Psychological Thought

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Research Articles

Expatriates and Non-Expatriates: Effects of Cultural Intelligence and

Multicultural Personality on Passion for Work and Satisfaction With Life

Cátia Sousa* ab, Gabriela Gonçalves ab

[a] Department of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal. [b] CIEO - Research Centre for Spatial and
Organizational Dynamics, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal.

Abstract
The objective of this study is to compare the levels of cultural intelligence (CQ) and multicultural personality (MP) of expatriates and non-
expatriates, according to the degree of intercultural contact, and to observe the predictive effect of CQ and MP in passion for work and
satisfaction with life. Through a sample of 97 participants, a study with one-factor design 3 (intercultural contact degree: expatriates, non-
expatriates with maximum intercultural contact and non-expatriates with minimum intercultural contact) was conducted. CQ and MP levels
were compared, according to the degree of intercultural contact resorting to ANOVA one-way. The predictive effect of CQ and MP in
passion for work and satisfaction with life was also evaluated by means of regression analysis. Expatriates, compared to the non-
expatriates had higher levels of CQ, MP, passion for work and satisfaction with life. Multicultural skills such as CQ and MP were predictors
of passion for work and satisfaction with life. As limitations, we can point out the small size of the samples and the fact that there is no
control of individual variables. Passion for work and satisfaction with life are essential to promote individuals’ positive functioning, so the
identification of their predictors is of utmost importance, both at individual and organizational levels. Understanding the impact of
intercultural contact, CQ and MP on the performance of individuals, teams and organizations in multicultural contexts is an asset to global
organizations and societies.

Keywords: intercultural contact, cultural intelligence, multicultural personality, passion for work, satisfaction with life

Psychological Thought, 2017, Vol. 10(1), 90–108, doi:10.5964/psyct.v10i1.197

Received: 2016-08-02. Accepted: 2016-12-05. Published (VoR): 2017-04-28.
Handling Editor: Stanislava Stoyanova, Department of Psychology, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria
*Corresponding author at: Campus de Gambelas, Edifício 1, 8005-139 Faro – Portugal. E-mail: cavsousa@ualg.pt
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.

Nowadays, we can state that we live in a flat world (Friedman, 2009) or in a global village (McLuhan & Power,
1989) where multiculturalism and diversity of cultures are a daily reality. Borders are no longer an obstacle on
the economic, cultural and linguistic levels (Dusi, Messetti, & Steinbach, 2014). The intercultural contact
frequency and the global intercultural interactions, facilitated by the rapid advance of new technologies (e.g.,
Skype), travelling, an easier access to media and Internet, a global economy, together with expatriation and
immigration, make cultural exposure almost inevitable. Cultural exposure can be defined as the experiences
that allow individuals to understand and familiarize themselves with different rules, habits, cultural norms and
values (Crowne, 2008), through intercultural contacts with individuals from foreign cultures. This intercultural
contact and this cultural exposure endow individuals with certain multicultural skills, such as cultural intelligence
and multicultural personality, which are considered essential to deal with multiculturalism and cultural diversity,
facilitating adjustment and integration into new cultures both in organizational and social contexts (e.g., Earley
Sousa & Gonçalves 91

& Ang, 2003; Earley & Mosakowski, 2004; Leong, 2007; Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000). These skills
are a help to adapt to multicultural contexts, promote creativity (e.g., Leung, Maddux, Galinsky, & Chiu, 2008;
Liu, Chen, & Yao, 2011; Livermore, 2011), facilitate the conflict management (e.g., Gonçalves, Reis, Sousa,
Santos, & Orgambídez-Ramos, 2015), the team management (e.g., Janssens & Brett, 2006), the leadership
(e.g., Ng, Van Dyne, & Ang, 2009a) and make the people who have them, more prepare to face the challenges
of everyday life, both at professional and social levels. In short, these are competencies with several
advantages in various contexts, what makes their study relevant. In addition, they are attributes that are not
only more easily developed through intercultural contact (e.g., Crowne, 2008; Livermore, 2011), but they are
also influenced by the surrounding environment (e.g., Benet-Martínez & Oishi, 2008), which can either promote
or inhibit its growth. So, considering cultural intelligence and multicultural personality as attributes that promote
and enhance not only the interaction and effective performance in multicultural contexts, but also equip the
individuals with a series of tools that allow them to experience greater satisfaction, better relationship capacity
or a greater creativity, it is clearly essential to study its effects as possible predictors of passion for work and
satisfaction with life.

Expatriate definitions vary depending on the authors, though its essence is based on the movement of the
country of origin to another country. In this study, we assume as expatriates the employees who are sent by
their organization to work in one of its foreign branches or subsidiaries (Siers, 2007) to accomplish a job-related
goal (Sinangil & Ones, 2003). When their assignment is completed they return to their original country (Foyle,
Beer, & Watson, 1998). This assignment can be a short-term international one, defined as a “temporary internal
transfer to a foreign subsidiary of between one and twelve months duration” (Collings, Scullion, & Morley, 2007,
p. 205) or a long-term international assignment. “Non-expatriates typically work with familiar resources as well
as colleagues and external stakeholders and they live in a well-known social context” (Adams, Srivastava,
Herriot, & Patterson, 2013, p. 471). So, assuming that the expatriates` cultural exposure is considered an
advantage over the non-expatriates, it is our expectation that they exhibit higher levels of cultural intelligence
and multicultural personality. On the other hand, considering not only the ease of access to new cultures
through new information technologies, but also because organizations have become multicultural spaces, non-
expatriates’ are also exposed to multiculturalism. So, non-expatriates are supposed to show different levels of
cultural intelligence and multicultural personality, according to their degree of intercultural contact.

Assuming that both society and organizations are now multicultural spaces and that the contact with different
cultures is beneficial to the development of the cultural intelligence and multicultural personality, we believe to
be relevant, not only to analyze the effect of the degree of intercultural contact on the levels of cultural
intelligence and multicultural personality, but also to study the effects of both attributes on variables such as
passion for work and satisfaction with life.

In short, a one-factor design study for three degrees of intercultural contact with the following objectives was
developed: 1) to compare the cultural intelligence and multicultural personality levels of expatriates and non-
expatriates considering the degree of intercultural contact; and 2) to observe the predictive effect of cultural
intelligence and multicultural personality on passion for work and life satisfaction.

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2017, Vol. 10(1), 90–108
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Multicultural Competencies: Effects on Passion for Work and Life Satisfaction 92

Literature Review
Cultural Intelligence (CQ)
In recent years, the ability to adapt to others has been emphasized through the identification of various types of
intelligence such as social intelligence, emotional intelligence or interpersonal intelligence (e.g., Cantor &
Kihlstrom, 1985; Gardner, 1993; Goleman, 1996). Although cultural intelligence (CQ) is consistent with the
Gardner’s (1993) perspectives of intelligence (that focus the adaptability and adjustment to the environment
(Gardner, 1993; Sternberg, 2000), it differs from other types of intelligence because it focuses specifically on
the culturally diverse interactions (e.g., Sousa, Gonçalves, & Cunha, 2015; Van Dyne, Ang, & Koh, 2008).
Earley and Ang (2003), in order to explain why some individuals present a more effective performance than
others in multicultural situations, developed a conceptual model of cultural intelligence based on the Sternberg
and Detterman’s (1986) multidimensional perspective of intelligence. CQ can then be defined as a set of
competencies that facilitate the adaptation to different cultural situations and allow interpret unfamiliar situations
and behaviors (Van Dyne, Ang, & Livermore, 2010). Earley and Ang (2003) consider the CQ a multidimensional
construct comprising four dimensions: metacognitive, cognitive, motivational and behavioral. The metacognitive
dimension refers to cultural awareness and sensitivity during the interaction with different cultures, promoting
active thinking about people and situations in unfamiliar environments (Sousa, Gonçalves, & Cunha, 2015). On
the other hand, it triggers an analytic thinking about beliefs and habits, and allows individuals to make an
assessment and review of the mental maps and thus increasing the understanding capacity (Van Dyne, Ang, &
Koh, 2008), i.e., those who are a little off about their own culture are more likely to adopt the habits and
customs, and even the non-verbal language of an unfamiliar culture (Earley & Mosakowski, 2004). The
cognitive dimension refers to the cultural knowledge of behaviours, practices, norms and beliefs in different
cultures, obtained through education, experience and through the media, encompassing knowledge of the
social, economic and legal systems of different cultures and values (Rose, Ramalu, Uli, & Kumar, 2010). The
motivational dimension conceptualizes the capacity to direct attention and energy towards cultural differences,
i.e., it is a form of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation in intercultural situations (Van Dyne, Ang, & Koh, 2008).
The behavioural dimension is one of the most visible dimensions of social interaction and refers to the skill to
express, verbally and nonverbally, appropriate behaviours when interacting with people from different cultures
(Van Dyne, Ang, & Koh, 2008). It is not enough to show to understand the culture of the host country; you need
to prove it through action. The empirical research on CQ is somewhat recent, but the initial results are
significant and promising (Earley & Mosakowski, 2004; Sousa, Gonçalves, & Cunha, 2015).

Studies in the CQ area have focused their effect on the selection and training of expatriates (Ng, Van Dyne, &
Ang, 2009b), expatriates` performance (Ang, Van Dyne, & Koh, 2007; Chen, Lin, & Sawangpattanakul, 2011;
Elenkov & Manev, 2009; Lee & Sukoco, 2010) and their adjustment (Ang, Van Dyne, & Koh, 2007), in the
global leadership (Ng, Van Dyne, & Ang, 2009a), the socialization of newly arrived immigrants in the host
country (Malik, Cooper-Thomas, & Zikic, 2014), the relationship between CQ and personality (Huff, Song, &
Gresch, 2014; Şahin, Gurbuz, & Köksal, 2014), the impact of cultural exposure and intercultural contact in
increased levels of cultural intelligence (Crowne, 2008) and the influence of intercultural contact and CQ as
fundamental to the development of global leaders (Kim & Van Dyne, 2012).

The results of these investigations show the importance of CQ attribute for any individual who is in an
unfamiliar culture. Individuals endowed with cultural intelligence are more flexible, more open to change and to
the unknown, communicate more easily and are more confident (e.g., Earley & Ang, 2003). It will therefore be

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expected that this competence is a positive predictor of other behaviors, such as passion for work or
satisfaction with life.

Multicultural Personality (MP)

Multicultural personality (MP) can be defined as a construct focused on cultural adaptation, intercultural
competence, and multicultural effectiveness (Ponterotto, Ruckdeschel, Joseph, Tennenbaum, & Bruno, 2011).
Based on the analysis of the set of characteristics pointed out by several authors and previous studies, Van der
Zee and Van Oudenhoven (2000) have identified a number of specific personality characteristics, grouping
them into five dimensions of multicultural competence. The structure of personality arises from its various
dimensions (dispositional factors that continuously determine personality), which are the result of grouping
personality traits together (Almiro & Simões, 2010-2011). Multicultural personality differs from other types of
personality because these intercultural traits are tailored to face intercultural contexts, denoting specific
behavioural predispositions that are predictive of effective adaptation in multicultural environments (Van Erp,
Van der Zee, Giebels, & Dujin, 2014). To evaluate these traits, Van der Zee and Van Oudenhoven (2000)
developed the multicultural personality questionnaire, since, according to the authors, some investigations point
to factors that may be associated with multicultural effectiveness, nevertheless few have developed
psychometric instruments to measure these factors (Sousa, Gonçalves, & Cunha, 2015). The multicultural
personality questionnaire is more geared to predict the multicultural success than standard personality
questionnaires. In general, this questionnaire refers to behavior in multicultural situations. Although the scales
of the multicultural personality questionnaire are intrinsically linked with the scales of the Big Five (Barrick &
Mount, 1991), they are designed to cover more specific aspects that are crucial to the multicultural success
(Van Oudenhoven & Van der Zee, 2002). Thus, this multicultural personality questionnaire was developed to
identify specific dispositions of individuals who are associated with different facets of skills (Leong, 2007) and
includes 5 dimensions (cultural, open-mindedness, emotional stability, flexibility and social initiative) for
measuring the multicultural effectiveness. The cultural empathy dimension, also called sensitivity, is the most
mentioned dimension in the cultural effectiveness (Arthur & Bennett, 1995; Ruben, 1976). This dimension
refers to the ability to empathize with the feelings, thoughts and behaviours of members from a different cultural
group. The open-mindedness refers to an openness and unprejudiced attitude towards different members,
norms, and cultural values. The emotional stability dimension relates to the tendency to remain calm in stressful
situations vs. a tendency to show strong emotions under stressful circumstances. The fourth dimension is
flexibility. Elements of flexibility, such as the ability to learn from mistakes and new experiences, are crucial for
multicultural effectiveness (Sousa, Gonçalves, & Cunha, 2015; Spreitzer, McCall, & Mahoney, 1997). The fifth
dimension, social initiative, includes an attitude of openness to new cultures, a predisposition to seek and
explore new situations, facing them as challenges, and the ability to establish and maintain contacts easily (Van
der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000, 2001). These dimensions are positively associated with extroversion,
satisfaction with life, work productivity, openness to new experiences, international orientation, social
adjustment, job satisfaction, and negatively associated with hostility, neuroticism and social anxiety (e.g., Ali,
Van der Zee, & Sanders, 2003; Leong, 2007). According to Van der Zee, Van Oudenhoven, and De Grijs
(2004), high results in the five dimensions of MP are successful predictors of complex, little routine and
stressful professions, and in tasks that require specific abilities and competences to deal with different types of
individuals (Sousa, Gonçalves, & Cunha, 2015).

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Most of the studies have identified significant relationships with the multicultural behavior characteristics, and
the five dimensions in the aspirations for an international career, the development of multicultural activities,
international orientation (Leone, Van der Zee, Van Oudenhoven, Perugini, & Ercolani, 2005) and with the ability
to learn foreign languages (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2001).

Assuming that MP appears associated with higher satisfaction levels at work and subjective well-being, it is
pertinent to find out its effects on passion for work and satisfaction with life.

The Effect of Intercultural Contact on CQ and MP

According to Crowne (2008), cultural exhibition (which allows familiarity with beliefs, norms, and values of a
particular culture) can be more superficial (e.g. through travel, reading, watching television programs, studying
or contacting someone from another culture) or deeper (e.g., through a process of expatriation or immigration,
business traveling, studying and living in another country, through humanitarian missions or military
experience). The exposure to a cultural variety allows the individual to improve a better understanding of
culture (Chen & Isa, 2003), to learn how to select and apply appropriate behaviors and to adapt them as
needed. This situation is supported by the CQ that allows individuals, especially the expatriates, to adjust and
adapt more easily to the host country (e.g., Earley & Ang, 2003). Intelligence and personality, despite being
stable human characteristics, may evolve or be enriched in some ways, i.e., individuals who tend to maintain
contact with different cultures may increase their levels of CQ and MP. Thus, the following hypotheses were
formulated:

H1: Expatriates have higher levels of CQ and MP than non-expatriates.

H2: Non-expatriates with maximum IC present higher levels of CQ and MP than non-expatriates with
minimum IC.

CQ and MP as Predictors of Passion for Work and Satisfaction With Life

Occupying much of the individuals’ time, work is one of the most important parts of life. For some people, work
is a way to make money or increasing status, while for others, it is a vocation, it is what gives meaning to their
existence, becoming part of their identity (Forest, Mageau, Sarrazin, & Morin, 2011). Passion for work is an
individual emotion and a persistent state of desire in a cognitive and emotional evaluative basis for work, which
results in consistent intentions and work behaviors, such as being persistent in completing a task,
demonstrating organizational citizenship behaviors, or even by taking the initiative to solve work-related
problems (Perrewé, Hochwarter, Ferris, Mcallister, & Harris, 2014). Passion for work encourages individuals
giving them a sense of accomplishment (Gaan & Mohanty, 2014). Vallerand and Houlfort (2003) defined
passion for work as a strong inclination for an activity that an individual likes (or even loves), thinks it is
important, and in which invests time and energy on a regular basis. Passion can feed motivation, increase
welfare and excite our daily life, but it can also cause negative emotions, lead to obsessive behaviours and
interfere with the achievement of a well-adjusted, satisfactory and successful life (Orgambídez-Ramos,
Borrego-Alésc, & Gonçalves, 2014). Before this duality between type and intensity of passion, Vallerand and
Houlfort (2003) considered a dualistic model of passion: obsessive passion (motivational force that pushes the
individual to the activity) and the harmonious passion (motivational force that does not dominate the will of the
individual, i.e., it's a personal choice).

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Satisfaction with life can be defined as a cognitive judgment of some specific areas of life such as health, work,
social relations and autonomy, among others, reflecting the individual well-being, that is, the way and the
reasons that lead individuals to live their life in a positive way (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985).

Passion for work and satisfaction with life are variables that may have an added value for individuals and their
organizations. Thus it is obvious the importance of identifying their predictors. Investigations have learned the
positive aspects of CQ and MP, in the organizational and social contexts, in culturally different environments, or
even in a domestic environment (e.g., Sousa, Gonçalves, & Cunha, 2015). They enhance job satisfaction,
performance and creativity, promote flexibility, open mind or even trust (e.g., Leung, Maddux, Galinsky, & Chiu,
2008; Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000, 2001; Van Dyne, Ang, & Koh, 2008; Van Dyne et al., 2012).
Moreover, multiculturalism in organizations is now a reality and a challenge, and therefore essential to
understand the intercultural complexity, since the organizational culture is strongly influenced by national
culture. In sum, if CQ and MP are attributes that not only favour interaction and effective performance in
multicultural contexts, but also equip individuals with a series of tools that allow them to experience greater
satisfaction, greater openness, cultural empathy, emotional stability, better relationship skills or greater
creativity, is then legitimate to expect that CQ and MP promote positive attitudes and behaviors such as
passion for work and satisfaction with life. Given the importance of realizing the predictive effect of CQ and MP,
the following assumptions were formulated:

H3: Expatriates have higher levels of passion for work and satisfaction with life than non-expatriates.

H4: CQ and MP are predictors of passion for work and satisfaction with life.

We believe that this study is relevant, not only because there is a lack of studies addressing the effects of IC on
CQ and MP, seeking to establish a comparison between expatriates and non- expatriates with maximum IC and
non-expatriates with minimum IC, but also because the identification of passion for work and the satisfaction
predictors is central to organizations and their human resources.

Method
A one-factor design 3 study (degree of IC: expatriates, non-expatriates with maximum IC and non-expatriates
with minimum IC) was carried out. This type of methodology was selected because, although it is not a quasi-
experimental study, it has some similarities, such as: the non-random selection of the sample, the possibility of
working with comparison groups, and the possibility to analyze several variables simultaneously (e.g.,
Campbell & Stanley, 2015). No significant differences were found on the three samples (χ2(2, N = 28) = 1.01; p
= .603).

Measures
Intercultural contact (IC): To assess the independent variable intercultural contact degree, a question was built:
"In your day-to-day how often do you contact with people of other nationalities?" evaluated on a scale from 1
(never) to 7 (always). To identify participants with maximum and minimum IC, these were grouped into two
groups, using the average response for its definition. Thus, individuals who answered between 4 and 7
(regularly, often enough, often and always) in this issue were selected for maximum IC group, and individuals
who answered between 1 and 3 (never, rarely, sometimes) for the minimum IC group.

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Cultural Intelligence (CQ): The Cultural Intelligence Scale (CQS), adapted to the Portuguese population by
Sousa, Gonçalves, Reis, and Santos (2015), was originally developed by Van Dyne, Ang, & Koh (2008). It is a
multidimensional 20-item measure, rated according to a Likert-type scale from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 7
(Strongly Agree), that includes four dimensions of "intelligence": metacognitive (4 items, e.g., Item 2: " I adapt
my cultural knowledge when interacting whit people of an unfamiliar culture "), cognitive (6 items, e.g., Item 8: "I
know the marriage systems of other cultures "), motivational (5 items, e.g., Item 14: "I appreciate living in
unfamiliar cultural backgrounds ") and behavioral (5 items, e.g., Item 20: "I alter my facial expressions when a
cross-cultural interaction requires it."). The Cronbach’s alpha of the scale was 0.95; the alpha of the scale
dimensions ranged from 0.88 (Motivational), 0.90 (Cognitive), to 0.93 (Metacognitive and Behavioural) in both
samples (expatriates and non-expatriates).

Multicultural Personality (MP): Multicultural personality was assessed through the Portuguese version of the
Multicultural Personality Questionnaire (reduced version) by Sousa, Gonçalves, Orgambídez-Ramos, and
Santos (2015). This instrument was originally developed by Van der Zee and Van Oudenhoven (2000) and
consists of 91 items assessing the five dimensions of intercultural competence: cultural empathy (e.g., Item 5: "I
try to understand the others’ behaviours"), open-mindedness (e.g., Item 4: "I show interest by other cultures"),
social initiative (e.g., Item 1: “I take initiatives"), emotional stability (e.g., Item 7: "I keep calm in tough
situations"), and flexibility (e.g., Item 6: "I want to know exactly what is supposed to happen"). Later, Van der
Zee, Van Oudenhoven, Ponterotto, and Fietzer (2013) proposed a short version consisting of 40 items. The
adaptation to the Portuguese population also resulted in a reduced 40-item version (8 items by dimension),
assessed using a Likert 5-point scale (1 – Totally Not Applicable to 5 - Completely Applicable). The Portuguese
version of the scale had a Cronbach's alpha of 0.91; the alpha for the five dimensions ranged between 0.68
and 0.85. In this study the Cronbach's alpha ranged from 0.70 (flexibility) to 0.81 (Open-Mindedness) in the
three samples (expatriates and non-expatriates).

Passion for Work: In this study, we used the adaptation of the Passion Scale to the Portuguese population, by
Gonçalves, Orgambídez-Ramos, Ferrão, and Parreira (2014), originally developed by Vallerand and Houlfort
(2003). This scale consists of two subscales of 7 items: harmonious passion (e.g., Item 3: "This activity allows
me to live memorable experiences"; Item 5: "This activity is in harmony with the other activities in my life") and
obsessive passion (e.g. Item 8: "I cannot live without this activity"; Item 13: "I have almost an obsessive feeling
for this activity"). This scale can be adapted to any type of activity, assessed according to a Likert 7-point scale
(1 - Strongly Disagree to 7 - Strongly Agree). The Cronbach's alpha for the overall scale was 0.87. In this study
the Cronbach's alpha was 0.94 in both samples (expatriates and non-expatriates).

Satisfaction with life: We used the adaptation of the SWLS to the Portuguese Population, by Simões (1992),
originally developed by Diener et al. (1985). This 5-item tool is rated according to a Likert-type scale from 1
(Strongly Disagree) to 7 (Strongly Agree) and the results ranging from a minimum of 7 and a maximum of 35, in
that the higher is the score, the higher will be the satisfaction with life. In the Portuguese scale adaptation, the
reliability coefficient of the scale was 0.77. In the present study the Cronbach's alpha is 0.85 in both samples
(expatriates and non-expatriates).

Demographics: In order to characterize the sample, participants were asked to provide basic demographic
information, including gender, age, marital status and educational level.

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Procedures for the Expatriate Sample

Several multinational companies were contacted in order to request the participation of their expatriate
employees. Anonymity and confidentiality of responses were guaranteed. The expatriates’ questionnaire was
completed via online. No compensation was offered to participants.

Expatriate Sample
This study used a convenience sample composed of participants who were required to conform to the following
inclusion criteria: being expatriate. The sample of expatriates is composed of 28 individuals, and no outliers
have been detected. About 71.4% of the participants are males and 28.6% are females, aged between 25 and
66 years (M = 43.61; SD = 10.41). As for nationalities, 24 individuals are of Portuguese nationality and 4 of
Brazilian nationality. About 82.1% of the individuals are married or living in common law. With regard to
qualifications most of the respondents (39.3%) have a university degree. Half of the respondents (n = 14) are in
an expatriation process for the first time. Germany is the country where there are more expatriates, followed by
Chile and France (Figure 1). About 20 expatriates are accompanied by their families, 12 of them claim to have
always travelled with their family in any expatriation process. Regarding the time period of expatriation, it varies
between 1 month and 5 years.

Figure 1. Number of expatriates by country.

Procedures for the Non-Expatriate Samples

Upon approval of the Scientific Committee (entity responsible for monitoring the procedures and ethical
safeguards of research) and assurance of ethical criteria (e.g., information about the voluntary and anonymous
nature of the study), participants answered a self-report questionnaire with an average completion time of 15
minutes. Data collection was performed in several places, collectively and individually, namely in university
classes, public and private companies, public libraries, and other public places. Only the questionnaires
completed correctly were considered. No compensation was offered to participants.

As described in measures section: To assess the independent variable intercultural contact degree, a question
was built: "In your day-to-day how often do you contact with people of other nationalities?" evaluated on a scale
from 1 (never) to 7 (always). To identify participants with maximum and minimum IC, these were grouped into
two groups, using the average response for its definition. Thus, individuals who answered between 4 and 7
(regularly, often enough, often and always) in this issue were selected for maximum IC group, and individuals
who answered between 1 and 3 (never, rarely, sometimes) for the minimum IC group.

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Non Expatriates Samples

Non-Expatriate Sample (IC Maximum)
This study used a convenience sample composed of participants who were required to conform to the following
inclusion criteria: age above 18 years. The sample consists of 33 Portuguese participants, 75.8% female and
24.2% male. Ages range from 20 to 72 years (M = 34.79, SD = 13.89). With reference to the level of education,
most of the participants have an academic degree (63.6%). No outliers were detected.

Non-Expatriate Sample (IC Medium and Minimum)

This study used a convenience sample composed of participants who were required to conform to the following
inclusion criteria: age above 18 years. The sample consists of 36 Portuguese participants, 52.8% female and
47.2% male. Ages range from 20 to 74 years (M = 37.18, SD = 14.80). With reference to the level of education
most of the participants have an academic degree (66.7%). No outliers were detected.

Data Analysis
The data analysis was performed using the SPSS 22 statistical package and it was considered the probability
of significance at the level of .05 (Fisher, 1973), since the use of the p value is the most frequently used
criterion for a decision on statistical inference (Marôco, 2011). The hypotheses were tested through ANOVA
one-way and multiple hierarchical regressions. The homogeneity of variances in the three groups was
evaluated with the Levene’s test based on the median, assuming equal variance for p-values above .05. The
model assumptions, such as normal distribution, homogeneity and independence of errors, were analyzed. The
independence assumption was validated with the Durbin-Watson statistic, which takes values between 0 and 4:
values near 2 indicate no autocorrelation of residuals, near 0 indicate a positive autocorrelation, and near 4
indicate a negative autocorrelation (Marôco, 2011). Through Tolerance and VIF measures (Variance Inflation
Factor), it was possible to diagnose the existence of multicollinearity. VIF values above 5 (Montgomery & Peck,
1982) or even 10 (Myers, 1986) indicate the presence of multicollinearity in the independent variables, and
values closer to 0 denote less multicollinearity. Tolerance varies between 0 and 1, and values closer to 1 reflect
less multicollinearity. Tolerance variables with values below 0 are suggested to be excluded from the model
(Marôco, 2011).

Results
Descriptive Statistic
In relation to the IC degree, it can be observed, in the Table 1, the means and standard deviations of the
variables under study. We can see that expatriates had higher means in all dimensions except for the cultural
empathy dimension (M = 3.70, SD = 0.42). We can also see that non expatriates with maximum IC had higher
means in all dimensions except for the flexibility dimension (M = 3.12, SD = 0.38).

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Table 1
Means and Standard-Deviations, According to the Level of Intercultural Contact (IC)

Non-Expatriates

Expatriates Maximum IC Minimum IC

Variable M SD M SD M SD

CQ 5.43 0.60 4.70 1.03 4.42 0.96

CQ Metacognitive 5.79 0.96 5.01 1.24 4.87 1.21

CQ Cognitive 4.77 0.85 4.14 1.10 3.83 1.13

CQ Motivational 5.80 0.72 4.90 1.15 4.62 1.15

CQ Behavioral 5.56 0.97 4.93 1.38 4.56 1.28

Cultural Empathy 3.70 0.42 3.79 0.54 3.74 0.46

Open-Mindedness 3.88 0.40 3.73 0.50 3.56 0.57

Social initiative 3.99 0.44 3.73 0.67 3.50 0.42

Emotional Stability 3.70 0.28 3.47 0.53 3.28 0.32

Flexibility 3.32 0.46 3.12 0.38 3.27 0.42

Work Passion 4.12 0.87 3.17 0.90 2.97 1.25

Satisfaction with Life 5.22 0.91 4.47 1.09 4.45 0.99

To test the Hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 it was used an one-way ANOVA followed by post-hoc Tukey HSD test.

Regarding the MP, significant differences were found in the open-mindedness (F(2,96) = 3.239, p = .04), the
social initiative (F(2,96) = 6.539, p = .002) and the emotional stability (F(2,96) = 8.530, p < .001) dimensions.
The Tukey test results showed that the main differences were between expatriates and non-expatriates with
minimum IC in the open-mindedness (p = .034), the social initiative (p = .001) and the emotional stability (p < .
001) dimensions.

With regard to cultural intelligence significant differences were found (p ≤ .001) in all dimensions, differences
between expatriates and non-expatriates with maximum IC and between expatriates and non-expatriates with
minimum IC. In the behavioral dimension there were only differences between expatriates and non-expatriates
with minimum IC (Table 2).

The results also allowed to observe significant differences in the variables passion for work (F(2,96) = 8.974, p
<.001) and satisfaction with life (F(2,96) = 5.173, p = .007). Regarding passion for work, these differences can
be observed between expatriates and non-expatriates with minimum IC (p = .001) and between expatriates and
non-expatriates with maximum IC (p = .007). Similar situation can be observed in satisfaction with life among
expatriates and non-expatriates with minimum IC (p = .013) and between expatriates and non-expatriates with
maximum IC (p = .019). Given the results we can partially confirm the Hypothesis 1, i.e., expatriates had higher
levels of MP and CQ than non-expatriates, except for cultural empathy and flexibility dimensions. Regarding
Hypothesis 2, this has not been confirmed. Non-expatriates with maximum IC also presented higher means
than non-expatriates with minimum IC (see Table 1), however, the mean difference was not statistically
significant. Hypothesis 3 was confirmed; it was found that expatriates had higher levels of passion for work and
satisfaction with life compared to non-expatriates.

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Table 2
ANOVA and Tukey Test for Cultural Intelligence According to the Level of Intercultural Contact

ANOVA Tukey Test

Variable F(2,96) p Contrast p

CQ 10.242 <.001
Expatriates vs. non-expatriates IC minimum <.001
Expatriates vs. non-expatriates IC maximum .006

CQ Metacognitive 5.535 .005

Expatriates vs. non-expatriates IC minimum .006
Expatriates vs. non-expatriates IC maximum .027

CQ Cognitive 6.407 .002

Expatriates vs. non-expatriates IC minimum .002
Expatriates vs. non-expatriates IC maximum .055

CQ Motivational 10.529 <.001

Expatriates vs. non-expatriates IC minimum <.001
Expatriates vs. non-expatriates IC maximum .003

CQ Behavioral 5.119 .008

Expatriates vs. non-expatriates IC minimum .005

Regression Analysis
To test the 4th hypothesis, we used the multiple linear regression. There were two models for determining the
variables in study (CQ and MP) on the passion for work and the satisfaction with life variables (Table 3). The
Tolerance and VIF values were found to be close to 1, indicating there was no multicollinearity. The values
showed by the Durbin-Watson test were close to 2, indicating no autocorrelation of residuals.

Through Table 3 we can see that the MP explains about 18% of the passion for work. By adding the CQ
variable the predictor effect increases about 7% (R2 = 0.25). Only two dimensions have an explanatory power.
Cultural empathy contributes negatively to the passion for work (β = -0.322, p = .031) and open mindedness
has a positive contribution (β = 0.336, p = .038). We can also verify that the MP explains about 28% of
satisfaction with life, and with the adding of the CQ variable this predictor effect increases only 3% (R2 = 0.32).
The dimensions with greater explanatory power are social initiative (β = 0.278, p = .028) and emotional stability
(β = 0.242, p = .036). These numbers, although small, they are statistically significant (p ≤ .05), confirming
Hypothesis 4, i.e., MP and CQ are predictors of passion for work and satisfaction with life.

Table 3
Hierarchical Regression for the Prediction of Passion for Work and Satisfaction With Life

Work Passion (d = 2.17) Life Satisfaction (d = 1.71)

2 2 2 2
Model Variables r ΔR p r ΔR p

1 MP 0.18 0.18 0.026 0.28 0.28 <.001

2 MP+CQ 0.25 0.07 0.035 0.32 0.03 <.001
Note. d = Durbin-Watson.

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Sousa & Gonçalves 101

Discussion
This study aimed to compare the expatriates and non-expatriates` CQ and MP levels regarding the
independent variable: degree of intercultural contact, as well as to observe the predictor effect of CQ and MP in
passion for work and satisfaction with life. The results obtained reinforce the Hypothesis 1, verifying that
individuals in expatriation processes had higher levels of CQ and MP compared to non-expatriate individuals.
As mentioned above, expatriates had greater cultural exposure as they were supposed to live, even for a
limited time period, in a foreign country. This grants them a daily contact with the host country natives and their
habits, customs and values , what facilitates the assimilation of their culture. Some studies have shown that IC
can act as a source of security decreasing the negative reactions before the unknown (Mikulincer & Shaver,
2001), since it reduces prejudices and anxiety and increases empathy (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2008). Other studies
have pointed out that a positive IC also appears associated with the development of CQ and MP (e.g., Crowne,
2008) functioning as an adjustment facilitator as it gives an emotional support (e.g., Geeraert, Demoulin, &
Demes, 2014). Thus, it seems clear that expatriates presented higher levels of CQ and MP than non-
expatriates.

It was also observed that the CQ and MP means of non-expatriates with maximum IC were reasonable. Such
evidence showed that even without leaving their home country, individuals who come into contact with people
from other cultures can acquire these multicultural competencies. Therefore, the IC came as a predictor of CQ
and MP. Although expatriates with maximum IC presented superior means than non-expatriates with minimum
IC, these means were not significant and therefore did not confirm Hypothesis 2. It was also possible to confirm
the Hypothesis 3, by registering that expatriates had higher levels of passion for work and satisfaction with life.
This evidence is consistent with our Hypothesis 4, that is, CQ and MP are predictors of satisfaction with life and
passion for work. By allowing a better adjustment to different cultural environments, CQ and MP equip
individuals with the necessary tools to deal with situations such as culture shock, stress or anxiety. Thus,
individuals experience greater well-being, an easier adjustment and adaptation, what gives them greater
satisfaction with life and greater passion for their work.

Conclusion
This study confirmed that the IC associated with multicultural competencies such as CQ and MP are extremely
important variables for adaptation and adjustment to different and unfamiliar cultures. Even individuals who are
not expatriates but who maintain a high IC, have high CQ and MP levels, what confirms that IC is a strong
predictor of multicultural competencies. So, individuals who have international experience and maintain a
frequent IC will probably be individuals with a greater willingness to adjust to foreign countries, also showing
higher levels of CQ and MP. This international experience together with IC should be considered by
organizations, for example in recruitment and selection of expatriates, seeking to mitigate the premature returns
and aiming the success of international missions, which represent a challenge for expatriates. As the
adjustment of expatriates is one of the most critical factors in achieving international missions, organizations
must invest in the development or improvement of adjustment practices that focus on IC. The IC allows people
to develop a better understanding of the culture, and like the CQ it allows them to select, adjust and use the
right competences to each situation.

This study is also a contribution to the definition of validity measures predictive of the expatriate selection
processes and to intervention strategies in the expatriate training area. Research-action studies may be

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Multicultural Competencies: Effects on Passion for Work and Life Satisfaction 102

developed, using assessment centers extended to host country participants to evaluate to what extent IC
contributes to the effectiveness of integration strategies. It would also be interesting to analyze to what extent
the levels of CQ and MP vary according to the cultural values (Sousa, Gonçalves, & Cunha, 2015). In this
study, the sample was homogeneous with respect to the nationality (Portuguese and Brazilian). Portugal and
Brazil are countries historically marked by multiculturalism. Therefore, it seems natural that individuals
demonstrate acceptable levels of CQ and MP, a certain openness and cultural empathy. What are the levels of
CQ and MP of individuals from countries more closed to multiculturalism and to the world (e.g., North Korea)?
And what are their effect on passion for work and satisfaction with life? What is the importance of culture in
these two multicultural competencies?

Despite the IC be inevitable for expatriates, some may sometimes have a reduced IC because they are
"confined" to expatriate communities of the same nationality, and only interact the strictly necessary with
members of the host country. Are their levels of CQ and MP as high as expatriates who are out of
communities? Future studies could cover such expatriates, to compare their levels of CQ and MP and verify the
impact of the IC.

Regarding the CQ, Van Dyne et al. (2012) built more specific sub-dimensions that allow for a more
sophisticated theorizing and testing, adding eleven sub dimensions to the first four dimensions. Therefore, it
would be appropriate to deepen various relevant CQ profiles, covering the various sub dimensions recently
proposed by the authors (Van Dyne et al., 2012). It would also be relevant to deepen the different CQ profiles,
encompassing the various sub dimensions recently proposed by the authors (Van Dyne et al., 2012). With an
increasing focus on positive psychology and on the optimal functioning of individuals, the development of
attitudes, emotions and positive behaviors such as passion for work and satisfaction with life, is becoming a
pressing challenge for organizations.

As limitations we can point out the sample size, the large age diapason and the lack of control of individual
variables (e.g., personality). Despite the reduction of time and costs of online questionnaires, we cannot control
the response time and spontaneity of respondents. Also the length of the questionnaire may discourage its
filling in, or justify an incomplete filling.

In sum, understanding the impact of CQ and MP on the performance of individuals, teams and organizations in
multicultural contexts is an asset to global organizations and societies. On the other hand, the development of
effective IC allows the definition of conflict strategies and negotiation management in contexts characterized by
diversity and multiculturalism.

Funding
This paper is financed by National Funds provided by FCT- Foundation for Science and Technology through project
UID/SOC/04020/2013

Competing Interests
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Acknowledgments
The authors have no support to report.

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About the Authors

Cátia Sousa: Graduation in Human Resource Management. Master in Work Sciences and Labour Relations. PhD in Psy-
chology. Guest Assistant Professor in the Department of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Algarve.
Member of the CIEO - Research Centre for Spatial and Organizational Dynamics (University of Algarve). Research interests
include: human resource management, multicultural and organizational psychology.

Gabriela Gonçalves: Graduation in Psychology, Social and Organizational area. PhD in Psychology. Assistant Professor in
the Department of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Algarve. Member of the CIEO - Research Centre for

Psychological Thought
2017, Vol. 10(1), 90–108
doi:10.5964/psyct.v10i1.197
Multicultural Competencies: Effects on Passion for Work and Life Satisfaction 108

Spatial and Organizational Dynamics (University of Algarve). Research interests include both basic and applied research in
cultural psychology in passion for working, and work engagement, ethical and social relationship.

Psychological Thought PsychOpen is a publishing service by Leibniz Institute

2017, Vol. 10(1), 90–108 for Psychology Information (ZPID), Trier, Germany.
doi:10.5964/psyct.v10i1.197 www.zpid.de/en