse effect and global
warming.

EVIDENCE OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Figure 24.9.4 : In this graph, the solid black line is the deviation of the
global annual mean temperature from the mid-20th-century value. The
solid red line reflects a smoothing of the data over each five-year
interval.
Evidence for global warming comes from a variety of sources.
Figure 24.9.3: This figure shows the history of atmospheric carbon
dioxide concentrations as directly measured at Mauna Loa, Hawaii Reasonably complete direct measurements of global surface
since 1958. temperatures are available beginning in the late 1800s. The graph in
Figure 24.9.4 shows how the annual mean temperature of Earth’s land
This curve in Figure 24.9.3 is known as the Keeling curve and is an and the ocean has deviated from baseline values (set at the mid-20th
essential piece of evidence of the man-made increases in greenhouse century). Relative to this baseline, earlier temperatures were generally
gases that are believed to be the cause of global warming. The longest cooler, and more recent temperatures have been consistently warmer.
such record exists at Mauna Loa, but these measurements have been Overall, the graph shows a long-term warming trend.
independently confirmed at many other sites around the world. The
annual fluctuation in carbon dioxide is caused by seasonal variations in
carbon dioxide uptake by land plants. Since many more forests are
concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere, more carbon dioxide is
removed from the atmosphere during Northern Hemisphere summer
than Southern Hemisphere summer. This annual cycle is shown in the
inset figure by taking the average concentration for each month across
all measured years. The red curve shows the average monthly
concentrations, and the blue curve is a smoothed trend. The carbon
dioxide data is measured as the mole fraction in dry air. This dataset
constitutes the longest record of direct measurements of CO2 in the
atmosphere (data up to December 2018).
Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide for much earlier periods
have been determined from tiny samples of air trapped inside polar ice.
By drilling deep into the ice, scientists are able to remove samples that
go back as far as 800,000 years ago. Atmospheric carbon dioxide Figure 24.9.5 : Both of these photos show the same view in Alaska, and
concentrations have increased from the year 1000 to the year 2000. The both were taken in mid-summer. The McCarty Glacier is clearly visible
concentration was more or less stable until about 1750 when it started in the 1909 photo and completely missing from the 2004 photo.
to increase exponentially. That’s also when the Industrial Revolution Less direct but equally convincing evidence of recent global warming
began, leading to the rapidly increasing use of fossil fuels. is the shrinking of glaciers and polar ice fields. As an example, Figure
24.9.5 shows changes in the McCarty Glacier in Alaska. The bottom

GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE photo shows the large McCarty Glacier as it appeared in the summer of
Climate change, in general, refers to any change in average weather 1909. The top photo shows that the glacier had completely disappeared
conditions on Earth that lasts for at least several decades. Short-term in the summer of 2004.
perturbations in climate, such as El Niño events, are not considered to
be climate change. Earth’s climate has repeatedly changed in earlier PROJECTIONS OF FUTURE CLIMATE CHANGE
epochs because of natural disturbances, such as massive volcanic

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 temperature rose by about 2.6 degrees C. Many of the world’s largest
and most densely populated cities are located in low-lying coastal
areas. If these areas were inundated by the ocean, it would cause the
displacement of hundreds of millions of people and nearly
unfathomable economic losses.

Figure 24.9.6 . This map shows how changes in global temperature

(relative to mid-20th-century baseline values) varied globally during
the first decade of the 21st century. Land areas and the Arctic showed
the greatest increase in temperatures. Projections for future climate
change include a continuation of these trends.
Figure 24.9.7 : The areas indicated in red on this world map would be
underwater if the sea level rose by an average of 6 meters. Some of the
Unless energy policies change substantially, the world will continue to areas that would be inundated include thousands of acres of land in
depend on fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions will remain high. New York City, Long Island, and the New Jersey coast. Airports, ports,
railroads, housing developments, highways, and industry would be
Greenhouse gases already present in the atmosphere will persist for permanently flooded.
decades or even centuries, so they will continue to influence Earth’s
climate long into the future. This will be the case, regardless of any POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO CLIMATE CHANGE
steps that are taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions going forward. Most climate experts agree that future global warming should be
Depending on assumptions about future greenhouse gas emissions, limited to less than 2.0 degrees C. Otherwise, greater global warming
climate models predict that the mean global surface temperature is would have catastrophic impacts and eventually exceed the capacity of
likely to rise by 0.3-4.8 degrees C (0.5-8.6 degrees F) before the natural and human systems to adapt. Controlling global warming
temperature levels off. Future climate change is also predicted to differ requires first and foremost deep cuts in greenhouse gas emissions.
from region to region around the globe (Figure 24.9.6). Warming has International organizations and national governments have adopted
been and will continue to be greater over land than over the ocean resolutions and policies with this goal, the most important of which is
because water has a greater capacity than land to absorb heat. Warming promoting the use of renewable energy resources instead of fossil fuels.
also has been and will continue to be greater in the Arctic than Other approaches to greenhouse gas control include increasing the
anywhere else on Earth for reasons that are not yet fully known. amount of carbon removed from the atmosphere, for example, through
the protection of forests and reforestation programs.
IMPACTS OF FUTURE GLOBAL WARMING
Future global warming is projected to have a wide range of impacts SUMMARY
besides increases in temperature alone. They include continued retreat The greenhouse effect is the process by which the atmosphere of a
of glaciers and polar ice sheets, greater frequency, and severity of planet such as Earth warms the planet’s surface to a temperature
extreme weather events such as droughts, expansion of deserts, and above what it would be without the atmosphere. Earth’s natural
changes in agricultural production. The increase in temperature will greenhouse effect keeps the planet warm enough to support life.
also cause a shift toward the poles in terrestrial plant and animal ranges Human activities have intensified the natural greenhouse effect by
as well as irreversible impacts on particular ecosystems, including increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.
tundra and coral reefs. Overall, it is expected that climate change will Greenhouse gases are gases that can absorb and re-radiate infrared
result in the extinction of many species and reduced diversity of energy given off by Earth’s surface. They include all gases with
ecosystems. Even the frequency of human violence, including violent three or more atoms. The top three greenhouse gases in Earth’s
crimes and warfare, is expected to increase as Earth’s temperature atmosphere are carbon dioxide, hydrofluorocarbons, and methane.
rises. Increased violence is likely because of the worsening of many The major greenhouse gas in terms of its effect on Earth’s climate is
underlying problems — greater water shortages and crop failures, carbon dioxide, mainly due to its high concentration and persistence
worse poverty and hunger, higher rates of disease, and displacement of in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere largely
people due to weather disasters and habitat destruction. through the burning of fossil fuels. Only about half of this carbon
One reason habitats will be destroyed is a rise in sea level. Sea level is dioxide is taken up by plants or dissolved by seawater. The rest
already rising and will probably continue to rise for centuries because stays in the atmosphere for decades.
of an increase in the volume of water in the ocean. The water volume Data on atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide show that the
will increase because of the continued melting of ice sheets and concentration was more-or-less stable prior to the start of the
glaciers as well as the natural expansion of water as it warms. The Industrial Revolution around 1750. After that, it began to increase
average sea level could rise by as much as 2.3 meters for each degree exponentially along with the use of fossil fuels.
Celsius of temperature increase. The map in Figure 24.9.7 shows Climate change refers to any change in average weather conditions
coastal areas that would be underwater if the sea level were to rise by on Earth that lasts for at least several decades. The most important
an average of 6 meters, which would occur if the mean global surface

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 cause of recent and ongoing climate change is human actions, 11. Describe direct and indirect evidence for global warming.
which cause an enhanced greenhouse effect and global warming. 12. Outline spatial variation in global warming.
Direct evidence for global warming comes from measurements of 13. How much is the global surface temperature predicted to increase in
global land and ocean temperatures, which show an overall the future? Give the range of values based on climate models. What
warming trend since the late 1800s. Indirect evidence for global factor is mainly responsible for the variation in model projections?
warming comes from observations of its effects, such as the What is the greatest increase in temperature that most climate
shrinking of glaciers over the past century or so. experts recommend avoiding the most catastrophic effects of global
Even if greenhouse gas emissions are reduced in the future, the warming?
climate will continue to get warmer because of the greenhouse 14. Identify several potential impacts of future global warming.
gases already present in the atmosphere. Projections for future 15. What is the single most important way to control global warming?
increases in the mean global temperature range from less than 1 to 16. Which activity causes the most carbon dioxide to be emitted into
almost 5 degrees C, depending on future greenhouse gas emissions. the atmosphere?
Warming has been and will continue to be greater over land than A. The burning of coal
the ocean and greater in the Arctic than anywhere else on Earth. B. Exhalation by mammals
Future global warming is projected to have a wide range of impacts, C. The burning of natural gas
many of which are already occurring. Impacts are likely to include D. The burning of oil
the continued retreat of glaciers, greater weather extremes,
17. The sea level could rise by approximately how much if the global
expansion of deserts, shifts toward the poles in natural habitats, loss
temperature increases by 4.8 degrees.?
of biodiversity, changes in food production, rising sea levels,
A. 4.8 meters
displacements of human populations, and increases in human
B. 6 meters
violence.
C. 8 meters
Most climate experts agree that future global warming should be
D. 11 meters
limited to less than 2.0 degrees C. Otherwise, human and natural
systems may be unable to adapt. Controlling global warming
EXPLORE MORE
requires first and foremost deep cuts in greenhouse gas emissions https://bio.libretexts.org/link?17822#Explore_More
by phasing out fossil fuels and replacing them with energy
resources that do not produce greenhouse gases. ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Earth on stove by Lesserland, CC0 via Wikimedia Commons
REVIEW 2. Greenhouse Effect by US EPA, public domain via CK-12
1. Define the greenhouse effect. Foundation.
2. Explain how the greenhouse effect works. 3. Mauna Loa CO2 monthly mean concentration by Delorme, CC BY-
3. Why is the natural greenhouse effect necessary for life on Earth? SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons
4. What are greenhouse gases? 4. Global temperature anomaly by NASA Goddard Institute for Space
5. How have human actions enhanced the natural greenhouse effect? Studies, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
6. List the top three greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere in terms 5. Comparison photos of McCarty Glacier in Kenai Fjords National
of their effect on climate. Park, Alaska. by USGS, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
7. Why is carbon dioxide the most significant cause of the enhanced 6. GISS temperature 2000-09 by NASA image, public domain via
greenhouse effect? How does carbon dioxide enter the atmosphere? Wikimedia Commons
8. Describe how atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations have 7. 6m Sea Level Rise by NASA, public domain via Wikimedia
changed over the past millennium. Commons
9. Define climate change. 8. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
10. Identify the main cause of recent and ongoing climate change on 3.0
Earth.

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24.10: CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: ORGANIC AND CHAPTER SUMMARY
pesticides on bee populations, including banning the use of certain
CASE STUDY CONCLUSION: FARMING FOR pesticides when bees are most likely to be present. Although organic
BALANCE agriculture prohibits the use of most synthetic pesticides, the use of
These organic tomatoes look delicious, but is it worth choosing them some naturally derived pesticides is allowed. Some of these
over less expensive conventionally-produced tomatoes? Camille, who compounds may also be toxic to bees, other pollinators, and natural
you read about in the beginning of the chapter, asks herself questions pest predators such as ladybugs. So before Camille decides to purchase
like this whenever she goes food shopping. If organic agricultural an organic food product over a conventional one because of concerns
practices are significantly better for the environment, she would like to about the negative effects of pesticides on the environment, she should
buy organic food products at least some of the time. But are they research whether naturally derived pesticides have been used on that
better? And if so, how? product, and if so, whether they have any negative effects.

Figure 24.10.1: Organic Produce

For foods to be officially labeled as organic in the U.S., they must meet
detailed requirements from the USDA about how they are produced.
One major aspect of organic agriculture is that most synthetic
pesticides and fertilizers cannot be used on crops, unlike in
conventional agriculture. As you have learned, pesticides can be
harmful to human health if appropriate safety precautions are not taken.
But besides direct exposure to humans, pesticides can also have
Figure 24.10.3: Dianchi Lake in China in 2007, which appears bright
negative effects on the broader ecosystem. For instance, some green due to excess algae growth due to pollution from runoff,
pesticides are toxic to bees. In fact, in addition to the varroa mite, including synthetic fertilizers.
which you learned about in this chapter, scientists think that pesticides Organic agriculture also generally prohibits the use of synthetic
are one of the factors that have contributed to the recent dramatic fertilizers. These fertilizers are concentrated sources of chemical
reduction of honey bee populations. elements such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Why would farmers want to
add these elements to their crops? As you have learned, both nitrogen
and phosphorus are nutrients that plants need to produce organic
compounds. In fact, nitrogen is a limiting factor of plant growth in
most terrestrial ecosystems. Therefore, adding these elements can
increase plant growth and crop yield.
But there can be too much of a good thing. Recall that nitrogen and
phosphorus are recycled through the biotic and abiotic factors in the
ecosystem, as part of their respective biogeochemical cycles.
Ecosystems have a delicate balance of complex interactions, and when
one component changes significantly in an ecosystem, it usually causes
a variety of other effects. In the case of synthetic fertilizers, the excess
nutrients can run off into waterways from irrigation and rain. This is
Figure 24.10.2: Dead honey bees. The use of pesticides is thought to be
one of several reasons why bee populations have been declining called nutrient pollution and it can seriously upset the balance in
dramatically. aquatic biomes. For instance, excess nitrogen and phosphorus in bodies
What effect does the loss of honey bees have on the ecosystem? As you of water such as rivers and lakes can cause the overgrowth of algae.
have learned, bees and flowering plants have a mutualistic symbiotic The overgrowth of algae can clog waterways, block sunlight to deeper
relationship, where bees benefit by obtaining food from flowers, and levels, and use up dissolved oxygen. In turn, this can kill other aquatic
the plants benefit from pollination by bees. Recall that the honey bee is organisms such as fish. This process is called eutrophication, and you
the most important pollinator of crops, providing more than one billion can see an example in Figure 24.10.3. Besides seriously disrupting the
dollars of pollinating services to agriculture in the U.S. By contributing ecosystem, eutrophication can directly harm human health because
to the loss of bee populations, pesticides can disturb the ecological some large overgrowths of algae (algal blooms) can produce potent
balance between plants and their pollinators. When pollinators are toxins. These toxins become increasingly concentrated as they move up
reduced, so is food yield, which affects humans and other animals in the food chain, and people can become ill or even die when they
the food chain that rely on foods such as fruits, vegetables, and nuts. consume fish or shellfish from areas where there are algal blooms.
This is such a serious issue that in 2017, the U.S. Environmental What about organic fertilizers? Organic fertilizers are generally better
Protection Agency (EPA) implemented a policy to reduce the risk of for the ecosystem than synthetic fertilizers. Organic fertilizers come

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directly from plant or animal sources, such as compost or manure. plants capture energy from sunlight and make organic molecules
They tend to contain lower concentrations of nutrients such as nitrogen from inorganic compounds.
and phosphorus than synthetic fertilizers. Organic fertilizer often needs Nutrients, including carbon and nitrogen, are recycled among the
to be broken down by decomposers before many of its nutrients can be biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems. In most terrestrial
used by plants, which limits the speed at which these nutrients become ecosystems, nitrogen is a limiting factor in plant growth and
introduced to the environment and allows them to be retained by the primary production. A limiting factor is any factor that constrains
soil for longer periods of time, increasing soil quality. It also the population size of one or more of an ecosystem’s species.
encourages biodiversity in the soil by providing food for a variety of Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which our
decomposers, which, as you have learned, are critical to matter species depends. Ecosystem goods range from foods to recreational
recycling in ecosystems. Organic fertilizer also helps maintain soil opportunities. Ecosystem services range from providing oxygen to
structure, makes the soil more resistant to erosion, and helps with water the air to pollinating crops.
infiltration. In these ways, organic fertilizers can help keep nutrient and A community is the biotic part of an ecosystem. It consists of all the
water cycling balanced in the ecosystem. populations of all the species that live in the ecosystem and their
There are many other aspects of organic agriculture beyond the types relationships with each other. There are three major types of
of pesticides and fertilizers used. For instance, organic agriculture community relationships: symbiosis, predation, and competition.
promotes biodiversity through techniques such as crop rotation, the Symbiosis is a close relationship between two organisms of
planting of cover crops, and encouraging the growth of plants and different species in which at least one of the organisms benefits.
maintenance of habitats that attract beneficial pest predators and Types of symbiosis include mutualism, commensalism, and
pollinators. These techniques add nutrients to the soil, improve soil parasitism.
structure, reduce pest damage, and promote pollination while also Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which individuals
providing benefits to many species in the ecosystem. In general, from both species benefit. An example is a relationship
organic agriculture tends to promote more natural ecosystem between clownfish and sea anemones.
interactions than conventional agriculture, but as you have seen from Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which an
the example of organic pesticides, “organic” isn’t always necessarily individual from one of the species benefits while the
better in all respects. Therefore, there isn’t one easy answer about individual from the other species is unaffected. An example
whether Camille should choose organic over conventional foods, but is a relationship between cattle egrets and grazing mammals,
by learning about balance in ecosystems and the impact of specific in which the egrets benefit and the mammals are unaffected.
farming practices, she—and you—can make more informed decisions Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which an organism
at the grocery store. from one species, called the parasite, benefits, while the
organism from the other species, called the host, is harmed.
CHAPTER SUMMARY An example is a relationship between parasitic roundworms
In this chapter, you learned about the science of ecology and the and human hosts.
ecosystems and biomes on Earth. Specifically, you learned that: Predation is a community relationship in which an organism of
Ecology is the study of how living things interact with each other one species, called the predator, consumes tissues of an
and with their environment. All organisms need energy and matter organism in another species, called the prey. An example is
that must be obtained from the environment, so organisms are not snake predators that consume prey animals such as lizards.
closed systems. The environment of an organism includes biotic A predator-prey relationship tends to keep the populations of
factors, which are the living aspects of the environment, and abiotic both species in the balance because each population is a
factors, which are the nonliving aspects of the environment. limiting factor on the other population.
Ecologists generally organize the biological world in a nested Both predators and prey are likely to have adaptations to
hierarchy. Above the level of the individual organism, from the predation such as camouflage that evolves through natural
least to most inclusive, the levels of this hierarchy are the selection.
population, community, ecosystem, biome, and biosphere. The
Interspecific competition is a community relationship in which
biosphere consists of every part of Earth where life exists, including
organisms from different species rely on the same limiting
the land, water, and air.
resource.
Basic ideas in ecology include the ecosystem, niche, habitat, and
competitive exclusion principle. An ecosystem consists of all the Interspecific competition is the basis of the competitive
biotic and abiotic factors in an area and their interactions. A niche exclusion principle and may lead to the extinction of one
is the role of a species in its ecosystem, and a habitat is a natural species or greater specialization in both species.
environment in which a species lives and to which it is adapted. All organisms need energy. There are two basic types of organisms
An ecosystem is a set of interacting components that form a in terms of how they obtain energy: autotrophs and heterotrophs.
complex whole, including its community of living things (biotic Autotrophs (producers) use energy directly from the sun or from
components) and nonliving environmental factors such as water and chemicals to produce organic molecules. Photoautotrophs such
sunlight (abiotic components). as plants use energy from sunlight to make organic compounds
Ecosystem processes move energy and matter through the biotic by photosynthesis. Chemoautotrophs such as certain bacteria
and abiotic components of an ecosystem, starting with primary use energy from chemicals to make organic compounds by
production by producers such as plants. Through photosynthesis, chemosynthesis.

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 Heterotrophs (consumers) obtain energy by consuming other The scientific study of human populations is called demography. It
organisms. Heterotrophs include all animals and fungi as well as includes the study of population size, distribution, and structure. It
many protists and bacteria. They can be classified on the basis also includes the study of population dynamics, including
of what they consume as carnivores, which eat animals; population growth and changes in population structure.
herbivores, which eat plants; omnivores, which eat both animals The age-sex structure of a population is the number of individuals
and plants; and decomposers, which consume organic wastes of each sex and age group in the population, typically represented
and dead organisms. by a bar graph called a population pyramid. The shape of a
The flow of energy in an ecosystem can be represented with a food population pyramid reflects past births, deaths, and migrations; and
chain or food web. A food chain represents a single pathway it may provide insights into political and socio-economic change.
through which energy flows in an ecosystem. A food web In 2015, the global human population had an average growth rate of
represents multiple pathways through which energy flows in an 1.2 percent, but the growth rate varied among nations from less
ecosystem. than zero to greater than 3 percent. A 3 percent growth rate is high
Feeding positions in a food chain or food web are called trophic for human populations, leading to a doubling time of just 23 years.
levels. The first trophic level is producers; the second trophic level Rates of population growth much higher than 3 or 4 percent or
is consumers that eat producers; the third and higher trophic levels much lower than zero are generally caused by high rates of
are consumers that eat organisms from the trophic level below migration.
them. There are rarely more than four trophic levels. Most Population growth rates may change over time. With exponential
consumers actually feed at more than one trophic level. growth, the larger the population becomes, the faster it grows. With
Only about 10 percent of the energy at one trophic level actually logistic growth, population growth slows and levels off as the
passes on to the next higher trophic level. The rest of the energy is population size reaches its carrying capacity (K), which is the
used up at the lower trophic level or lost to the environment as heat largest population size that can be supported by available resources
or incompletely digested food. Generally, there are fewer organisms without harming the environment.
and less biomass at higher trophic levels. For most of its existence, the human population grew very slowly.
Water and the chemical elements that organisms need continuously It started growing exponentially a few centuries ago. It is currently
cycle through ecosystems. Cycles of matter are called adding more than 80 million people per year.
biogeochemical cycles because they include both biotic and abiotic Since the time of Malthus, there has been a concern that the human
components and processes. Components that hold matter for short population is growing so rapidly that it will soon outstrip food
periods of time are called exchange pools, and components that production and crash due to increased warfare, famine, and disease.
hold matter for long periods of time are called reservoirs. Estimates place the human population carrying capacity at 7.7
The water cycle involves a water changing state as it moves from billion people, which we are expected to reach by 2020, suggesting
one exchange pool or reservoir to another. that there is an overpopulation problem.
Carbon cycles quickly between organisms and the environment Many environmental problems are aggravated by the size of the
through cellular respiration and photosynthesis. Carbon in organic human population, although over-consumption and waste by
compounds moves through food chains and webs and some is populations in wealthy nations may be worse problems than
released back to the environment by decomposers. Human actions overpopulation per se. A widely accepted goal is zero population
such as burning fossil fuels release huge amounts of additional growth (ZPG), which occurs when birth rates match death rates
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. because women average only enough children to replace
themselves and their partners. This is called the replacement
Most natural processes cycle carbon more slowly. Running
fertility rate, and it depends on the death rate.
water slowly dissolves carbon in rocks and carries it to the
Climate change refers to any change in average weather conditions
ocean, and the top layer of ocean water dissolves carbon dioxide
on Earth that lasts for at least several decades. The most important
out of the atmosphere. Carbon in ocean water may gradually
cause of recent and ongoing climate change is human actions,
settle to the bottom, and some of this carbon may eventually be
which cause an enhanced greenhouse effect and global warming.
changed to fossil fuels or sedimentary rocks that can store
carbon for millions of years. Direct evidence for global warming comes from measurements
Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere cannot be used by plants, but of global land and ocean temperatures, which show an overall
nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil or on plant roots change nitrogen gas warming trend since the late 1800s. Indirect evidence for global
to nitrates, which plant roots can absorb. Decomposition of organic warming comes from observations of its effects, such as the
matter releases nitrogen as ammonium ions that plants can also shrinking of glaciers over the past century or so.
absorb or that nitrifying bacteria in soil can change to nitrates for Even if greenhouse gas emissions are reduced in the future, the
use by plants. Denitrifying bacteria release nitrogen gas from climate will continue to get warmer because of the greenhouse
unused nitrates, and this nitrogen enters the atmosphere and gases already present in the atmosphere. Projections for future
completes the cycle. increases in the mean global temperature range from less than 1
Since our species first evolved 200,000 years ago, a total of 108 to almost 5 degrees C, depending on future greenhouse gas
billion human beings have lived on Earth, with 7.4 billion of them emissions. Warming has been and will continue to be greater
alive in 2017 and many more predicted in the future. People over land than the ocean and greater in the Arctic than anywhere
permanently live on a large scale on every continent except else on Earth.
Antarctica. The rapid increase and spread of the human population Future global warming is projected to have a wide range of
raise concerns over our species’ continued existence. impacts, many of which are already occurring. Impacts are
likely to include the continued retreat of glaciers, greater

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 weather extremes, expansion of deserts, shifts toward the poles B. Increases
in natural habitats, loss of biodiversity, changes in food C. Does not change
production, rising sea levels, displacements of human D. Becomes heterotrophic
populations, and increases in human violence. 18. What are two reasons why two locations that are at the same
Most climate experts agree that future global warming should be latitude might have different temperatures?
limited to less than 2.0 degrees C. Otherwise, human and natural 19. Species A and species B are living in the same location and eat the
systems may be unable to adapt. Controlling global warming same prey. When members of species A encounter members of
requires first and foremost deep cuts in greenhouse gas species B, they will attack them, often resulting in the death of
emissions by phasing out fossil fuels and replacing them with members of species B. Answer the following questions about this
energy resources that do not produce greenhouse gases. scenario.
1. What kind of interspecific competition is this?
CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW
2. Over time, what are some possible outcomes of this interaction
1. Which of the following have abiotic components, in addition to on species B?
biotic components? Choose all that apply. A. Community B.
20. True or False. Increased sublimation would cause more water vapor
Ecosystem C. Population D. Biosphere E. Biome
to be emitted into the atmosphere.
2. True or False. Earth has several types of biospheres.
21. True or False. There is generally less biomass at higher trophic
3. True or False. There is one species of plankton, and it lives near the
levels.
surface of the water.
22. Identify a reservoir for carbon, and explain why it is considered a
4. Is a niche the same thing as a habitat? Why or why not?
reservoir.
5. Which of the following are considered abiotic factors?
23. What does “eating low on the food chain” mean?
A. Primary producers 24. Fish are usually:
B. Soil
A. nekton
C. Fungi
B. autotrophs
D. All of the above
C. primary producers
6. Are organisms and ecosystems open or closed systems? Explain D. aphotic
your answer.
25. Give one example of how plants are involved in each of the
7. If there is an unusually cool week in the summer, does that mean
biogeochemical cycles: the water cycle, carbon cycle, and nitrogen
there is a change in climate? Explain your answer.
cycle.
8. The concept that two species cannot occupy the same niche in the
26. What is the difference between dogs and cats in terms of how they
same place for very long is called the ___________________ .
obtain their energy and nutrients?
9. Where are aquatic organisms that are bioluminescent, meaning that
27. The U.S. population was approximately twice as high in 2010 as it
they can produce light, most likely to be found? Explain your
was in 1950, based on census numbers. Use this information to
answer.
answer the following questions.
10. When an organism is said to be “marine,” what does this mean?
A. Can you conclude that new births were solely responsible for
A. That it is an aquatic mammal
the increase in population size? Explain your answer.
B. That it lives in running water
B. What other types of data would help you determine the reasons
C. That it lives in the ocean
for this increase in population size?
D. That it can swim
28. True or False. Some countries have a negative growth rate.
11. Can there be an ecosystem within an ecosystem? Why or why not?
29. What is the current population of the Earth?
12. Explain the importance of decomposers within ecosystems, and
relate them to biogeochemical cycles. A. Around 5 billion
13. True or False. A symbiotic relationship is a close relationship B. Around 6 billion
where both species benefit. C. Around 7 billion
14. True or False. Most of the gross primary production that is not used D. Around 9 billion
by producers themselves are broken down by decomposers. 30. Explain why population growth slows down as the population size
15. Is a mosquito that feeds on human blood a parasite or a predator? approaches the carrying capacity when there is logistic growth.
Explain your answer. 31. True or False. Carbon monoxide is the most significant greenhouse
16. For each statement below, choose which type of bacteria best fits gas.
the description. Each type of bacteria is used only once. Types of
bacteria: denitrifying; nitrifying; nitrogen-fixing ATTRIBUTIONS
A. Takes a product of decomposition and turns it into a molecule 1. Organic Produce by Alanthebox, dedicated CC0 via Wikimedia
that plants can use. Commons
B. Takes nitrogen from the atmosphere and turns it into a molecule 2. Dead honey bees by Skinkie, dedicated CC0 via Wikimedia
that plants can use. Commons
C. Releases nitrogen gas back into the atmosphere. 3. Algae and dead fish Dianchi Lake, Skinkie CC0 via Wikimedia
Commons
17. When a prey population decreases, its predator population usually:
4. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
A. Decreases
3.0

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Index
alleles atheresclerosis
A 8.3: Genetics of Inheritance 17.7: Cardiovascular Disease
abiotic factors 9.4: Microevolution atoms
24.2: Introduction to Ecology Allergen 3.1: Case Study: Chemistry and Your Life
ABO blood group 20.6: Disorders of the Immune System ATP
17.6: Blood Types allergy 5.6: Cell Organelles
absolute dating 20.6: Disorders of the Immune System 5.9: Cellular Respiration
9.6: Tools for Studying Evolution allopatric speciation atrium
accessory organs of digestion 9.5: Macroevolution 17.3: Heart
18.6: Accessory Organs of Digestion alpha tubulin atrophy
acid 5.5: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton 15.2: Introduction to the Muscular System
3.12: Acids and Bases Alzheimer’s disease autonomic nervous system
acidity 11.9: Case Study Conclusion: Memory and Chapter 11.6: Peripheral Nervous System
3.12: Acids and Bases Summary autosomal genes
actin amino acid 8.3: Genetics of Inheritance
5.5: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton 3.7: Proteins autosomal traits
6.4: Protein Synthesis
action potential 8.4: Simple Inheritance
11.4: Nerve Impulses amnion
autotrophs
23.3: Embryonic Stage
activation energy 5.9: Cellular Respiration
3.9: Energy in Chemical Reactions anabolic reaction 24.5: Energy in Ecosystems
3.10: Chemical Reactions in Living Things 3.10: Chemical Reactions in Living Things axial skeleton
active transport Anabolism 14.3: Divisions of the Skeletal System
5.8: Active Transport and Homeostasis 2.2: Shared Traits of All Living Things axon
acute disease anaerobic 11.3: Neurons
21.2: Homeostasis and Disease 5.10: Fermentation
adaptation anaerobic exercise B
2.2: Shared Traits of All Living Things 15.5: Physical Exercise
B cell
adaptive immune system anaerobic respiration 20.5: Adaptive Immune System
20.5: Adaptive Immune System 5.10: Fermentation
balance
adaptive radiation analogous structures 11.7: Human Senses
9.3: Evidence for Evolution 9.3: Evidence for Evolution
bariatric surgery
addiction anaphase 4.5: Obesity
11.8: Psychoactive Drugs 7.3: Mitotic Phase - Mitosis and Cytokinesis
basal cell carcinoma
Addison’s disease anaphylaxis 13.5: Case Study Conclusion: Skin Cancer and Chapter
12.6: Adrenal Glands 20.6: Disorders of the Immune System Summary
adenine anatomy 21.7: Cancer
3.8: Nucleic Acids 10.2: Organization of the Body base
adenomatous polyps androgen 3.12: Acids and Bases
7.2: Cell Cycle and Cell Division 12.6: Adrenal Glands Beta tubulin
ADH anemia 5.5: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton
19.6: Case Study Conclusion: Alcohol and Chapter 17.5: Blood bile
Summary angina 18.6: Accessory Organs of Digestion
adhesion 17.7: Cardiovascular Disease Binge eating disorder
3.11: Biochemical Properties of Water Anorexia nervosa 4.4: Eating Disorders
Adolescence 4.4: Eating Disorders binomial nomenclature
23.7: Adolescence and Puberty Antagonists 2.3: Diversity of Life
Adolescent growth spurt 11.8: Psychoactive Drugs biochemical compounds
23.7: Adolescence and Puberty anterior pituitary 3.4: Biochemical Compounds
adrenal cortex 12.4: Pituitary Gland biochemical reactions
12.6: Adrenal Glands Antibodies 3.10: Chemical Reactions in Living Things
adrenal gland 17.6: Blood Types Biodiversity
12.6: Adrenal Glands anticodon 2.3: Diversity of Life
adrenal medulla 2.5: Case Study Conclusion: Inhabitants and Chapter
6.4: Protein Synthesis
Summary
12.6: Adrenal Glands Antigen biopsy
adrenaline 17.6: Blood Types
13.5: Case Study Conclusion: Skin Cancer and Chapter
12.6: Adrenal Glands anus Summary
adulthood 18.5: Lower Gastrointestinal Tract biosphere
23.8: Adulthood Apgar Test 24.2: Introduction to Ecology
aerobic 23.5: Infancy biotechnology
5.9: Cellular Respiration appendicular skeleton 6.8: Biotechnology
aerobic exercise 14.3: Divisions of the Skeletal System biotic factors
15.5: Physical Exercise appendix 24.2: Introduction to Ecology
Agonist 18.5: Lower Gastrointestinal Tract bladder infection
11.8: Psychoactive Drugs areoler connective tissue 19.5: Disorders of the Urinary System
AIDS 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues blastocyst
21.5: HIV and AIDS Arteries 23.2: Germinal Stage
Alcohol Fermentation 17.4: Blood Vessels Blastulation
5.10: Fermentation assisted reproductive technology 23.2: Germinal Stage
allele frequency 22.10: Infertility blind experiments
9.4: Microevolution 1.6: Scientific Experiments
blood carpel tunnel syndrome chemistry
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues 15.6: Disorders of the Muscular System 3.1: Case Study: Chemistry and Your Life
17.5: Blood carrier protein chemoreceptors
blood group system 5.7: Cell Transport 11.7: Human Senses
17.6: Blood Types carrying capacity Chemotaxis
Blood types 24.8: Population Dynamics 23.2: Germinal Stage
17.6: Blood Types cartilage Child Labor
Blood Vessels 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues 23.6: Childhood
17.4: Blood Vessels 14.2: Introduction to the Skeletal System childhood
BMI cartilaginous joint 23.6: Childhood
4.5: Obesity 14.6: Joints chitin
body cavity catabolic reaction 3.5: Carbohydrates
10.5: Human Body Cavities 3.10: Chemical Reactions in Living Things chorion
bone Catabolism 23.3: Embryonic Stage
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues 2.2: Shared Traits of All Living Things chromatid
bone fracture catecholamines 7.3: Mitotic Phase - Mitosis and Cytokinesis
14.5: Bone Growth, Remodeling, and Repair 12.6: Adrenal Glands chromatin
Bone Marrow catheter 7.3: Mitotic Phase - Mitosis and Cytokinesis
14.4: Structure of Bone 10.8: Case Study Conclusion: Pressure and Chapter chromosomal alterations
bone marrow donation Summary
6.6: Mutations
7.1: Case Study: Genetic Similarities and Differences celiac disease
chromosome
bone remodeling 18.8: Case Study Conclusion: Celiac and Chapter
Summary 6.3: Chromosomes and Genes
14.5: Bone Growth, Remodeling, and Repair 7.3: Mitotic Phase - Mitosis and Cytokinesis
cell
bone tissue chronic disease
2.2: Shared Traits of All Living Things
14.4: Structure of Bone 5.2: Discovery of Cells and Cell Theory 21.2: Homeostasis and Disease
botulism 5.11: Case Study Conclusion: Tired and Chapter Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
15.7: Case Study Conclusion: Needing to Relax and Summary 16.4: Disorders of the Respiratory System
Chapter Summary cell body chyme
Bowman’s capsule 11.3: Neurons 18.2: Introduction to the Digestive System
19.3: Kidneys cell cycle cilia
brain 7.2: Cell Cycle and Cell Division 5.4: Plasma Membrane
11.1: Case Study: The Control Center of Your Body Cell size cisternae
11.5: Central Nervous System 5.3: Variation in Cells 5.6: Cell Organelles
brainstem Cell Theory cladogram
11.5: Central Nervous System 5.2: Discovery of Cells and Cell Theory 9.3: Evidence for Evolution
Breathing cells classify
16.3: Breathing 5.1: Case Study: The Importance of Cells 2.5: Case Study Conclusion: Inhabitants and Chapter
bronchi cellular respiration Summary
16.2: Structure and Function of the Respiratory System 5.9: Cellular Respiration Climate change
bronchitis cellular senescence 24.9: Climate Change
16.6: Case Study Conclusion: Bronchitis and Chapter 7.2: Cell Cycle and Cell Division clitoris
Summary
cellulose 22.6: Structures of the Female Reproductive System
bulbourethral glands
3.5: Carbohydrates coagulation
22.3: Structures of the Male Reproductive System
Central Nervous System 17.5: Blood
Bulimia nervosa
11.5: Central Nervous System cochlea
4.4: Eating Disorders
Central Obesity 11.7: Human Senses
4.5: Obesity coevolution
C centriole 9.5: Macroevolution
Calories 5.6: Cell Organelles cohesion
4.2: Nutrients
cerebellum 3.11: Biochemical Properties of Water
cancer 11.5: Central Nervous System cohort studies
7.2: Cell Cycle and Cell Division
8.7: Case Study Conclusion: Cancer and Chapter cerebral cortex 1.7: Extrapolations of Scientific Investigations
Summary 11.5: Central Nervous System collagen fibers
21.7: Cancer cerebrospinal fluid 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues
capillary action 10.5: Human Body Cavities collecting duct
3.11: Biochemical Properties of Water 10.8: Case Study Conclusion: Pressure and Chapter 19.3: Kidneys
Summary
carbohydrate colon
3.5: Carbohydrates cerebrum 18.5: Lower Gastrointestinal Tract
4.2: Nutrients 11.5: Central Nervous System
colorectal carcinoma
carbon cycle cervical cancer 7.2: Cell Cycle and Cell Division
24.6: Cycles of Matter 22.9: Disorders of the Female Reproductive System
Columbian exchange
carcinogen Chargaff's rules 21.4: Sexually Transmitted Infections
7.4: Mutations and Cancer 6.2: DNA and RNA
commensalism
carcinogenesis chemical bond 24.4: Community Relationships
7.4: Mutations and Cancer 3.3: Chemical Bonding
community
cardiac muscle Chemical bonds 24.4: Community Relationships
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues 3.9: Energy in Chemical Reactions
comparative anatomy
Cardiovascular Disease chemical digestion 9.3: Evidence for Evolution
17.7: Cardiovascular Disease 18.3: Digestion and Absorption
comparative embryology
cardiovascular system chemical equation 9.3: Evidence for Evolution
10.4: Human Organs and Organ Systems 3.9: Energy in Chemical Reactions
17: Cardiovascular System
complement system
chemiosmosis 20.4: Innate Immune System
17.2: Introduction to the Cardiovascular System
5.9: Cellular Respiration
carotene complementary base pairs
13.3: Skin 3.8: Nucleic Acids
complex carbohydrate desmin ecology
3.5: Carbohydrates 5.5: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton 24.1: Case Study: The Web of Life
compound diabetes mellitus 24.2: Introduction to Ecology
24.10: Case Study Conclusion: Organic and Chapter
3.2: Elements and Compounds 9.7: Adaptation in Humans Summary
concentration gradient diabetic nephropathy Ecosystems
5.7: Cell Transport 19.5: Disorders of the Urinary System 24.3: Ecosystems
condensation reaction diaphragm ectoderm
3.7: Proteins 16.3: Breathing 23.3: Embryonic Stage
connective tissue diastole Edward Jenner
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues 17.3: Heart 1.2: What Is Science?
contraception diffusion egg
22.11: Contraception 5.7: Cell Transport 7.5: Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis and gametogenesis
control variable Digestion Ejaculation
1.6: Scientific Experiments 18.3: Digestion and Absorption 22.4: Functions of the Male Reproductive System
coronary artery digestive system ejaculatory ducts
17.3: Heart 10.4: Human Organs and Organ Systems 22.3: Structures of the Male Reproductive System
correlation 18: Digestive System
18.1: Case Study: Food Processing elastic cartilage
1.7: Extrapolations of Scientific Investigations 18.2: Introduction to the Digestive System 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues
cortex dimples elastic connective tissue
19.2: Introduction to the Urinary System 8.4: Simple Inheritance 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues
corticosteroid diploid elastic fiber
12.6: Adrenal Glands 7.5: Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis and gametogenesis 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues
cortisol directional selection electrochemical gradient
12.6: Adrenal Glands 9.4: Microevolution 5.9: Cellular Respiration
cranium disaccharides electromagnetic force
14.3: Divisions of the Skeletal System 3.5: Carbohydrates 3.2: Elements and Compounds
Crohn's disease disease electron
18.7: Disorders of the Gastrointestinal Tract 21.2: Homeostasis and Disease 3.2: Elements and Compounds
crossbridge cycling disease burden electron transport chain
15.4: Muscle Contraction 21.3: Infectious Diseases 5.9: Cellular Respiration
crossing over disease outbreaks electronegative
7.6: Genetic Variation 4.7: Foodborne Diseases 3.3: Chemical Bonding
Cushing’s disease disruptive selection embryo
12.6: Adrenal Glands 9.4: Microevolution 23.3: Embryonic Stage
cyclin Diversity embryoblast
7.4: Mutations and Cancer 2.3: Diversity of Life 23.2: Germinal Stage
cytokine Diverticulitis embryonic disc
20.4: Innate Immune System 18.7: Disorders of the Gastrointestinal Tract 23.3: Embryonic Stage
cytoplasm Diverticulosis emerging infectious diseases
5.2: Discovery of Cells and Cell Theory 18.7: Disorders of the Gastrointestinal Tract 21.3: Infectious Diseases
5.5: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton
DNA endemic disease
cytosine
3.8: Nucleic Acids 21.2: Homeostasis and Disease
3.8: Nucleic Acids 5.2: Discovery of Cells and Cell Theory endergonic reactions
cytoskeleton 6.4: Protein Synthesis
3.9: Energy in Chemical Reactions
5.5: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton DNA ligase
endocrine gland
cytosol 6.2: DNA and RNA
12.2: Introduction to the Endocrine System
5.5: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton DNA Replication
endocrine hormones
6.2: DNA and RNA
12.3: Endocrine Hormones
D domain
endocrine system
decomposers 2.3: Diversity of Life
12.1: Case Study: Hormones and Health
24.5: Energy in Ecosystems 2.5: Case Study Conclusion: Inhabitants and Chapter
Summary 12.2: Introduction to the Endocrine System
deep vein thrombosis Endocytosis
17.1: Case Study: Your Body's Transportation System
dominant
8.3: Genetics of Inheritance 5.8: Active Transport and Homeostasis
17.8: Case Study Conclusion: Flight and Chapter
Summary dominant negative effect endoderm
23.3: Embryonic Stage
demography 7.4: Mutations and Cancer
24.7: Introduction to Human Populations dorsal cavity Endometriosis
22.9: Disorders of the Female Reproductive System
Dendrites 10.5: Human Body Cavities
11.3: Neurons double helix endometrium
22.6: Structures of the Female Reproductive System
dense connective tissue proper 3.8: Nucleic Acids
22.7: Menstrual Cycle
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues Down Syndrome
endomysium
dense irregular connective tissue 7.7: Mitosis vs. Meiosis and Disorders
15.3: Types of Muscle Tissue
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues 8.6: Genetic Disorders
Dung beetle endoplasmic reticulum
dense regular connective tissue 5.6: Cell Organelles
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues 24.3: Ecosystems
dynamic equilibrium Energy Density
deoxyribose 4.3: Healthy Eating
3.8: Nucleic Acids 5.7: Cell Transport
Energy homeostasis
dependence 4.3: Healthy Eating
11.8: Psychoactive Drugs E
ear enzyme
dependent variable 3.10: Chemical Reactions in Living Things
1.6: Scientific Experiments 11.7: Human Senses
Eating disorder epidemic
descriptive statistics 21.2: Homeostasis and Disease
1.5: Scientific Investigations 4.4: Eating Disorders
Epidemiology
21.2: Homeostasis and Disease
epidermis flu genetics
13.3: Skin 9.1: Case Study: Everyday Evolution 8.3: Genetics of Inheritance
epididymis 9.8: Case Study Conclusion: Flu and Chapter Summary Genital herpes
22.3: Structures of the Male Reproductive System follicle 21.4: Sexually Transmitted Infections
epididymitis 12.5: Thyroid Gland genome
22.5: Disorders of the Male Reproductive System Foodbourne disease 6.1: Case Study: Why do we need to sequence
epimysium 4.7: Foodborne Diseases everybody's genome?
forces of evolution 6.9: The Human Genome
15.3: Types of Muscle Tissue
9.4: Microevolution genotype
epithelial tissue
fossil 8.3: Genetics of Inheritance
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues
9.6: Tools for Studying Evolution germ theory of disease
erectile dysfunction
fossil record 1.4: Theories in Science
22.5: Disorders of the Male Reproductive System
9.6: Tools for Studying Evolution germinal stage
erthropoiesis
frameshift mutation 23.2: Germinal Stage
19.3: Kidneys
6.6: Mutations germline mutations
esophagus
frontal lobe 6.6: Mutations
18.4: Upper Gastrointestinal Tract
11.5: Central Nervous System gestational carrier
essential nutrient
Fungi 22.10: Infertility
4.2: Nutrients
21.3: Infectious Diseases Ghrelin
estrogen
4.4: Eating Disorders
22.2: Introduction to the Reproductive System
22.8: Functions of the Female Reproductive System G GI Tract
Eukaryotes 18.2: Introduction to the Digestive System
G0 phase
5.3: Variation in Cells 7.2: Cell Cycle and Cell Division Giardiasis
Eukaryotic Cells 18.7: Disorders of the Gastrointestinal Tract
G1 phase
5.3: Variation in Cells 7.2: Cell Cycle and Cell Division glial cells
evolution 11.2: Introduction to the Nervous System
G2 phase
2.2: Shared Traits of All Living Things 7.2: Cell Cycle and Cell Division global warming
9.1: Case Study: Everyday Evolution 24.9: Climate Change
gallbladder
Excretory System 18.6: Accessory Organs of Digestion Glomerulus
19: Urinary System 19.3: Kidneys
19.1: Case Study: Waste Management
gamete
7.5: Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis and gametogenesis glucose
exergonic reaction 22.2: Introduction to the Reproductive System 3.5: Carbohydrates
3.9: Energy in Chemical Reactions glycogen
gametogenesis
exocrine glands 7.5: Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis and gametogenesis 3.5: Carbohydrates
12.2: Introduction to the Endocrine System glycolysis
Ganglia
Exocytosis 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues 5.9: Cellular Respiration
5.8: Active Transport and Homeostasis goiter
Gas Exchange
exon 16.3: Breathing 12.5: Thyroid Gland
6.4: Protein Synthesis Golgi apparatus
gastroenteritis
experiment 18.7: Disorders of the Gastrointestinal Tract 5.6: Cell Organelles
1.2: What Is Science? gonads
1.6: Scientific Experiments
Gastrointestinal Tract
18.2: Introduction to the Digestive System 22.2: Introduction to the Reproductive System
exponential growth
gastrulation gradualism
24.8: Population Dynamics
23.3: Embryonic Stage 9.5: Macroevolution
eye
gene Graves disease
11.7: Human Senses
6.3: Chromosomes and Genes 12.5: Thyroid Gland
7.8: Case Study Conclusion: Genes and Chapter gray matter
F Summary
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues
Facilitated Diffusion 8.1: Case Study: Genes and Inheritance
8.7: Case Study Conclusion: Cancer and Chapter Greenhouse Effect
5.7: Cell Transport Summary 24.9: Climate Change
Fallopian tubes Gene cloning greenhouse gases
22.6: Structures of the Female Reproductive System 6.8: Biotechnology 24.9: Climate Change
fast food gene expression growth factor
4.8: Case Study Conclusion: Fast Food and Chapter 6.7: Regulation of Gene Expression 7.4: Mutations and Cancer
Summary
gene flow guanine
fatty acids
9.4: Microevolution 3.8: Nucleic Acids
3.6: Lipids
gene pool
fermentation
5.10: Fermentation
9.4: Microevolution H
general senses habitat
fertilization
11.7: Human Senses 24.2: Introduction to Ecology
7.5: Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis and gametogenesis
23.2: Germinal Stage generalist hair
fetus 2.4: The Human Animal 13.4: Hair and Nails
23.4: Fetal Stage genes hair follicle
fibroblast cells 6.3: Chromosomes and Genes 13.4: Hair and Nails
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues genetic code hair root
fibrocartilage 6.5: Genetic Code 13.4: Hair and Nails
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues genetic disorder hair shaft
fibrous joint 8.6: Genetic Disorders 13.4: Hair and Nails
14.6: Joints genetic drift haploid
flagella 9.4: Microevolution 7.5: Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis and gametogenesis
5.4: Plasma Membrane genetic engineering Hashimoto thyroiditis
flexibility exercise 6.8: Biotechnology 12.5: Thyroid Gland
15.5: Physical Exercise Genetic traits hearing
8.4: Simple Inheritance 11.7: Human Senses
Heart human genome project infertility
17.3: Heart 6.9: The Human Genome 22.10: Infertility
heart failure human growth and development inflammation
15.4: Muscle Contraction 23.1: Case Study: How Our Bodies Change 20.4: Innate Immune System
Helminths Throughout Life inflammatory bowel disease
21.3: Infectious Diseases human leukocyte antigen 18.7: Disorders of the Gastrointestinal Tract
hematopoiesis 7.1: Case Study: Genetic Similarities and Differences infundibulum
14.2: Introduction to the Skeletal System humanpapillomavirus 12.4: Pituitary Gland
hemispheres' 22.9: Disorders of the Female Reproductive System Inheritance
11.5: Central Nervous System hyaline cartilage 8: Inheritance
hemodialysis 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues 8.1: Case Study: Genes and Inheritance
19.5: Disorders of the Urinary System hydrogen bond Innate Immune System
hemolytic disease of the newborn 3.3: Chemical Bonding 20.4: Innate Immune System
3.11: Biochemical Properties of Water Insoluble fiber
17.6: Blood Types
hyperopia 4.2: Nutrients
hemophilia
11.7: Human Senses insulin
17.5: Blood
hypersecretion 9.7: Adaptation in Humans
herd immunity
12.2: Introduction to the Endocrine System integumentary
21.3: Infectious Diseases
hypertension 10.4: Human Organs and Organ Systems
heterotroph
17.7: Cardiovascular Disease Integumentary System
5.9: Cellular Respiration
24.5: Energy in Ecosystems hyperthyroidism 13: Integumentary System
heterozygote 12.5: Thyroid Gland intergumentary system
8.3: Genetics of Inheritance hypertonic 13.2: Introduction to the Integumentary System
histamine 5.7: Cell Transport intermediate filaments
20.4: Innate Immune System hyperventilating 5.5: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton
HIV 16.3: Breathing Interneurons
20.6: Disorders of the Immune System hyposecretion 11.3: Neurons
21.5: HIV and AIDS 12.2: Introduction to the Endocrine System interphase
HLA hypothalamus 7.2: Cell Cycle and Cell Division
7.1: Case Study: Genetic Similarities and Differences 11.5: Central Nervous System intrauterine device
Homeobox Genes hypothesis 22.11: Contraception
6.7: Regulation of Gene Expression 1.5: Scientific Investigations intrauterine growth restriction
homeostasis hypothyroidism 23.4: Fetal Stage
2.2: Shared Traits of All Living Things 12.5: Thyroid Gland intron
10.7: Homeostasis and Feedback hypotonic
21.2: Homeostasis and Disease 6.4: Protein Synthesis
5.7: Cell Transport ion
homeostats
21.2: Homeostasis and Disease 3.2: Elements and Compounds

hominid
I ionic bond
2.4: The Human Animal
ileum 3.3: Chemical Bonding
18.5: Lower Gastrointestinal Tract isometric
Homo
2.4: The Human Animal
immune surveillance 15.4: Muscle Contraction
2.5: Case Study Conclusion: Inhabitants and Chapter 20.2: Introduction to the Immune System isotonic
Summary Immune system 5.7: Cell Transport
Homo sapiens 20: Immune System 15.4: Muscle Contraction
2.5: Case Study Conclusion: Inhabitants and Chapter 20.1: Case Study: Your Defense System
20.2: Introduction to the Immune System
Summary
immunity
J
homologous chromosomes jaundiced eye
7.5: Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis and gametogenesis 20.5: Adaptive Immune System
18.6: Accessory Organs of Digestion
8.3: Genetics of Inheritance immunization
jejunum
homologous structures 20.5: Adaptive Immune System
18.5: Lower Gastrointestinal Tract
9.3: Evidence for Evolution immunodeficiency
joints
homologus structures 20.6: Disorders of the Immune System
14.6: Joints
22.2: Introduction to the Reproductive System immunotherapy
homozygote 20.6: Disorders of the Immune System
8.3: Genetics of Inheritance 20.8: Case Study Conclusion: Lymphoma and Chapter K
Summary Kaposi’s sarcoma
honeydew
24.2: Introduction to Ecology
Implantation 21.5: HIV and AIDS
23.2: Germinal Stage karyotype
hormonal contraception
22.11: Contraception
incubation period 7.7: Mitosis vs. Meiosis and Disorders
4.7: Foodborne Diseases keratin
hormone
12.8: Case Study Conclusion: Hormonal and Chapter
independent assortment 5.5: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton
Summary 7.6: Genetic Variation keratinocytes
human biology independent variable 13.2: Introduction to the Integumentary System
2.1: Case Study: Why Should You Study Human 1.6: Scientific Experiments keratins
Biology? Infancy 13.2: Introduction to the Integumentary System
human body 23.5: Infancy Kidney
10.1: Case Study: Getting to Know Your Body infection 19.3: Kidneys
Human Body Cavities 21.3: Infectious Diseases kidney failure
10.5: Human Body Cavities Infectious dose 19.5: Disorders of the Urinary System
human evolution 4.7: Foodborne Diseases kidney stone
9: Biological Evolution inferential statistics 19.5: Disorders of the Urinary System
Human Genome 1.5: Scientific Investigations Kinase
6.10: Case Study Conclusion: Parmacogenomics and inferior vena cava 7.4: Mutations and Cancer
Chapter Summary 17.4: Blood Vessels kinetic energy
5.7: Cell Transport
kingdom Lyme disease microbiome
2.3: Diversity of Life 21.1: Case Study: Threats to Our Health 20.7: Human Microbiome
Klinefelter's syndrome 21.8: Case Study Conclusion: Lyme and Chapter microevolution
Summary
7.7: Mitosis vs. Meiosis and Disorders 9.4: Microevolution
lymph
Koch’s postulates micronutrient
20.3: Lymphatic System
21.3: Infectious Diseases 4.2: Nutrients
lymph node
Krebs cycle Microscope
20.3: Lymphatic System
5.9: Cellular Respiration 5.2: Discovery of Cells and Cell Theory
lymphatic system
Kwashiokor microtubules
10.4: Human Organs and Organ Systems
4.6: Undernutrition 20.3: Lymphatic System 5.5: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton
7.2: Cell Cycle and Cell Division
lymphoma
L microvilli
20.8: Case Study Conclusion: Lymphoma and Chapter
5.5: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton
labia Summary
18.2: Introduction to the Digestive System
22.6: Structures of the Female Reproductive System
midbrain
lactase M 11.5: Central Nervous System
9.7: Adaptation in Humans macroevolution middle adulthood
Lactase persistence 9.5: Macroevolution
23.8: Adulthood
9.7: Adaptation in Humans macronutrient Mitochondria
lactation 4.2: Nutrients
5.1: Case Study: The Importance of Cells
22.8: Functions of the Female Reproductive System Major histocompatibility complex 5.6: Cell Organelles
Lactic Acid Fermentation 20.2: Introduction to the Immune System mitosis
5.10: Fermentation Malnutrition 7.3: Mitotic Phase - Mitosis and Cytokinesis
lactose 4.3: Healthy Eating mitotic phase
9.7: Adaptation in Humans mandible 7.2: Cell Cycle and Cell Division
Lactose intolerance 14.3: Divisions of the Skeletal System mixed nerves
9.7: Adaptation in Humans marasmus 11.6: Peripheral Nervous System
lagging strand 4.6: Undernutrition model
6.2: DNA and RNA Marie Stopes 1.7: Extrapolations of Scientific Investigations
lamin 22.11: Contraception model organism
5.5: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton matter 1.7: Extrapolations of Scientific Investigations
large intestine 3.2: Elements and Compounds molecular clock
18.5: Lower Gastrointestinal Tract maxillae 9.6: Tools for Studying Evolution
larynx 14.3: Divisions of the Skeletal System molecule
16.2: Structure and Function of the Respiratory System mechanical digestion 3.2: Elements and Compounds
lateralization 18.3: Digestion and Absorption monomers
11.5: Central Nervous System mechanoreceptor 3.4: Biochemical Compounds
law of segregation 11.7: Human Senses monosaccharide
8.2: Laws of Inheritance medulla 3.4: Biochemical Compounds
lead danger 19.2: Introduction to the Urinary System 3.5: Carbohydrates
23.9: Case Study Conclusion: Lead Danger and medulla oblongata Moro reflex
Chapter Summary 11.5: Central Nervous System 23.5: Infancy
leading strand meiosis morphology
6.2: DNA and RNA 7.5: Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis and gametogenesis 2.3: Diversity of Life
leafhopper melanoma Morula
24.2: Introduction to Ecology 13.5: Case Study Conclusion: Skin Cancer and Chapter 23.2: Germinal Stage
leptin Summary motor nerves
4.4: Eating Disorders melting point 11.6: Peripheral Nervous System
leukemia 3.11: Biochemical Properties of Water motor neurons
7.1: Case Study: Genetic Similarities and Differences membrane 11.3: Neurons
17.5: Blood 5.7: Cell Transport mucous membrane
ligaments menarche 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues
14.2: Introduction to the Skeletal System 22.7: Menstrual Cycle mucus
Linked genes Mendalian inheritance 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues
6.3: Chromosomes and Genes 8.4: Simple Inheritance multiple allele traits
lipid Mendel 8.5: Complex Inheritance
3.4: Biochemical Compounds 8.2: Laws of Inheritance
3.6: Lipids muscle
4.2: Nutrients meninge 15.1: Case Study: Muscles and Movement
liver 10.5: Human Body Cavities Muscle Contraction
18.6: Accessory Organs of Digestion menopause 15.4: Muscle Contraction
locus 22.7: Menstrual Cycle muscle fascicles
8.3: Genetics of Inheritance menstrual cycle 15.3: Types of Muscle Tissue
logistic growth 22.7: Menstrual Cycle muscle fibers
24.8: Population Dynamics mesoderm 15.2: Introduction to the Muscular System
loose connective tissue proper 23.3: Embryonic Stage muscle strain
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues metabolism 15.6: Disorders of the Muscular System
lower gastrointestinal tract 3.10: Chemical Reactions in Living Things muscle tissue
18.5: Lower Gastrointestinal Tract metaphase 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues
7.3: Mitotic Phase - Mitosis and Cytokinesis 15.3: Types of Muscle Tissue
lung
16.2: Structure and Function of the Respiratory System metastasis muscular dystrophy
13.5: Case Study Conclusion: Skin Cancer and Chapter 15.6: Disorders of the Muscular System
Lung cancer
Summary muscular system
16.4: Disorders of the Respiratory System 21.7: Cancer
10.4: Human Organs and Organ Systems
miasma theory of disease 15.2: Introduction to the Muscular System
1.4: Theories in Science
Musculoskeletal System nitrogenous base osteoblasts
15.6: Disorders of the Muscular System 3.8: Nucleic Acids 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues
mutations nociceptors 14.5: Bone Growth, Remodeling, and Repair
6.6: Mutations 11.7: Human Senses osteocalcin
mutualism nodes of Ranvier 14.2: Introduction to the Skeletal System
24.4: Community Relationships 11.3: Neurons osteoclast
Myasthenia gravis nondisjunction 14.4: Structure of Bone
15.6: Disorders of the Muscular System 7.7: Mitosis vs. Meiosis and Disorders osteocyte
myelin sheath 8.6: Genetic Disorders 14.4: Structure of Bone
11.3: Neurons nonessential nutirents osteogenic cells
myocyte 4.2: Nutrients 14.4: Structure of Bone
15.2: Introduction to the Muscular System Noninfectious Diseases osteon
15.3: Types of Muscle Tissue 21.6: Noninfectious Diseases 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues
myofibril nuclear force Osteoporosis
15.4: Muscle Contraction 3.2: Elements and Compounds 14.7: Disorders of the Skeletal System
myokines Nucleic acids outer energy level
15.5: Physical Exercise 3.4: Biochemical Compounds 3.3: Chemical Bonding
myometrium 3.8: Nucleic Acids overpopulation
22.6: Structures of the Female Reproductive System nucleoplasm 24.8: Population Dynamics
myopia 5.5: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton ovulation
11.7: Human Senses nucleotide 22.8: Functions of the Female Reproductive System
MyPlate 3.8: Nucleic Acids Oxydative phosphorylation
4.3: Healthy Eating nucleus 5.9: Cellular Respiration
5.6: Cell Organelles oxytocin
N nutrient 12.4: Pituitary Gland
4.2: Nutrients
nail plate
13.4: Hair and Nails nutrient density P
4.3: Healthy Eating
nail root pacemaker
13.4: Hair and Nails nutrition 17.3: Heart
4.1: Case Study: Fueling Our Bodies Properly
nails 4.3: Healthy Eating
paleontologist
13.4: Hair and Nails 9.3: Evidence for Evolution
nasal cavity pancreas
16.2: Structure and Function of the Respiratory System
O 12.7: Pancreas
Obesity 18.6: Accessory Organs of Digestion
natural selection
4.5: Obesity pancreatic islet
9.2: Darwin, Wallace, and the Theory of Evolution by
Natural Selection observational study 12.7: Pancreas
Neonate 1.7: Extrapolations of Scientific Investigations Pancreatitis
23.5: Infancy occipital lobe 12.7: Pancreas
nephron 11.5: Central Nervous System pandemic
19.2: Introduction to the Urinary System Okazaki fragment 21.2: Homeostasis and Disease
nephrons 6.2: DNA and RNA Pap smear
19.2: Introduction to the Urinary System old age 22.9: Disorders of the Female Reproductive System
nerve impulse 23.8: Adulthood papillary layer
11.4: Nerve Impulses olfactory receptor 13.3: Skin
nerves 11.7: Human Senses paralysis
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues oncogene 11.5: Central Nervous System
nervous system 7.4: Mutations and Cancer parasitism
10.4: Human Organs and Organ Systems oogenesis 24.4: Community Relationships
11.1: Case Study: The Control Center of Your Body 7.5: Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis and gametogenesis parietal lobe
11.2: Introduction to the Nervous System 22.8: Functions of the Female Reproductive System
11.5: Central Nervous System
nervous tissue oogonia
Parkinson’s disease
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues 22.8: Functions of the Female Reproductive System
15.6: Disorders of the Muscular System
neurogenesis opioids
passive immunity
11.3: Neurons 11.8: Psychoactive Drugs
20.5: Adaptive Immune System
neuroimmune system organ system
passive transport
20.2: Introduction to the Immune System 10.6: Interaction of Organ Systems
10.8: Case Study Conclusion: Pressure and Chapter 5.7: Cell Transport
neuromuscular disorders
Summary pathogen
15.6: Disorders of the Muscular System
organelle 20.2: Introduction to the Immune System
Neuromuscular Junction
5.3: Variation in Cells PCR
15.4: Muscle Contraction 5.6: Cell Organelles 6.8: Biotechnology
neurons organelles Pedigree
11.3: Neurons 5.2: Discovery of Cells and Cell Theory 8.4: Simple Inheritance
neurotransmitter organism pelvic girdle
11.4: Nerve Impulses 10.2: Organization of the Body 14.3: Divisions of the Skeletal System
Neurulation organogenesis Pelvic inflammatory disease
23.3: Embryonic Stage 23.3: Embryonic Stage 21.4: Sexually Transmitted Infections
neutron osmosis penis
3.2: Elements and Compounds 5.7: Cell Transport 22.3: Structures of the Male Reproductive System
niche ossification peptic ulcers
24.2: Introduction to Ecology 14.5: Bone Growth, Remodeling, and Repair 18.7: Disorders of the Gastrointestinal Tract
nicotine osteoarthritis peptide bond
16.5: Smoking and Health 14.7: Disorders of the Skeletal System 3.7: Proteins
nitrogen cycle osteoblast perimetrium
24.6: Cycles of Matter 14.4: Structure of Bone 22.6: Structures of the Female Reproductive System
perimysium polar covalent bond protein secondary structure
15.3: Types of Muscle Tissue 3.3: Chemical Bonding 3.7: Proteins
Peripheral artery disease polar molecule protein tertiary structure
17.7: Cardiovascular Disease 3.11: Biochemical Properties of Water 3.7: Proteins
peripheral immune system polarity proton
20.2: Introduction to the Immune System 3.11: Biochemical Properties of Water 3.2: Elements and Compounds
peripheral nervous system polycystic kidney disease Protozoa
11.2: Introduction to the Nervous System 19.5: Disorders of the Urinary System 21.3: Infectious Diseases
11.6: Peripheral Nervous System polygenic Psychoactive Drugs
peristalsis 8.5: Complex Inheritance 11.8: Psychoactive Drugs
15.2: Introduction to the Muscular System polymer puberty
pH scale 3.4: Biochemical Compounds 23.7: Adolescence and Puberty
3.12: Acids and Bases polynucleotide pulmonary circulation
phagocytosis 3.8: Nucleic Acids 17.2: Introduction to the Cardiovascular System
5.8: Active Transport and Homeostasis polypeptide pump
Pharmacogenomics 3.7: Proteins 5.8: Active Transport and Homeostasis
6.1: Case Study: Why do we need to sequence polysaccharide punctuated equilibrium
everybody's genome?
6.9: The Human Genome 3.4: Biochemical Compounds 9.5: Macroevolution
3.5: Carbohydrates Punnett square
Pharmocogenomics
pons 8.4: Simple Inheritance
6.10: Case Study Conclusion: Parmacogenomics and
Chapter Summary 11.5: Central Nervous System

pharynx population Q
9.4: Microevolution
16.2: Structure and Function of the Respiratory System qualitative data
phenotype population genetics 1.5: Scientific Investigations
9.4: Microevolution
8.3: Genetics of Inheritance quantitative data
phenylketonuria (PKU) population pyramid 1.5: Scientific Investigations
8.6: Genetic Disorders 24.7: Introduction to Human Populations

phosphate group posterior pituitary R

12.4: Pituitary Gland
3.8: Nucleic Acids random fertilization
phospholipid presbyopia 7.6: Genetic Variation
11.7: Human Senses
3.6: Lipids reactant
phospholipid bilayer preschool stage 3.9: Energy in Chemical Reactions
3.6: Lipids 23.6: Childhood 3.10: Chemical Reactions in Living Things
5.4: Plasma Membrane pressure receptor mediated endocytosis
phospholipids 10.8: Case Study Conclusion: Pressure and Chapter 5.8: Active Transport and Homeostasis
Summary
5.4: Plasma Membrane recessive
photoautotroph primary active transport 8.3: Genetics of Inheritance
5.8: Active Transport and Homeostasis
5.9: Cellular Respiration recombinant DNA
photoautotrophs primase 6.8: Biotechnology
6.2: DNA and RNA
24.5: Energy in Ecosystems recombination
photoreceptors primate 7.6: Genetic Variation
2.4: The Human Animal
11.7: Human Senses recticular layer
phylogenetic tree prions 13.3: Skin
21.3: Infectious Diseases
2.3: Diversity of Life rectum
phylogenies probiotic 18.5: Lower Gastrointestinal Tract
20.7: Human Microbiome
2.5: Case Study Conclusion: Inhabitants and Chapter red blood cell
Summary product 17.5: Blood
phylogeny 3.9: Energy in Chemical Reactions
reflexes
2.3: Diversity of Life 3.10: Chemical Reactions in Living Things
11.5: Central Nervous System
physiology progesterone
22.8: Functions of the Female Reproductive System regulatory elements
10.2: Organization of the Body 6.7: Regulation of Gene Expression
phytochemicals prokaryote
5.3: Variation in Cells regulatory proteins
4.2: Nutrients 6.7: Regulation of Gene Expression
pinocytosis prokaryotic cell
5.3: Variation in Cells relative dating
5.8: Active Transport and Homeostasis 9.6: Tools for Studying Evolution
pituitary gland prolactin
12.4: Pituitary Gland renal pelvis
12.4: Pituitary Gland 19.2: Introduction to the Urinary System
placebo effect promoter
6.4: Protein Synthesis renal tubule
1.6: Scientific Experiments 19.3: Kidneys
placenta prophase
7.3: Mitotic Phase - Mitosis and Cytokinesis reproduction
22.6: Structures of the Female Reproductive System 2.2: Shared Traits of All Living Things
plasma prostate cancer
22.5: Disorders of the Male Reproductive System reproductive system
17.5: Blood 10.4: Human Organs and Organ Systems
plasma membrane prostate gland 22.1: Case Study: Making Babies
5.2: Discovery of Cells and Cell Theory 22.3: Structures of the Male Reproductive System 22.12: Case Study Conclusion: Trying to Conceive and
5.4: Plasma Membrane protein Chapter Summary
platelets 3.4: Biochemical Compounds Respiration
17.5: Blood 3.7: Proteins 16.2: Structure and Function of the Respiratory System
4.2: Nutrients
pleiotropy 6.4: Protein Synthesis respiratory center
8.5: Complex Inheritance 16.3: Breathing
protein primary structure
pneumonia 3.7: Proteins Respiratory System
16.4: Disorders of the Respiratory System 10.4: Human Organs and Organ Systems
protein Quaternary structure 16.1: Case Study: Respiratory System and Gas
point mutation 3.7: Proteins Exchange
6.6: Mutations
respiratory tract secondhand smoke special senses
16.2: Structure and Function of the Respiratory System 16.5: Smoking and Health 11.7: Human Senses
Resting Potential seman speciation
11.4: Nerve Impulses 22.3: Structures of the Male Reproductive System 9.5: Macroevolution
restriction enzyme seminiferous tubule species
6.8: Biotechnology 22.3: Structures of the Male Reproductive System 2.3: Diversity of Life
reticular connective tissue sensory nerves 2.5: Case Study Conclusion: Inhabitants and Chapter
Summary
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues 11.6: Peripheral Nervous System 9.5: Macroevolution
reticular fibers Sensory neurons sperm
10.3: Human Cells and Tissues 11.3: Neurons 7.5: Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis and gametogenesis
retina sensory receptor 22.4: Functions of the Male Reproductive System
11.7: Human Senses 11.7: Human Senses sperm donation
Rhesus blood group system Sertoli cell 22.10: Infertility
17.6: Blood Types 22.3: Structures of the Male Reproductive System spermatogenesis
rib cage Sex Hormones 7.5: Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis and gametogenesis
14.3: Divisions of the Skeletal System 22.2: Introduction to the Reproductive System 22.4: Functions of the Male Reproductive System
ribose sexual dimorphism sphincter
6.2: DNA and RNA 9.4: Microevolution 18.4: Upper Gastrointestinal Tract
ribose sugar sexual reproduction spinal cavity
3.8: Nucleic Acids 7.5: Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis and gametogenesis 10.5: Human Body Cavities
ribosome 7.6: Genetic Variation spinal cord
5.2: Discovery of Cells and Cell Theory Sexually transmitted infection 11.5: Central Nervous System
ribosomes 21.4: Sexually Transmitted Infections spleen
5.6: Cell Organelles SIDS 20.3: Lymphatic System
RNA 23.5: Infancy spongy bone tissue
3.8: Nucleic Acids simple difussion 14.4: Structure of Bone
6.4: Protein Synthesis 5.7: Cell Transport squamous cell carcinoma
rough endoplasmic reticulum Single nucleotide polymorphisms 13.5: Case Study Conclusion: Skin Cancer and Chapter
5.6: Cell Organelles 6.10: Case Study Conclusion: Parmacogenomics and Summary
Chapter Summary stabilizing selection
S sinus rhythm 9.4: Microevolution
S phase 17.3: Heart stages of cellular respiration
7.2: Cell Cycle and Cell Division skeletal muscles 5.9: Cellular Respiration
saliva 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues starch
15.3: Types of Muscle Tissue 3.5: Carbohydrates
18.4: Upper Gastrointestinal Tract
skeletal system sterilization
salivary glands 10.4: Human Organs and Organ Systems
18.4: Upper Gastrointestinal Tract 22.11: Contraception
14.1: Case Study: Your Support System
sampling 14.2: Introduction to the Skeletal System steroid hormone
1.6: Scientific Experiments 14.8: Case Study Conclusion: Heels and Chapter 12.3: Endocrine Hormones
Summary Steroids
Sanger Dideoxynucleotides
6.9: The Human Genome
skin 3.6: Lipids
13.2: Introduction to the Integumentary System stomach
sarcomere 13.3: Skin
15.3: Types of Muscle Tissue 18.4: Upper Gastrointestinal Tract
skin cancer
saturated fatty acid stroke
13.1: Case Study: Skin Cancer
3.6: Lipids 11.5: Central Nervous System
skull 15.4: Muscle Contraction
Schistosoma 14.3: Divisions of the Skeletal System 17.7: Cardiovascular Disease
20.2: Introduction to the Immune System
Sleep apnea stunting
science 16.4: Disorders of the Respiratory System 4.6: Undernutrition
1.1: Case Study: Why Should You Learn About
Science?
sliding filament theory sugars
1.3: The Nature of Science 15.4: Muscle Contraction 3.5: Carbohydrates
scientific experiment small intestine sunburn
1.8: Case Study Conclusion: Shot and Chapter 18.5: Lower Gastrointestinal Tract 13.3: Skin
Summary smooth endoplasmic reticulum superior vena cava
scientific investigation 5.6: Cell Organelles 17.4: Blood Vessels
1.5: Scientific Investigations smooth muscle surface tension
1.8: Case Study Conclusion: Shot and Chapter 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues 3.11: Biochemical Properties of Water
Summary
sodium potassium pump surrogate mother
scientific law 5.8: Active Transport and Homeostasis 22.10: Infertility
1.3: The Nature of Science
Soluble fiber sweat glands
scientific method 4.2: Nutrients 13.3: Skin
1.5: Scientific Investigations
solute symbiosis
scientific theory 5.7: Cell Transport 24.4: Community Relationships
1.2: What Is Science?
1.4: Theories in Science solution sympatric speciation
1.8: Case Study Conclusion: Shot and Chapter 3.12: Acids and Bases 9.5: Macroevolution
Summary 5.7: Cell Transport synapse
scrotum solvent 11.4: Nerve Impulses
22.3: Structures of the Male Reproductive System 5.7: Cell Transport synovial joint
sebaceous gland somatic mutations 14.6: Joints
13.3: Skin 6.6: Mutations Syphilis
secondary active transport somatic nervous system 21.4: Sexually Transmitted Infections
5.8: Active Transport and Homeostasis 11.6: Peripheral Nervous System systemic circulation
secondary sex characteristics somatostatin 17.2: Introduction to the Cardiovascular System
22.2: Introduction to the Reproductive System 12.7: Pancreas
systole trans fat V
17.3: Heart 4.2: Nutrients vacuole
transformation of pyruvate 5.6: Cell Organelles
T 5.9: Cellular Respiration vagina
T cell triad 22.6: Structures of the Female Reproductive System
20.5: Adaptive Immune System 15.4: Muscle Contraction Vaginitis
target cell triglyceride 22.9: Disorders of the Female Reproductive System
12.3: Endocrine Hormones 3.6: Lipids varicose veins
taste bud triiodothyronine 17.4: Blood Vessels
11.7: Human Senses 12.5: Thyroid Gland vas deferens
TATA box Triple X syndrome 22.3: Structures of the Male Reproductive System
6.7: Regulation of Gene Expression 7.7: Mitosis vs. Meiosis and Disorders vasectomy
taxa trisomy 21 22.11: Contraception
2.3: Diversity of Life 7.7: Mitosis vs. Meiosis and Disorders vasodilation
2.5: Case Study Conclusion: Inhabitants and Chapter tubal ligation 17.4: Blood Vessels
Summary
22.11: Contraception vasopressin
taxonomy tubulin 12.4: Pituitary Gland
2.3: Diversity of Life
5.6: Cell Organelles ventilation
telomere tumor 16.3: Breathing
23.8: Adulthood
7.2: Cell Cycle and Cell Division ventral cavity
telophase tumor suppressor gene 10.5: Human Body Cavities
7.3: Mitotic Phase - Mitosis and Cytokinesis
7.4: Mutations and Cancer ventricle
temporal lobe tunica albuginea 17.3: Heart
11.5: Central Nervous System
22.3: Structures of the Male Reproductive System vertebrae
tendon tunica vaginalis 14.3: Divisions of the Skeletal System
15.3: Types of Muscle Tissue
22.3: Structures of the Male Reproductive System Vesicle
testes tunica vasculosa 5.6: Cell Organelles
22.3: Structures of the Male Reproductive System
22.3: Structures of the Male Reproductive System Vesicular Transport
testicular cancer Turner Syndrome 5.8: Active Transport and Homeostasis
22.5: Disorders of the Male Reproductive System
7.7: Mitosis vs. Meiosis and Disorders vestigial structure
testosterone type 2 diabetes 9.3: Evidence for Evolution
22.2: Introduction to the Reproductive System
12.7: Pancreas villi
tetrad type I diabetes mellitus 18.2: Introduction to the Digestive System
7.6: Genetic Variation
12.7: Pancreas vimentin
thalamus Typhoid Mary 5.5: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton
11.5: Central Nervous System
21.3: Infectious Diseases vision
theory of evolution
11.7: Human Senses
9.2: Darwin, Wallace, and the Theory of Evolution by
Natural Selection U vital organ
thermoreceptors Ulcerative colitis 10.4: Human Organs and Organ Systems
11.7: Human Senses 18.7: Disorders of the Gastrointestinal Tract vitamin
Thrifty gene hypothesis Umbilical Cord 4.2: Nutrients
9.7: Adaptation in Humans 23.5: Infancy vulva
thymine underdraining 22.6: Structures of the Female Reproductive System
3.8: Nucleic Acids 10.8: Case Study Conclusion: Pressure and Chapter
Summary
thymus W
undernutrition wasting
20.3: Lymphatic System
4.6: Undernutrition
thyroid gland 4.6: Undernutrition
unsaturated fatty acid water
12.5: Thyroid Gland
3.6: Lipids
thyroxine 4.2: Nutrients
Upper Gastrointestinal Tract Water Cycle
12.5: Thyroid Gland
18.4: Upper Gastrointestinal Tract
tick 24.6: Cycles of Matter
uracil white blood cell
21.8: Case Study Conclusion: Lyme and Chapter
Summary 3.8: Nucleic Acids
17.5: Blood
6.2: DNA and RNA
tissue white matter
ureters
10.2: Organization of the Body 10.3: Human Cells and Tissues
19.4: Ureters, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra
toddlerhood
urethra
23.6: Childhood
19.4: Ureters, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra Y
Tonsillitis yolk sac
urinary bladder
20.3: Lymphatic System 23.3: Embryonic Stage
19.4: Ureters, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra
tonsils
urinary system
20.3: Lymphatic System
10.4: Human Organs and Organ Systems Z
touch 19.2: Introduction to the Urinary System zero population growth
11.7: Human Senses urination 24.8: Population Dynamics
trachea 19.2: Introduction to the Urinary System zona pellucida
16.2: Structure and Function of the Respiratory System urine 23.2: Germinal Stage
19.2: Introduction to the Urinary System
Glossary
abdominopelvic cavity | body acid rain | low-pH precipitation active transport | movement of
cavity that fills the lower half of that forms when certain primary substances across a plasma
the trunk and holds the kidneys pollutants in the atmosphere membrane that requires energy
and the digestive and combine with water
acute disease | short-term
reproductive organs acne | common skin disorder in illness
abiotic factor | nonliving aspect which pimples, blackheads,
of the environment such as nodules, or other skin lesions adaptation | genetically based
sunlight, air, or water occur when bacteria infect trait that has evolved because it
sebum-clogged pores helps living things survive and
ABO blood group system | reproduce in a given
system of red blood cell acquired immunodeficiency environment
antigens controlled by a single syndrome (AIDS) | disorder
gene with three common alleles characterized by frequent adaptive immune system |
on chromosome 9 that produces opportunistic infections that subset of the immune system
may eventually develop in that makes tailored attacks
types A, B, AB, and O blood
people who are infected with against specific pathogens or
absolute dating | carbon-14 or human immunodeficiency virus tumor cells such as the
(HIV) production of antibodies that
other method of dating fossils
that gives an approximate age in match specific antigens
years actin | thin protein filament in
muscle cells that slides over a adaptive radiation | process by
absorption | process in which thick myosin filament to which a single species evolves
produce a muscle contraction into many new species to fill
substances such as nutrients
available niches
pass into the blood or lymph
action potential | reversal of
accessory organ of digestion | electrical charge across the Addison’s disease | disorder
digestive organ that releases membrane of a resting neuron characterized by hyposecretion
substances into the duodenum that travels down the axon of of the adrenal cortex hormone
the neuron as a nerve impulse cortisol, generally because the
for chemical digestion but
immune system attacks and
through which food does not
activation energy | energy destroys the adrenal gland
pass; liver, gallbladder, or
needed to start a chemical
pancreas
reaction adhesion | in the context of
human reproduction, process in
acclimatization | development
active immunity | ability to which a sperm "sticks" to an
of reversible changes to
resist a specific pathogen that egg due to sperm-receptor
environmental stress over a
results when an adaptive proteins on the egg
relatively short period of time
immune response to the
acid | solution with a pH lower pathogen produces memory adipose tissue | type of
lymphocytes for that pathogen connective tissue that is
than 7
composed mainly of fat-storage
cells called adipocytes; also adolescence and death allele | one of two or more
called body fat different versions of the same
aerobic | referring to anything, gene
admixture | situation in which such as a process or an
new DNA sequences enter a organism, that requires oxygen allele frequency | how often an
population’s gene pool through allele occurs in a gene pool
interbreeding with individuals aerobic exercise | any physical relative to the other alleles for
in another population activity in which muscles are that gene
used well below their maximum
adolescence | period of contraction strength but for a Allen’s rule | ecogeographic
transition between childhood relatively long period of time, rule stating that animals living
and adulthood during which consuming a large amount of in hotter climates generally have
significant physical, cognitive, oxygen longer extremities than closely
and psychosocial changes occur related animals living in colder
age-related macular climates
adolescent growth spurt degeneration (AMD) | common
(AGS) | period of rapid physical cause of blindness that occurs allergen | any substance,
growth that occurs during because cells of the macula die typically an antigen, that causes
puberty an allergy
age-sex structure | number of
adrenal cortex | outer layer of individuals of each sex and age allergy | disorder in which the
the adrenal gland that produces or age group in a population immune system makes an
steroid hormones such as inflammatory response to a
cortisol and aldosterone agonist | any psychoactive drug harmless antigen
that increases the activity of
adrenal gland | one of a pair of particular neurotransmitters allopatric speciation |
glands located on top of the evolution of a new species that
kidneys that secretes hormones Air Quality Index (AQI) | occurs when some individuals
such as cortisol and adrenaline assessment of the levels of become geographically
pollutants in the outdoor air that separated from the rest of their
adrenal medulla | central part is based on their human health species
of an adrenal gland that is effects
surrounded by the adrenal alveolus (plural | one of a
cortex and that produces alcoholic fermentation | type cluster of tiny sacs at the ends
catecholamine hormones of anaerobic respiration that of bronchioles in the lungs
including adrenaline includes glycolysis followed by where pulmonary gas exchange
the conversion of pyruvic acid takes place
adrenaline | non-steroid to ethanol and carbon dioxide
catecholamine hormone and the formation of NAD+ amino acid | small molecule
produced by the medulla of the that is a building block of
adrenal glands that stimulates algal bloom | excessive growth proteins
the fight-or-flight response of algae in bodies of water
because of high levels of amnion | membrane forming a
adulthood | life stage of the nutrients, usually from fertilizer fluid-filled sac that surrounds
human organism between in runoff
and protects an embryo and today but was not necessarily cropland, rangeland, or a dense
fetus behaviorally modern settlement

anabolic reaction | endothermic anatomy | study of the structure anthropoid | any non-prosimian
reaction in organisms of the body primate; monkey, ape, or human

anaerobic | referring to androgen | general term for a antibiotic drug | drug that kills
anything, such as a process or male sex hormone such as bacteria and usually cures
an organism, that does not testosterone bacterial infections and diseases
require oxygen
anemia | disorder in which the antibiotic resistance | ability to
anaerobic exercise | any blood has an inadequate volume withstand antibiotic drugs that
physical activity in which of red blood cells, which are has evolved in some bacteria
muscles are used at close to needed to carry oxygen to cells
their maximum contraction antibody | large, Y-shaped
strength but for a relatively angina | chest pain or pressure protein produced by B cells that
short period to time, consuming that occurs when heart muscle recognizes and binds to a
a small amount of oxygen cells do not receive adequate nonself antigen in a humoral
blood flow and become starved immune response
anaerobic respiration | type of of oxygen
cellular respiration, such as anticodon | string of three
fermentation, that does not animal | heterotrophic, nucleotide bases that are
require oxygen multicellular eukaryote with complementary to the three
cells that lack cell walls; nucleotide bases of a codon for
analogous structure | structure member of the Animal an amino acid
that is similar in unrelated Kingdom
organisms because it evolved to antigen | molecule that the
perform the same function and anorexia nervosa | eating immune system identifies as
not because it was inherited disorder in which people either self or nonself and, if the
from a common ancestor consistently eat very little, latter, may respond to by
resulting in extremely low body forming antibodies
anaphase | third phase of weight and often other signs and
mitosis during which sister symptoms of starvation anus | final part of the large
chromatids separate and move intestine with an opening to the
to opposite poles of the cell antagonist | any psychoactive outside for feces to pass through
drug that decreases the activity
anaphylaxis | severe, systemic of particular neurotransmitters anxiolytic | type of
allergic reaction that is psychoactive drug that has a
considered a medical emergency anterior pituitary | front lobe tranquilizing effect and inhibits
of the pituitary gland that anxiety
anatomically modern human | synthesizes and secretes
any early member of the species pituitary hormones Apgar test | simple assessment
Homo sapiens who was given to an infant immediately
virtually indistinguishable in anthropogenic biome | human- after birth to evaluate its
physical traits from humans made terrestrial biome such as transition from the uterus to the
outside world
aphotic zone | water in an and around blood vessels and atom | smallest particle of an
aquatic biome that is deeper internal organs element that still has the
than 200 meters and where too properties of that element
little sunlight penetrates for artery | type of blood vessel
photosynthesis to take place that carries blood away from the ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
heart and toward the lungs or | energy-carrying molecule that
appendicular skeleton | bones body cells use to power their
of the upper and lower limbs, metabolic processes
shoulder girdle, and pelvic artificial selection | process in
girdle which organisms evolve traits atrium (plural | one of the two
useful to humans because upper chambers of the heart that
appendix | vestigial organ that people select which individuals pumps blood to the ventricle
projects from the colon of the are allowed to reproduce and below it
large intestine and has no pass on their genes to
apparent function in adults successive generations atrophy | decrease in the size of
a structure, such as a decrease in
aquatic biome | any water- assisted reproductive the size of a muscle through
based biome; may be a technology (ART) | collection nonuse
freshwater or saltwater biome of medical procedures in which
eggs and sperm are removed Australopithecus | genus of
aquifer | underground layer of from an infertile couple and early hominins that is thought to
rock that stores water manipulated in ways that be ancestral to the human genus
increase the chances of Homo
arboreal | referring to trees, as
fertilization occurring, such as
in arboreal, or tree-living, autoimmune disease | type of
in vitro fertilization
animal disease, such as type 1 diabetes,
asthma | chronic inflammatory in which the immune system
Archaea | one of two
disease of the respiratory system attacks the body’s own cells as
prokaryotic domains; includes
in which airways periodically though they were pathogens
organisms that live in extreme
become inflamed, causing
environments autonomic nervous system |
swelling and narrowing of the
division of the peripheral
archaic human | member of airways, which makes breathing nervous system that controls
any now-extinct species of difficult involuntary activities
Homo that existed between
atherosclerosis | condition in
about 500,000 years ago and the autosomal trait | any genetic
which plaque builds up inside
evolution of Homo sapiens, trait controlled by a gene on an
arteries, eventually causing the
including the species Homo autosome
lumen inside to narrow and the
neanderthalensis, Homo
arterial walls to stiffen autosome | any of the
floresiensis, and Homo denisova
chromosomes numbered 1 to 22
athlete’s foot | infection of the
areolar connective tissue | in humans that contains genes
skin between the toes by the
common form of loose for characteristics unrelated to
fungus Trichophyton
connective tissue found in the sex determination
skin and mucous membranes
autotroph | organism that uses epidermis and rarely and usually leading to excessive
energy directly from the sun or metastasizes weight gain
from chemical bonds to produce
organic compounds from simple basal metabolic rate (BMR) | binomial nomenclature |
inorganic molecules amount of energy needed to method of naming species with
keep the body functioning at two names, consisting of the
axial skeleton | division of the rest genus name and species name
skeleton that includes the skull,
rib cage, and vertebral column base | solution with a pH higher bioaccumulation | increasing
than 7 concentration of a
axon | long extension of the cell nonbiodegradable substance as
body of a neuron that transmits Bergmann’s rule | it passes from lower to higher
nerve impulses to other cells ecogeographic rule stating that, trophic levels in an ecosystem
within a broadly distributed
B cell | type of lymphocyte that taxonomic group, populations or biochemical compound | any
fights infections by forming species of larger size are found carbon-based chemical
antibodies in colder environments, whereas compound that helps make up
populations or species of the cells of living things or carry
baby boom | period marked by smaller size are found in out life processes
a temporary but dramatic warmer environments
increase in the birth rate biochemical reaction |
bile | fluid produced by the liver chemical reaction that occurs
Bacteria | one of two domains and stored in the gall bladder inside living things
of prokaryotes, some of which that is secreted into the small
cause human diseases intestine to help digest lipids biodegradable | referring to a
and neutralize acid from the substance such as a pollutant
balance | ability to sense and that breaks down in the
stomach
maintain an appropriate body environment due to natural
position bilirubin | brown pigment processes
secreted into bile by the liver
bariatric surgery | weight-loss biodiversity | all of the variety
that is a byproduct of
surgery for obesity that modifies of life that exists on Earth,
catabolism of dead red blood
the digestive system to limit the including the diversity of genes,
cells and is excreted in feces by
intake of food and/or absorption species, and ecosystems
the large intestine
of nutrients from food
binding site | region of a biodiversity hotspot | area with
barrier method | type of
protein responsible for binding a high level of biodiversity that
contraception in which a device is under serious threat from
with another molecule
such as a condom or diaphragm human actions
is used to physically block binge eating disorder | eating
sperm from entering the uterus disorder in which people biogeochemical cycle |
repeatedly binge on a large interconnected pathways
basal cell carcinoma | most
amount of food, followed by through which water or a
common type of skin cancer
feelings of guilt but not purging chemical element such as
that occurs in basal cells of the carbon or nitrogen is
continuously recycled through bipedalism | walking on two blood group system | all of the
the biotic and abiotic legs genes, alleles, and possible
components of ecosystems genotypes and phenotypes that
birth rate | number of births in exist for a particular set of blood
biogeography | study of how one year per 1,000 people in a type antigens
and why organisms live where population
they do blood pressure | measure of the
birthweight | weight of a baby force exerted by circulating
biomass | amount of organic at birth blood on the walls of arteries
matter present in an individual
th
organism or in all the organisms Black Death | mid-14 century blood type | genetic
at a given trophic level Eurasian plague pandemic that characteristic associated with
was one of the deadliest the presence or absence of
biomass energy | energy pandemics in human history antigens on the surface of red
obtained from living or recently blood cells
living things, such as wood or bladder infection | common
biogas made from crops such as type of urinary tract infection in blood vessel | hollow, tube-like
sugarcane which the bladder becomes structure through which blood
infected, usually by bacteria but flows in the cardiovascular
biome | group of similar occasionally by fungi system; vein, artery, or capillary
ecosystems with the same
general type of physical blastocoele | fluid-filled cavity blood-brain barrier | highly
environment anywhere in the within a blastocyst selective membrane formed of
world epithelial cells that separates
blastocyst | fluid-filled ball of
circulating blood from
biopsy | surgical removal of a cells that develops a few days extracellular fluid in the brain
tissue specimen for analysis in a after fertilization in the process and spinal cord
medical laboratory, usually to of blastulation
diagnose cancer body cavity | fluid-filled space
blastulation | process during
inside the body that holds and
biosphere | every part of Earth the germinal stage in which the protects internal organs
where life exists, including land, solid ball of cells called the
water, and air morula changes into a fluid- body mass index (BMI) |
filled ball of cells called the estimate of the fat content of the
biotechnology | use of blastocyst body that is calculated by
technology to change the dividing a person’s weight (in
genetic makeup of living things blind experiment | scientific kilograms) by the square of the
in order to produce useful experiment in which subjects do person’s height (in meters)
products not know in which experimental
group they have been placed to bolus | lump of swallowed food
biotic factor | living aspect of help avoid bias in the outcome
the environment, including any bone marrow | soft connective
organism of the same or blood | fluid connective tissue tissue in spongy bone that
different species that circulates throughout the produces blood cells
body through blood vessels
bone remodeling | continuous, reproductive system that candidiasis | infection of the
lifelong process in which secretes a fluid to help lubricate mouth or vagina that is caused
existing bone is resorbed by the urethra and neutralize any by the yeast Candida
osteoclasts and new bone is urine it may contain before
made by osteoblasts ejaculation occurs; also called canine tooth | one of four
Cowper’s gland pointed teeth on either side of
bone repair | process in which the front teeth that are used for
bone heals itself following a bulimia nervosa | eating tearing foods
bone fracture disorder in which people
recurrently binge on large capillary | smallest type of
bone tissue | hard connective amounts of food, following by blood vessel that connects
tissue in bones that consists purging the food from the body, arterioles and venules and that
mainly of mineralized collagen for example, by vomiting transfers substances between
matrix; also called osseous blood and tissues
tissue calcitonin | endocrine hormone
secreted by the thyroid gland carbohydrate | major class of
Bowman’s capsule | structure that helps regulate calcium biochemical compounds that
surrounding the glomerulus of a homeostasis by stimulating includes sugars, starches,
nephron in a kidney into which bones to absorb calcium from glycogen, cellulose, and chitin
substances that are filtered out the blood
of blood are passed to the renal carbon cycle | biogeochemical
tubule Calorie | unit used to measure cycle through which carbon is
the energy in food, where 1 recycled through the biotic and
brain | central nervous system Calorie is the amount of energy abiotic components of
organ inside the skull that is the needed to raise 1 kilogram of ecosystems
control center of the nervous water by 1 degree Celsius; also
system carcinogen | anything that can
called kilocalorie
cause cancer
brain stem | lowest part of the Cambrian explosion |
brain that connects the brain spectacular burst of new life cardiac cycle | contraction of
with the spinal cord and that occurred at the start of the the heart’s atria and ventricles to
controls unconscious functions Paleozoic Era produce a single heartbeat,
such as heart rate and breathing consisting of diastole and
cancer | disease that occurs systole
Broca’s area | speech center in when the cell cycle is no longer
the brain that controls speech regulated and cells divide out of cardiac muscle | involuntary,
production striated muscle found only in
control
the walls of the heart; also
bronchus (plural | one of many cancer staging | classifying called myocardium
tubes of various sizes that carry cancer based on such factors as
air between the trachea and the how large a tumor is and the cardiovascular disease (CVD)
alveoli in the lungs | class of diseases that involve
extent to which the cancer has
the heart or blood vessels
spread
bulbourethral gland | one of a
pair of glands in the male cardiovascular system | organ
system consisting of the heart,
blood vessels, and blood that catecholamine | any non-steroid the nervous system that includes
transports materials to and from hormone, such as adrenaline, the brain and spinal cord
cells of the body that is produced by the medulla
of the adrenal gland and that central obesity | type of obesity
carnivore | consumer that eats stimulates the fight-or-flight in which most of the excess fat
animals response is stored in the abdomen,
placing the obese person at
carotene | pigment in the cell | basic unit of structure and greater risk of adverse health
epidermis that gives skin a function of living things consequences of obesity, such as
yellowish tint, especially in skin type 2 diabetes and
with low levels of melanin cell body | central part of a cardiovascular disease
neuron that contains the nucleus
carpal tunnel syndrome | and other cell organelles centriole | organelle in
musculoskeletal disorder that eukaryotic cells that helps
occurs when a nerve becomes cell cycle | repeating series of organize the chromosomes
compressed between carpal events that a cell goes through before cell division occurs, so
bones in the wrist, leading to during its life including growth, that each daughter cell has the
reduced innervation of the correct number of chromosomes
thumb and first two fingers cell division | process in which
after the cell divides
a parent cell divides to form two
carrying capacity (K) | largest daughter cells centromere | region of sister
population size that can be chromatids where they are
supported in an area without cell theory | theory that all joined together
harming the environment living things are made of cells,
all life functions occur within cerebellum | part of the brain
cartilage | dense connective cells, and all cells come from below the cerebrum and behind
tissue that provides a smooth pre-existing cells the brain stem that coordinates
surface for the movement of body movements
bones at joints cellular respiration | process in
which cells break down glucose cerebral cortex | highly folded,
cartilaginous joint | partly and make ATP for energy thin outer layer of the cerebrum
movable joint in which bones where most information
are joined by cartilage cellulose | complex
processing in the brain takes
carbohydrate (polysaccharide)
place
case-control study | that is an important structural
observational study in which a component of the cell walls of cerebrospinal fluid | clear fluid
group of subjects with a trait plants and many algae produced by the brain that
(cases) is compared forms a thin layer within the
retrospectively with a group of Cenozoic Era | era of "modern meninges and provides
subjects without the trait life," also called the age of protection and cushioning for
(controls) mammals, which began about
the brain and spinal cord
65 million years ago and still
catabolic reaction | exothermic continues in the present cerebrum | largest part of the
reaction in organisms brain that controls conscious
central nervous system (CNS)
| one of two main divisions of
functions such as reasoning and chemoautotroph | producer that helps form the fetal portion of
sight uses energy in chemical bonds the placenta
to produce organic molecules by
cervical cancer | cancer of the chemosynthesis chromatid | one of two
cervix of the uterus, usually identical copies of a
caused by infection with human chemoreceptor | type of chromosome that are joined
papillomavirus (HPV) sensory receptor that responds together at a centromere before
to chemicals a cell divides
cervix | neck of the uterus that
protrudes down into the vagina chemosynthesis | process of chromatin | grainy material that
and through which a canal using the energy in chemical DNA forms when it is not
connects the vagina and uterus bonds to make organic coiled into chromosomes
molecules from inorganic
Chargaff’s rules | observations substances chromosomal alteration |
by Erwin Chargaff that mutation that changes
concentrations of the four chemotaxis | movement of a chromosome structure
nucleotide bases in nucleic acids living structure in response to a
differ among species and that, chemical signal, as when chromosome | coiled structure
within a species, the chemical signals from an egg made of DNA and proteins that
concentrations of adenine and direct the movement of sperm is the form in which the genetic
thymine are always about the toward the egg material of a cell goes through
same, as are the concentrations cell division
of cytosine and guanine chemotherapy | treatment of
cancer using one or more drugs chronic disease | long-term or
chemical bond | force holding that kill cancer cells lifelong disease
together atoms in a molecule
chronic obstructive
that occurs when atoms share childhood | stage of the human
organism between birth and pulmonary disease (COPD) |
electrons
adolescence lung disease characterized by
chemical digestion | chemical chronic poor airflow, most often
breakdown of large, complex chitin | tough, complex following years of tobacco
food molecules into smaller, carbohydrate (polysaccharide) smoking
simpler nutrient molecules that that makes up the cell walls of
chyme | thick, semi-liquid
can be absorbed by blood or fungi and the exoskeletons of
insects and other arthropods mixture that food in the
lymph
gastrointestinal tract becomes
chemical equation | symbolic chlamydia | sexually by the time it leaves the
way of showing what happens transmitted infection by the stomach
in a chemical reaction bacterium Chlamydia
trachomatis that is the most cilia (singular | short, hairlike
chemical reaction | molecular common bacterial STI in the projections that extend from
process that changes some United States some cells, such as cells lining
chemical substances into others the airways
chorion | membrane formed
from extraembryonic cells that circadian rhythm | regular
change in biology or behavior
that occurs in a 24-hour cycle coal | naturally occurring where additional water may be
renewable solid fossil fuel that reabsorbed from urine
clade | group of related produces the most pollution and
organisms that includes an greenhouse gases when it is colon | main part of the large
ancestor and all of its burned intestine between the small
descendants intestine and rectum where
cochlea | coiled, fluid-filled water and salts are removed
cladogram | branching diagram tube in the inner ear that from liquid food wastes to form
representing related organisms changes mechanical sound feces
in which each branch represents vibrations and positional
the emergence of new traits that information to nerve impulses commensalism | symbiotic
separate one group of organisms that travel to the brain relationship between two
from the rest species in which one species
codominance | relationship benefits while the other species
cleavage | first several mitotic between two alleles for the is unaffected
divisions of a fertilized egg that same gene in which both alleles
lead to the formation of a solid are expressed equally in the community | all the populations
ball of cells called a morula phenotype of the heterozygote of all the species that live and
interact in an ecosystem
climate | average weather in an codon | group of three nitrogen
area over a long period of time bases in nucleic acids that compact bone | dense outer
makes up a code "word" of the layer of bone that is very hard
climate change | any change in and strong
genetic code
average weather condition on
Earth that lasts for at least coevolution | process in which comparative anatomy | study
several decades; often used to two interacting species evolve of the similarities and
refer to ongoing global warming together, with each species differences in the structures of
influencing the other’s evolution different species
cline | line on a map connecting
populations that have the same coextinction | phenomenon in comparative embryology |
frequency of an allele or of a which extinction of one species study of the similarities and
genetic trait, showing the causes a second species to go differences in the embryos of
geographic distribution of the extinct because the first species different species
allele or trait is a necessary resource for the
competitive exclusion
second species
clitoris | small, sensitive principle | principle of ecology
external female organ that is cohort study | observational stating that two different species
part of the vulva and may lead study in which a group of cannot occupy the same niche in
to sexual arousal when subjects selected at the start of the same place for very long
stimulated the study (the cohort) is
complement system | innate
followed prospectively into the
coagulation | process by which immune response that consists
future
blood changes from a liquid to a of a cascade of proteins that
gel to form a blood clot collecting duct | one of a complement the killing of
network of ducts in a kidney pathogens by antibodies
complementary base pair | the heart with oxygen and Crohn’s disease | inflammatory
pair of nucleotide bases that nutrients bowel disease that may affect
bond together; either adenine any part of the gastrointestinal
and thymine (or uracil) or coronary artery disease | class tract from the mouth to the anus
cytosine and guanine of diseases that result from
atherosclerosis of coronary cross-contamination |
complex carbohydrate | arteries; includes angina and contamination of a food by
polysaccharide such as starch, myocardial infarction microbes in another food with
glycogen, cellulose, or chitin which it comes into contact
corpus luteum | ovarian either directly or indirectly
compound | substance with a structure that forms from a
unique, fixed composition that follicle after it matures and cross-sectional study |
consists of two or more ovulates an egg observational study in which
elements data are collected from a sample
correlation | association of subjects just once at a certain
connective tissue | tissue made between variables in which a point in time
up of cells that form the body’s change in one variable is
structure, such as bone and associated with a change in the crossbridge cycling | sequence
cartilage, and in which cells are other variable of molecular events that forms
separated by non-living material crossbridges between myosin
called extracellular matrix cortical bone tissue | type of and actin filaments in muscle
bone tissue that is smooth and fibers, allowing for muscle
consensus science | science dense and makes up the outer contraction
undertaken in areas in which a layer of bones
great deal of evidence has crossing-over | exchange of
already accumulated corticosteroid | any steroid genetic material between
hormone produced by the cortex homologous chromosomes
consumer | organism that of the adrenal gland; includes when they are closely paired
consumes other organisms to mineralocorticoids, during meiosis I
obtain organic compounds glucocorticoids, and androgens
culture | entire way of life of a
contraception | any method or cortisol | glucocorticoid group of people
device used to prevent hormone produced by the cortex
pregnancy; also called birth of the adrenal gland that helps Cushing’s disease | disorder in
control control metabolic rate, which there is hypersecretion of
suppression of the immune the adrenal cortex hormone
control center | component of a system, and other functions cortisol, most commonly due to
homeostatic control mechanism a tumor of the pituitary gland
that monitors a variable and cranial cavity | cavity that fills
sends signals to the effector as most of the upper part of the cystic fibrosis | autosomal
needed to keep the variable in skull and contains the brain recessive genetic disease that
homeostasis causes the production of sticky
cranium | upper part of the mucus that clogs respiratory and
coronary artery | one of two skull that encloses and protects digestive organs, causing
arteries that supply the cells of the brain; also called braincase
frequent lung infections and during middle childhood; also water to produce fresh water for
malabsorption of nutrients called baby teeth human use

cytokine | chemical released by decomposer | organism that descriptive statistics | statistics

injured, infected, or immune breaks down the remains of such as the mean and standard
cells that triggers inflammation dead organisms or other organic deviation that describe and
or other immune responses wastes summarize data

cytokinesis | splitting of the demographic transition | major developmental adjustment |

cytoplasm to form daughter population shift in which the nongenetic phenotypic change
cells when a cell divides death rate falls and the that occurs during development
population growth rate in infancy or childhood and that
cytoplasm | all of the material increases, followed later by the may persist into adulthood and
inside the plasma membrane of birth rate falling and the become irreversible
a cell (excluding organelles), population growth rate
consisting largely of cytosol decreasing diabetes mellitus | disease
caused by problems with the
cytoskeleton | structure of demography | scientific study pancreatic hormone insulin,
filaments and tubules in the of human populations which lead to high blood
cytoplasm that provides a cell glucose levels and symptoms
with an internal framework dendrite | extension of the cell such as excessive thirst and
body of a neuron that receives urination; includes type 1 and
cytosol | watery substance that nerve impulses from other
type 2 diabetes
makes up cytoplasm inside cells neurons
diabetic nephropathy |
data (singular | observations dependent variable | variable progressive kidney disease
collected in a scientificin a scientific experiment that is caused by damage to capillaries
investigation in order to test a affected by another variable, in the glomeruli of the kidneys
hypothesis known as the independent due to poor blood sugar control
variable; also called outcome in people with diabetes
dead zone | area in the ocean or
variable
other body of water where low
diaphragm | large, dome-
oxygen levels following depressant | type of shaped muscle below the lungs
excessive growth of algae have psychoactive drug that calms
that allows breathing to occur
killed virtually all aquatic the brain, reduces anxious
when it alternately contracts and
organisms feelings, and induces sleepiness relaxes
death rate | number of deaths dermis | inner layer of skin that
diastole | part of a heartbeat in
per year per 1,000 people in a is made of tough connective
which the atria contract and
population tissue and contains blood pump blood into the ventricles,
vessels, nerve endings, hair while the ventricles relax and
deciduous teeth | first set of 20
follicles, and glands fill with blood from the atria
teeth that emerge in infancy and
early childhood and are lost and desalination | process in which
differentiation | process by
replaced by permanent teeth salt is removed from ocean
which unspecialized cells
become specialized into one of disease outbreak | event in referring to a trait that is
many different types of cells, which two or more people controlled by such an allele
such as neurons or epithelial contract an infectious disease
cells from a common source of dormancy | state in which a
infection plant slows down cellular
diffusion | type of passive activity and may shed its leaves
transport that does not require disruptive selection | type of
the help of transport proteins natural selection for a polygenic dorsal cavity | major human
trait in which phenotypes in the body cavity that includes the
digestion | process of breaking middle of the phenotypic head and the posterior (back) of
down food into nutrients that distribution are selected against, the trunk and holds the brain
can be absorbed by blood or resulting in two overlapping and spinal cord
lymph phenotypes, one at each end of
double helix | double spiral
the distribution
digestive system | organ system shape of the DNA molecule
that breaks down food, absorbs diverticulitis | disease in which
nutrients, and eliminates any one double-blind experiment |
or more pouches
remaining wastes scientific experiment in which
(diverticula) in the large
neither the subjects nor the
intestine become infected and
diploid | having two of each researchers know in which
inflamed
type of chromosome, or twice group subjects have been placed
the number of chromosomes as diverticulosis | condition in to help avoid bias in the
a haploid gamete which pouches called outcome
diverticula form in the wall of
directional selection | type of doubling time | time it would
the large intestine
natural selection for a polygenic take a population to double in
trait in which one of two DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) | size at its current rate of growth
extreme phenotypes is selected double-stranded DNA that
for, resulting in a shift in the makes drowning | respiratory
up genes and
phenotypic distribution toward chromosomes impairment from being in or
that extreme under a liquid, whether or not
DNA replication | natural death results
disaccharide | sugar consisting process of copying DNA prior
of two monosaccharides drug abuse | use of a drug
to cell division
without the advice of a medical
disease | condition associated domain | taxon in the revised professional and for reasons not
with impairment of normal body Linnaean system that is larger originally intended
functioning, generally causing and more inclusive than the
signs or symptoms of illness drug addiction | compulsive
kingdom
use of a substance such as a
disease burden | impact of a dominant | referring to an allele psychoactive drug despite
disease on a population as that masks the presence of negative consequences that such
measured by financial cost, another allele for the same gene use may entail
mortality, morbidity, or other when the two alleles occur
indicators drug dependence | condition in
together in a heterozygote, or
which stopping use of a
substance such as a ecosystem | all the biotic and electron transport | third and
psychoactive drug produces abiotic factors in an area and final stage of cellular respiration
physical and/or psychological their interactions in which electrons from NADH
symptoms and FADH2 move along an
ecosystem service | any of the electron-transport chain and
duodenum | first and shortest of goods or services that healthy protons (H+) are transferred
three parts of the small intestine ecosystems provide to ensure across the membrane of a
where most chemical digestion the survival of living things on mitochondrion, thereby driving
occurs Earth the synthesis of ATP
ear | special sensory organ that ectoderm | outer germ layer of element | pure substance that
collects and amplifies sound an embryo that will eventually cannot be broken down into
waves and information on body give rise to skin and nerve cells other types of substances
position and transforms them
into nerve impulses that travel effector | component of a elimination | process in which
to the brain homeostatic control mechanism, wastes pass out of the body
such as a gland or an organ, that
early adulthood | first stage of acts on a signal from the control embryo | stage of growth and
human adulthood that coincides center to move the variable back development that occurs from
more or less with the 20s and toward the set point implantation in the uterus
early 30s through the eighth week after
egg | gamete produced by a fertilization
early childhood | stage of a female
human organism between embryoblast | mass of cells
infancy and middle childhood ejaculation | process in males in inside a blastocyst that will
that covers the ages 1-5 years which muscle contractions eventually develop into an
propel sperm from the embryo
early modern human | any epididymes and out through the
member of the species Homo urethra in semen embryonic disc | two-layered
sapiens who lived prior to about disc of cells that forms by about
10,000 years ago ejaculatory duct | one of two 12 days after fertilization and is
tubes in the male reproductive an early stage in embryo
eating disorder | mental illness system that joins the vas formation
in which people feel compelled deferens with the urethra and
to eat in a way that causes carries semen during ejaculation emergency contraception | any
physical, mental, and/or form of birth control that is used
emotional health problems electromagnetic force | atomic after unprotected vaginal
force holding together intercourse
ecological succession | changes oppositely charged particles
through time in the numbers and (electrons and protons) and emerging infectious disease |
types of species in an ecosystem repelling particles of the same new infectious disease that has
charge (two electrons or two no prior history in a human
ecology | study of how living protons) population
things interact with each other
and their environment
emigration | movement of endoderm | inner germ layer of in metabolism and physical
individuals out of a population the embryo that eventually gives activity
rise to cells of organs and
empathogen | type of glands such as the lungs and enteric division | division of the
psychoactive drug that produces thyroid autonomic nervous system that
feelings of empathy with other controls digestive functions
people endometriosis | disease in
which endometrial tissue grows enzyme | protein that speeds up
emphysema | lung disease, outside the uterus, typically biochemical reactions;
usually caused by smoking, in causing pain and bleeding biological catalyst
which walls of alveoli break
down, so less gas can be endometrium | innermost layer epidemic | large-scale disease
exchanged in the lungs of the uterus that builds up outbreak in a population
during each menstrual cycle and
encephalization | evolutionary helps nourish the embryo if epidemiology | study of the
enlargement of the brain relative fertilization occurs or is shed patterns, causes, and effects of
to body size diseases in human populations
from the uterus as menstrual
flow if fertilization does not epidermis | outer layer of skin
encephalization quotient |
occur that consists mainly of epithelial
measure for comparing brain
sizes that corrects for endoplasmic reticulum (ER) | cells and lacks nerve endings,
differences in body size blood vessels, and other
organelle in eukaryotic cells that
structures
helps make and transport
endemic disease | disease that is
proteins and lipids epididymis (plural | one of two
present year-round in a
population male reproductive organs where
endosymbiotic theory | theory
sperm mature and are stored
that eukaryotic organelles such
endemic species | species native until they leave the body during
as mitochondria evolved from
to a given region and not found ejaculation
ancient, free-living prokaryotes
naturally anywhere else on
that invaded primitive epididymitis | inflammation of
Earth
eukaryotic cells the epididymis, which may be
endocrine gland | any gland of acute or chronic
endothermic reaction |
the endocrine system, which is
chemical reaction that absorbs epistasis | situation in which a
the system of glands that release
energy gene affects the expression of
their hormones into the blood
another gene or genes
energy | ability to do work
endocrine hormone | chemical
messenger molecule secreted by energy density | amount of epithelial tissue | tissue made
a gland of the endocrine system Calories a food provides per up of cells that line inner and
into the blood outer body surfaces, such as
unit of mass or volume
skin and mucous membranes
endocrine system | human body energy homeostasis | balance
system of glands that release between the energy consumed erectile dysfunction (ED) |
hormones into the blood disorder characterized by the
in food and the energy expended
regular and repeated inability of
a sexually mature male to obtain exchange pool | part of a extinction | event in which a
or maintain an erection of the biogeochemical cycle that holds species completely dies out and
penis an element or water for a short no members of the species
period of time remain anywhere on Earth
erection | state in which the
penis becomes stiff and erect, excretion | process of removing eye | special sensory organ that
usually during sexual arousal, as wastes and excess water from collects and focuses light to
its columns of spongy tissue the body form images and transforms the
become engorged with blood images into nerve impulses that
excretory system | organ travel to the brain
esophagus | long, narrow, tube- system that removes wastes and
like digestive organ through excess water from the body and facilitated diffusion | diffusion
which food passes from the includes the kidneys, large with the help of transport
pharynx to the stomach intestine, liver, skin, and lungs proteins

essential nutrient | any nutrient exocrine gland | gland such as a Fallopian tube | one of two
that cannot be synthesized in the sweat gland, salivary gland, or female reproductive organs that
human body in adequate mammary gland that secretes a carry eggs from an ovary to the
amounts for normal functioning substance into a duct that carries uterus and are the site where
so it must be obtained from food the secretion to the outside of fertilization usually takes place
the body
estrogen | female sex hormone fast-twitch muscle fiber | type
secreted mainly by the ovaries exon | region of DNA or RNA of skeletal muscle cell that is
that codes for a protein mainly responsible for
eukaryote | organism that has anaerobic activities such as
cells containing a nucleus and exothermic reaction | chemical weight lifting
other organelles reaction that releases energy
fatty acid | simple lipid
eukaryotic cell | cell that experiment | type of scientific molecule that consists mainly of
contains a nucleus and other investigation that is performed chains of carbon and hydrogen
organelles under controlled conditions and atoms and that may exist alone
in which the researcher typically or as a monomer of larger lipid
euphoria | intense feeling of manipulates a variable molecules
well-being and happiness (independent variable) to see
how it affects another variable feces | solid waste that remains
euphoriant | type of
(dependent variable) after food is digested and that is
psychoactive drug that brings
eliminated from the body
about a state of euphoria exponential growth | pattern of through the anus
population growth in which a
evidence | any type of data that
population starts out growing fermentation | type of
may be used to test a hypothesis
slowly but grows at an anaerobic respiration that
evolution | change in the increasing rate as population includes glycolysis followed by
genetic characteristics of living size increases the conversion of pyruvic acid
things over time to one or more other compounds
and the formation of NAD+
fertility awareness method | by collagen fibers; also called a food chain | diagram that
contraceptive method in which a suture represents a single pathway by
woman monitors signs of which energy flows through
ovulation and avoids fight-or-flight response | organisms an ecosystem
unprotected vaginal intercourse involuntary human body
around the time of ovulation response mediated by the food web | diagram that
when fertilization is most likely nervous and endocrine systems represents multiple interacting
to occur that prepares the body to fight pathways by which energy
or flee from perceived danger flows through organisms in an
fertility rate | average number ecosystem
of livebirths per woman by the fitness | in the context of
end of the childbearing years evolution by natural selection, foodborne disease | any disease
the relative ability of an that is transmitted via food; also
fertilization | union of two organism to survive and called food poisoning
haploid gametes (egg and produce fertile offspring
sperm), resulting in a diploid foramen ovale | temporary
zygote flexibility exercise | any opening between the right and
physical activity that stretches left atria of the fetal heart that
fetal viability | point in fetal and lengthens muscles allows blood to bypass the
development at which a fetus is pulmonary (lung) circulation
likely to be able to survive folic acid | micronutrient until the fetus starts breathing
outside the uterus needed for good health and air after birth
reproduction; also called
fetus | prenatal human organism vitamin B9 force of evolution | any one of
between the embryonic stage four factors (mutation, gene
and birth (weeks 8 through 38 follicle | anatomical structure flow, genetic drift, and natural
after fertilization) that consists of a small cluster selection) that changes allele
of cells, surrounding a central frequencies in a population’s
fiber | indigestible cavity gene pool
carbohydrates such as cellulose
that is needed in the human diet follicle-stimulating hormone fossil | preserved remains or
for normal bowel movements, (FSH) | pituitary gland hormone traces of an organism that lived
among other functions that stimulates the ovaries to in the past
secrete estrogen and mature
fibrous connective tissue | type follicles fossil fuel | nonrenewable
of connective tissue that is energy resource that forms over
found in skin, tendons, and fontanel | "soft spot" on an millions of years from dead
ligaments and that is composed infant’s skull that gradually plants and produces pollutants
of parallel bundles of collagen ossifies after birth and greenhouse gases when it
fibers, making it tough and burns; coal, petroleum, or
food | organic molecules that
elastic natural gas
organisms use for energy,
fibrous joint | immovable joint building materials, and other fossil record | record of life on
in which bones are connected purposes Earth as told by the discovery
and analysis of fossils
frameshift mutation | deletion (600 miles) off the west coast of gene | unit of DNA on a
or insertion of one or more South America, where Charles chromosome that may be
nucleotides that changes the Darwin made some of his most encoded with the instructions
reading frame of the genetic important observations during for a protein
code his voyage on the HMS Beagle
gene cloning | process of
free radical | highly reactive gamete | reproductive cell isolating and making copies of a
chemical such as OH- that can produced during meiosis that gene
damage DNA and contribute to has the haploid number of
diseases such as cancer chromosomes; sperm or egg gene expression | use of a gene
to make a protein
freshwater biome | aquatic gametogenesis | development of
biome such as a pond, lake, a haploid cell into a gamete gene flow | change in allele
stream, or river in which the (either sperm or egg) frequencies that occurs when
water contains little or no salt individuals move into or out of
ganglion (plural | type of a population
frontal lobe | part of each nervous tissue that acts as a
hemisphere of the cerebrum that relay point for messages gene pool | all the genes in all
controls executive functions transmitted through nerves of of the members of a population
such as reasoning and language the peripheral nervous system
gene theory | theory that many
frontier science | science gas exchange | biological of the characteristics of living
undertaken in new areas at the process through which gases are things are controlled by genes
frontier of knowledge in a transferred across cell that are passed from parents to
particular field membranes to either enter or offspring
leave the blood
frostbite | tissue destruction, gene therapy | experimental
usually in the extremities, that gastroenteritis | acute and method of curing genetic
occurs when tissue freezes usually self-limiting infection of disorders by inserting normal
the gastrointestinal tract by genes into cells with mutant
fungi (singular | organisms in pathogens; also known as genes
the Fungus Kingdom that infectious diarrhea
includes molds, mushrooms, general sense | sense of touch,
and yeasts, some of which cause gastrointestinal (GI) tract | which lacks specialized sensory
human disease organs of the digestive system organs and is monitored instead
through which food passes by sensory receptors all over the
gallbladder | sac-like organ that during digestion, including the body
stores bile from the liver and mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
secretes it into the duodenum of stomach, and small and large generalist | organism that can
the small intestine as needed for intestines thrive in a wide variety of
digestion environments and make use of a
gastrulation | process in which variety of different resources,
Galápagos Islands | group of the two-layer embryonic disc such as consuming many
16 small volcanic islands in the develops a third cell layer different types of food
Pacific Ocean 966 kilometers (mesoderm) and a primitive gut
genetic code | universal code of geologic time scale | timeline of contaminated food or water via
three-base codons that encodes Earth based on major events in a fecal-oral route
genetic instructions for the geology, climate, and the
amino acid sequences of evolution of life glial cell | nervous tissue cell
proteins that provides support for
geothermal energy | renewable, neurons and helps them transmit
genetic disorder | disease, nonpolluting source of energy nerve impulses
syndrome, or other abnormal that can be obtained from
condition caused by a mutation Earth’s naturally occurring global warming | recent rise in
in one or more genes or by a internal heat Earth’s average surface
chromosomal alteration temperature generally attributed
germ theory of disease | theory to an enhanced greenhouse
genetic drift | random change in that contagious diseases are effect caused mainly by human
allele frequencies that occurs in caused by the transmission of actions
a small population microorganisms that grow and
reproduce in their hosts and glomerulus (plural | network of
genetic engineering | using make them sick capillaries in the nephron of a
biotechnology to change the kidney where substances are
genetic makeup of an organism germinal stage | earliest and filtered out of the blood
shortest stage of the human
genetic trait | characteristic that lifespan, lasting about a week glucagon | endocrine hormone
is encoded in DNA from fertilization until the new secreted by alpha cells of the
organism implants in the pancreas that signals cells to
genetics | science of heredity break down stored glycogen to
endometrium of the uterus
glucose, thereby increasing the
genital herpes | sexually
germline mutation | mutation level of blood glucose
transmitted infection caused by
that occurs in a gamete
herpes simplex virus (usually glucose | simple six-carbon
HSV-2) that is characterized by gestational carrier | woman sugar, or monosaccharide, that
periodic outbreaks of blisters on who agrees to receive a is the nearly universal food for
the genitals transplanted embryo from a life
couple, carry it to term, and then
genital warts | small, rough
give the infant to the couple glucose-6-phosphate
growths on the genitals caused dehydrogenase (G6PD) | red
after birth
by a sexually transmitted blood cell enzyme involved in
infection with human ghrelin | hormone produced in metabolizing glucose,
papillomavirus (HPV) the stomach and small intestine deficiency in which is a genetic
that normally stimulates adaptation to malaria
genotype | alleles an individual
appetite
inherits at a particular genetic glycogen | complex
locus giardiasis | type of carbohydrate (polysaccharide)
gastroenteritis caused by a that animals use to store energy
genus | taxon above the species
single-celled protozoan parasite
in the Linnaean classification
named Giardia lambliathat glycolysis | first stage of cellular
system; group of closely related
typically spreads through respiration in which glucose is
species
split, in the absence of oxygen, including increased use of hair | filament made of tightly
to form two molecules of machinery and chemicals, that packed, keratin-filled
pyruvate (pyruvic acid) and two occurred between 1950 and keratinocytes that grows out a
(net) molecules of ATP 1984 and greatly increased hair follicle in the dermis of the
global food production skin
goiter | abnormal enlargement
of the thyroid gland greenhouse effect | natural hair follicle | structure in the
feature of Earth’s atmosphere dermis of skin where a hair
Golgi apparatus | organelle in that occurs when greenhouse originates
eukaryotic cells that processes gases in the atmosphere absorb
proteins and prepares them for and re-radiate heat back down hair root | part of a hair that is
use both inside and outside the to Earth’s surface, making the located within the hair follicle
cell surface temperature warmer and consists of living
than it otherwise would be keratinocytes
gonad | one of a pair of organs
that secrete sex hormones and greenhouse gas | naturally hair shaft | part of a hair that is
produce gametes; testis in males occurring or anthropogenic gas visible above the surface of the
and ovary in females such as carbon dioxide that skin and consists of dead
allows the greenhouse effect to keratinocytes
gonorrhea | common sexually
warm Earth’s surface
transmitted infection that is hallucinogen | type of
caused by the bacterium groundwater | fresh water that psychoactive drug that causes
Neisseria gonorrhoeae exists in the ground, either in hallucinations and other
the soil or in rock layers below perceptual anomalies, as well as
gradualism | model of the subjective changes in thoughts,
the surface
timing of evolution in which emotions, and consciousness
evolutionary change occurs at a growing season | period of time
slow and steady pace each year when it is warm haploid | having only one
enough and wet enough for chromosome of each type, or
Grave’s disease | autoimmune half the number of
plants to grow
disorder in which abnormal chromosomes of a diploid cell
antibodies produced by the growth hormone | hormone
immune system stimulate the secreted by the anterior pituitary Hardy-Weinberg theorem |
thyroid gland to secrete gland that stimulates growth in founding principle of population
excessive quantities of its cells all over the body genetics that proves allele and
hormones genotype frequencies do not
habitat | natural environment in change in a population in which
gray matter | type of nervous which a species lives and to the forces of evolution
tissue that is found only in the which it is adapted (mutation, natural selection,
brain and spinal cord and that is genetic drift, and migration) are
important for information habitat loss | destruction or not operating
processing disruption of a natural habitat,
most often due to human actions Hashimoto’s thyroiditis |
green revolution | worldwide such agriculture, forestry, autoimmune disorder in which
advances in agriculture, mining, or urbanization the immune system destroys the
thyroid gland, causing hemoglobin C | abnormal heterotroph | organism that
insufficient secretion of thyroid hemoglobin variant found obtains energy by consuming
hormones mainly in West and North other organisms
Africa that is a genetic
hearing | ability to sense sound adaptation to malaria heterozygote | organism that
waves inherits two different alleles for
hemoglobin E | abnormal a given gene
heart | muscular organ in the hemoglobin variant found
chest that pumps blood through mainly in South and Southeast high-altitude sickness | acute
blood vessels when it contracts Asia that is a genetic adaptation illness that results from hypoxia
to malaria at high altitude and includes
heart attack | blockage of symptoms such as fatigue,
blood flow to heart muscle hemoglobin S | abnormal shortness of breath, headache,
tissues that may result in the hemoglobin variant found in and dizziness
death of cardiac muscle fibers sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle
East, and India that is the single histamine | chemical released
heat index (HI) | number that
most effective genetic by injured or infected cells or by
combines air temperature and certain immune system cells
adaptation to malaria
relative humidity to indicate that triggers inflammation or an
how hot the air feels due to the hemolytic disease of the allergic reaction
humidity newborn (HDN) | type of
anemia in which red blood cells homeobox gene | one of many
helminth | parasitic worm such
in a Rhesus positive fetus are genes that regulate early
as tapeworm, pinworm, or
destroyed by antibodies to the development of the organism
hookworm
Rhesus antigen produced by a
homeostasis | condition in
hematopoiesis | process in Rhesus negative mother
which a system such as the
which red blood cells, white
hemophilia | any of several human body is maintained in a
blood cells, and platelets are
genetic disorders that cause more-or-less steady state
produced by red bone marrow
dysfunction in the blood-
homeostat | physiological
hemisphere | one of two halves clotting process, leading to mechanism that helps maintain
(left and right) of the cerebrum uncontrolled bleeding from homeostasis in an organism;
of the human brain even minor injuries
also called homeostatic
mechanism
hemodialysis | medical herbivore | consumer that eats
procedure for patients with producers such as plants or homeostatic imbalance |
kidney failure in which wastes algae condition in which cells may
and excess water are artificially
herd immunity | protection not get everything they need or
filtered out of blood by passing
from infection of nonvaccinated toxic wastes may accumulate
it through a machine
people in a population because because of the failure of a
homeostatic mechanism
hemoglobin | oxygen-binding most of the people around them
protein containing iron that is are vaccinated and immune to hominid | any member of the
the principal component of red the infection family of the primate order that
blood cells
includes humans and great apes from Homo erectus about physiology, genetics, evolution,
800,000 years ago and evolved and ecology of the human
hominin | any human or human into Homo neanderthalensis and species
ancestor that evolved after the early Homo sapiensaround
human lineage diverged from 200,000 years ago human genome | all of the
the chimpanzee lineage about 6 DNA of the human species
million years ago Homo neanderthalensis |
extinct species of archaic Human Genome Project |
Homo | genus in which the only humans that lived in Europe and international science project that
living species is Homo sapiens Asia between about 400,000 sequenced all 3.3 billion base
and 30,000 years ago; also pairs of the human genome
Homo denisova | extinct species
called Neanderthals
of archaic humans that lived in human immunodeficiency
Asia beginning about 400,000 homologous chromosomes | virus (HIV) | virus transmitted
years ago and interbred with pair of chromosomes that have through body fluids or mucous
Neanderthals and early modern the same size and shape and membranes that infects and
Homo sapiens; also called contain the same genes destroys helper T cells and may
Denisovans eventually cause acquired
homologous structure | immunodeficiency syndrome
Homo erectus | early species in structure that is similar in (AIDS)
the genus Homo that first related species because it was
evolved about 1.9 million years inherited from a common human papillomavirus (HPV)
ago in East Africa, migrated to ancestor; or structure that | sexually transmitted virus that
Eurasia before going extinct develops from the same may cause genital warts and
about 800,000 years ago, and undifferentiated embryonic cervical cancer
was probably ancestral to Homo tissue in males and females of
heidelbergensis hunting and gathering | type of
the same species, such as the
subsistence strategy that
testis and ovary in humans
Homo floresiensis | extinct includes hunting wild animals
species of archaic humans that homozygote | organism that and gathering wild plants and
lived on Flores Island in inherits two alleles of the same that was utilized by humans
Indonesia from about 100,000 type for a given gene from Homo erectus until at least
to 60,000 years ago and were 10,000 years ago
very small in size hormonal contraception | use
of hormones such as estrogen hunting response | process of
Homo habilis | first known and/or progesterone to prevent alternating vasoconstriction and
species in the genus Homo that pregnancy by interfering with vasodilation in extremities that
lived from about 2.5 to 1.4 ovulation are exposed to cold
million years ago in East Africa
and probably was ancestral to host | species that is harmed in a hydrogen bond | relative weak
Homo erectus parasitic relationship with chemical bond that forms
another species between molecules of the same
Homo heidelbergensis | substance, such as between
transitional species in the genus human biology | scientific molecules of water
Homo that probably evolved study of the anatomy,
hydropower | renewable, hypothalamus | part of the immunization | deliberate
nonpolluting energy that can be brain that secretes hormones exposure of a person to a
obtained from moving water and connects the brain with the pathogen in order to provoke an
and used to generate electricity endocrine system immune response and the
formation of memory cells
hyperopia | vision problem in hypothermia | dangerous specific to that pathogen
which close objects are out of decrease in core body
focus but distant vision is temperature below 34.4 degrees immunodeficiency | inability of
unaffected; also called C (94 degrees F) the immune system to fight off
farsightedness pathogens that a normal, healthy
hypothesis | logical answer to a immune system would be able
hypersecretion | secretion of scientific question that may be to resist because the immune
more than the normal amount of tested in a scientific system is damaged
a substance, such as secretion of investigation
too much hormone by an immunotherapy | treatment for
endocrine gland hypothyroidism | disorder in an allergy in which a patient is
which the thyroid gland gradually desensitized to an
hypertension | persistently high produces inadequate amounts of allergen through periodic
blood pressure, generally hormones injections with increasing
defined as 140/90 mm Hg or amounts of the allergen; or
higher hypoxia | relative lack of
treatment for cancer that
oxygen, as, for example, at high
attempts to stimulate the
hyperthermia | dangerous altitude
immune system to destroy
increase in core body
temperature above 40.6 degrees ileum | final of three parts of the cancer cells
C (105 degrees F) small intestine where vitamin
implantation | process in which
B12 and bile salts are absorbed
a blastocyst embeds in the
hyperthyroidism | disorder in
endometrium lining the uterus
which the thyroid gland immigration | movement of
produces excessive amounts of individuals into a population incisor | one of eight (four
hormones upper and four lower) blade-like
immune surveillance | function
teeth at the front of the mouth
hypertrophy | increase in the of the immune system in which
that are used to slice off pieces
size of a structure, such as an it identifies and eliminates
of food
increase in the size of a muscle tumor cells
through exercise
immune system | organ system incomplete dominance |
relationship between the alleles
hyperventilation | breathing that defends the body form
for a gene in which one allele is
more quickly and shallowly pathogens and cancer
only partly dominant to the
than normal
immunity | ability to resist a other allele, producing an
hyposecretion | secretion of less pathogen due to the formation intermediate phenotype
than the normal amount of a of memory lymphocytes (B or T
incubation period | length of
substance, such as an endocrine cells) to that specific pathogen
time between infection with a
hormone
pathogen or other agent of
disease and the first appearance inflammation | response of the skin, nails, and hair
of symptoms innate immune system that
establishes a physical barrier interneuron | type of neuron
independent variable | variable against the spread of infection that carries nerve impulses back
in a scientific experiment that is and repairs tissue damage while and forth between sensory and
manipulated by the researcher to causing redness, swelling, and motor neurons
investigate its effect on another warmth
variable, known as the interphase | stage of the
dependent variable; also called inflammatory bowel disease | eukaryotic cell cycle when the
the manipulated variable type of disease in which the cell grows, synthesizes DNA,
immune system attacks the and prepares to divide
infancy | first year of life after intestines, causing diarrhea and
birth in humans interspecific competition |
abdominal pain; for example,
relationship between two
Crohn’s disease or ulcerative
infant | human being between species that depend on the same
colitis
birth and the first birthday limiting resources in their
inheritance of acquired ecosystem
infant mortality rate | annual
characteristics | mistaken idea
number of infant deaths per intrauterine device (IUD) | T-
of Jean Baptiste Lamarck that
1,000 live births in a population, shaped contraceptive structure
evolution occurs through the
often used as a reliable indicator containing copper or a hormone
inheritance of traits that an
of the overall level of health of that is inserted into the uterus by
organism develops in its own
the population a physician and may be left in
life time
place for months or years
infection | invasion of an
innate immune system | subset
organism’s tissues by pathogens intrauterine growth
of the immune system that
restriction (IUGR) |
infectious disease | any disease makes generic attacks such as abnormally slow growth of a
caused by pathogens; also called inflammation against invading fetus, which may be due to
communicable or contagious pathogens maternal, fetal, or placental
disease
insoluble fiber | nondigestible factors
infectious dose | amount of a carbohydrates in food that do intromission | process in which
pathogen that must infect an not dissolve in water but a male’s penis deposits sperm in
organism to cause disease provide bulk and stimulate
a female’s vagina
peristalsis in the digestive tract
inferential statistics | statistics intron | region of DNA or RNA
such as the t-test that help insulin | endocrine hormone that does not code for a protein
researchers interpret data to test secreted by beta cells of the
hypotheses pancreas that normally helps invasive species | species that is
cells take up glucose from the introduced (usually by human
infertility | failure to achieve a blood, thereby decreasing the actions) into a new habitat
successful pregnancy after at blood glucose level where it may out-compete
least one year of regular, native species
unprotected sexual intercourse integumentary system | human
body system that includes the
ion | atom that has gained or lost excess water out of blood and includes three stages: dilation of
electrons so it has more or fewer forms urine the cervical canal, birth of the
electrons than protons and a child, and delivery of the
negative or positive charge kidney failure | loss of the placenta (afterbirth)
ability of nephrons in the kidney
isometric | referring to a muscle to function fully due to a lactase | enzyme needed to
contraction in which muscle progressive kidney disease such digest the milk sugar lactose
tension increases but muscle as diabetic nephropathy or
length remains the same polycystic kidney disease lactase persistence | ability to
produce lactase and digest milk
isotonic | referring to a muscle kidney stone | solid crystal that after early childhood
contraction in which muscle forms in a kidney from minerals
length decreases but muscle such as calcium in urine lactation | production of
tension remains the same breastmilk to feed an infant
kingdom | largest and most
isotope | alternate form of an inclusive taxon in the original lactic acid fermentation | type
atom, with the same number of Linnaean classification system of anaerobic respiration that
protons but a different number includes glycolysis followed by
of neutrons Koch’s postulates | set of four the conversion of pyruvic acid
criteria for identifying the to lactic acid and the formation
jejunum | middle of three parts microorganism that causes a of NAD+
of the large intestine where most particular infectious disease,
absorption of nutrients occurs first proposed by Robert Koch lactose | disaccharide sugar that
in the 19th century makes up 2-8 percent of milk by
joint | structure where two or weight
more bones of the skeleton Krebs cycle | second stage of
come together aerobic respiration in which two lactose intolerance | inability to
pyruvate (pyruvic acid) digest the lactose in milk,
keratin | tough, fibrous protein molecules from the first stage generally because of lack of the
in skin, hair, and nails react to form ATP, NADH, and enzyme lactase
FADH2
keratinocyte | type of epithelial language | communication of
cell found in the skin, hair, and kwashiorkor | severe thoughts and feelings through a
nails that produces keratin undernutrition syndrome caused system of arbitrary symbols
by lack of protein and Calories called words that are
keystone species | species that
and characterized by edema of represented by vocal sounds and
plays an especially important in many cases also by written
the ankles, feet, and abdomen
role in its community so that marks
major changes in its numbers labia (singular | "lips" of the
affect the populations of many vulva, consisting of folds of lanugo | fine, colorless hair that
other species tissue that protect the urethral covers a fetus’s face and body
and vaginal openings until it is shed close to the time
kidney | one of a pair of organs of birth
of the excretory and urinary labor | general term for the
systems that filters wastes and process of childbirth, which large intestine | organ of the
digestive system that removes
water and salts from food waste leukemia | group of cancers of liver | organ of digestion and
and forms solid feces for the blood-forming tissues in excretion that secretes bile for
elimination bone marrow lipid digestion and breaks down
excess amino acids and toxins
larynx | organ of the respiratory leukocyte | white blood cell in the blood
system between the pharynx and produced by bone marrow to
trachea that is also called the fight infections locus | position of a gene on a
voice box because it contains chromosome
the vocal cords that allow the Leydig cell | type of cell found
production of vocal sounds between seminiferous tubules in logistic growth | pattern of
the testes that produces and population growth in which
last universal common secretes testosterone growth slows and population
ancestor (LUCA) | hypothetical size levels off as the population
early cell (or group of cells) that life cycle | series of stages a approaches the carrying
gave rise to all subsequent life sexually reproducing organism capacity
on Earth goes through from one
generation to the next lower gastrointestinal (GI)
lateralization | concentration of tract | part of the GI tract that
particular functions in one life expectancy | average time includes the small and large
hemisphere of the cerebrum of an individual is expected to live, intestines
the brain or the average age at death
lung | one of two paired organs
law of conservation of mass | ligament | band of fibrous of the respiratory system in
law stating that mass is neither connective tissue that holds which gas exchange takes place
created nor destroyed in bones together between the blood and the
chemical reactions atmosphere
limiting factor | any factor that
law of independent constrains the population size of lung cancer | malignant tumor
assortment | Mendel’s second a species in an ecosystem characterized by uncontrolled
law stating that factors cell growth in tissues of the lung
linked genes | genes that are
controlling different
located on the same luteinizing hormone (LH) |
characteristics are inherited
chromosome pituitary gland hormone that
independently of each other
stimulates the testes to secrete
Linnaean classification system
law of segregation | Mendel’s testosterone and the ovaries to
| system of classifying
first law stating that the two secrete estrogen
organisms based on observable
factors controlling a
physical traits; consists of a lymph | fluid that leaks out of
characteristic separate and go to
hierarchy of taxa, from the capillaries into spaces between
different gametes
kingdom to the species cells and circulates in the
leptin | hormone produced vessels of the lymphatic system
lipid | class of biochemical
mainly by fat cells that normally
compounds that includes fats lymph node | one of many
inhibits appetite by inducing a
and oils small structures located along
feeling of satiety
lymphatic vessels where
pathogens are filtered from imbalanced nutrient intake; color and prevents UV light
lymph and destroyed by includes unbalanced nutrition, from penetrating the skin
lymphocytes overnutrition, and
undernutrition melanocyte | special skin cell
lymphatic system | system of that is responsible for producing
the body that produces mammary gland | gland in the melanin
lymphocytes and filters female breast that produces milk
pathogens from lymph and for offspring melanoma | rare but most
blood serious type of skin cancer that
mandible | lower jaw bone affects melanocytes and usually
lymphocyte | type of leukocyte metastasizes if not treated
produced by the lymphatic marasmus | severe form of
system that is a key cell in the undernutrition characterized by melanosome | small organelle
adaptive immune response to a very low weight and caused by in a melanocyte that
specific pathogen or tumor cell extremely low intakes of synthesizes, stores, and
macronutrients and energy transports melanin
macroevolution | evolutionary
change that occurs at or above marine biome | aquatic biome memory cell | lymphocyte (B or
the level of the species, in the salt water of the ocean T cell) that retains a "memory"
generally over many of a specific pathogen after an
mass extinction | extinction infection is over and thus
generations
event in which many if not most provides immunity to the
macronutrient | nutrient such species disappear from Earth pathogen
as carbohydrates, proteins, over a relatively short period of
lipids, or water that is needed by time menarche | beginning of
the body in relatively large menstruation; first monthly
maxilla | one of two fixed bones period in a female
amounts
making up the upper jaw
major histocompatibility Mendelian inheritance |
mechanical digestion | physical inheritance of a trait controlled
complex (MHC) | set of
breakdown of chunks of food by a single gene with two
molecules normally found on
into smaller pieces by organs of alleles, one of which may be
virtually all nucleated human
the digestive system dominant to the other
cells that provide a way for the
immune system to recognize mechanoreceptor | type of
meninges | three-layered
body cells as self sensory receptor that responds membrane that encloses and
to mechanical forces protects the brain and spinal
malaria | common parasitic
disease caused by Plasmodium meiosis | type of cell division in cord and contains cerebrospinal
protozoa and transmitted by which fluid
the number of
Anophelesmosquitoes in tropical chromosomes is reduced by half
menopause | cessation of a
and subtropical regions of the and four haploid cells result
woman’s menstrual cycles,
world
usually by age 52
melanin | brown pigment
malnutrition | poor nutritional produced by melanocytes in the
menstrual cycle | monthly
status due to inadequate or skin that gives skin most of its
cycle of processes and events in
the ovaries and uterus of a metastasis (plural | new cancer mitochondrion (plural |
sexually mature human female that forms at a distant site when organelle in eukaryotic cells that
until menopause cancer cells from a primary makes energy available to the
tumor travel through the cell in the form of ATP
menstruation | process in bloodstream molecules
which the endometrium of the
uterus is shed from the body metastasize | for cancer cells to mitosis | process in which the
during the first several days of travel from a primary tumor nucleus of a eukaryotic cell
the menstrual cycle; also called through the bloodstream and divides
monthly period or menses form a new cancer at a distant
site mixed nerve | nerve of the
mesoderm | middle germ layer peripheral nervous system that
of an embryo that will microevolution | evolutionary contains both sensory and motor
eventually give rise to bone and change that occurs over a neurons so it can transmit
muscle cells relatively short period of time signals to and from the central
within a population nervous system
Mesozoic Era | age of dinosaurs
that lasted from about 245 to 65 micronutrient | nutrient such as model | representation of part of
million years ago a vitamin or mineral that is the real world
needed by the body in relatively
messenger RNA (mRNA) | small amounts model organism | nonhuman
type of RNA that copies genetic species that is extensively
instructions from DNA in the microvillus (plural | one of studied to understand particular
nucleus and carries them to the many tiny projections covering biological phenomena
cytoplasm each villus in the mucosa lining
the small intestine that increases molar | one of twelve teeth with
metabolic syndrome | its absorptive surface cusps in the back of the mouth
condition that includes behind the premolars that are
abdominal obesity, high blood middle adulthood | second used for crushing and grinding
pressure, high blood glucose stage of human adulthood that food
and triglyceride levels, and low lasts from the mid-30s to the
blood HDL levels; major risk mid-60s molecular clock | use of DNA
factor for cardiovascular (or protein) differences to
diseases and type 2 diabetes middle childhood | stage of a measure how long it has been
human organism between early since related species diverged
metabolism | sum of all the childhood and pre-adolescence from a common ancestor
biochemical reactions in an that covers the ages 6 to 10
organism years molecule | smallest part of a
compound that has the
metaphase | second phase of mineral | chemical element properties of that compound
mitosis during which such as calcium or potassium
chromosomes line up at the that is needed in relatively small monoculture | growing the
equator of the cell amounts for proper body same crop repeatedly, which
functioning depletes soil nutrients and may
attract plant pests
monomer | small molecule that muscle contraction | increase myasthenia gravis | genetic
joins together with many others in the tension or decrease in theneuromuscular disorder caused
like it to form a larger molecule length of a muscle that occurs by the immune system blocking
called a polymer when muscle fibers receive a acetylcholine receptors on
nervous stimulus muscle cells and characterized
monosaccharide | simple six- by progressive muscle weakness
carbon sugar, such as glucose, muscle fiber | long-thin muscle and fatigue
that exists alone or as a cell that has the ability to
monomer of a complex contract, or shorten myelin sheath | lipid layer
carbohydrate around the axon of a neuron that
muscle strain | injury in which allows nerve impulses to travel
morphology | form and muscle fibers tear due to more rapidly down the axon
structure of an organism overstretching of a muscle
myocardial infarction (MI) |
morula | solid ball of cells that muscle tissue | tissue made up damage to heart muscle from
forms during cleavage, when a of cells that can contract; death of myocardial cells that
fertilized egg undergoes its first smooth, skeletal, or cardiac occurs when blood flow is
several mitotic divisions muscle tissue blocked to part of the heart; also
called heart attack
motor nerve | nerve of the muscular dystrophy | genetic
peripheral nervous system that neuromuscular disorder caused myocyte | type of muscle cell
transmits information from the by defective proteins in muscle that makes up smooth muscle
central nervous system to cells and characterized by death tissue
muscles, organs, and glands of skeletal muscles and
progressive weakness myopia | vision problem in
motor neuron | type of neuron which distant objects are out of
that carries nerve impulses from muscular system | human body focus but close vision is
the central nervous system to system that includes all the unaffected; also called
muscles and glands; also called muscles of the body nearsightedness
efferent neuron
musculoskeletal disorder | myosin | thick protein filament
mucous membrane | epithelial injury to muscles or tendons in a muscle cell that pulls on a
tissue that lines inner body caused by biomechanical thin actin filament to produce a
surfaces and body openings and stresses muscle contraction
produces mucus
mutagen | environmental factor MyPlate | visual guide for
mucus | slimy substance that causes mutations balanced eating that was created
produced by mucous in 2011 by the US Department
membranes that traps mutation | change in the of Agriculture to replace
pathogens, particles, and debris sequence of bases in DNA or MyPyramid
RNA
multiple allele trait | trait nail | accessory organ of the
controlled by one gene with mutualism | type of symbiotic skin made of sheets of dead
more than two alleles relationship between two
keratinocytes at the distal ends
species in which both species
of the fingers and toes
benefit
nail bed | pink skin under the neonate | newborn infant from control of muscle contractions
nail plate that is visible through birth to the age of four weeks or with muscle cells themselves
the nail
nephron | one of the million neuromuscular junction |
nail matrix | deep layer of tiny structural and functional chemical synapse where a motor
epidermal tissue at the proximal units of the kidney that filters neuron transmits a signal to a
end of a nail where nail growth blood and forms urine muscle fiber to initiate a muscle
occurs contraction
nerve | type of nervous tissue
nail plate | visible part of a nail that consists of many cable-like neuron | functional unit of the
that is external to the skin bundles of axons and makes up nervous system that transmits
the majority of the peripheral nerve impulses; also called
nail root | portion of a nail that nervous system nerve cell
is under the surface of the skin
at the proximal end of the nail nerve impulse | electrical signal neurotransmitter | type of
transmitted by the nervous chemical that carries nerve
nasal cavity | large, air-filled system impulses from the axon of a
space in the skull above and neuron to another cell across the
behind the nose that helps nervous system | human organ synapse
conduct air in and out of the system that transmits electrical
body as part of the upper signals throughout the body to neurulation | process in which
respiratory tract coordinate all of the body’s an embryo develops structures
voluntary and involuntary that will eventually become the
natural gas | naturally activities nervous system
occurring nonrenewable
gaseous fossil fuel consisting nervous tissue | tissue made up niche | role of a species in its
primarily of methane that is less of neurons that carry electrical ecosystem that includes all the
polluting to burn than other messages and glial cells that ways the species interacts with
fossil fuels support neurons the biotic and abiotic factors of
the ecosystem
natural resource | something neural tube | structure that
supplied by nature that helps forms in an embryo and nicotine | highly addictive
support life eventually develops into the psychoactive stimulant drug that
brain and spinal cord is found in tobacco and tobacco
natural selection | force of smoke
evolution in which some living neurogenesis | formation of
things produce more offspring new neurons by cell division nitrogen cycle | biogeochemical
than others so the characteristics cycle through which nitrogen is
of organisms change over time neuroimmune system | part of recycled through the biotic and
the immune system that protects abiotic components of
negative feedback loop | the central nervous system ecosystems
control mechanism that serves
to reduce an excessive response neuromuscular disorder | nitrogen fixation | process of
and keep a variable within its muscle disorder that occurs due changing nitrogen gas to nitrates
normal range to problems with the nervous that is carried out by nitrogen-
fixing bacteria in the soil or in noninfectious disease | any nucleotide | small molecule
the roots of legumes disease caused by genetic and/or containing a sugar, phosphate
environmental factors other than group, and nitrogen base that is
nociceptor | type of sensory pathogens; also called a building block of nucleic acids
receptor that responds to pain noncommunicable disease
nucleus (plural | organelle
node of Ranvier | one of the nonpoint-source pollution | inside eukaryotic cells that
regularly spaced gaps between contamination of the contains most of the cell’s DNA
myelin sheaths along an axon environment by a pollutant that and acts as the control center of
that allow nerve impulses to enters the environment from the cell
travel very rapidly multiple sources
nutrient | substance the body
non-essential nutrient | nonrenewable resource | needs for energy, building
nutrient that can be synthesized natural resource that exists in a materials, or control of body
by the body in sufficient fixed amount and cannot be processes
quantities for normal replenished at all or cannot be
functioning so it does not need replenished quickly enough to nutrient density | how much of
to be obtained from food keep pace with human use of a given nutrient is provided by a
the resource particular food, relative to the
non-Mendelian inheritance | mass of the food or the amount
inheritance of traits that have a normal range | spread of values of Calories it provides
more complex genetic basis around the set point of a
than one gene with two alleles biological variable such as body nutrition | process of taking in
and complete dominance temperature that is considered nutrients in food and using them
insignificant in terms of health for growth, metabolism, and
non-steroid hormone | type of repair
endocrine hormone that is made nuclear energy | nonrenewable
of amino acids and binds with a energy resource produced in a nutrition facts label | label on
receptor on the plasma nuclear power plant by fission packaged food that lists the
membrane of a target cell reactions in a radioactive fuel, nutrient content per serving of
usually uranium the food and also its ingredients
nonbiodegradable | unable to
be broken down in the nuclear force | atomic force obesity | disease in which the
environment by natural holding together protons and body mass index (BMI) is
processes neutrons in the nucleus of an greater than 30.0 kg/m2
atom that is stronger than the
nondisjunction | failure of observation | anything that is
electromagnetic force repelling
replicated chromosomes to detected through human senses
positively charged protons from
separate during meiosis II, or with instruments and
each other
resulting in some gametes with measuring devices that enhance
a missing chromosome (or part nucleic acid | class of human senses
of a chromosome) and some biochemical compounds that
with an extra chromosome (or includes DNA and RNA observational study | type of
part of a chromosome) nonexperimental scientific
investigation in which the
researcher measures performs a particular function, osteoclast | type of bone cell
characteristics in a sample but such as the brain, kidney, or that breaks down bone,
does not attempt to manipulate heart dissolves its minerals, and
or control variables of interest releases them into the blood
organ system | group of organs
occipital lobe | part of each that work together to do a osteocyte | type of bone cell that
hemisphere of the cerebrum that certain job helps regulate the formation and
is dedicated almost solely to breakdown of bone tissue
vision organelle | structure within the
cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell osteogenic cell | type of stem
old age | last stage of human that is enclosed within a cell that can divide and
adulthood that lasts from the membrane and performs a differentiate to form new bone
mid-60s until death specific job cells

olfactory receptor | organic compound | compound osteoporosis | disorder that

chemoreceptor in the nasal found in or derived from living generally occurs in older adults
passages that detects chemicals things that contains mainly in which bones lose minerals,
in the air carbon become brittle, and break easily

omnivore | consumer that eats organism | individual living ovarian cycle | events of the
both plants and animals thing menstrual cycle that occur in the
ovaries, including maturation of
oogenesis | process of organogenesis | process in a follicle, ovulation, and
producing eggs in the ovaries of which organs develop in an development of the corpus
a female fetus embryo luteum
oogonium (plural | diploid osmosis | diffusion of water ovarian follicle | functional unit
stem cell in an ovary that molecules across a membrane of an ovary that consists of a
undergoes mitosis to begin the nest of epithelial cells
process of oogenesis ossification | process in which
surrounding an egg
cartilage is changed into bone
opioid | drug derived from the ovary | one of a pair of female
opium poppy or a synthetic osteoarthritis | joint disorder reproductive organs that
version of such a drug, that results from the breakdown produces eggs and secretes
including heroin and painkillers of joint cartilage and bone, most estrogen
such as codeine, morphine, or often due to wear and tear on
OxyContin joints over-harvesting | use of a
natural resource at an
opportunistic disease | disease osteoblast | type of bone cell unsustainable rate, such as over-
that rarely occurs except in that makes and mineralizes bone fishing or overly intensive use
people with a compromised matrix of soils for farming
immune system, such as people
osteocalcin | endocrine
infected with HIV overpopulation | condition in
hormone secreted by bone cells
which population size is too
organ | structure composed of that helps to regulate blood large to be supported by
more than one type of tissue that glucose and fat deposition
available resources without pancreatic islet | one of host, and causes harm to the
damaging the environment millions of clusters of cells in host while benefitting from the
the pancreas that secrete relationship
ovulation | release of a endocrine hormones such as
secondary oocyte from an ovary insulin and glucagon; also parasitism | symbiotic
about half way through the called islet of Langerhans relationship between two
menstrual cycle species in which one species
pancreatitis | painful (the parasite) benefits while the
oxytocin | endocrine hormone inflammation of the pancreas other species (the host) is
secreted by the pituitary gland due to gallstones, chronic harmed
that functions during childbirth alcohol use, or other cause
to stimulate uterine contractions parasympathetic division |
pandemic | infectious disease division of the autonomic
pacemaker | type of cells in the epidemic that spreads across nervous system that returns the
heart that create electrical multiple populations or body to normal after the fight-
signals to stimulate heart continents or even worldwide or-flight response and maintains
muscles to contract homeostasis at other times
Pangaea | supercontinent that
Paleolithic | "old stone" stage of formed during the Permian parathyroid gland | one of a
human technological Period and included all of pair of small endocrine glands
development that characterized Earth’s major land masses in the neck that secretes
humans starting about 2-5 hormones that regulate blood
million years ago with Homo Pap smear | medical test in calcium
habilis and continued through which cells are scraped from the
early modern Homo sapiens cervix and examined under a parietal lobe | part of each
microscope in order to detect hemisphere of the cerebrum that
paleontologist | scientist who cancer cells if they are present controls touch, reading, and
finds and studies fossils to learn arithmetic
about evolution and understand papillary layer | upper layer of
past life the dermis with papillae Parkinson’s disease |
extending upward into the degenerative brain disorder
Paleozoic Era | age of "old life" epidermis caused by progressive death of
from 544-245 million years ago neurons in the midbrain,
that began with the Cambrian paradigm shift | radical change resulting in muscular symptoms
explosion and ended with the in science in which current of tremor, rigidity, slowness of
Permian extinction theories are abandoned and new movement, and postural
ideas take their place instability
pancreas | dual endocrine and
exocrine gland near the stomach paralysis | loss of sensation and passive immunity | short-term
that secretes insulin and movement in part of the body, immunity to a particular
glucagon, which regulate blood such as may occur with a stroke pathogen that results when
glucose, as well as enzymes that or spinal cord injury antibodies or activated T cells
aid in digestion are transferred to a person who
parasite | species that lives in or
has never been exposed to the
on another species, called the
pathogen
passive transport | movement surface of bones petroleum | naturally occurring
of substances across a plasma nonrenewable liquid fossil fuel
membrane that does not require peripheral artery disease found in reservoirs and rocks
energy (PAD) | narrowing of peripheral below Earth’s surface that is the
arteries, usually in the legs, due world’s primary fuel source for
pathogen | disease-causing to atherosclerosis and generally transportation; also called crude
agent such as a bacterium, virus, causing intermittent pain in the oil
fungus, or protozoan legs when walking
pH | scale that is used to
pectoral girdle | paired peripheral immune system | measure acidity, on which 7 is
clavicles (collar bones) and part of the immune system that neutral, less than 7 is acidic, and
scapulas (shoulder blades) that protects all of the body except greater than 7 is basic
together form the shoulders and for the central nervous system
attach the arms to the trunk; also (which is protected by the phagocytosis | process in which
called shoulder girdle neuroimmune system) certain leukocytes engulf and
break down solid particles such
pedigree | chart showing how a peripheral nervous system as pathogens or debris
trait is passed from generation (PNS) | one of two major
to generation within a family divisions of the nervous system pharmacogenomics | study of
that consists of all the nervous how genetic variation affects
pelvic girdle | paired, fused tissue that lies outside the individual responses to
bones (ilium, pubis, and central nervous system therapeutic drugs
ischium) that form the hips and
attach the legs to the trunk peristalsis | rapid, involuntary, pharynx | tubular organ that
wave-like contractions of connects the mouth and nasal
pelvic inflammatory disease smooth muscles that push food cavity with the larynx and
(PID) | infection that spreads through the gastrointestinal tract through which air and food pass
from the vagina to the upper and urine through the urinary
reproductive organs and may tract phenotype | characteristics of
lead to ectopic pregnancies or an organism that depend on how
infertility permanent teeth | second set of the organism’s genotype is
32 teeth that emerge mainly expressed
penis | male reproductive organ during middle childhood and
containing the urethra, through most of which replace phenotypic plasticity | ability
which semen and urine pass out deciduous (baby) teeth after to change the phenotype in
of the body they are lost; consist of 8 response to changes in the
incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars, environment
peptic ulcer | sore that develops
and 12 molars
in the lining of the stomach or phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) |
duodenum most often caused by Permian extinction | extinction harmless compound that is used
infection with the bacterium event at the end of the Paleozoic to test people for taster status
Helicobacter pylori because it tastes bitter to tasters
Period that was the biggest mass
extinction that had occurred on and has no taste to nontasters
periosteum | tough, fibrous
Earth until then
membrane that covers the outer
phospholipid | type of lipid that physical exercise | any bodily maternal and fetal blood vessels
contains a phosphate group and activity that enhances or through which the mother’s and
is the main component of the maintains physical fitness and embryo’s or fetus’s blood
cell membranes of all living good health exchange substances
things
physiology | study of the placental insufficiency |
phospholipid bilayer | double functioning of the human problem with the placenta that
layer of phospholipid molecules organism causes inadequate transfer of
that makes up a plasma oxygen and nutrients to the
membrane phytochemical | any of a large fetus, causing intrauterine
group of plant chemicals that growth restriction
phosphorus cycle | may be needed in small
biogeochemical cycle in which amounts for good health but are plasma | straw-yellow fluid part
phosphorus is continuously not (yet) classified as nutrients of blood that contains many
recycled through biotic and dissolved substances and blood
abiotic components of pineal gland | endocrine gland cells
ecosystems that secretes the hormone
melanin, which regulates the plasma membrane | double
photic zone | area in an aquatic sleep-wake cycle layer of phospholipids that
biome extending to a maximum surrounds and encloses the
depth of 200 meters that pioneer species | type of species contents of a cell; also called
receives enough sunlight for that first colonizes a disturbed cell membrane
photosynthesis area
Plasmodium falciparum |
photoautotroph | producer that pituitary gland | master gland protozoan parasite that causes
uses energy from sunlight to of the endocrine system that malaria when it infects a human
produce organic molecules by secretes many hormones, the host
photosynthesis majority of which regulate other
endocrine glands platelet | cell fragment in blood
photoreceptor | type of sensory that helps blood clot
receptor that responds to light placebo | "fake" treatment that
actually has no effect on health pleiotropy | situation in which a
photosynthesis | process of and is included in a study to single gene affects more than
using light energy to make control for the placebo effect one trait
organic molecules from
inorganic substances placebo effect | psychologically pneumonia | disease in which
based reaction to a treatment the alveoli of the lungs become
phylogenetic tree | diagram that that occurs just because the inflamed and filled with fluid,
shows how species are related subject is treated, even if the usually as a result of infection,
to each other through common treatment is a placebo that has causing symptoms such as
ancestors no physiological effect on the shortness of breath, coughing,
patient chest pain, and fever
phylogeny | evolutionary
history of a group of related placenta | temporary organ that point mutation | change in a
organisms consists of a large mass of single nucleotide base in a gene
point-source pollution | polymorphism | situation in occurs because of births, deaths,
contamination of the which a gene has two or more and migrations
environment that occurs when alleles in a population at
pollutants enter the environment frequencies greater than 1 population projection |
from a single source percent prediction of future population
growth or size based on
polarity | difference in electrical polynucleotide | chain of small assumptions about future birth
charge between different parts molecules called nucleotides and death rates
of the same molecule that alone or with a
complementary chain makes up population pyramid | bar graph
pollination | fertilization in a nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) that represents the age-sex
plants in which pollen is structure of a population
transferred from one flower to polypeptide | chain of amino
another, often with the help of a acids that alone or with other positive feedback loop | control
pollinator such as a bee such chains makes up a protein mechanism that serves to
intensify a response until an
pollutant | anything that causes polysaccharide | chain of endpoint is reached
pollution, either a substance or a monosaccharides (simple
form of energy sugars) that makes up a posterior pituitary | back lobe
complex carbohydrate (such as of the pituitary gland that stores
pollution | introduction of starch or cellulose) and secretes hypothalamic
contaminants into the natural hormones
environment, leading to adverse population | all the organisms
changes in ecosystems and of the same species that live in pre-adolescence | stage of the
potential damage to human the same area human organism between
health middle childhood and
population density | average adolescence that covers the ages
polycystic kidney disease number of individuals in a 11 to 12 years, during which
(PKD) | genetic disorder in population per unit of area many children start going
which multiple abnormal cysts through puberty
develop and grow in the kidneys population distribution | how
the individuals in a population precipitation | water that falls
polygenic trait | trait controlled are arrayed over the area they from clouds in the atmosphere
by more than one gene, each of inhabit to Earth’s surface in the form of
which may have two or more rain, snow, sleet, hail, or
alleles population genetics | science freezing rain
focusing on the forces of
polymer | large molecule that evolution at the level of allele predation | relationship
consists of many small frequencies in populations between two species in which
repeating units called monomers members of one species (the
population growth rate (r) | predator) consume members of
polymerase chain reaction net change in population size the other species (the prey)
(PCR) | biotechnology process per year per 100 people already
that makes many copies of a present in the population that predator | species that
gene or other DNA segment consumes the other species (the
prey) in a predatory relationship neurodegenerative disease such provides nourishing substances
as mad cow disease or kuru to sperm
pregnancy | carrying of one or
more offspring from fertilization producer | organism that protein | class of biochemical
until birth produces food for itself and compounds made of amino
other organisms acids, with complex structures
premolar | one of eight cusped and diverse functions
teeth in the sides of the jaws product | substance that forms
between the canine teeth and as the result of a chemical protein synthesis | process in
molars that are used for reaction which cells make proteins that
crushing food includes transcription of DNA
progesterone | female sex and translation of mRNA
presbyopia | common vision hormone secreted mainly by the
problem associated with aging ovaries that helps maintain a protist | any member of the
in which the eye gradually loses successful pregnancy Protist Kingdom, the kingdom
its ability to focus on close in the Eukarya Domain that
objects prokaryote | single-celled includes all eukaryotes except
organism that lacks a nucleus plants, animals, and fungi
preschool stage | second part of
early childhood that covers the prokaryotic cell | living cell
proto-oncogene | gene that
ages 4 to 5 years without a nucleus normally promotes growth and
reproduction of cells but may
prey | species that is consumed promoter | region of a gene cause cancer if it mutates and
by the other species (the where RNA polymerase binds becomes an oncogene
predator) in a predatory to initiate transcription of the
relationship gene protozoan (plural | animal-like,
single-celled protist such as
primary pollutant |prophase | first phase of mitosis
Giardia or Plasmodium species,
contaminant that is released during which chromatin
both of which are common
directly into the environment condenses into chromosomes,
human parasites
from the source(s) of pollution the nuclear envelope breaks
down, centrioles separate, and a pseudoscience | claim, belief, or
primary succession | change spindle begins to form practice that is presented as
over time in the numbers and scientific but does not adhere to
types of species that live in an prosimian | any non-anthropoid the standards and methods of
area that was never before primate; lemur, loris, or tarsier science
colonized by living things
prostate cancer | tumor in the
psychoactive drug | drug that
primate | any member of the prostate gland of the male affects the central nervous
Primate Order of mammals, in reproductive system that is the system, generally by influencing
which the human species is most common type of cancer in neurotransmitters in the brain
placed men
puberty | period during which
prion | infectious agent prostate gland | gland in the humans become sexually
composed entirely of proteins male reproductive system that mature
that may cause a fatal secretes fluid into semen and
pulmonary circulation | part of radiation therapy | treatment not the brain; in infants, may
the cardiovascular system that of cancer using ionizing refer to one of several
carries blood between the heart radiation such as X rays to kill instinctive behaviors, such as
and lungs cancerous tissues crying and sucking, that help an
infant survive
punctuated equilibrium | radon | radioactive gas from
model of the timing of evolution underground rocks that may regulatory element | region of
in which long periods of little cause lung cancer DNA where a regulatory protein
evolutionary change are binds
interrupted by bursts of rapid reactant | starting substance in
evolutionary change a chemical reaction regulatory protein | protein
that regulates gene expression
Punnett square | chart for reading frame | grouping of
determining the expected nitrogen bases in DNA into relative dating | method of
percentages of different three-base codons dating fossils by their location
genotypes in the offspring of in rock layers that determines
receptor | protein on a cell which fossils are older or
two parents
membrane that binds with a younger but not their age in
pyruvate kinase (PK) | enzyme hormone, neurotransmitter, or years
needed for ATP production in other chemical
red blood cells, deficiency in renal pelvis | funnel-like end of
recessive | referring to an allele a ureter where it enters the
which is a genetic adaptation to
that is masked by the presence kidney and where urine collects
malaria
of another allele for the same before it is transported through
qualitative data | data that are gene when they occur together the ureter
expressed in words in a heterozygote; or referring to
a trait controlled by such an renal tubule | tubular structure
quantitative data | data that are allele of a nephron in a kidney
expressed in numbers through which filtered
recombinant DNA | DNA that substances pass and where some
race | discrete category within results when DNA from two filtered substances are
the human species that groups organisms is combined reabsorbed by the blood and
together individuals based on a additional substances are
few readily observable traits rectum | short part of the large
secreted from the blood
such as skin color and hair intestine between the colon and
texture anus where feces is stored until renewable resource | natural
it is eliminated through the anus resource that can be replenished
racism | association of racial by natural processes as quickly
traits such as skin color with red blood cell | type of cell in
as humans use it
unrelated traits such as blood that contains hemoglobin
intelligence, often leading to and carries oxygen replacement fertility rate |
prejudice and discrimination fertility rate at which women
reflex | rapid motor response to
against people based only on average only enough children
a sensory stimulus in which
how they look by the end of their reproductive
nerve impulses travel in an arc
that includes the spinal cord but
years to replace themselves and that is not actively transmitting causes a characteristic ring-
their partner in the population a nerve impulse shaped rash

replication | reproducing a reticular layer | lower layer of RNA (ribonucleic acid) |

scientific investigation and the dermis that gives the dermis single-stranded nucleic acid that
getting the same result strength and elasticity and helps make proteins
contains many dermal structures
reproduction | process by such as glands and hair follicles RNA world hypothesis |
which living things give rise to hypothesis that RNA was the
offspring retina | layer of photoreceptor first biochemical molecule to
cells at the back of the eye, evolve and that early life was
reproductive system | organ including rods that are based on RNA, rather than
system responsible for the particularly sensitive to dim DNA or proteins
production and fertilization of light and cones that are sensitive
gametes and, in females, the to light of different colors runoff | precipitation that falls
carrying of a fetus on land and flows over the
Rhesus (Rh) blood group surface of the ground
reservoir | part of a system | system of blood cell
biogeochemical cycle that holds antigens controlled by two saliva | fluid secreted by
an element or water for a long genes with many alleles on salivary glands that keeps the
period of time chromosome 1, producing five mouth moist and contains the
common antigens of which the digestive enzymes amylase and
respiration | exchange of gases lipase
main antigen is the D (Rh+)
between the body and the
antigen
outside air salivary gland | one of many
ribcage | bony "cage" enclosing exocrine glands in the mouth
respiratory center | one of
the thoracic cavity and that secrete saliva into the
several areas in the medulla and
consisting of the ribs, thoracic mouth through ducts
pons of the brain stem that help
vertebrae, and sternum
control unconscious breathing sample | individuals or events
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) | type that are actually selected for
respiratory system | organ
of RNA that helps form study in an experiment or other
system that brings oxygen into
ribosomes and assemble scientific investigation and
the body and releases carbon generally are a subset of all
proteins
dioxide and other waste gases possible cases that could be
into the atmosphere ribosome | organelle inside all selected for study
cells where proteins are made
respiratory tract | continuous sarcomere | basic functional
system of passages through rickets | disorder in children unit of skeletal and cardiac
which air flows into and out of caused by vitamin D deficiency muscles, containing actin and
the body and characterized by soft, weak myosin protein filaments that
bones and skeletal deformities slide over one another to
resting potential | difference in
produce a shortening of the
electrical charge across the ringworm | skin infection by sarcomere and a muscle
plasma membrane of a neuron the fungus Trichophyton that contraction
sarcopenia | gradual decrease in hypothesis, testing the types of species that live in an
the ability to maintain skeletal hypothesis, drawing area that was previously
muscle mass that occurs in later conclusions, and colonized by living things but
adulthood communicating results has been disturbed

saturated fatty acid | simple scientific racism | ideology secondhand smoke | smoke
lipid molecule in which a chain popular until the early 20th that enters the air from burning
of carbon atoms is bonded to as century that race is a valid cigarettes or from the lungs of
many hydrogen atoms as biological concept and that smokers
possible because adjacent human behavior is partly
carbon atoms in the chain share determined by race semen | fluid containing sperm
only single bonds and glandular secretions, which
scientific theory | broad nourishes sperm and carries
savanna hypothesis | explanation that is widely them through the urethra and
hypothesis that many human accepted because it is strongly out of the body
traits such as upright bipedalism supported by a great deal of
evolved as adaptations to a evidence seminal vesicle | one of a pair
savanna habitat of glands of the male
scrotum | pouch-like external reproductive system that
scavenger | decomposer that structure of the male secretes fluid into semen
consumes the soft tissues of reproductive system, located
dead animals such as the behind the penis, that contains seminiferous tubule | one of
remains of a predator’s kill the testes, epididymes, and part the many tiny tubes contained
of the vas deferens within the testes where sperm
science | distinctive way of are produced
gaining knowledge about the sebaceous gland | gland in the
natural world that tries to dermis of the skin that produces sensor | component of a
answer questions with evidence sebum, an oily substance that homeostatic mechanism that
and logic waterproofs the skin and hair senses the value of a variable
and sends data on it to the
scientific investigation | plan secondary pollutant | control center
for asking questions and testing contaminant in the environment
possible answers to them using that forms when primary sensory nerve | nerve of the
evidence and logic pollutants react after being peripheral nervous system that
released into the environment transmits information from
scientific law | statement sensory receptors in the body to
describing what always happens secondary sex characteristic | the central nervous system
under certain conditions in trait that is different in males
nature and females but is not directly sensory neuron | type of neuron
involved in reproduction, such that carries nerve impulses from
scientific method | process as male facial hair and female sensory receptors in tissues and
typically followed in a scientific breasts organs to the central nervous
investigation that includes such system; also called afferent
steps as making observations, secondary succession | change neuron
asking a question, forming a over time in the numbers and
sensory receptor | specialized sexually transmitted infection includes bones of the cranium
nerve cell that responds to a (STI) | infection caused by a and face
particular type of stimulus such pathogen that spreads mainly
as light or chemicals by through sexual contact; also sleep apnea | disorder
generating a nerve impulse called sexually transmitted characterized by pauses in
disease (STD) breathing during sleep, usually
Sertoli cell | type of cell that because of physical blockage of
lines the seminiferous tubules in single nucleotide air flow
the testes and plays several roles polymorphism (SNP) |
in sperm production variation in just one nucleotide sliding filament theory | theory
in alleles that are present in a that explains muscle contraction
set point | physiologically population at frequencies by the sliding of myosin
optimum value for a given greater than 1 percent filaments over actin filaments
biological variable such as body within muscle fibers
temperature sinus rhythm | normal,
rhythmical beating of the heart slow-twitch muscle fiber | type
sex chromosome | X or Y of skeletal muscle cell that is
chromosome sixth mass extinction | current mainly responsible for aerobic
mass extinction caused activities such as long-distance
sex hormone | endocrine primarily by habitat loss due to running
hormone secreted mainly by human actions
gonads that controls sexual small intestine | long, narrow,
development and reproduction skeletal muscle | voluntary, tube-like organ of the digestive
striated muscle that is attached system where most chemical
sex ratio | number of males per to bones of the skeleton and digestion of food and virtually
100 females in a population helps the body move all absorption of nutrients take
place
sex-linked gene | gene located skeletal system | human body
on a sex chromosome system that consists of all the smooth muscle | involuntary,
bones of the body as well as nonstriated muscle that is found
sex-linked trait | trait
cartilage and ligaments and in the walls of internal organs
controlled by a gene located on
provides an internal framework such as the stomach
a sex chromosome
for the body
sodium-potassium pump |
sexual dimorphism |
skin | major organ of the active transport mechanism in
differences between the
integumentary system that which sodium ions are pumped
phenotypes of males and
covers and protects the body out of a cell and potassium ions
females of the same species
and helps maintain homeostasis, are pumped into the cell with
sexual reproduction | type of for example, by regulating body the help of a carrier protein and
reproduction that involves the temperature energy from ATP
fertilization of gametes
skull | part of the human soil | mixture of eroded rock,
produced by two parents and
skeleton that provides a bony minerals, organic matter, and
produces genetically variable
framework for the head and other materials that is essential
offspring
for plant growth and forms the
foundation of terrestrial and produce fertile offspring stabilizing selection | type of
ecosystems together natural selection for a polygenic
trait in which phenotypes at
soluble fiber | nondigestible sperm | gamete produced by a both extremes of the phenotypic
carbohydrates in food that male organism distribution are selected against,
dissolve in water and slow the resulting in a narrowing of the
absorption of nutrients from the spermatogenesis | process of range of phenotypic variation
GI tract, thereby reducing producing sperm in the testes
insulin spikes starch | type of complex
spermatogonium (plural |
carbohydrate (polysaccharide)
somatic mutation | mutation diploid stem cell in a testis that that plants use to store energy
that occurs in a cell of the body undergoes mitosis to begin the
other than a gamete process of spermatogenesis stem cell | undifferentiated cell
that can develop into specialized
somatic nervous system | sphincter | ring of muscles that types of cells
division of the peripheral can contract to close off an
nervous system that controls opening between structures, sterilization | surgical
voluntary activities such as between the esophagus procedure that is generally
and stomach irreversible and that makes it
somatostatin | endocrine impossible for a woman to
hormone produced by the spinal cavity | long, narrow become pregnant or for a man to
pancreas that inhibits the body cavity inside the vertebral ejaculate viable, motile sperm
production of growth hormone column that runs the length of
by the pituitary and the the trunk and contains the spinal steroid | type of lipid with a
secretion of insulin and cord ring structure, such as
glucagon by the pancreas cholesterol or a sex hormone
spinal cord | thin, tubular
special sense | sense such as bundle of nervous tissue that steroid hormone | type of
vision or hearing that has extends from the brainstem endocrine hormone that is made
special sense organs that gather down the back to the pelvis and of lipids and crosses the plasma
sensory information and change connects the brain with the membrane to bind with a
it into nerve impulses peripheral nervous system receptor inside a target cell

specialization | evolution of spleen | secondary organ of the stimulant | type of psychoactive

different adaptations inlymphatic system where blood drug that stimulates the brain
competing species, which and lymph are filtered and increases alertness and
allows them to live in the same wakefulness
spongy bone | light-weight,
area without competing
porous inner layer of bone that stimulus | something that
speciation | process by which a contains bone marrow triggers a behavior or other
new species evolves response
squamous cell carcinoma |
species | group of organisms common type of skin cancer stomach | sac-like organ of the
that are similar enough to mate that affects squamous cells in digestive system between the
the epidermis and rarely esophagus and small intestine in
metastasizes
which both mechanical and sustainable use | use of a cavity separates bones at the
chemical digestion take place natural resource in a way that joint
meets the needs of the present
stroke | cerebrovascular and also preserves the resource syphilis | sexually transmitted
accident in which a broken for use by future generations infection caused by the
artery or blood clot results in bacterium Treponema pallidum
lack of blood flow to part of the sweat | salty fluid secreted into that may eventually be fatal if
brain, causing death of brain ducts by sweat glands in the untreated
cells dermis that excretes wastes and
helps cool the body; also called systemic circulation | part of
stunting | growth deficit perspiration the cardiovascular system that
diagnosed in children who are at carries blood between the heart
least two standard deviations sweat gland | exocrine gland in and body
below the median height for the dermis of the skin that
their age in a reference produces the salty fluid called systole | part of a heartbeat in
population sweat through a duct to the skin which the atria relax and fill
surface with blood from the lungs and
subsistence strategy | general body, while the ventricles
way in which a group of people symbiosis | close relationship contract and pump blood out of
obtain food and the types of between organisms in two the heart
food they rely on most, such as different species in which at
hunting and gathering, farming, least one of the organisms T cell | type of lymphocyte that
or fishing benefits from the relationship; kills infected or cancerous cells
mutualism, commensalism, or (killer T cell) or helps regulate
substrate | specific substance parasitism the immune response (helper T
acted upon by a given enzyme cell)
sympathetic division | division
sugar | short-chain soluble of the autonomic nervous T3 (triiodothyronine) |
carbohydrate that is found in system that controls the fight- endocrine hormone secreted by
many foods, tastes sweet, and or-flight response the thyroid gland that increases
provides quick energy the rate of metabolism in cells
sympatric speciation | throughout the body
sunburn | reddening of the skin evolution of a new species that
that occurs when the outer layer occurs without geographic T4 (thyroxine) | endocrine
of the skin is damaged by UV separation first occurring hormone secreted by the thyroid
light from the sun or tanning between members of an original gland that increases the rate of
lamps species metabolism in cells throughout
the body
surrogate mother | woman who synapse | space between the
agrees to become pregnant axon terminal of a neuron and target cell | type of cell on
using a man’s sperm and her an adjoining cell which a particular hormone has
own egg, carries the fetus to an effect because it has receptor
term, and then gives up the baby synovial joint | movable joint in molecules for the hormone
at birth for adoption by the which a fluid-filled synovial
sperm donor and his partner
taste bud | small structure on terrestrial biome | any land- because they allowed people to
the tongue containing based biome burn fewer Calories and store
chemoreceptor cells that sense the rest as body fat, which
chemicals in food testicular cancer | cancer of the would help them survive
testes, which is relatively famines
TATA box | regulatory element common in young men
that is part of the promotor of thymus | organ of the lymphatic
most eukaryotic genes testis (plural | one of two male system where lymphocytes
reproductive organs that called T cells mature
taxon (plural | level of produce sperm and secrete
organization in a biological testosterone; male gonad thyroid gland | large endocrine
classification system such as the gland in the neck whose
Linnaean system; for example, testosterone | male sex hormones control the rate of
species or genus hormone secreted mainly by the cellular metabolism and help
testes maintain calcium homeostasis
taxonomy | science of
classifying organisms thalamus | part of the inner tissue | group of cells, generally
brain that is a major hub for of the same kind, that perform a
teething | emergence of nerve impulses traveling back particular function in an
deciduous (baby) teeth during and forth between the cerebrum organism
infancy and early childhood and spinal cord
toddlerhood | first part of early
telomere | region of repetitive thalassemia | type of inherited childhood that covers the ages 1
nucleotide sequences at the end anemia caused by abnormal to 3 years
of a chromosome that becomes hemoglobin that is a genetic
shorter each time a cell divides adaptation to malaria in the tonsil | one of four paired
Mediterranean region, parts of secondary lymphatic organs that
telophase | last stage of mitosis Africa, and South and Southeast encircle the inner throat and
during which chromosomes Asia filter pathogens out of lymph
uncoil to form chromatin, the
spindle breaks down, and new thermal pollution | pollution by touch | ability to sense pressure,
nuclear membranes form heat energy, typically occurring vibration, temperature, pain, and
when heated water is discharged other tactile stimuli
temporal lobe | part of each into a river or lake
hemisphere of the cerebrum that toxoplasmosis | common
controls hearing, memories, and thermoreceptor | type of parasitic disease that may be a
sensations sensory receptor that senses selective agent maintaining both
temperature Rhesus-positive (Rh+) and
tendinitis | inflammation of a -
Rhesus-negative (Rh ) blood
tendon when it is over-extended thoracic cavity | body cavity in type alleles in human
or worked too hard without rest the chest that holds the lungs populations
and heart
tendon | tough connective tissue trachea | tubular organ of the
that attaches skeletal muscle to thrifty gene hypothesis | idea respiratory system that carries
bones that "thrifty genes" evolved in
some human populations
air between the larynx and that is caused by the protozoan type 2 diabetes | multifactorial
bronchi; also called windpipe parasite Trichomonas vaginalis disorder in which a combination
of insulin resistance and
trans fat | type of harmful, triglyceride | type of lipid that impaired insulin production lead
artificial fat that is added to contains glycerol and makes up to loss of glucose control and
some foods to help preserve body fat in animals high levels of blood glucose
freshness and improve taste
trimester | one of three, typology | system of discrete
transcription | process in which approximately three-month categories, such as races, that
genetic instructions in DNA are periods into which a pregnancy are sometimes used for
copied to form a complementary is divided classifying variation
strand of mRNA
trophic level | feeding position ulcerative colitis |
transfer RNA (tRNA) | type of in a food chain or food web, inflammatory bowel disease that
RNA that brings amino acids to such as producer, primary causes ulcers (sores) in the
ribosomes where they are joined consumer, or secondary colon and rectum
together to form proteins consumer
umbilical cord | long, narrow
transgenic crop | crop that has trophoblast | outer cell layer of conduit containing two arteries
been genetically modified with a blastocyst that implants in the and a vein that connects an
new genes that code for traits uterus and eventually develops embryo or fetus to the placenta
useful to humans into the fetal portion of the
placenta undernutrition | insufficient
translation | process in which intake of nutrients, generally
genetic instructions in mRNA tubal ligation | surgical leading to an individual being
are "read" to synthesize a sterilization procedure in underweight for height (in
protein females in which the Fallopian adults) or underweight for age
tubes are blocked so sperm (in children)
transpiration | process in cannot reach and fertilize an egg
which plants give off water universal donor | individual
vapor through tiny pores, called tumor | abnormal mass of cells with type O blood in the ABO
stomata, in their leaves that may be cancerous blood group system who can
donate blood to people of any
transport protein | protein in a tumor-suppressor gene | gene
ABO blood type
cell membrane that helps other that normally inhibits division
substances cross the membrane of abnormal cells and may universal recipient | individual
to enter or leave the cell cause cancer if it mutates with type AB blood in the ABO
blood group system who can
tribe | taxon between the type 1 diabetes | autoimmune
receive a blood donation from
subfamily and genus in the disorder in which the immune
people of any ABO blood type
Linnaean system of system destroys insulin-
classification secreting beta cells in the unsaturated fatty acid | simple
pancreas, leading to loss of lipid molecule in which carbon
trichomoniasis | common, glucose control and high levels
atoms are not bonded to as
sexually transmitted infection of blood glucose
many hydrogen atoms as
possible because some adjacent urinary system | organ system baby to leave the mother’s body
carbon atoms in the chain share that includes the kidneys, during birth
double or even triple bonds ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra and that is responsible vaginitis | inflammation of the
upper gastrointestinal (GI) for filtering waste products and vagina usually caused by an
tract | part of the excess water from the blood and infection with microbes
gastrointestinal tract that excreting them from the body in
includes the mouth, pharynx, urine variability-selection
esophagus, and stomach hypothesis | idea that hominins
urination | process in which evolved greater adaptability in
urbanization | shift in urine leaves the body through response to climate change
population from rural to urban the external urethral orifice rather than evolving
areas, which is the process by specializations for a particular
which cities form and grow urine | liquid waste product of climate
the body that is formed by the
urea | waste product of protein kidneys and excreted by the vas deferens | one of a pair of
catabolism that is mainly other organs of the urinary thin tubes that transports sperm
filtered from blood in the system from an epididymis to an
kidneys and excreted in urine ejaculatory duct during
uterine cycle | events of the ejaculation; also called sperm
ureter | muscular, tube-like menstrual cycle that occur in the duct
organ of the urinary system that uterus, including menses and
moves urine by peristalsis from the buildup of the endometrium vasectomy | surgical
a kidney to the bladder sterilization procedure in males
uterus (plural | female in which the vas deferens are
urethra | tube-like organ of the reproductive organ in which blocked so sperm cannot be
urinary system that carries urine first an embryo and then a fetus ejaculated
out of the body from the bladder grows and develops until birth
and, in males, also carries vasoconstriction | narrowing of
semen out of the body vaccine | substance containing a blood vessels so less blood can
modified pathogen that does not flow through them
uric acid | waste product of cause disease but provokes an
nucleic acid catabolism that is adaptive immune response, vasodilation | widening of
mainly filtered from blood by resulting in immunity to the blood vessels so more blood can
the kidneys and excreted in pathogen flow through them
urine
vacuole | large sac-like vector | organisms such as an
urinary bladder | sac-like organelle that stores and insect that spreads pathogens
organ that stores urine until it is transports materials inside a cell from host to host
excreted from the body
vagina | female reproductive vein | type of blood vessel that
urinary incontinence | organ that receives sperm carries blood toward the heart
common chronic problem of during sexual intercourse and from the lungs or body
uncontrolled leakage of urine provides a passageway for a
ventilation | process of moving
air into and out of the lungs;
also called breathing mucous membrane that form a wetland | area that is saturated
large surface area for absorption with water or covered by water
ventral cavity | major human for at least one season of the
body cavity at the anterior viral load | amount of virus in a year and has plants that can
(front) of the trunk that contains sample of an infected grow in water-logged soil
such organs as the lungs, heart, individual’s blood
stomach, intestines, and internal white blood cell | type of cell in
reproductive organs virus | tiny, nonliving particle blood that defends the body
that contains DNA but lacks against invading
ventricle | one of two lower other characteristics of living microorganisms or other threats
chambers of the heart that cells and may cause human in blood or extracellular fluid
pumps blood out of the heart disease
white matter | type of nervous
vernix | thick waxy coating that vision | ability to sense light and tissue that is found only in the
forms on a fetus to protect the see; also called sight brain and spinal cord and that
skin and that mostly disappears connects and facilitates
by birth vitamin | organic compound
communication between gray
needed in small amounts for
matter areas
vertebra (plural | one of 33 proper body functioning
small bones that make up the withdrawal | contraceptive
vertebral column vitamin D | micronutrient
method with a high failure rate
synthesized in the skin and
in which a man withdraws his
vertebral column | flexible needed to absorb calcium for
penis from his partner’s vagina
column of vertebrae that strong bones
before ejaculation occurs; also
connects the trunk to the skull
called coitus interruptus
and encloses the spinal cord; vulva | external female
also called spine or backbone reproductive structures,
X-linked gene | gene located on
including the clitoris, labia, and
the X chromosome
vesicle | small sac-like organelle vaginal and urethral openings
that stores and transports X-linked trait | trait controlled
materials inside a cell wasting | dangerously low
by a gene located on the X
levels of body fat and muscle
chromosome
vesicle transport | type of mass, usually due to severe
active transport in which undernutrition yolk sac | membranous sac
substances are carried across a attached to an embryo that
cell membrane by vesicles water cycle | biogeochemical
provides a source of nutrients to
cycle through which water is
the early embryo and becomes
vestigial structure | structure recycled on, above, and below
part of the primitive gut
such as the human tailbone or Earth’s surface; also called
appendix that evolution has hydrological cycle zero population growth (ZPG)
reduced in size because it is no | equilibrium condition in which
longer needed Wernicke’s area | speech center
the human population is neither
in the brain that controls the
increasing nor decreasing in size
villi (singular | microscopic, ability to comprehend speech
because the birth rate equals the
finger-like projections in a
death rate
zona pellucida | protein layer zoonosis (plural | >infectious zygote | diploid cell that forms
surrounding the cell membrane disease of nonhuman animals when two haploid gametes unite
of a human egg that can be transmitted to during fertilization
humans