Research Process

Preparing Research Design

Research Design

 Research design is the conceptual

structure within which research would
be conducted.
 The function of research design is the
collection of relevant information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money.
 It includes all practical details followed
for your research (including methods for
data collection, sample design, data
collection tools, data analysis methods).
Research Design (Conti…)

 The preparation of research design,

appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves the consideration of the following :
 Objectives of research study (discussed earlier)

 Methods of Data Collection

 Sources of information – sample design

 Tool(s) for Data Collection

 Data Analysis method – qualitative vs quantitative

Methods of Data Collection

 Depending upon the nature of

research, following different data
collection methods can be adopted:
 Observation Method

 Survey Method

 Experimental Method
Observation Method
 Commonly used in behavioral sciences.

 It is the gathering of primary data by investigator‟s

own direct observation of relevant people, actions
and situations without asking from the respondent.

 Observation can yield information which people are

normally unwilling or unable to provide.

 Limitations- Feelings, beliefs and attitude can

influence observation. Expensive method.

 Due to these limitations researchers often

supplement observation with survey method.
Survey Method
 This approach is mostly suited for gathering
descriptive information.
 Surveys may be structured or unstructured.
 Structured Surveys: use formal lists of questions
asked of all respondents in the same way.
 Unstructured Surveys: let the interviewer
probe respondents and guide the interview
according to their answers.
Survey Method (Conti…)
 Survey research may be Direct or Indirect.
 Direct Approach: The researcher asks direct
questions about behaviors and thoughts. e.g.
Why don‟t you use Agile methodology for
software development?
 Indirect Approach: The researcher might ask:
“What level of people prefer Agile
methodology?”
Survey Method (Conti…)
 From the response, the researcher may be able
to discover why the people avoid Agile
methodology. It may suggest factors of which
the developers are not consciously aware.
 Information from respondents may be collected
by: mail, telephone, or personal interviews
 Advantages
 can be used to collect many different kinds of
information

 quick and low cost as compared to observation and

experimental method.
Personal Interviews
 Very flexible and can collect large amount of
information
 Trained interviewers can easily clarify difficult
questions to respondents
 Can be conducted individually (Intercept
Interviewing) or in groups (Focus Group
Interviewing)
 In case of Intercept interviewing, there might
be chances of error, biasness and uncomfort on
part of interviewer due to ethnicity or age
groups.
Focus Group Interviewing
 rapidly becoming one of the major research
tool to understand people‟s thoughts and
feelings
 usually conducted by inviting six to ten people
to gather for a few hours with a trained
moderator to talk about a topic of interest
 The moderator needs objectivity, knowledge of
the subject and industry, and some
understanding of group
Focus Group Interviewing
(Conti…)
 The moderator starts with a broad question
before moving to more specific issues,
encouraging open and easy discussion to bring
out true feelings and thoughts
 Comments are recorded through note taking or
videotaped and studied later to understand
respondents responses
 Generalization of results from small groups may
be difficult
Mail Questionnaires
 Advantages
 can be used to collect large amounts of information
at a low cost per respondent.

 respondents may give more honest answers to

personal questions on a mail questionnaire

 no interviewer is involved to bias the respondent‟s

answers.

 convenient for respondent‟s who can answer when

they have time
Mail Questionnaires (Conti…)
 Limitations
 not flexible

 take longer to complete than telephone or personal

interview

 response rate is often very low

 researcher has no control over who answers.

Telephonic Interviews
 Advantages
 quick method

 more flexible as interviewer can explain questions

not understood by the respondent

 depending on respondent‟s answer they can skip

some Qs and probe more on others

 allows greater sample control

 response rate tends to be higher than mail

Telephonic Interviews
(Conti…)
 Limitations
 Cost per respondent higher

 Some people may not want to discuss personal Qs

with interviewer

 Interviewer‟s manner of speaking may affect the

respondent‟s answers

 Different interviewers may interpret and record

response in a variety of ways

 under time pressure, data may be entered without

actually interviewing
Telephonic Interviews
(Conti…)
 Limitations
 Cost per respondent higher

 Some people may not want to discuss personal Qs

with interviewer

 Interviewer‟s manner of speaking may affect the

respondent‟s answers

 Different interviewers may interpret and record

response in a variety of ways

 under time pressure, data may be entered without

actually interviewing
Experimental Method
 Also called Empirical Research or Cause and
Effect Method.
 It is a data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which can be verified with observation or
experiments.

 Experimental research is appropriate when proof is

sought that certain variables affect other variables in
some way.

 e.g., Data aggregation (independent variable) can

greatly reduce communication overhead (dependent
variable) and nodes‟ energy resource.
Experimental Method (Conti…)
 Such research is characterized by the
experimenter‟s control over the variables under
study and the deliberate manipulation of one of
them to study its effects.
 In such a research, it is necessary to get at facts first
hand, at their source, and actively go about doing
certain things to stimulate the production of desired
information (results).

 Experiments must be rigorously conducted (all possible

scenarios).
Experimental Method (Conti…)
 Researchers must provide themselves with
working hypothesis or guess as to get to the
probable results.
 Then work to get enough facts (data) to prove or
disprove the hypothesis.

 Researchers then set up experimental designs which

they think will manipulate the system under
investigation so as to bring forth the desired
information.

 Evidence gathered through experimental or

empirical studies today is considered to be the most
powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
Determining Sample Design

 Researchers usually draw conclusions about large

groups by taking a sample.

 A Sample is a segment of the population selected to

represent the population as a whole.

 Ideally, the sample should be representative and allow

the researcher to make accurate estimates of the
thoughts and behavior of the larger population.

 Fair representations should be given to people from

different categories (age, gender, ethnicitiy)
Determining Sample Design
(Conti…)
Designing the sample calls for three decisions:

 Who will be surveyed? ( The Sample)

 The researcher must determine what type of information is
needed and who is most likely to have it.

 How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size)

 Large samples give more reliable results than small samples.

 However it is not necessary to sample the entire target

population.
Determining Sample Design
(Conti…)
 How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling)
 Sample members may be chosen at random from the
entire population (probability sample)

 The researcher might select people who are easier

to obtain information from (non-probability sample)
Guidelines to Construct a
Research Tool
 The underlying principle behind the guidelines
suggested below is to ensure the validity of
your instrument by making sure that your
questions relate to the objectives of your
study:
 Step I: Clearly define and individually list all the
specific Objectives or research Questions for your
study.

 Step II: For each objective or research questions,

list all the associated questions that you want to
answer through your study.
Guidelines to Construct a
Research Tool (Conti…)
 StepIII: Take each research question listed in step II
and list the information required to answer it.

 Step IV: Formulate question(s) for your

questionnaire to obtain this information.
The Questionnaire
 Structured surveys/interviews employ the use of a
questionnaire.

 A questionnaire consists of a set of questions

presented to a respondent for answers. The
respondents read the questions, interpret what is
expected and then write down the answers
themselves.

 It is called an Interview Schedule when the

researcher asks the questions (and if necessary,
explain them) and record the respondent‟s reply on
the interview schedule.
The Questionnaire (Conti…)
 Questionnaire should be developed and tested
carefully before being used on a large scale.
 Types of Questionnaire:
 Close-Ended

 Open-Ended

 Hybrid (combination of both)

Close-Ended Questionnaire
 Closed ended questions include all possible
answers/prewritten response categories, and
respondents are asked to choose among them. e.g
multiple choice questions, scale questions.

 Type of questions used to generate statistics in

quantitative research.

 As these follow a set format, and most responses

can be entered easily into a computer for ease of
analysis, greater numbers can be distributed.
Open-Ended Questionnaire
 Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer
in their own words.

 Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but

instead leaves a blank section for the respondents
to write in an answer.

 Whereas closed–ended questionnaires might be

used to find out how many people use a service,
open-ended questionnaires might be used to find
out what people think about a service.
Hybrid Questionnaire
 Combination of both close-ended and open-
ended.
 This way it is possible to find out how many
people use a service and what they think of the
service in the same form.
 Begins with a series of closed–ended questions,
with boxes to tick or scales to rank, and then
finish with a section of open-ended questions or
more detailed response.
How to Construct
Questionnaire?
 Decide which type of questionnaire to use and who
will administer it (self or interviewer).

 Wording and structuring of questionnaire should be

carefully carried out.

 Questions should be kept short and simple--avoid

double barreled i.e. two questions in one – ask two
Qs rather than one if necessary.

 Avoid negative questions which have ”not” in them

as it creates confusion for respondent to agree or
disagree.
How to Construct
Questionnaire? (Conti…)
 Question should not contain Prestige Bias – causing
embarrassment or forcing the respondent to give false
answer in order to look good. Questions about
educational qualification or income might elicit this
type of response

 Use indirect questions for sensitive issues - in which

respondents can relate their answer to other people.

 Using closed- ended questions - try to make sure that

all possible answers are covered so that respondents
are not constrained in their answer. “Don‟t Know”
category also needs to be added.
How to Construct
Questionnaire? (Conti…)
 Avoiding Leading Question: Don‟t lead the
respondent to answer in a certain way. e.g.

 “What level of expertise do you in using NS2

simulator?” assumes that respondent is using NS2
simulator.

 Instead, ask a filter question to find if he is using a

network simulator, and then, „If you are using NS2,
gauge your level of expertise‟.
How to Construct
Questionnaire? (Conti…)
 Length and ordering of the Questions:
 Keep the questionnaire as short as possible.
 Ask easy Qs which respondents will enjoy answering.
 Ifcombined questionnaire, keep open ended Qs for
the end.
 Make Qs as interesting as possible and easy to follow
by varying type and length of question.
 Group the Qs into specific topic as this it makes it
easier to understand and follow.
 Layout and spacing is important as cluttered
Questionnaire is less likely to be answered.
Piloting the Questionnaire
 Once you have constructed your questionnaire, you
must pilot it.

 You must test it out to see if it is obtaining the

result you require.

 This is done by asking people to read it through and

see if there are any ambiguities which you have not
noticed.

 They should also be asked to comment about the

length, structure and wording of the questionnaire.

 Alter the questions accordingly.

Processing and Analyzing Data
 Processing and analyzing data involves a
number of closely related operations which are
performed with the purpose of summarizing the
collected data and organizing it in a manner
that they answer the research questions
(objectives).
 Data Processing operations involve:
 (1)Editing - process of examining the collected raw
data to detect errors and omissions and to correct
these when possible.
Processing and Analyzing Data
(Conti…)
 (2) Classification - process of arranging data in
groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics. Depending on nature of
phenomenon, classification can be done according to
attributes, class or interval, etc.

 (3) Tabulation - process of summarizing raw data and

displaying the same in compact form for further
analysis. It is an orderly arrangement of data in
columns and rows. Tabulation conserves space and
facilitates the process of comparison. It also
provides the basis for statistical computations.
Data Analysis Methods
 Qualitative Analysis

 Quantitative Analysis
Qualitative Analysis
 This type of analysis is carried out to provide
complete, and detailed description of phenomenon
under investigation.

 Due to unavailability of numbers, in qualitative

analysis, the researcher needs to go through a
process called Content Analysis.

 Content Analysis means analysis of the contents of

an interview in order to identify the main themes
that emerge from the responses given by the
respondents.
Qualitative Analysis (Conti…)
Content Analysis involves a number of steps:

 Step 1 - Identify the main themes

 The researcher needs to carefully go through the
descriptive responses given by respondents to each
question in order to understand the meaning they
communicate.

 From these responses, the researcher develops

broad themes that reflect these meanings.

 Peopleuse different words and language to express

themselves.
Qualitative Analysis (Conti…)
 Itis important that researcher select wording of the
theme in a way that accurately represents the
meaning of the responses categorized under a
theme.

 Step 2 - Classify responses under the main themes

 Having identified the themes, next step is to go
through the transcripts of all the interviews or
surveys and classify the responses under the
different themes.

 Step 3 - Integrate themes and responses into the

text of your report
Quantitative Analysis
 This method is most suitable for large well
designed and well administered surveys using
properly constructed and worded questionnaire.

 Data can be analyzed either manually or with the

help of a computer.

 Manual Data Analysis: This can be done if the

number of respondents is reasonably small, and
there are not many variables to analyze. It is useful
only for calculating frequencies and for simple
cross tabulations.
Quantitative Analysis (Conti…)
 Data Analysis using Computer
 If you want to analyze data using computer, you
should be familiar with the appropriate program.

 In this area, knowledge of statistics plays an

important role.

 The most common software is SPSS for windows.

 However, data input can be long and laborious

process, and if data is entered incorrectly, it will
influence the final results.
Reporting the Findings
 Writing the report is the last, and for many, the
most difficult step of the research process.

 The report informs the world what you have done,

what you have discovered and what conclusions
you have drawn from your findings.

 The report should be written in an academic style

where language used should be formal and not
journalistic.