Submitted by A.

Chibwe

Supervised by Mr T. Matsungo

Coordinated by Mrs kupara In collaboration with

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE &
TE CHNOLOGY

Design and Manufacture of an Automatic Clay Bricks Extruding

Machine

March 2020

This Project is submitted in Partial fulfilment for the Requirement of Bachelor of Technology
(Honours) Degree in Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering Part
 Dedications

Acknowledgement

ii
 Preface
First chapter consists of what is to be achieved by the project by meeting its aims and objectives
through a detailed research. Chapter 2 contains information on the literature review of the
detailed study of the main components of the design and information that will be used in all the
chapters. Concept generation, concept screening, rating and selection, design calculations will be
carried out in chapter 3 using derived equations. Chapter 4 focuses on the results of calculations
done in chapter 3. Chapter 5 is the project conclusion and analysis of results obtained from
chapter 4. Recommendations and limitations that are to be met when using the system are also
found in this chapter.

iii
 Abstract
The aim of the project was to design and manufacture an automatic clay bricks extruding
machine. For the nation to develop or improve infrastructure there is need for a constant supply
of bricks. The resettled farmers need homes, clinics and schools to be constructed in their areas.

Cement bricks are the most commonly used in our day. Cement is in short supply nationwide;
therefore, this retards the rate of construction. Bricks from renowned producers like Wildale and
Beta bricks are beyond the reach of ordinary peasant farmers. This has resulted in most property
developers resorting to the use of farm bricks. The production rate of these bricks has failed to
meet demand since the molding is done manually. The automatic brick molding machines
require electricity, hence the need to design and manufacture an extruding machine that is driven
by diesel engine. The machine can be used in both urban and rural setting.

iv
 Table of Contents
Dedications.......................................................................................................................................i

Acknowledgement............................................................................................................................i

Preface.............................................................................................................................................ii

Abstract..........................................................................................................................................iii

Table of Contents............................................................................................................................iv

List of figures................................................................................................................................vii

List of Tables................................................................................................................................viii

CHAPTER 1:...................................................................................................................................1

INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1

1.2 Background information.....................................................................................................1

1.3 Problem Statement...............................................................................................................1

1.4 Aim........................................................................................................................................2

1.5 Objectives..............................................................................................................................2

1 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................6

1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................6

1.2 Different types of Brick Molding Machines;....................................................................6

1.3 The traditional molding method........................................................................................6

2.3.1 Advantages..........................................................................................................................9

2.3.2 Disadvantages.....................................................................................................................9

1.4 The electric semi-automatic molding machine...............................................................10

2.4.1 Advantages....................................................................................................................10

2.4.2 Disadvantages................................................................................................................10

1.5 Manual Brick Molder with Gasoline Compactor............................................................12

v
 1.7 Hydraulic Automatic Brick Molding Machine...............................................................17

1.11 Engineering Design.........................................................................................................22

2.11.2 Axiomatic design Methodology..................................................................................23

2.11.3 Design domains...........................................................................................................24

1.12 The Brick.........................................................................................................................26

1.13 The Extruding Machine Components.............................................................................27

1.14 DESIGNS AND FORMULAE.......................................................................................30

2.14.1 Initial Belt tension(s).......................................................................................................30

2.14.3 Required Number of Belts..............................................................................................31

1.14.4 Belt Drive Design....................................................................................................31

V-belt(s) length calculations..................................................................................................31

1.14.5 Key Calculations......................................................................................................33

2.14.7 Velocity Ratio.............................................................................................................38

1.14.8 Belt length................................................................................................................38

1.14.9 Velocity of Belt Drive.............................................................................................38

1.14.10 Power Transmitted by a Belt................................................................................38

Differential ratios...........................................................................................................................39

 3.73,........................................................................................................................................39

 4.10,........................................................................................................................................39

 4.88.........................................................................................................................................39

1.14.14 Screw Feeder Design Calculations......................................................................43

1.14.15 Material Travelling Speed....................................................................................43

1.14.16 Material Volumetric Flow Rate...........................................................................43

1.14.17 Screw Auger Volumetric Capacity......................................................................44

1.14.18 Screw conveyor material load per meter and total screw length load.................45

vi
 1.14.19 Screw Axial Thrust (W).......................................................................................45

1.14.20 Power Sizing........................................................................................................46

1.14.21 Required Washers for the Screw Length (N).......................................................46

1.14.22 Disc Size required leaving 5mm Clearance.........................................................46

1.14.23 Pulley sizes, belt length and number of belts required:.......................................48

1.14.24 Number of belts required to convey clay and to overcome friction;...................48

1.14.25 Torque on Screw Shaft (M):................................................................................49

1.14.26 Key Calculations..................................................................................................49

2.14.28 Screw Bearings.............................................................................................................52

2.14.33 Joining Methods........................................................................................................57

2.14.34 Mechanical fasteners.....................................................................................................57

1.14.35 Welded Joints.......................................................................................................59

1.14.36 Cutting and Sizing................................................................................................60

1.14.37 Conclusion...........................................................................................................60

vii
 List of figures
Figure 2-2 Shows the bottom side of the standard size 5 bricks molder.........................................7
Figure 2-4 shows a traditional brick molder compacting the mold by means of a shovel..............8
Figure2-5 shows a traditional brick molder compacting the mold by ramming the loaded molding
pan onto the ground. Curtsey of Mr Matendera..............................................................................8
Figure 2-6 the electrically powered semi-automatic molding, curtsey of Mr M Chibwe of 25
Steedman, Athlone in Gweru a semi-commercial brick molder....................................................10

viii
 List of Tables
Table 1-1: Description of activities.................................................................................................4
Table 1-2: Gantt chart......................................................................................................................4
Table 2-2 Dimensions of standard belts according to IS: 2494 - 1974.........................................36
Table 2-4: List of variables affecting screw conveyor performance.............................................45

ix
 CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION

1.1 This chapter states the following in connection with the automatic clay bricks extruding
machine; introduction and background information, statement of the problem, purpose of study,
project objectives, project scope, and significance of study, definition of terms, limitations
delimitations and summary.

1.2 Background information

Bricks are an important element in the construction industry in Zimbabwe and across the whole
world. The price of concrete and clay bricks from commercial producers like Beta Bricks,
McDonald Bricks and Wildale Bricks is beyond the reach of many aspiring property developers.
Home based brick molders use cement, which is not readily available; when available it is
beyond the reach of many aspiring property developers. As a result, a great number of the
property developers have resorted to the manual brick molding methods using clay or cement.

The manual production procedures are limited in quantities and in the compacting pressure. At
most, four bricks are produced per cast. Construction progress is retarded due to the slow rate of
brick production. In line with the land reform and the Zimasset programmes, new schools,
clinics, and homes need to be constructed in both rural and urban centres especially in areas with
resettled farmers.

1.3 Problem Statement

In manual molding, the rate of production is very slow and the bricks are not well compacted.
Manual compaction is done by ramming the mortar using the back side of the shovel or by
ramming the molding pan/chamber onto the ground. This method compromises the strength of
the bricks and the constructed structures. Structures constructed with weak bricks disintegrate

1
after a few years. Hence the need to design and manufacture a clay bricks extruding machine
which will produce ten bricks per single cast compacted to the required pressure of 3N/mm2.

The machine will be usable in both urban and rural settings; when electricity is available;
compacting is achieved by use of extruding screw which extrudes the clay against a constricted
outlet. The extruded clay bar is cut into brick sizes by an automatic sizing cutter. The bricks are
left to cure in natural sun heat after which they are baked in high temperature kilns.

1.4 Project Justification

The extruding machine will compact the bricks to the required pressure. The machine will
produce ten standard bricks per single cast and 100 per hour thereby improving the production
rate and the product quality. This will translate to durable and strong buildings. The extruding
machine will be ideal for use in both rural and urban centres since a diesel engine will power it.

1.4 Aim

The aim of the project is to design and manufacture an automatic brick molding machine.

1.5 Objectives

 To design and manufacture the frame.

 To design and manufacture the extruder.

 To design and manufacture the sizing cutter and table.

 To design and manufacture the loading chute.

 To design and manufacture extruding screw.

 To design and manufacture the pulleys.

2
1.6.1 General Machine layout

Fig 1.1

3
Table 1-1: Description of activities

Activity No Activity description Estimated Duration

1 Concept Development 4 weeks
2 System Level Design 4 weeks
3 Detail Design 8 weeks
4 Manufacturing 10 weeks
5 Testing and Refinement 2 weeks
6 Production of document 28 weeks
Total 28 weeks

Table 1-2: Gantt chart

DURATION IN WEEKS & MONTHS

ACTIVITY weeks 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
No. TASK NAME months Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar
1 Concept Development                              
2 System Level Design                              
3 Detail Design                              
4 Manufacturing                              
5 Testing and Refinement                              

6 Production of document                              

1.7 Limitations

 Inadequate funding for the project owing to the economic challenges.

 Unavailability of appropriate material on the local market.
 Time will be very limited since the researcher will develop the project while working full
time simultaneously.

4
1.8 De-Limitations

 Part of the fabrication will be done in the mechanical engineering workshop while most
of the work will be done in Redcliff- Rutendo industrial area.

1.9 Conclusion
The manufacturing of a brick-extruding machine will bring economic benefits as well as
help to improve the standard of infrastructure. This chapter covered the following;
introduction, background information, and statement of problem, purpose of study,
definition of terms, limitations and delimitations. In this chapter, the author has
highlighted the background of the problem summarising the need of brick-extruding
machine. The author has elaborated on the objective, which led would lead to the
achievement of the aim. In chapter 2 the author will review relevant literature and the
available technologies. Chapter 3 will focus on the methodology including the parameters
for the design. Results presentations and recommendations shall be performed in chapter
four.

5
 1 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1 Introduction
This chapter will provide the reviews on previous researches and products for the brick molding
machines from various backgrounds and references. The chapter will also review some of the
brick molding machines in operation analyzing their operations compared to the extruding
machine. In this chapter, the author will review relevant literature and specify some formulae
related to different component calculations.

1.2 Different types of Brick Molding Machines;

1.3 The Traditional Molding Method

This is a simple design with 3 to 5 molding chambers. To compact, molders use the back of the
shovel or they ram the mortar-loaded chambers onto the ground. The production rate is low and
the compact level cannot be maintained throughout due to human fatigue. In addition, the
duration of the molding chamber is compromised due to the constant ramming.

6
Figure 2-1 A traditional standard size 5 bricks molding pan showing the molding or compacting
chambers. Curtsey of Mr Matendera a self-employed traditional brick molder.

Figure 1-2 Shows the bottom side of the standard size 5 bricks molder.

7
Figure 2-3 Shows traditional brick molders loading mortar into a block brick molder. Curtsey of
Mr Matendera a traditional brick molder.

Figure 2-2 shows Mr Matendera a traditional brick molder compacting the mold by
means of a shovel.

8
Figure2-3 shows a traditional brick molder compacting the mold by ramming the loaded
molding pan onto the ground. Curtsey of Mr Matendera.

2.3.1 Advantages

It is cheap to manufacture therefore it is readily available.

It is easy to use, does not require specialized training.

It does not require electrical power so it is usable anywhere.

2.3.2 Disadvantages

It produces between only three or five bricks per cast.

Compacting is not uniform due to human fatigue, earlier production would receives better
compaction.

The ramming compromises the molding chambers’ structural strength and life span.

It is labour intensive.

9
1.4 The Electric Semi-Automatic Molding Machine

10
Figure 2-4 the electrically powered semi-automatic molding, curtsey of Mr M Chibwe of 25
Steedman, Athlone in Gweru a semi-commercial brick molder.

2.4.1 Advantages
It produces 30 bricks per each cast.

All the bricks are well compacted because of the vibrator and compactor.

It requires minimum labour to operate.

2.4.2 Disadvantages
It is expensive to purchase.

It requires electrical power therefore is only usable where there is electrical power supply.

It requires some level of skill to operate.

It has the risk of producing under size bricks lengthwise because the bricks are casted vertically.

11
1.5 Manual Brick Molder with Gasoline Compactor

Figure 2-7 manual brick molder with a gasoline (petrol) compactor, curtsey of Mr Kazunga of
Redcliff.

12
Figure 2-8 manual brick molder with a gasoline (petrol) compactor, curtsey of Mr Kazunga of
Redcliff.

13
2.5.1 Advantages

It is easy to operate.

It is cheap to manufacture.

2.5.2 Disadvantages

It produces only eight bricks per cast.

It uses a petrol-fueled vibrator, which makes it susceptible to fires.

The two-stroke vibrator requires high maintenance.

2.6 Manual Brick Molding Machine

14
Figure 2-9 manual brick molding machine..

2.6.1 Advantages

It is manual; therefore, it does not require fuel or electrical power.

It is easy to operate.

15
It requires minimum maintenance.

2.6.2 Disadvantages

It produces only sixteen bricks per cast.

It requires an operator of 1.6m minimum height therefore; it is not user friendly to short people.

Actuation of compacting and casting levers can be laborious depending on the stature of the
operator.

Operator exhaustion would compromise quality.

16
 2.7 Hydraulic Automatic Brick Molding Machine

Figure 2-10 Hydraulic Automatic and Mobile manual brick molder.

2.7.1 Advantages

It has a high production rate.

It maintains the same quality throughout all batches.

2.7.2 Disadvantages

It is expensive to purchase, would have to be imported.

It cannot be made entirely from local material.

It is complex, therefore requires training of the operator.

Requires some level of skill to operate.

17
2.8 Automatic Brick Molding Fixed Plant

Figure 2-11 Automatic Brick Molding Fixed Plant.

2.8.1 Advantages

It has a high production rate.

It maintains the same quality throughout all batches.

2.8.2 Disadvantages

It is expensive to purchase, would have to be imported.

It cannot be made entirely from local material.

18
It is complex, therefore requires training of the operator.

Requires some level of skill to operate.

2.9 Mobile Electric/Hydraulic Brick Molding Machine

Figure 2-12 Mobile Electric/Hydraulic Brick Molding Machine.

2.9.1 Advantages

It has a high production rate.

It maintains the same quality throughout all batches.

19
2.9.2 Disadvantages

It is expensive to purchase, would have to be imported.

It cannot be made entirely from local material.

It is complex, therefore requires training of the operator.

Requires some level of skill to operate.

20
2.10 Electric/Hydraulic Brick Molding Machine

Figure 2-13 Electric Hydraulic brick molding Machine.

2.10.1 Advantages

It has a high production rate.

It maintains the same quality throughout all batches.

21
2.10.2 Disadvantages

It is expensive to purchase, would have to be imported.

It cannot be made entirely from local material.

It is complex, therefore requires training of the operator.

Requires some level of skill to operate.

2.11 Engineering Design

Most engineering designs can be classified as inventions-devices or systems that are created by
human effort and did not exist before or are improvements over existing devices or systems.
Inventions, or designs, do not suddenly appear from nowhere. They are the result of bringing
together technologies to meet human needs or to solve problems. Sometimes a design is the
result of someone trying to do a task more quickly or efficiently.

Design activity occurs over a period and requires a systematic methodology. Engineers are
primarily described as problem solvers. What distinguishes design from other types of problem
solving is the nature of both the problem and the solution. Design problems are open ended in
nature, which means they have more than one correct solution. The result or solution to a design
problem is a system that possesses specified properties. Design problems are usually more
vaguely defined than analysis problems.

2.11.1 The Design Process

The basic five-step process usually used in a problem-solving works for design problems as well.
Since design problems are usually vaguely defined, and have a multitude of correct answers, the
process may require backtracking and iteration. Solving a design problem is a contingent process
and the solution is subject to unforeseen complications and changes as it develops. Until the
Wright brothers actually built and tested their early gliders, they did not know the problems and
difficulties they would face controlling a powered plane. The five steps used for solving design
problems are:
22
 a) Define the problem.
b) Gather pertinent information.
c) Generate multiple solutions.
d) Analyse and select a solution.
e) Test and implement the solution.

Figure2-14 Engineering design process

2.11.2 Axiomatic design Methodology
The axiomatic design methodology is based on the notion of good design decisions and
processes. The design axioms are created by identifying common elements that are present in all
good designs. Once the common elements are stated, they are reduced to two axioms through a
logical reasoning process [CITATION Suh01 \l 12297 ]
Axiomatic design is a systems design methodology using matrix methods to systematically
analyze the transformation of customer needs into functional requirements, design parameters,
and process variables[ CITATION Wik14 \l 12297 ].The method involves the use of design
principles or design Axioms (starting point of reasoning) governing the analysis and decision
making process in developing high quality product or system designs. According to [ CITATION
Nam05 \l 12297 ] the two axioms used in axiomatic design are:

23
Axiom 1:

The Independence Axiom: Involves maintaining the independence of the functional requirements
(FRs). An optimal design always maintains the independence of the functional requirements of
the design.

Axiom 2:

The Information Axiom. Involves minimize the information content of the design. An optimal
design is the one with least embedded information in it. In other words, information may refer to
the number of instructions in a design.
2.11.3 Design domains
The discipline of axiomatic design is made up of four domains viz the customer domain, the
functional domain, the physical domain, and the process domain. The domain structure is
illustrated schematically in Figure 2-15. The domain involves consideration of “what we want to
achieve” and how we propose to satisfy the requirements specified in the customer domain.

Mapping Map ping Mapping

Cust om er Fu nctional Ph ysic al Proc ess

Domain Domain Dom ain Dom ain

Figure 2-15 Design Domains

24
2.11.4 Customer Domain

This is characterized by the attributes (CUAs) that the customer is looking for in a product or
process or system or materials. The customer needs are specified in terms of functional
requirements (FRs) and constraints (Cs).
2.11.5 Functional domain
Functional requirements (FRs) or engineering specifications are a minimum set of independent
requirements that completely characterize the functional needs of the product (or software,
organizations, systems, etc.) in the functional domain. By definition, each FR is independent of
every other FR at the time the FRs is established.
2.11.6 Physical Domain
Design parameters (DPs) considered in order to satisfy the specified FRs. Design parameters
(DPs) are the key physical variables in the physical domain that characterize the design that
satisfies the specified FRs.

2.11.7 Process domain.

To produce the product specified in terms of DPs, a process that is characterized by process
variables (PVs) is developed. Process variables (PVs) are the key variables in the process domain
that characterizes the process that can generate the specified DPs.
2.11.8 Decomposition of {FR}, {DP}, {PV} into tiers
Involves breaking down complex functional requirements into little independent functional
requirements until the design can be implemented without further decomposition. Design
parameters are also decomposed to satisfy each functional requirement as shown in figure 2-16
below.

25
Figure 2-16 Decomposition of {FR}, {DP}, {PV} into tiers

1.6 The Brick

Bricks are used in the construction of infrastructure be it in schools, colleges, hospitals, homes
and business institutions. In Zimbabwe, we there are two categories of bricks, these are concrete
and clay. The clay category has two types, face brick and the common or farm brick. There are
two acceptable brick sizes, the standard brick and the block brick. The block size is cast in
cement while the standard size is cast in both cement and clay. While the strength and durability
of all infrastructures depends on other engineering aspects, the brick strength largely determines
these two properties.

2.12.1 The Block brick

This brick is five times as big as the standard brick measures 115mm by 230mm by 460mm. This
type of brick is commonly used in the construction of basic houses mostly in high-density areas
and perimeter walls around properties.

2.12.2 The Standard Brick

The standard brick measures 70mm by 115mm by 230mm. This type of brick is used in the
construction of houses, perimeter walls and multi storey buildings. The standard brick is used
where strength of the structure is of critical importance.

26
1.7 The Extruding Machine Components
2.13.1 The Driving Engine

Figure 2-17 Driving Engine

The selected engine has the specifications attached below. These specifications were copied from
the data table of diesel engines table 2-1 below.

Table 2-1 Diesel Engines Data

Diesel Engines Specifications

HP
Bore @
Cylinde Capacit & RP Coolin Weig Combustion/Inject
Model Fuel
rs y (cc) Strok M g ht ion
e (max
)

31/2 20
Petter Dies
2 1146 X @ Air 318 lb Direct
BA2 el
35/8 3000

41/2 21
Lister 1520 Dies
2 2868 X @ Water Indirect
18/2 lb el
51/2 1200

Lister 2 2868 41/2 21 Water 2576 Dies Indirect

27
18/2M
Marine X @
lb el
Propulsio 51/2 1200
n

22
Lister 4X Dies
2 1853 @ Air 620 lb Direct
HA2 41/2 el
1800

33/4 21
Lister Dies
2 1266 X @ Air 375 lb Direct
ST2 el
31/2 3000

Lister 33/4 20
Dies
ST3 3 1899 X @ Air 660 lb Direct
el
Canal Star 31/2 2000

Lister
33/4 20
ST2M Dies
2 1266 X @ Air 445 lb Direct
Marine el
31/2 2600
Auxiliary

Lister
STW2MG 33/4 20
Dies
R Marine 2 1266 X @ Water 682 lb Direct
el
Propulsio 31/2 2300
n

Lister 33/4 22
Dies
Petter 2 1266 X @ Air 408 lb Direct
el
TS2 31/2 3000

Lister 3 1900 33/4 20 Air 770 lb Dies Direct

28
 Petter
X @
TS3M el
31/2 2000
Canal Star

Lister
Petter
33/4 20.7
TS2MGR Dies
2 1266 X @ Air 683 lb Direct
Marine el
31/2 2600
Propulsio
n

Lister
Petter
33/4 23
TS2M Dies
2 1266 X @ Air 682 lb Direct
Marine el
31/2 2600
Propulsio
n

Source;https://listerngine.com/smf/index.php?topic=6934.0

2.14 DESIGNS AND FORMULAE

2.14.1 Initial Belt tension(s)

Higher initial belt tension require greater torque and power that can be transmitted. At rest, when
no power is transmitted, the belt tensions are equal in both sides of the belt. As the pulleys rotate
and transmit power, the belt tension rises in one side (tight side) and reduces in the other (slack
side). However, the sum remains constant. When the ratio of the belt tensions reaches a limiting
value, slipping will occur. Therefore, it shows that the greater the initial tension in the belts, the
greater the torque and power that can be transmitted before slipping occurs. Belt tension is not to
be excessively high as this will place high radial loads on the shaft and bearings and it would
also negatively affect the belt life [ CITATION MDM08 \l 1033 ].

29
2.14.2 Power Transmitted by Belt Drive

Power (KW) = (F1-F2)V (KW)……………………………….Equation 1[ CITATION GLH73 \l

12297 ]

Linear Velocity: V= ωr m/s-1……………...…………………Equation 2[ CITATION GLH731 \l

12297 ]

Where:
ω is angular velocity
r is the radius of the driving pulley.
F1 is the belt tension in the tight side.
F2 is the belt tension in the slack side.
V is the linear velocity.

Tensions in belts is given by the following equation

F 1 μθ
=e …………………………………………Equation 3[CITATION GLH732 \l 12297 ]
F2

Where:

F1 and F2 are initial tensions

μ is the coefficient of friction

θis the angle of lap.

2.14.3 Required Number of Belts

Design power
Number of belts required = …………………………Equation 4
Correlated Power per belt

The torque and power increase is in direct proportion to the number of belts. Single belt drives
are common but belt drives may be used with 2 to 6 or 8 belts in parallel on multi-grooved
pulleys.

30
 2.14.4 Belt Drive Design
V-belt(s) length calculations
Belt length and contact angles calculations

Belt selection parameters;

i. Rated power of the driving motor, engine/prime mover.
ii. Service factor based on type of driver and driven load.
iii. Centre distance (adjustment for centre distance must be provided or use idler pulley)
iv. Power rating for one belt as a function of size and speed of the smaller pulley
v. Belt length (then choose standard size)
vi. Sizing of sheaves/pulleys (use standard size). Most commercially available sheaves
should be limited to 35 m/s belt speed.
vii. Belt length correction factor
viii. Angle of wrap correction factor. Angle of wrap on smaller sheave should be greater than
120 degrees.
ix. Number of belts
x. Initial tension in belts.

Figure 2-18: V-belt length calculations.

D−d
sin γ = The angle of wrap for an open belt may be determined by
2C

D−d
SinФ=( )……………………………………………………………........Equation 5
2C

And the contact angles are

31
 D−d
θ D=π +2 sin−1 …………………………………………………………Equation 6
2C

and

D−d
θd =π−2 sin−1 ………………………………….………………………Equation 7
2C

If the centre distance C is not specified, then it should be set at about twice the product of the
pulley diameters.

c >2( D+ d) ……………………………………………………………………Equation 8

L= √ 4 c 2−¿ ¿ ………………………………………...Equation 9

2.14.5 Key Calculations

Width of key is given by

1
d
b= 4 ……………………………………………………………………………Equation 10

b = width of the key

d = diameter of the drive shaft.

The minimum length of key

L 1.5d……………………………………………………………………………Equation 11

L = minimum length of key.

The shear stress acting on the key is given by

32
 Pt
τ sk = ≤[ τ sk ]
bl ……………………………………………………………………Equation 12

τ sk = Shear stress acting on the key.

Pt = Torque acting on the side of the key.

b= Width of the key.

l = Minimum length of key.

The normal stress acting on the key is given by

2 Pt
σc = ≤σ
k tl [ ck ] …………………………………………………………….…….Equation 13

σc
k = Normal stress acting on the key.

Pt = Torque acting on the side of the key.

t= Thickness of the key.

l = Minimum length of key.

The torque on the side of key is given by

Pt =bl τ sk
T
Pt =
r
∴T =blr τ sk ………………………………………………………………………Equation 14

Where

Pt = Torque acting on the side of the key.

T = Torque on the top of the key.

r = Shaft radius

33
 τ sk = Shear stress acting on the key.

The torque on the top of the key is given

1
T = tlr σ ck
2 …………………………….…………………………………….……….……
Equation 15

t= Thickness of the key.

l = Minimum length of key.

r = Shaft radius.

σc
k = Normal stress acting on the key.

T = Torque on the top of the key.

2.14.6 Shaft Design.

The shaft diameter should have the strength and rigidity to transmit power during the operation.

Bending control
The bending stress “σ b” of the shaft was calculated using equation below (Khurumi and Gupta,
2004) for hollow shaft:
32 BMd o
σ b= , ………………………………………………………………………Equation 16
π (d 4o−d 4i )

σ b = Bending stress ( Nm−2 ¿

BM= Bending moment (Nm)

d o = Outside shaft diameter, (m)

34
d i= Inside shaft diameter, (m)

π =3.142 (constant).

To obtain bending moment “BM”

For uniformly distributed load (UDL) If reaction at A= Ra and at B= Rb

Ra + Rb = ql…………………………………………………………………………Equation 17

Where, q = weight of the material;

l = length of the shaft.

1
Ra = (ql )……………………………………………………………………….…Equation 18
2

1
Rb = (ql )………………………………………………………………….………Equation 19
2

To obtain bending moment “BM” for equation (Hibler, 2002).

ql 2
BM = ……………………………………………………………………………Equation 20
8

J = Polar moment of inertia of the cross section area about the axis of rotation ( Nm−2)

π (d 4o −d 4i )
J= (For hollow shaft) ……………………………………………………Equation 21
32

(d o4−d 4i )
T =Jπx ………………………………………………….…………………Equation 22
rxD

Where

J= Maximum shear stress (according to ASME code is 53 × 106 Nm−2);

π = 3.142;

D = Diameter of the shaft (m);

d o = Outside diameter of the shaft (m);

35
d i = Inside diameter of the shaft (m) (Khurmi and Gupta, 2004).

Table 3-2 Dimensions of standard belts according to IS: 2494 - 1974

Table 2-3 Standard pitch lengths of V- belts according to: 2494- 1974

The V-belts are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys which
rotate at the same speed or at different speeds. The amount of power transmitted depends upon

36
the velocity of the belt and the tension in the belt. (Khurmi & Gupta, 2005). The V-belt is mostly
used where a great amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the
two pulleys are close to each other.

Figure 2-20 Schematic layout of a V-belt drive

2.14.7 Velocity Ratio
N1 d2
= ………………………………………………….. Equation 23 (Khurmi & Gupta, 2005)
N 2 d1

Where

N 1 = Speed of the driver in r.p.m

N 2 = Speed of the follower in r.p.m
d 2 = Diameter of the follower
d 1 = Diameter of the driver

2.14.8 Belt length

Since the centre distance (x) between the two pulleys is twice the diameter of the larger pulley
(i.e. 2d 2), therefore centre distance,

2
π (d 1+ d 2)
L= ( d 1 +d 2 ) +2 x+ …………………………Equation 24 (Khurmi & Gupta, 2005)
2 4x

37
 2.14.9 Velocity of Belt Drive
π d1N
v= 1
(m/s)…………….Equation 25 (Khurmi & Gupta, 2005)
60

2.14.10 Power Transmitted by a Belt

P=( T 1−T 2 ) v ……………………………………………Equation 26 (Khurmi & Gupta, 2005)

Where

P = Power transmitted by belt

T 1 = Tension in the tight side in newton

T 2 = Tension in the slack side in newton

v = Velocity of the belt in m/s

2.14.11 Shaft Bending Moment

The shaft bending moment will be determined as follows;

π
M= × σ b ×d 3………………………………..…. Equation 27 (Khurmi & Gupta, 2005)
32

32 M 13
d= ( )
π σb
……………………………….……………. Equation 28 (Khurmi & Gupta, 2005)

Where

d = outside diameter of a shaft

M = bending moment of a shaft

σ b= bending stress of a shaft

2.14.12 Differential Axel Selection

Differential ratios

 3.73,

 4.10,

38
  4.88
Source:https://smartplanters.com/truck-gear-ratios-3-73-4-10-4-88/
A differential axel of ratio 4:10 was selected. This ratio transmits the required torque to the
extruding screw.

2.14.13 The Extruding Screw Design

Figure 2-21: Extruding Screw flight

Source: http://bulknet.com.au/screw-flights.

A shorter pitch is also associated with a better handling of free-flowing/fluid material. These are
recommended for their high mixing degree and high filling of the screw.

Table 2-4: Standard Screw flight types

Single Standard Pitch

Flights are considered standard and are used for the
general conveying of most materials. The O.D.
dimension is the same as the pitch.

39
Double Standard Pitch
Flights are frequently required for smooth conveying
and discharge of certain materials.

Single Long Pitch

Flights provide a means for the agitation of liquids or
the very rapid conveying of very free flowing
materials.

Single Standard Pitch Ribbon

Flights are required for viscous, gummy or sticky
materials, which adhere to flighting and pipe. Ribbons
are also commonly used for mixing machines.

Single Short Pitch

Flights are frequently employed as feeders and are
recommended for inclined conveyors in excess of 20
degrees. The pitch may be two thirds of the diameter
(illustrated) or commonly half the diameter.

Double Short Pitch

Flights provide an even and regular flow of materials
with fluid characteristics.

Single Standard Pitch Tapered

Flights are employed for feeding lumpy material from
storage. Withdrawal is uniform over full length of feed
opening.

40
 Helicoid Ribbon Flights
Flights are supplied left or right hand as required.
Ribbon flights are mounted on tubes or solid centre
shafts to your requirements. Welded struts are normally
manufactured from the same strip material as the
flights but can also be manufactured from round bar.
Special ribbon flights and assemblies can be produced
and assembled to meet your requirements and drawings

Source : https://www.gheng.co.uk/segments-flights

Table 2-5: Shafted and shaft less screw.

Shaft less screw conveyor

A system of SPIRAC horizontal, inclined and
vertical shaft less screw conveyors with no
intermediate or end bearings, low rpm’s and low
power usage is a space-saving, extremely reliable
conveying option. The shaft less spiral allows
higher filling rates and lower rpm’s resulting in
less wear and consequently less maintenance and
down time

Shafted screw conveyor

Shafted screw conveyors are one of the most
versatile bulk material handling technologies
available. Used in thousands of industrial and
municipal applications, the shafted screw
conveyor is the most widely used type of
conveyor for bulk material handling. Shafted
screw conveyors are used in the environmental
industry for conveying bulk materials such as
dewatered bio-solids, screenings and grit. With a
variety of configurations and options available, a
shafted screw conveyor can easily be engineered
to meet your specific bulk material handling
application.

41
Figure 2-22 Feeding Screw Parts
2.14.14 Screw Feeder Design Calculations

Material Flux calculation

Qa=3600× S × V × γ × k …………………………………………………Equation 29
Where
πD 2
S= = Conveyor housing filled area, ( m 2)………………………………Equation 30
4
n
V =t × , = Travelling speed of the material, (m/s)
60
γ = Material density, (t /m3)
k= Flux material decrement coefficient at 00 inclination (less than unity)
= Fill coefficient of the section (lower than unity) = 0.4
D = Screw flight diameter.
t=Pitch× D

2.14.15 Material Travelling Speed

t×n
V= m/s2……………………………………………………………………Equation 31
60
V = Travelling speed of the material.
n= Rotating speed of the screw on flight shaft.
2.14.16 Material Volumetric Flow Rate
Qa kg /s=Qt × γ × k ×………………………….…………………………Equation 32
Q a kg /s
Qt =
γ ×k×

42
Q a kg /s = volumetric flow rate of material.
γ = Material density, (t /m3)
k= Flux material decrement coefficient at 00 inclination (less than unity)
= Fill coefficient of the section (less than unity)
2.14.16 Screw Auger Volumetric Capacity. 
❑ 2 2
Q t = ( D sf −D ss ) l p n…………………………………………………………….Equation 33
4

Q t = theoretical volumetric capacity, m 3 s−1

D2sf = screw flighting diameter, m

D2ss  = screw shaft diameter, m 

l p= pitch length, m 

n = screw rotational speed, rev  s−1

Required operating power

DL
Unloaded operated screw: PN (KW) = …………………………………………...Equation 34
20

This value is much lower than the one required to move the material.

C o QLg
Power required to move the clay: PCL(KW) = ……………………………….Equation
3600
35

= CoQL/367

Where:

 Co is the material resistance coefficient.

 g is acceleration due to gravity.
 L is the installation length.
 Q is the quantity moved.
Total driving power: PT(KW) = PN + PCL

43
 PT (KW) = DL/20 + CoQL/367……………………………...Equation 36

Source: Carlos III University Mechanical Engineering Journal

Table 2-4: List  of  variables affecting screw conveyor performance.

Symbol Variable Units

Qa Actual volumetric capacity 3 −1
m s
P Power requirement W
Dt Tube inside diameter m
Dsf Screw outside diameter m
Dss Screw shaft diameter m
L Screw length m
lp Screw pitch length m
n Angular speed rev s−1
θ Angle of conveyor inclination degree
ρb Material bulk density Kgm−3
g Acceleration of gravity ms−2

All of the relations and equations offered in the current section have been suggested by Srivastav
a et al, 2006. 

2.14.17 Screw conveyor material load per meter and total screw length load.
kg
Screw conveyor capacity ∈,
Load per meter = s or;………………………….Equation 37
Travelling speed of material m/s

Load per meter length of the conveyor (q):

Q
q= kg/m……………………………………….………………………Equation 38
3.6 ×V
q= Screw feeder load per meter.
Q= Screw conveyor capacity.
V = Material travelling speed.
2.14.18 Screw Axial Thrust (W)
W = q×L×µ Newtons…………………………………………………….…Equation 39
W = Axial thrust on screw.

44
q = Screw feeder load per meter.
L = Screw feeder Length.
µ = Coefficient of friction, 0.4
2.14.19 Power Sizing.
P=P v + P N ………………………………………………………………Equation 40
P = Driving power of the loaded screw conveyor.
Pv = Required power to move material.
P H =Required power to operate unloaded screw.

QLg
Pv (KW )= ………………………………………………………………Equation 41
3600
Where;
¿ Progress resistance coefficient.
Q = Mass flow rate.
L = Screw Length.
DL
P N ( KW ) = ………………………………………………………….………Equation 42
20
Where
D = screw on shaft outside diameter
L = Screw Length.
QH
Pst ( KW )= …………………………………………………………………Equation 43
367
Power
HP = …………………………………………………………………….. Equation 44
0.75

2.14.20 Required Washers for the Screw Length (N)

L
N= ……………………………………………………………………………Equation 45
Pitch
N= Numbers of screw conveyor washers.
L= Length of the center screw feeder shaft.
2
Pitch= × D ……………………………………………………..................…......Equation 46
3
45
D= Diameter of Screw on shaft.
2.14.21 Disc Size required leaving 5mm Clearance.
Step 1: Calculating type of pitch.
P = represents pitch of screw
D = represents diameter of screw flights
Type of pitch is given by;
P
Standard pitch type =
D

Step 2: Development size calculation for flights

H = represents Height or width of blank.
R = Outside radius of blank.
r = Inner radius of blank.
& = Slight cutting angle.
L = Outer arc length.
I = Inner arc length.

Calculating inner arc length.

Inner arc length

Pitch

(πd)
Inner arc length (I) = √ (πd)2 + P2 ..…………………………………….………Equation 47

Calculating outer arc length

46
 Outer arc length.
Pitch

(πD)
Outer arc length (L) = √ (πd)2 + P2 ………………………………………………Equation 48
The height/width shall be found by (OD-ID)/2 or height or
Width = [screw flight diameter (OD) - Pipe/shaft diameter (ID)]/2

L R
Tan = = r = R-H……………………………………………………………….Equation 49
l r
Step 2: calculating outer and inner radius.
Outer Radius: (Outer Arc length x width (Height))/(Outer Arc Length – Inner arc length).
LH
Outer radius (R) = ……………………………….……………………………Equation 50
L−l
Inner radius (r) = R-H……………………………………………………………..Equation 51
Step 4: Angle Calculation for radial cut.
= 360 – ………………………………………………………………………..Equation 52
(Lx 360)
= .
2 πR

2.14.22 Pulley sizes, belt length and number of belts required:

Diesel Engine Speed × Pulley Ratio
Output Speed= ………………………………Equation 53
60

2.14.23 Number of belts required to convey clay and to overcome friction;

ND
i) Speed ratio =
Nd
N D = Drive pulley speed.
N d =¿Driven pulley speed.
Service factor = 1.4 from table 3 in fanner catalogue.
ii) Design power = Power x factor of safety

47
Belt section – by referring to table 2 (opposite) the intersection of design power and the speed of
the faster shaft indicates SPB or QXPB Section.

iii) Correlation factor = 1.05

iv) From the power rating table pages (52 & 61) by interpolation the rated power.
v) The speed ratio power increment (Pages 58)- Fanner flex catalogue.
vi) Corrected power per belt = (Design power x Correlation factor).
Design power
vii) Number of belts required = …….………………Equation
Correlated power per belt
54
2.14.24 Torque on Screw Shaft (M):
Power
M =974 kgfm………………………………………………………………Equation 55
n
M =¿Torque on screw shaft.
n = Speed of the screw on shaft.
2.14.25 Key Calculations
Width of key

1
d
b= 4 ……………………………………………………………………………Equation 56

b = width of the key

d = diameter of the drive shaft.

The minimum length of key

L 1.5d…………………………………………………………………………..Equation 57

L = minimum length of key.

The shear stress acting on the key is given by

Pt
τ sk = ≤τ
bl [ sk ] ……………………………………………………………………Equation 58

48
 τ sk = Shear stress acting on the key.

Pt = Torque acting on the side of the key.

b= Width of the key.

l = Minimum length of key.

The normal stress acting on the key is given by

2 Pt
σc = ≤[ σ ck ]
k tl ………………………………………………………………….Equation 59

σc
k = Normal stress acting on the key.

Pt = Torque acting on the side of the key.

t= Thickness of the key.

l = Minimum length of key.

The torque on the side of key is given by

Pt =bl τ sk
T
Pt =
r
∴T =blr τ sk …………………………………………………………………………Equation 60

Where

Pt = Torque acting on the side of the key.

T = Torque on the top of the key.

r = Shaft radius

τ sk = Shear stress acting on the key.

49
The torque on the top of the key is given

1
T = tlr σ ck
2 …………………………….……………………………….……….….Equation 61

t= Thickness of the key.

l = Minimum length of key.

r = Shaft radius.

σc
k = Normal stress acting on the key.

T = Torque on the top of the key.

2.14.26 Shaft Design.

The shaft should have the strength and rigidity to transmit power when moving clay.

Bending control
The bending stress “σ b” of the shaft is calculated using equation below (Khurmi and Gupta,
2004):
32 BMd o
σ b= , …………………………………………………………….……Equation 62
π (d 4o−d 4i )

σ b = Bending stress ( Nm−2 ¿

BM= Bending moment (Nm)

d o = Outside shaft diameter, (m)

d i= Inside shaft diameter, (m)

π =3.142 (constant).

To obtain bending moment “BM”

For uniformly distributed load (UDL) If reaction at A= Ra and at B= Rb

Ra + Rb = ql………………………………………………………………………..Equation 63

50
Where, q = weight of the material;

l = length of the shaft.

1
Ra = (ql )……………………………………………………………………….…Equation 64
2

1
Rb = (ql )………………………………………………………………………..…Equation 65
2

To obtain bending moment “BM” for equation (Hibler, 2002).

ql 2
BM = …………………………………………………………………………….Equation 66
8

J = Polar moment of inertia of the cross section area about the axis of rotation ( Nm−2)

π (d 4o −d 4i )
J= (For hollow shaft) ……………………………………………………Equation 67
32

(d 4o −d 4i )
T =Jπ × ………………………………………………….…………..……Equation 68
rxD

Where

J= Maximum shear stress (according to ASME code is 53 × 106 Nm−2);

π = 3.142;

D = Diameter of the shaft (m);

d o = Outside diameter of the shaft (m);

d i = Inside diameter of the shaft (m) (Khurmi and Gupta, 2004).

2.14.27 Screw Bearings

Table 2-6: Screw bearings

51
 Pillow Block Ball Bearing
Pillow block ball bearings are mounted to
pedestal trough ends on the tail end of a screw
conveyor. The ball bearing housing contains one
set of ball bearings that are designed to
withstand radial loads only.
Pillow Block Roller Bearing
Pillow block roller bearings are mounted to
pedestal trough ends on the drive end of a screw
conveyor. The flanged roller bearing housing
contains two sets of tapered or spherical bearings
that are designed to withstand the thrust of the
bulk material being conveyed.

Flanged Ball Bearing

Flanged ball bearings are mounted directly to
standard trough ends on the tail end of a screw
conveyor. The ball bearing housing contains one
set of ball bearings that are designed to
withstand radial loads

Flanged Roller Bearing

Flanged roller bearings are mounted directly to
standard trough ends on the drive end of a screw
conveyor. The flanged roller bearing housing
contains two sets of tapered bearings that are
designed to withstand the thrust of the bulk
material being conveyed.

Source: KWS Catalogue.

The Pillow block roller bearing was selected because of the design to withstand the thrust of the
bulk material. Pillow block roller bearings are mounted to pedestal trough ends on the drive end
of a screw conveyor. The flanged roller bearing housing contains two sets of tapered or spherical
bearings that are designed to withstand the thrust of the bulk material being conveyed.

52
2.14.28 Feeding Hopper Design

Feed Hooper desig Figure 2-23: Feed Hooper design.

Source: http://www.particles.org.uk/particle technology bookn.

The clay is fed into the machine through the feeding hopper. The hopper is directly mounted
above the mixer, which is mounted at the end of the screw conveyor. The mixer further churns
the clay into a homogeneous mixture.

Calculations of the volume of the hopper:

Where;

 H = Altitude
 A = Lower Base Area
 B = Upper Base Area

53
Volume = (H/3) × [A+B + (A+B)1/2]…………………………………..Equation 69

During the process, the processing chamber (cylinder) will have stresses set up in the walls of the
thin cylinder owing to an internal pressure p, these are;

Circumferential or hoop stress: σH = pd/2t……………………………..Equation 70

Longitudinal or axial stress: σL= pd/4t………………………………Equation 71 [ CITATION

EJH97 \l 12297 ]

2.14.29 Processing Chamber Design

The processing chamber is a combination of a cylinder and a frustum of a cone.

The volume of chamber;

 The volume of the cylindrical part of the chamber: Vc= π r2h………Equation 72

The volume of the truncated cone: Where;

 H = Altitude
 A = Lower Base Area
 B = Upper Base Area
Vct = (H/3) × [A+B + (A+B)1/2]…………………………………………….Equation 73

2.14.30 Material Flux Calculation

Processing Chamber filled area: S = λπD2/4……………………………….Equation 74

Where;

 S is the cross sectional area

 D is the chamber diameter
 λ is the fill coefficient of the section (lower than unity)
Source: Carlos III University Mechanical Engineering Journal

Travelling Speed (m/s): V = t×n/60……………………………………….Equation 75

Where;

 t is the screw pitch

54
  n is the screw rotating speed (rpm)
Transported material: Q = 3600×S×V×Ý×k………………...….................Equation 76

Where;

 S is the chamber cross section area

 V is the travelling speed
 γ is the material density
 K is the flux material decrement coefficient
Required operating power

Unloaded operated screw: PN (KW) = DL/20……………………………Equation 77

This value is much lower than the one required to move the material.

Power required to move the clay: PCL(KW) = coQLg/3600………………Equation 78

= coQL/367

Where:

 Co is the material resistance coefficient.

 g is acceleration due to gravity.
 L is the installation length.
 Q is the quantity moved.
Total driving power: PT(KW) = PN + PCL

PT (KW) = DL/20 + coQL/367……………………Equation 79

Source: Carlos III University Mechanical Engineering Journal

2.14.31 Mounting Frame Design

The mounting frame is designed out of angle iron of section 100mm by 100mm with a thickness
of 8mm.

 Thickness (t) – 8mm

 Breath (b) – 100mm
 Height (d) – 100mm

55
Such a design of the frame is robust and rigid enough to sustain the load without vibrations.

Bending moment due to the weight of the processing chamber:

L
(M) = ……………………………………..……………………..Equation 80
2

Where;

 P is the weight of the processing chamber.

 L is the length of the angle iron.
Bending stress induced in by the bending moment above:

M
σi = ……………………………………………………….Equation 81
Z

I
Z= ………………………………………………………..Equation 82
Y

Where;

 M is the bending moment.

 Z is the section modulus.
 I is the moment of inertia of section.
 Y is the distance of neutral axis of section.
Source: International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology

2.14.32 Joining Methods

Below are the five methods by which parts may be joined:

 Mechanical fasteners such as bolts, screws, nuts, and rivets.

 Soldering
 Brazing
 Welding
 Adhesive bonding

2.14.33 Mechanical fasteners

Mechanical fasteners are widely used in applications where the parts may need to be dismantled
for repair or replacement. This is a non-permanent joint. Examples of mechanical fasteners
56
include screws, bolts and nuts of the following types; countersunk head screws, raised
countersunk head, round head, cheese head, raised cheese head, pan head, hexagonal head, grub
screw, socket cap head.

Figure 2-24 Thread terminology

When in use bolts and nuts can be subjected to various types of loads such as compressive,
tensile, shearing, bending, cyclic, and bending combined with shearing loads.

The maximum safe load which may be applied to it is given by

P = Permisable stress × cross sectional area ( at bottom of thread ) or stress area.

π
But stress area = ¿…………………………………………Equation 83
4

Where d p = Pitch diameter

d c = Core or minor diameter [ CITATION Khu05 \l 1033 ]

57
Design of bolts supporting compressive or crushing load only (σ c)

P
σ c= ……………………………………………………………Equation 84
π [d −d c 2]n
2

Where d = major diameter

d c = minor diameter

n = Number of threads in engagement

But safe compressive load is = stress area × σ c…………………………Equation 85

Table 2-7 Design dimensions of screw threads, bolts and nuts

Designatio Pitch Major or Effective or Minor or core Depth of Stress area

n nominal dia pitch dia dia thread (mm2)
Nut Bolt
M6 1 6 5.350 4.77 4.92 0.613 20.1
M8 1.25 8 7.188 6.46 6.46 0.767 36.6
M10 1.5 10 9.024 8.16 8.87 0.920 58.3
M12 1.75 12 10.863 9.85 10.11 1.074 84
M16 2 16 12.701 11.54 11.83 1.227 157
M20 2.5 20 18.376 16.93 17.92 1.534 192
M24 3 24 22.051 20.32 20.75 1.840 353
M27 3 27 25.051 23.32 23.75 1.840 459
M30 3.5 30 27.27 25.70 26.21 2.147 561
M36 4 36 33.402 31.09 31.67 2.454 817

Table 5 I.S.O. standard dimensions of screw threads R S Khurmi and J K Gupta

In case the table is not available, then the core diameter (dc) may be taken as 0.84 d, where d is
the major diameter.
2.14.34 Welded Joints
Welding and adhesives are used for permanent joints. Dismantling would result in damage or
destruction of the joints and parts.

Welding is a process of joining metals in which the parent metals are fused together to form a
single piece.

Table 2-8 Recommended minimum weld size

58
Tensile or compressive stress on welded joints;

F
σ= ................................................................................................................Equation 86
hl

Where

F = Tensile or compressive force

h = weld throat

l = length of the weld

2.14.35 Cutting and Sizing

The extruded clay block is then cut into bricks by an electric motor driven sizing cutter installed
on the receiving table. The extruded bricks are left to cure in natural heat for three days after
which they will be stocked into a kiln in readiness for further hardening by heating at high
temperatures.

2.15 Conclusion
The development of a clay brick-molding machine will promote production of quality bricks.
This will result the construction of durable infrastructure thereby improving the standard. The
cost of running such a machine is very low compared to the cost of running a brick molding
plant. The machine will be simple to operate therefore there will not be any need to train the
users. The machine will have few moving components thus maintenance costs will be very low.

In this chapter, the researcher considered some existing brick molding machines and plants.
Related formulae for different components were specified. The next chapter will focus on the
methodology including detailed design calculations.

59
60