Industrial Radiography Safety Boundary Distance

Understanding Radiographic
Safety Distance
Saiful Rizal/ Charlie Chong
Hiroshima Victim
Saiful Rizal/Charlie Chong

Hiroshima Victim

This material is intended to provide an overview of the fundamental principles and
safety regulations as they apply to radiography. It does not in itself satisfy all of
the radiation safety training required by law.

Muhd Ramli/ Charlie Chong
Question?
What is the maximum dose rate at
controlled area boundary?

Muhd Ramli/ Charlie Chong
IS RT Safe?
Radiography is an important tool in nondestructive evaluation. The method offers a number of
advantages over other NDE methods, but one of its disadvantages is the health risk associated
with the radiation. Health effects can occur due to either long-term low level exposure or short-
term high level exposure.
The primary risk from occupational radiation exposure is an increased risk of cancer. The amount
of risk depends on the amount of radiation dose received, the time over which the dose is
received, and the body parts exposed. Although scientists assume low-level radiation exposure
increases one's risk of cancer, medical studies have not demonstrated adverse health effects in
individuals exposed to small chronic radiation doses (i.e., up to 10,000 mrem above background).
The increased risk of cancer from occupational radiation exposure is small when compared to the
normal cancer rate in today's society. The current lifetime risk of dying from all types of cancer in
the United States is approximately 20 percent (see Figure). If a person received a radiation dose
of 10 rem to the entire body (above background), his or her risk of dying from cancer would
increase by one percent.
Saiful Rizal/Charlie Chong https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/RadiationSafety/cc_rad-safety_index.htm

IS RT Safe?
It is safe if well managed.
Saiful Rizal/Charlie Chong https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/RadiationSafety/cc_rad-safety_index.htm

What is Gamma Ray

What is Gamma Ray

Why Gamma Ray is health Hazards
Electromagnetic waves are produced by a vibrating electric charge and as such, they consist of
both an electric and a magnetic component. In addition to acting like waves, electromagnetic
radiation acts like a stream of small "packets" of energy called photons. Another way that
electromagnetic radiation has been described is in terms of a stream of photons. The massless
photon particles each travel in a wave-like pattern. Each photon contains a certain amount (or
bundle) of energy, and all electromagnetic radiation consists of these photons. The only
difference between the various types of electromagnetic radiation is the amount of energy found
in the photons.
Electromagnetic radiation travels in a straight line at the speed of light (3 x 108 m/s).
Since visible lights & Gamma rays are both electromagnetic radiation, why gamma rays are
health hazards where visible lights are not?

Electromagnetic Wave

Why
Gamma Ray
is health
Hazards
The high energy electromagnetic
radiation is damaging!

Since both the visible lights &
Gamma rays are both
electromagnetic radiation, why
gamma rays are
health
hazards?
Bullet

Combat Bullet is not dangerous unless fired

High Energy Bullet - Kills

Low Energy Elastic Band Bullet – Scare Birds

Sources of High Energy Radiation
Each person in the United States gets an average of 7 to 8 mSv every year from medical and natural radiation exposure.

Sources of High Energy Radiation
There are many sources of harmful, high energy radiation. Industrial
radiographers are mainly concerned with exposure from x-ray
generators and radioactive isotopes, but let's start by considering
sources of radiation in general. It is important to understand that
eighty percent of human exposure comes from natural sources such
as outer space, rocks and soil, radon gas, and the human body. The
remaining twenty percent comes from man-made radiation sources,
such as those used in medical and dental diagnostic procedures.
One source of natural radiation is cosmic radiation. The earth and all
living things on it are constantly being bombarded by radiation from
space. The sun and stars emits EM radiation of all wavelengths.
Charged particles from the sun and stars interact with the earth’s
atmosphere and magnetic field to produce a shower of radiation,
typically beta and gamma radiation. The dose from cosmic radiation
varies in different parts of the world due to differences in elevation
and the effects of the earth’s magnetic field.
Radioactive material is also found throughout nature. It occurs
naturally in soil, water, plants and animals. The major isotopes of
concern for terrestrial radiation are uranium and the decay products
of uranium, such as thorium, radium, and radon. Low levels of
uranium, thorium, and their decay products are found everywhere.
Some of these materials are ingested with food and water, while
others, such as radon, are inhaled. The dose from terrestrial sources
varies in different parts of the world. Locations with higher
concentrations of uranium and thorium in their soil have higher dose
levels. All people also have radioactive isotopes, such as potassium-
40 and carbon-14, inside their bodies. The variation in dose from one
person to another is not as great as the variation in dose from
cosmic and terrestrial sources.
There are also a number of manmade radiation sources that present
some exposure to the public. Some of these sources include
tobacco, television sets, smoke detectors, combustible fuels, certain
building materials, nuclear fuel for energy production, nuclear
weapons, medical and dental X-rays, nuclear medicine, X-ray
security systems and industrial radiography. By far, the most
significant source of man-made radiation exposure to the average
person is from medical procedures, such as diagnostic X-rays,
nuclear medicine, and radiation therapy.

ENVIRONMENTAL RADIATION
Ionizing radiation is not a new feature of our environment but rather something that has always existed
since the formation of the earth. What is new is the additional exposure that the population receives from
man made sources. Natural or background ionising radiation comes from cosmic radiation - the sun,
naturally occurring radioactive materials which can be found in the food we eat and the ground we walk
on.
Annual effective doses to adults from natural sources (Perth)
Source of exposure Annual effective dose (mSv)

Typical Elevated a
Cosmic rays 0.39 2.0
Terrestrial gamma rays 0.46 4.3

Radionuclides in the body (except 0.23 0.6
radon)
Radon and its decay products 1.3 1.0
Total 2.4
a Elevated values are representative of larger regions. Even higher values occur locally
Saiful Rizal/Charlie Chong http://www.radiologicalcouncil.wa.gov.au/PDF/FAQ/IRA%20Training%20notes.pdf

What concern Industrial Radiographer
and Radiation Workers?
Industrial radiographers are mainly concerned with exposure from x-ray generators and
radioactive isotopes, this is in addition of radiation received as mentioned earlier.

What are the commonly used isotopes
for industrial radiography

Radioactive Decay and Half-Life

Key Factors Affecting Radiation
Hazards: Energy, Activity, Intensity and
Exposure

Energy

Hazards: Energy
The energy of a radioisotope is a characteristic of the atomic structure of the material. Consider,
for example, Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60, which are two of the more common industrial Gamma
ray sources. These isotopes emit radiation in two or three discreet wavelengths.
Cobalt-60 will emit 1.33 and 1.17 MeV Gamma rays, and
Iridium-192 will emit 0.31, 0.47, and 0.60 MeV Gamma rays.
It can be seen from these values that the energy of radiation coming from Co-60 is about twice
the energy of the radiation coming from the Ir-192. From a radiation safety point of view, this
difference in energy is important because the Co-60 has more material penetrating power and,
therefore, is more dangerous and requires more shielding.

74 days
Beta decay to Excited states of Pt-192 and electron capture to Os-192
Complex energy spectrum
Average 0.38 MeV
Saiful Rizal/Charlie Chong http://www.aapm.org/meetings/05SS/program/Radionuclides.pdf

Activity

Hazards: Activity
The strength of a radioactive source is called its activity, which is defined as the rate at which the
isotope decays. Specifically, it is the number of atoms that decay and emit radiation in one
second. Radioactivity may be thought of as the volume of radiation produced in a given amount
of time. It is similar to the current control on a X-ray generator.
The International System (SI) unit for activity is the becquerel (Bq), which is that quantity of
radioactive material in which one atom transforms per second. The becquerel is a small unit. In
practical situations, radioactivity is often quantified in kilobecqerels (kBq) or megabecquerels
(MBq).
The curie (Ci) is also commonly used as the unit for activity of a particular source material. The
curie is a quantity of radioactive material in which 3.7 x 1010 atoms disintegrate per second. New
sources of cobalt will have an activity of 20 to over 100 curies, and new sources of iridium will
have an activity of similar amounts.
Two one-curie sources of Cs-137 might have very different masses depending upon the relative proportion of non-radioactive atoms present in each source. The
concentration of radioactivity, or the relationship between the mass of radioactive material and the activity, is called the specific activity. Specific activity is expressed as the
number of curies or becquerels per unit mass or volume. The higher the specific activity of a material, the smaller the physical size of the source is likely to be.

Intensity

Hazards: Intensity
Radiation intensity is the amount of energy passing through a given area that is perpendicular to
the direction of radiation travel in a given unit of time.
The intensity of an X-ray or gamma-ray source can easily be measured with the right detector.
Since it is difficult to measure the strength of a radioactive source based on its activity, which is
the number of atoms that decay and emit radiation in one second, the strength of a source is
often referred to in terms of its intensity. Measuring the intensity of a source is sampling the
number of photons emitted from the source in some particular time period, which is directly
related to the number of disintegrations in the same time period (the activity).
For Iridium 192 480 mR(4.8 mSv)/hr/ci @1meter

For Cobalt 60 1.35 R (13.5 mSv)/hr/ci @ 1 meter
For Selenium 200 mR (2 mSv)/hr/ci @ 1 meter
http://www.iem-inc.com/information/tools/gamma-ray-dose-constants

Inverse Square Law
The inverse-square law generally applies when some force, energy, or other conserved quantity is evenly radiated outward from a point source in three-dimensional space. Since the surface area of a sphere (which is
4πr2 ) is proportional to the square of the radius, as the emitted radiation gets farther from the source, it is spread out over an area that is increasing in proportion to the square of the distance from the source. Hence,
the intensity of radiation passing through any unit area (directly facing the point source) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the point source. Gauss's law is similarly applicable, and can be
used with any physical quantity that acts in accord to the inverse-square relationship.

Saiful Rizal/Charlie Chong http://radprocalculator.com/Gamma.aspx
Saiful Rizal/Charlie Chong http://radprocalculator.com/Gamma.aspx
Exposed Time

Hazards: Exposed Time
One way to measure the intensity of x-rays or gamma rays is to measure the amount of
ionization they cause in air. The amount of ionization in air produced by the radiation is called the
exposure. Exposure is expressed in terms of a scientific unit called a roentgen (R or r).
The unit roentgen is equal to the amount of radiation that produces in one cubic centimeter of dry
air at 0°C and standard atmospheric pressure ionization of either sign equal to one electrostatic
unit of charge. Most portable radiation detection safety devices used by a radiographer measure
exposure and present the reading in terms of roentgens or roentgens/hour, which is known as the
dose rate.
Example:
• The intensity is 4.7mR/hr
• Exposure time 10 second
The Exposure is 0.013mR

Exposure

What Contribute to Exposure?
- The energy
- The activity
- The intensity
- The exposed time

How to Reduce Exposure?

How to Reduce Exposure++?
- Use low energy source
- Use low activity source

How to Reduce Exposure Boundary
Limit?
- Use low energy source
- Use low activity source
More Correctly………….

Safe Distance

Safety Boundary Limits:
Any area where an individual, if continuously present, can receive a dose in excess of 0.75
mR/hr (7.5 uSv/hr) must be treated as restricted area and access strictly controlled.
RAPID P0024 PMC XXX XXX 000X 000X

Safety Boundary Limits:
Any area where an individual, if continuously present, can receive a dose in excess of 0.75
mR/hr (7.5 uSv/hr) must be treated as restricted area and access strictly controlled.
RAPID P0024 PMC XXX XXX 000X 000X

Safety
Boundary

The KPI
Annual Dose Limits (ADLs).

Table 1: Annual Dose Limits (ADLs). LEM/TEK/33 Rev. 1 / 02 December 2008

1. For a female worker of reproductive capacity, any exposure shall be as uniformly distributed
with time as is practicable.
2. For a pregnant worker, the dose to the foetus accumulated over a period of between the
confirmation of pregnancy and the date of delivery shall not exceed 1 mSv.
3. The limit shall be 5 mSv where the person is likely to be exposed at or near the limit for many
years provided that the average annual dose over the life time does not exceed 1mSv.
4. The limit applies to the skin and lens of the eye only. Others organs have no limits for such
organs are already made inherently safe in the setting up of the whole body limit.

LEM/TEK/33
Rev. 1 / 02
December 2008
Table 1: Annual Dose Limits (ADLs).

Annual Dose Limit
Radiation worker 20mSv

Member of public 1mSv

Classification of Working
Areas and Setting Up of
Barriers

How do Set-up
Barriers for Controlled
Areas
21.10 Barriers for controlled areas: Shall be established before starting
radiographic operation and NOT during the operation, when there may
already be people in the areas. A preliminary estimate of distance from the
working position to the barrier position can be made using one of the
following methods [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24 (2)]:
LEM/TEK/33 Rev. 1 02 December 2008

21.10.1 Using a Graph

The maximum distance from the working position to the barrier can be
estimated by using a graph. An example of a graph indicating barrier
distances of Ir-192 and Co-60 is shown in Figure 6.

21.10.2 Using the
Inverse Square Law

21.10.2 Using the Inverse Square Law
calculated using inverse square law which is expressed as:
Example 2: The dose rate at 1 m from a particular sealed

source is 0.2 mSv/h.
At what distance will it be a dose rate of 7.5 μSv/h?
0.2/.0075 = d22 , d= 5.16 m

0.2 mSv/h dose rate?
If Ir192 was used, what is the activities?

0.2 mSv/h dose rate?
If Ir192 was used, what is the activities?
0.6 Curie

The Usual Ir192 Activities = 25 Curies
Example 2:
At what distance will it be a dose rate of 7.5 μSv/h?
Open source = 25 x 4.19 = 104.6 μSv/h at 1m

1.5mm Encapsulated SS source = 93 μSv/h at 1m
Used sealed source;

93/.0075 = d22 , d= 111.3m

21.10.3 Using Dose Rate
Constant

21.10.3 Using Dose Rate Constant
21.10.3.1 To calculate barrier distances from a sealed source, the dose rate constant
“k-factor” can be used by using the following mathematical expression:
I/ d2 = kA ; where
I is the dose rate (mSv/h)

k is the dose rate constant (mSv/h/GBq) at a distance of 1 m from the source (see Table 11).
A is the activity (GBq)
d is the distance (m)
Sealed Sources k (mSv/h/GBq at 1 m)

Co-60 0.345
Cs-137 0.078
Ir-192 0.125
Example 3: What is the dose rate from at 1GBq Co-60 source at 2 m?

Solution :
1 GBq of Co-60 gives a dose rate of 0.306 mSv/h at 1m. If the dose rate at 2
m = I2, then by inverse square law:
I1/I2 = (d2/d1)2
0.306 / 22 = I2 = 0.0765 mSv/h = 76.5 μSv/h
Saiful Rizal/Charlie Chong LEM/TEK/33 Rev. 1 02 December 2008

Dose Rate
at the barrier?
7.5 μSv/h at the barrier or other
flexi value?

Dose Rate
at the barrier?

Table 5: The Requirements for Radiographic Sites


The Requirements for Radiographic Sites
Partly Enclosed/Open
Shall be defined at a controlled area
(i.e. 7.5 μSv/h at the barrier).
Appropriate warning signs and
CODE OF PRACTICE notices shall be provided at the
ON RADIATION boundary.
PROTECTION Workers should be outside the
IN INDUSTRIAL barrier, i.e during radiographic
RADIOGRAPHY operation. The RPO and RPS shall
not enter supervised and controlled
areas except in case of gamma
radiography, during winding out and
winding in radiography source
6.3.1.7 Classification of Working Areas and Setting Up of Barriers.
Saiful Rizal/Charlie Chong http://portal.aelb.gov.my/sites/aelb/bahan%20panduan/Forms/AllItems.aspx?RootFolder=%2Fsites%2Faelb%2Fbahan%20panduan%2Flem%2Dtek&FolderCTID=0x012000D7D4BFBE075A3D4297B1D0D923EE45A4

The Law
7.5 μSv/h at the

barrier? Is this the absolute Value?

7.5 μSv/h at the barrier?
or any other values

Example 1:
PANDUAN PENGELASAN KAWASAN KERJA MENURUT PERATURAN-PERATURAN
PERLESENAN TENAGA ATOM (PERLINDUNGAN SINARAN KESELAMATAN ASAS) 2010
[P.U (A) 46]
LEM/TEK/65Sem.1 20 Januari 2015
LEM/SPP/12 02 SEPTEMBER 2009

2. LATAR BELAKANG
Peraturan-peraturan Perlesenan Tenaga Atom (Perlindungan Sinaran Keselamatan Asas) 2010
[P.U. (A) 46] telah dikuatkuasakan pada 15 Februari 2010 bertujuan untuk melindungi orang
awam, pekerja dan alam sekitar daripada bahaya sinaran mengion. Keperluan perundangan
berkaitan keselamatan sinaran di bawah Akta Perlesenan Tenaga Atom 1984 (Akta 304)
diperjelaskan melalui Peraturan ini yang merangkumi semua aspek perlindungan sinaran
daripada bahaya sinaran kepada orang awam, pekerja dan alam sekitar.
Salah satu aspek perlindungan yang dijelaskan dalam P.U.

(A) 46 ialah mengenai pengelasan kawasan kerja.
Mengikut P.U. (A) 46, Bahagian 3, Peraturan 17, pemegang lesen hendaklah mengelaskan
kawasan kerja kepada kawasan bersih, kawasan seliaan dan kawasan kawalan. Pengelasan
kawasan kerja perlu dilakukan supaya keperluan langkah perlindungan dan peruntukan
keselamatan berpatutan bagi setiap kawasan tersebut dapat dipenuhi.
Saiful Rizal/Charlie Chong LEM/TEK/65Sem.1 20 Januari 2015

5.1 Pengukuran Secara Langsung Menggunakan Meter Tinjau
Penentuan kawasan kerja menggunakan meter tinjau boleh dilakukan dengan mengukur bacaan
kadar dos secara langsung daripada sumber sinaran dan bergerak menjauhi
sumber sinaran sehingga nilai-nilai dos bagi kawasan seliaan dan kawasan kawalan diperolehi.
Sebagai contoh, sekiranya pemegang lesen berhasrat menentukan kawasan kawalan

berdasarkan had dos tahunan pekerja 20 mSv/tahun, maka bacaan kadar dos yang perlu
diperolehi ialah 3.0 μSv/jam berdasarkan kepada nilai 3/10 daripada had dos tahunan seperti
ditetapkan dalam P.U. (A) 46. Bacaan perlu diperolehi di kawasan tersebut bagi memastikan had
dos tahunan untuk pekerja sinaran tidak melebihi 6 mSv. Kaedah pengiraan adalah seperti
berikut:

Dedahan Dos Bagi Pekerja
= (Had Dos Kawasan Kawalan x Had Dos Tahunan) / (Masa Bekerja Setahun)*
= (3/10 x 20 mSv/tahun) / 2000 jam = 3.0 μSv/jam
Pertimbangan*: 1 tahun = (8 jam x 5 hari/minggu x 50 minggu/tahun)

= 2000 jam
Kaedah ini sesuai diaplikasikan untuk semua aktiviti menggunakan sinaranm mengion kecuali
aktiviti radiografi industri. Keadah ini juga sesuai diaplikasikan untuk menentukan kadar dedahan
sinaran terhadap orang awam. Kaedah pengiraan adalah seperti berikut:
Dedahan Dos Bagi Orang Awam

= (Had Dos Tahunan) / (Masa Bekerja Setahun)*
= (1 mSv/tahun) / 2000 jam = 0.5 μSv/jam

= 2000 jam

If you, a radiation worker are
continuously exposed 2000 hours
a year, the boundary radiation
dose rate shall be less than:
3.0 μSv/hr

Keywords:
• Had Dos Kawasan Kawalan
• Pertimbangan
• kecuali aktiviti radiografi industri

Keywords:
•kecuali aktiviti radiografi
industri.

Example 2:
LEM/TEK/33 Rev. 1
02 December 2008
CODE OF PRACTICE ON
RADIATION PROTECTION
IN INDUSTRIAL
RADIOGRAPHY



Partly Enclosed/Open
Refinery Construction- Radiography Works

21.9.1
Allowable working time: Should be calculated by measuring the dose rate and substituting it in
the following equation:
Allowable working time (h/year) = operational limit mSv / year

dose rate mSv / h
Example 1 :How many hours could an operator spend each month in an area, in which the dose
rate is 0.05 mSv/h (50 μSv/hr) with an operational limit of 18 mSv/h year?
Solution :
Allowable working time = operational limit mSv / year
dose rate mSv / h
= 18 mSv / year
0.05 mSv / h
= 360 h/year
Therefore, the allowable time is 360 h/year.

If the allowable working time (hours in a week is required, a proper calculation must be made, but
it shall not correspond to a figure exceeding 18 mSv/year.
Note: Typo mistake the highlighted shall read 18 mSv instead of 18 mSv/h

If the boundary radiation dose
rate is 50 μSv/hr
Radiation Worker are
allowed to exposed 360hrs
in a year (only).

Example 3:
LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 2
September 1996
GUIDELINES ON RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING FOR
OIL AND GAS FACILITIES OPERATORS
ASSOCIATED WITH TECHNOLOGICALLY
ENHANCED NATURALLY OCCURING RADIOACTIVE
MATERIALS (TENORM)

“Clean area,” means an area where the annual dose received by a worker is not likely to
exceed one-tenth of the annual dose limit.
“Contamination" means the presence of any radioactive material, nuclear material or
prescribed substance on a surface in quantities in excess of 0.4 Becquerel per square
centimetres (Bq cm -2) for beta and gamma and low toxicity alpha emitters, or 0.04 Bq cm-2 for
all other alpha emitters.
"Controlled area" means an area where the annual dose received by a worker is likely to
exceed three-tenths of the annual dose limit.
"Designated areas,” means:

a. Where there is external radiation only:
A controlled area is one where the dose rate exceeds 7.5 mSv h-1
A supervised area is 1 one where the dose rate exceeds 2.5 mSv h-1 but is less than 7.5 mSvh-1
Keywords:
Saiful Rizal/Charlie Chong LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 2 September 1996

“Clean area,” means an area where the annual dose received by a worker is not
likely to exceed one-tenth of the annual dose limit.
centimetres (Bq cm -2) for beta and gamma and low toxicity alpha emitters, or 0.04 Bq
cm-2 for all other alpha emitters.
"Controlled area" means an area where

the annual dose received by a worker is
likely to exceed three-tenths of the
annual dose limit.
A supervised area is one where the dose rate exceeds 2.5 mSv h-1 but is less than
7.5 mSvh-1

“Clean area,” means an area where the annual dose received by a worker is not likely to exceed one-tenth of the annual dose limit.
“Contamination" means the presence of any radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed substance on a surface in quantities in excess of 0.4
Becquerel per square centimetres (Bq cm -2) for beta and gamma and low toxicity alpha emitters, or 0.04 Bq cm-2 for all other alpha emitters.
"Controlled area" means an area where the annual dose received by a worker is likely to exceed three-tenths of the annual dose limit.

A controlled area is one

where the dose rate
exceeds 7.5 mSv h -1
A supervised area is one where the dose rate exceeds 2.5 mSv h-1 but is less than 7.5 mSvh-1

Question& Answer:
• 7.5 μSv/h ? LEM/TEK/33 Rev. 1 02 December 2008
LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 2 September 1996
• 3.0 μSv/h ? LEM/TEK/65Sem.1 20 Januari 2015
• 50 μSv/h ? LEM/TEK/33 Rev. 1 02 December 2008
• 2.5μSv/h ?? LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 2 September 1996

What IAEA has
to say!

6.1. BOUNDARY OF CONTROLLED AREA
Site radiography needs to be done in an area
where specific protection measures and safety
provisions are in place, i.e. in an area designated
as a controlled area. The boundary of the
controlled area is to be set at a dose rate contour
which is appropriate under the prevailing
circumstances and specific exposure times and is
authorized by the Regulatory Authority. This dose
rate contour has to be set at a value ensuring that
outside the controlled area the annual dose limits
for the public are not exceeded, account being
taken of nature and frequency of site radiography
at a specific site use as well as occupancy factors
where allowed. The boundary dose rates when
collimators are used are typically in the range of
7.5 to 20 μSv·h-1. The boundary dose rates are
typically in the range of 50 μSv·h-1 when it is not
possible to use a collimator. The transient dose
rates during radiography source windout
operations will exceed these values. However,
transient dose rates usually do not present a
radiation protection problem as they occur only
briefly.

Site radiography needs to be done in an area where specific protection measures and
safety provisions are in place, i.e. in an area designated as a controlled area. The
boundary of the controlled area is to be set at a dose rate contour which is:
 appropriate under the prevailing circumstances and
 specific exposure times and
 is authorized by the Regulatory Authority.
This dose rate contour has to be set at a value ensuring that outside the controlled area
the annual dose limits for the public are not exceeded, account being taken of nature and
frequency of site radiography at a specific site use as well as occupancy factors where
allowed.
The boundary dose rates when collimators are used are typically in the range of 7.5 to 20
μSv·h-1. The boundary dose rates are typically in the range of 50 μSv·h-1 when it is not
possible to use a collimator.
The transient dose rates during radiography source windout operations will exceed these
values. However, transient dose rates usually do not present a radiation protection
problem as they occur only briefly.

This dose rate contour has to be set at a value
ensuring that outside the controlled area the
annual dose limits for the public are not
exceeded, account being taken of nature and
frequency of site radiography at a specific site
use as well as occupancy factors where
allowed.

The boundary dose rates when
collimators are used are typically in the
range of 7.5 to 20 μSv·h-1.
The boundary dose rates are typically in
the range of 50 μSv·h-1 when it is not
possible to use a collimator.

What others said!

ANSI Z54.1-1963
The guidance document ANSI Z54.1-1963 will tell you to set (adjust) the distance (boundary) away from an x-
ray source so that a member of the public (non-badged person) will not get more that 2 mrem/hr (0.02mSv/h or
20μSv/h), and not more than 100 mrem (1mSv/h) in a year.
Each person in the United States gets an average of 7 to 8 mSv every year from medical and natural radiation
exposure.
The safe separation (boundary) distance depends on

(1) the intensity of the x ray or gamma radiation source,
(2) how long the source must be used to get a proper image (how long the x-ray machine must be turned on,
or how long a gamma radiation source must out of its camera [portable-shield]), and
(3) any added shielding used to reduce the radiation dose rate around the source of x rays or gamma
radiation.
Regulations require that a qualified radiographer must use a radiation survey meter to measure the radiation
dose rate around the item being x rayed and then sets up a boundary to keep people (members of the public)
away from the area so the limits (given above) are not exceeded.
Keywords:
2 mrem/hr, 0.02mSv, 20μSv/h

ANSI Z54.1-1963
The guidance document ANSI Z54.1-1963 will tell you to set (adjust) the distance (boundary)
away from an x-ray source so that a member of the public (nonbadged person) will not get more
that 2 millirem in an hour (20μSv/h) , and not more than 100 mrem (1mSv/h ) in a year.
20μSv/h
boundary radiation dose rate for public.

Government of Western
Australia Radiological Council
INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
ASSISTANTS TRAINING NOTES
The Code and the Regulations require the dose rate at radiography site boundaries to be less than 25 μSv/h.
http://www.radiologicalcouncil.wa.gov.au/PDF/FAQ/IRA%20Training%20notes.pdf
25μSv/h
at radiography site boundaries.

Dose Rate
at the barrier?
How many
barrier?
One for radiation worker
One for public
Or others?

“Kawasan bersih” ertinya kawasan di mana dos tahunan yang diterima oleh
seseorang pekerja tidak mungkin melebihi had dos orang awam iaitu 1mSv;
“Kawasan seliaan” ertinya sesuatu kawasan di mana keadaan dedahan

pekerjaan dikaji semula walaupun langkah perlindungan yang khusus dan
peruntukan keselamatan biasanya tidak diperlukan;
“Kawasan kawalan” ertinya mana-mana kawasan di mana langkah

perlindungan yang khusus dan peruntukan keselamatan dikehendaki untuk
mengawal dedahan yang biasa atau mencegah penyebaran kontaminasi
semasa keadaan kerja yang biasa, dan mencegah atau mengehadkan takat
dedahan yang berpotensi;
Taken from: LEM/TEK/65Sem.1 20 Januari 2015

"controlled area" means any area in which specific protection measures and
safety provisions are or could be required for controlling normal exposures or
preventing the spread of contamination during normal working condition, and
preventing or limiting the extent of potential;
Taken from: LEM/TEK/33 Rev. 1 02 December 2008


Clean Area
< 1mSv
Controlled Area
(>3/10 Annual Dose Limit)
Supervise Area
(1 mSv <Dose<3/10 Annual Dose Limit)
Radiation Source
Drawing 1: Boundary of Controlled Area, Supervise Area and Clean Area

Clean Area
< 1mSv
Controlled Area
Supervise Area
Radiation Source

HDT – Had Dos Tahunan
Annual Dose Limit
≠ Dose Rate!

Clean Area
< 1mSv
Controlled Area
Supervise Area
Radiation Source
What is the dose rate at controlled bondary?

3/10 of annual dose limit = 0.3x20 = 6mSv
Dose rate if, exposing 2000hrs/yr? = 3 μSv/hr ?
Dose rate if, exposing 500hrs/yr? = 12 μSv/hr ?
Or
at 7.5 μSv/hr boundary limit the permitted exposure = 800hrs/yr.
at 3.0 μSv/hr boundary limit the permitted exposure = 2000hrs/yr.

Autority The Reference Doc # Controlled Area Supervised Remarks
Dose Rate Area Dose Rate
AELB Code Of Practice On Radiation LEM/TEK/33 Rev. 1 02 7.5 μSv·h-1 - Table 5
Protection In Industrial Radiography December 2008 (Prescribed dose rate)
50 μSv·h-1 - 21.9.1; operation limit of 18mSv/a
and 360hr per year exposure allowed
AELB Panduan Pengelasan Kawasan Kerja LEM/TEK/65Sem.1 3.0 μSv·h-1 - 5.1 Pengukuran Secara Langsung
Menurut Peraturan-peraturan 20 January 2015 Menggunakan Meter Tinjau
Perlesenan Tenaga Atom Dose limit = 20mSv/a
(Perlindungan Sinaran Keselamatan Dose constraint = 6mSv/a
Asas) 2010 [P.U (A) 46] Exposure time = 2000hr/a
0.5 μSv·h-1 Dose limit = 1mSv/a

Dose constraint = No
Exposure time = 2000hr/a
AELB Guidelines On Radiological LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 2 ≥ 7.5 μSv·h-1 > 2.5 μSv·h-1 2.0 GLOSSARY
Monitoring For Oil And Gas September 1996 < 7.5 μSv·h-1 (Prescribed dose rate)
Facilities Operators Associated With
Technologically Enhanced Naturally
Occurring Radioactive Materials
(Tenorm)
IAEA Safety Report Series 13 Radiation Protection 7.5 to 20 μSvh-1 • With Collimator
6.1. BOUNDARY OF And Safety 50 μSv·h-1 • Without Collimator
CONTROLLED AREA In Industrial Radiography >50 μSv·h-1 • Transient condition
IAEA No. SSG-11 Radiation Safety in 2.5–20 μSv·h-1 11.12. The regulatory body may
Specific Safety Guide Industrial Radiography specify maximum permitted dose
rates
ANSI NON-MEDICAL X-RAY AND ANSI Z54.1-1963 20 μSv·h-1 Member of the public (non-badged
SEALED GAMMA-RAY person)
SOURCES PART 1: GENERAL https://hps.org/publicinformation/ate
/q8583.html
Australia Government Of Western Australia Assistants Training Notes 25 μSv·h-1 -

Radiological Council Revision 2.2 Date 13 July
Industrial Radiography 2012

How to Determined
the Controlled
Boundary Dose
Rate?
ALARA?
Optimization?
Good reference….IAEA Safety Report No.21

More Reading
https://www.mcgill.ca/ehs/laboratory/radiation/manual/3
ANSI Z54.1 1963 Edition, 1963
NON-MEDICAL X-RAY AND SEALED GAMMA-RAY SOURCES PART 1: GENERAL

Reading is always fun

LAWS OF MALAYSIA
ACT 139
FACTORIES AND MACHINERY ACT 1967 (REVISED - 1974)
Incorporating latest amendment - Act A1268 of the year 2006
First enacted : 1967 (Act No. 64 of 1967)

Date of coming into operation : 1 February 1970 [P.U.(B) 5/1970]
Reprinted : First: 1977
Second: 2000
Third: 2006
Revised up to : 1974 (Act 139 w.e.f. 1 July 1974)

Date of publication in the Gazette of Revised Edition : 20 June, 1974
Date of coming into operation of Revised Edition: 1 July 1974
____________________________
ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS
_____________________________
Long Title
PART I - PRELIMINARY
Section 1. Short title.

Section 2. Interpretation of "factory".
Section 3. Interpretation: general.
Section 4. Appointment of officers.
Section 5. Supervision of officers.
Section 6. Officers are public servants.
Section 7. Powers of an Inspector.
Section 7A. Entry into premises with a search warrant and the power of seizure.
Section 7B. Entry into premises without a search warrant and the power of seizure.
Section 7C.Service of list of things seized.
Section 7D. Appointment, powers and duties of a licensed person.
Section 7E. Revocation of licence.
Section 7F. Granting of new licence upon revocation.
Section 8. Obstruction an offence.
Section 9. Confidentiality of information.
PART II - SAFETY, HEALTH AND WELFARE
Section 10. Provisions relating to safety, etc

Section 11. Persons exposed to explosive, inflammable, etc., substances.
Section 12. Lifting of weights.
Section 13. Provisions against fire.
Section 14. Construction of machinery.
Section 15. Dangerous parts of machinery.
Section 16. Projecting material.
Section 17. Machinery for hire or sale must comply with regulations.
Section 18. Machinery manufactured or repaired must comply with regulations
Section 19. Certificate of fitness.
Section 19A.Power to revoke certificate of fitness obtained by way of fraud or misrepresentation.
Section 20. Duties of persons employed.
Section 21. Duties of occupier.
Section 22. Provisions relating to health.
Section 23. Exposure to elements.
Section 24. Personal protective clothing and appliances.
Section 25. Provisions relating to welfare.
PART III - PERSON IN CHARGE AND CERTIFICATES OF COMPETENCY
Section 26. Training and supervision of inexperienced workers.

Section 27. Chief Inspector may make orders in circumstances.
Section 28. Young persons.
Section 29. Certain machinery not to be operated without certificated staff.
Section 29A Machinery not to be manufactured, etc., without written authority.
Section 30. Panel of Examiners and Board of Appeal.
PART IV - NOTIFICATION OF ACCIDENT, DANGEROUS OCCURENCE AND DANGEROUS

DISEASES
Section 31. Accidents and dangerous occurrence to be reported.

Section 32. Notification of occupational diseases.
Section 33. Investigation and enquiries.
PART V - NOTICE OF OCCUPATION OF FACTORY, AND REGISTRATION AND USE OF

MACHINERY
Section 34. Operation of factory.

Section 35. Building operations or works of engineering construction.
Section 36. Installation of machinery etc.
Section 37. Application for registration.
Section 38. Register.
Section 39. Moving or alteration of or addition to machinery to be approved.
Section 40. Periodical inspections.
Section 41. Questions for decision by an Inspector and appeals from such decision
Section 42. Report of changes, etc.
Section 43. Machinery or factory no longer in use.
Section 44. Notice of sale, hire or transfer.
Section 45. Copy of report of enquiry may be supplied.
Section 46. Powers of the Chief Inspector and Senior Inspectors at enquiries.
PART VI - GENERAL
Section 47. Criminal or civil liability unaffected.

Section 47A. Protection against personal liability.
Section 48. Fees.
Section 49. Chief Inspector's powers.
Section 50. Offences.
Section 51. Penalties.
Section 51A.Jurisdiction to try offences.
Section 52. Institution of prosecution.
Section 52A. Power to compound offences.
Section 53. Power to modify agreements.
Section 54. Power to apportion expenses.
Section 55. Exemptions.
Section 56. Regulations.
Section 57. Medical supervision.
Section 58. Repeal.
Section 59. Amendment of Schedule.
FIRST SCHEDULE
SECOND SCHEDULE
THIRD SCHEDULE
LIST OF AMENDMENTS
Long Title
An Act to provide for the control of factories with respect to matters relating to the safety, health and
welfare of person therein, the registration and inspection of machinery and for matters connected
therewith.
[1 February 1970, P.U. (B) 5/1970]
PART I
PRELIMINARY
1. Short title.
(1) This Act may be cited as the Factories and Machinery Act 1967.
(2) (Omitted).
(3) The Minister may by order suspend* the operation of the whole or any of the provisions of this Act
in any State and may at any time thereafter remove the suspension.
_________________________________________________________________________________
* Operation of Act in Sabah and Sarawak suspended - see P. U (B)6/70.
Suspension removed in respect of Sabah and Sarawak w.e.f. 1 July 1980- see P.U. (B) 321/80
2. Interpretation of "factory".
(1) In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires, "factory" means any premises or part of a
premises where—
(a) within the close or curtilage or precincts of the premises or part thereof persons are
employed in manual labour in any process for or connected with or incidental to the making,
altering, repairing, ornamenting, sorting, finishing, cleaning, washing, breaking, demolishing,
constructing, reconstructing, fitting, refitting, adjusting or adapting of any article or part
thereof; and
(b) the said work is carried on by way of trade for the purposes of gain or incidentally to any
business so carried on,
and (whether or not they are factories by reason of the foregoing definition) the expression factory
also includes the following premises in which persons are employed in manual labour:
(i) any yard or dry dock (including the precincts thereof) in which ships or vessels are
constructed, reconstructed, repaired, refitted, finished or broken up;
(ii) any premises in which the business of washing or filling bottles or containers or
packing articles is carried on incidentally to the purposes of any factory;
(iii) any premises in which the business of hooking, plaiting, lapping, making-up or
packing of yarn or cloth is carried on;
(iv) any laundry carried on as ancillary to another business or incidentally to the

purposes of any public institution;
(v) any premises in which the construction, reconstruction, or repair of locomotives,
vehicles or other plant for use for transport purposes is carried on ancillary to a
transport undertaking or other industrial or commercial undertaking;
(vi) any premises in which printing by letter press, lithography, photogravure, or other
similar process, or bookbinding is carried on by way of trade or for purposes of gain
or incidentally to another business so carried on;
(vii) any premises in which the production of cinematograph films is carried on by way
of trade or for purposes of gain;
(viii) any premises in which manual labour is employed and mechanical power is used
in connection with the making or repair of any article of metal or wood incidentally to
any business carried on by way of trade or for purposes of gain;
(ix) any premises used for the storage of gas in a gas-holder having a storage
capacity of not less than one hundred and forty cubic metres;
[Am. Act A1268:s.2]
(x) any premises, place or space where any building operations or works of
engineering construction are carried out; and
(xi) any premises belonging to or in the occupation of the Federal Government or the
Government of any State or of any local authority or other public authority which
would be a factory within the meaning of this Act but for paragraph (b),
but does not include—
(i) any premises used for the purposes of housing locomotives or vehicles where only
cleaning, washing, running repairs or minor adjustments are carried out; or
(ii) any premises where five or less persons carry on any work in which machinery is
not used notwithstanding that the premises by virtue of would constitute a factory
within the meaning of this section.
(2) Any line or siding which is used in connection with and for the purposes of a factory, shall
be deemed to be part of the factory.
(3) Any pipeline used for transporting dangerous substances which may cause fire, explosion
or adverse health effects to any person (other than petroleum or petroleum products) which is
used in connection with and for the purposes of a factory, shall be deemed to be part of the
factory.
(4) For the purpose of subsection (3), "pipelines" means the physical facilities or any part of
the physical facilities through which dangerous substances which may cause fire, explosion or
adverse health effects to any person (other than petroleum or petroleum products) in the form
of liquid or vapour or any combination of liquid or vapour are transported, and includes pipes,
pumps, compressors, meters, regulators and fabricated assemblies.
[(3) & (4) Ins. Act A1268:s.2]
_________________________________________________________________________________
*NOTE—Operation of this Act in Sabah and Sarawak suspended—see [P.U. (B) 6/1970].
Suspension removed in respect of Sabah and Sarawak w.e.f. 1 July 1980—see [P.U. (B) 321/1980].
3. Interpretation: general.
In this Act unless the context otherwise requires—
"amusement device" means any contrivance or a combination of contrivances, or rides, equipment or

plant or any other similar device which are designed or intended to entertain or amuse people and
which can be installed repeatedly without loss of substance, whether temporarily or permanently, at
fairs, amusement parks or other locations;
[Ins. Act A1268:s.3]
"amusement park" means a tract or area used principally as a location for amusement devices and
structures;
"article" means any solid, liquid or gas or any combination thereof, and also includes electricity;
"bodily injury" includes injury to health;
"building operation" means the construction, structural alteration, repair or maintenance of a building
(including repointing, redecoration and external cleaning of the structure), the demolition of a building,
and the preparation for and the laying of the foundation of an intended building, but does not include
any operation which is the work of engineering construction within the meaning of this Act;
"certificate of competency" means a certificate granted under this Act by the Chief Inspector certifying
that the holder is duly qualified to be in charge of machinery to which the certificate of competency
relates;
"certificate of fitness" means a certificate granted under this Act certifying that the machinery
described therein has been inspected, and at the time of the inspection has satisfied the requirements
of this Act and that it may be worked or operated;
"Chief Inspector", "Deputy Chief Inspector", "Senior Inspector" and "Inspector" mean respectively the
Chief Inspector of Factories and Machinery, a Deputy Chief Inspector of Factories and Machinery, a
Senior Inspector of Factories and Machinery and an Inspector of Factories and Machinery appointed
under section 4;
"dangerous occurrence" means any occurrence in any of the classes listed in the First Schedule;
"dredge" means any floating structure used for the winning of tin ore, for the dredging of rivers and
waterways or for purposes of land reclamation, and includes the bucket type dredge and the cutter-
suction type dredge,
"dredgemaster" means a person who holds a dredgemaster's certificate of competency issued under
section 30;
"driven machinery" includes any machine or appliance where motion is received from transmission
machinery;
"driver" means a person who holds an engine driver's certificate of competency issued under section
30;
"engineer" means a person who holds an engineer's certificate of competency issued under section
30;
"fair" means an enterprise principally devoted to the exhibition of products of agriculture or industry
and at or in connection with which amusement devices and temporary structures are provided;
"fence" means any form of protective device designed to prevent serious bodily injury or bodily injury
to any person and includes a guard and a guard rail;
"fired pressure vessel" means an enclosed vessel under pressure greater than atmospheric pressure
which is subjected to direct firing, but does not include a steam boiler;
"fume" includes gas or vapour;
"gas cylinder" means a steel cylinder or bottle used for the storage and transport of compressed,
dissolved or liquefied gases;
"gas holder" means any bell-shaped structure floating in a tank of water, in which gas is collected for
distribution;
"guard" means a suitably supported substantially constructed solid or mesh enclosure (either
complete or partial) of metal or other material;
"guard rail" means a railing of metal or wood, supported by stanchions, of strength and good
construction;
"hoist" means a lifting machine other than a lift whether worked by mechanical power or not with a
carriage, platform or cage the direction of movement of which is restricted by a guide or guides;
[Am. Act A1268:s.3]
"hoisting machine" means any equipment for lifting, raising or lowering load such as a lift, escalator,
hoist, crane, winch, dragline, piling machine, aerial cableway, funicular railway, access platform,
dumbwaiter, vertical conveyor lifter and mechanical loading ramp, and includes transporter, walkalator
and other similar equipment, but does not include manual hoist and materials handling equipment;
[Subs. Act A1268:s.3]
"hoisting tackle" includes a chain or rope sling, ring, link, hook, shackle, swivel, eyebolt, chain, rope,
pulley block and chain block;
"Inspector" includes the Chief Inspector, Deputy Chief Inspector and a Senior Inspector appointed
under section 4;
"licensed person" means any person licensed under section 7D of the Act;
"lift" means an appliance designed to transport passengers or goods or both between two or more
levels in a vertical direction by means of a guided lift car or platform in which the motion of the lift car
or platform is obtained through an electric motor coupled to the lifting element, and includes the
machinery, suspension ropes, hydraulic rams, supports and enclosures required in connection
therewith, and includes electric or hydraulic lifts and paternoster or continuous lift, but does not
include mine cages as used in underground mines;
"machinery" includes steam boilers, unfired pressure vessels, fired pressure vessels, pipelines, prime
movers, gas cylinders, gas holders, hoisting machines and tackle, transmission machinery, driven
machinery, materials handling equipment, amusement device or any other similar machinery and any
equipment for the casting, cutting, welding or electro-deposition of materials and for the spraying by
means of compressed gas or air of materials or other materials, but does not include—
[Am. Act A1268:s.3]
(a) any machinery used for the propulsion of vehicles other than steam boilers or steam
engines;
(b) any machinery driven by manual power other than hoisting machines;
(c) any machinery used solely for private and domestic purposes; or
(d) office machines;
"maintain" means maintain in an efficient state, in efficient working order and in good repair;
"manufacturing or commercial secret" means highly sensitive information relating to—
(a) any manufacturing process;
(b) any product , raw material , by-product formulation;
(c) any idea of duplication or cloning of product; or
(d) any technical information on operating system,
and that the information has been declared as manufacturing or commercial secret in writing by the
occupier or owner;
"materials handling equipment" means any powerdriven equipment for handling materials, and
includes forklift, conveyor, stacker, excavator, tractor, dumper or bulldozer but does not include
hoisting machine;
"nuisance" means any act, omission or thing occasioning or likely to occasion injury, annoyance,
offence, harm, danger or damage to the sense of sight, smell or hearing, or which is or is likely to be
injurious or dangerous to health or property;
"occupier" in relation to a factory means a person who occupies or uses any premises as a factory;
"office machines" means machines commonly used in the exercise of clerical and associated
functions and includes electrical typewriters, calculating and accounting machines and computers;
"operator" includes any person employed on any service involving the management or operation of, or
attendance on, any machinery;
"owner" means the person for the time being receiving the rents or profits of the premises or
machinery in connection with which the word is used, whether on his own account or as an agent or
trustee for any other person or who would so receive the same if the premises or machinery were
leased;
"Panel" means the Panel of Examiners appointed under section 30;

"petroleum" means any mineral oil or relative hydrocarbon and natural gas existing in its natural
condition and casinghead petroleum spirit, and includes—
(a) bituminous shales and other stratified deposits from which oil can be extracted; and
(b) petroleum products;

"petroleum products" means material derived from petroleum, natural gas or asphalt deposits, and
includes gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, fuel oil, lubricating oil, liquefied petroleum gas, wax, grease,
butane, benzene, propane and any like flammable and combustible liquids;
"premises" includes any building, place, or floating structure;
"prime mover" means every engine, motor or other appliance which provides mechanical energy
derived from air, steam, water, wind, electricity, the combustion of fuel or other source;
"prescribed" means prescribed by the Minister by regulation made under this Act;
"sanitary conveniences" includes urinals, water-closets, earthclosets, ashpits and any similar
convenience;
"serious bodily injury" means any injury listed in the Second Schedule;
"special scheme of inspection" means an inspection system approved by the Chief Inspector
pertaining to periodical inspections for certain classes of machinery and its auxiliary;
"steam boiler" means any closed vessel in which for any purpose steam is generated under pressure
greater than atmospheric pressure, and includes any economiser used to heat water being fed to the
vessel, and any superheater used for heating steam, and any pipes and fittings connected thereto;
"transmission machinery" means every shaft, wheel, drum, pulley, system of fast and loose pulleys,
coupling, clutch, driving belt or other device by which the motion of a prime mover or other source of
mechanical power is transmitted to or received by any machine or appliance;
"underground room" means any room which, or any part of which is so situate that at least half its
height measured from the floor to the ceiling, is below the surface of the ground adjoining the room;
"unfired pressure vessel" means any enclosed vessel under pressure greater than atmospheric
pressure by any gas or mixture or combination of gases and includes any vessel under pressure of
steam external to the steam boiler and any vessel which is under pressure of a liquid or gas or both,
and any vessel subject internally to a pressure less than atmospheric pressure but does not include
gas cylinders;
"work of engineering construction" means the construction, extension, installation, repair,

maintenance, renewal, removal, renovation, alteration, dismantling, or demolition of—
(a) any erection, edifice, structure, caisson, mast, tower, pylon, wall, fence or chimney,
whether constructed wholly or partly above or below ground level;
(b) any road works, dock, harbour works, railway, siding, cableway, tramway line, inland
navigation, air field or aerodrome;
(c) any drainage, sewer, sewage works, irrigation, river control works, sea defence work or
earth retaining structure;
(d) any electrical, mechanical, water, gas, petrochemical or telecommunication works; or
(e) any bridge, viaduct, dam, reservoir, lagoon, earthworks, pipeline, sewer, aqueduct, culvert,
drive, shaft, tunnel or reclamation works,
and includes—
(aa) any formwork, falsework, scaffold or any works which form an integral part of, or are
preparatory to or temporary to, the works described in paragraphs (a) to (e);
(bb) site clearance, soil investigation and improvement, earth-moving, excavation, laying of
foundation, site restoration and landscaping; and
(cc) such other works as may be specified by the Minister.
"working floor area" means the area covered by the premises and all the precincts, curtilage and yard
of the factory as derived from the plan or sketch submitted at the time of notification, including all floor
areas above and below ground level:
Provided that catwalks, ladders, and other such means of access to machinery shall not be
considered when calculating working floor area;
"young person" means any person who has not completed his sixteenth year of age.
4. Appointment of officers.
(1) There shall be appointed an officer to be styled the Chief Inspector of Factories and Machinery
and such number of Deputy Chief Inspectors of Factories and Machinery, Senior Inspectors of
Factories and Machinery and Machinery and Inspectors of Factories and Machinery as may be
necessary for the purposes of this Act.
(2) There shall be appointed such other officers as may be expedient for the performance of such
duties as may be prescribed under this Act.
5. Supervision of officers.
(1) All Deputy Chief Inspectors, Senior Inspectors and Inspectors and all officers appointed under
subsection 4 (2) shall be subject to the direction and supervision of the Chief Inspector.
(2) A Senior Inspector shall have and may exercise all powers vested by this Act in an Inspector and
the Chief Inspector and a Deputy Chief Inspector shall have and may exercise all such powers vested
in a Senior Inspector or an Inspector.
(3) The Chief Inspector may in writing delegate any of the functions, powers or duties assigned to him
under this Act to any Deputy Chief Inspector, Senior Inspector or Inspector, subject to such terms and
conditions as he thinks fit.
(4) A delegation under this section shall not preclude the Chief Inspector himself from performing or
exercising at any time any of the functions, powers or duties so delegated.
[(3) & (4) Ins. Act A1268:s.4].

6. Officers are public servants.
(1) All officers appointed under section 4 shall be deemed to be public servants within the meaning of
the Penal Code [Act 574].
[Am. Act A1268:s.5]
(2) A licensed person, all his servants and agents and other persons employed by him shall, while
discharging their duties as a licensed person and such servants, agents and employees, be deemed
to be public servants within the meaning of the Penal Code.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.5].
7. Powers of an Inspector.
(1) An Inspector shall, for carrying the purposes of this Act into effect, have powers to do all or any of
the following:
(a) to enter, inspect and examine, by day or by night any factory, and every part thereof when
he has reasonable cause to believe that any work or process is being carried on therein, and
to enter, inspect and examine by day, any place which he has reasonable cause to believe to
be a factory and any part of any building of which a factory forms part and in which he has
reasonable cause to believe that explosive or highly inflammable materials are stored or used
and to exercise such powers as may be necessary to inspect and examine any machinery,
plant, appliance or fitting therein;
(b) to require the production of factory records, certificates, notices and documents kept in
pursuance of this Act and to inspect, examine and copy any of them;
(c) to make such examination and enquiry as may be necessary to ascertain whether the
provisions of this Act are complied with, so far as regards a factory or any persons employed
therein;
(d) to require any person whom he finds in a factory to give such information as it is in his
power to give as to who is the owner of the factory;
(e) in the case of an Inspector who is a registered medical practitioner, to carry out such
medical examination as may be necessary for the purpose of his duties under this Act;
(f) to take samples of any material whether solid, liquid, gaseous or vaporous being
discharged in or from a factory; and
(g) to render inoperative in accordance with this Act, any machinery which does not comply
with this Act, by affixing a seal or by any other means which he may deem best suited to the
purpose.
(2) On being required by an Inspector, the occupier of every factory shall furnish the means
necessary for entry, inspection, examination, inquiry, the taking of samples, or otherwise for the
exercise of his powers under this Act in relation to that factory.
(3) An Inspector seeking to enter any premises under the powers conferred upon him by subsection
(1) shall produce on demand, an official identification card in such form as may be prescribed, and no
person shall be obliged to admit to his premises any person purporting to be an Inspector except on
production of such an identification card.
7A. Entry into premises with a search warrant and the power of seizure.
Where information is given on oath to a magistrate that there is reasonable cause for suspecting that
there is in a factory or premises any article, thing, book, document, plant, substance, installation or
part thereof which has been used to commit or is intended to be used to commit an offence under this
Act or regulation made thereunder, he shall issue a warrant under his hand by virtue of which an
Inspector named or referred to in the warrant may enter the factory or premises at any reasonable
time by day or night, and search for and seize or seal the article, thing, book, document, plant,
substance, installation or part thereof.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.6].
7B. Entry into premises without a search warrant and the power of seizure.
Where an Inspector is satisfied upon information received that he has reasonable grounds for
believing that, by reason of delay in obtaining a search warrant, any article, thing, book, document,
plant, substance, installation or part thereof in a factory or premises which has been used to commit
or is intended to be used to commit an offence under this Act or any regulation made thereunder is
likely to be removed or destroyed, he may enter the factory or premises without a warrant and seize
or seal the article, thing, book, document, plant, substance, installation or part thereof found therein.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.6].
7C.Service of list of things seized.
The Inspector seizing any article, thing, book, document, plant, substance, installation or part thereof
under section 7A or 7B shall prepare a list of things seized and forthwith, deliver a copy of the list
signed by him to the occupier, or his agent or servant present in the premises, and if the premises are
unoccupied or if the occupier, or his agent or servant is absent the Inspector shall, wherever possible,
post a list of the things seized on the premises and make a police report thereafter.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.6].
7D. Appointment, powers and duties of a licensed person.
(1) Notwithstanding any other provisions of this Act, the Minister shall have the power to grant a
licence on such conditions as he may think fit to any person to perform any of the functions specified
in this Act as the functions of a licensed person as it appears to him to be necessary.
(2) The Minister may, make an order for the purpose of subsection (1) and in particular but without
prejudice to the generality of the foregoing, such order may—
(a) prescribe the qualification and standards of competency of persons to be employed by a

licensed person;
(b) prescribe the powers of a person employed by a licensed person to carry out the functions
of a licensed person;
(c) prescribe the records to be kept by a licensed person;
(d) prescribe the returns to be submitted by a licensed person to the Chief Inspector at certain
intervals;
(e) regulate the inspection by the Chief Inspector of the premises of a licensed person and the
records kept thereat;
(f) prescribe inspection standards for a licensed person to comply with; and
(g) prescribe the functions or duties to be carried out by a licensed person.
(3) The Minister may, by order published in the Gazette, authorize a licensed person to demand,
prescribe, collect and retain charges, fees and levy in respect of the services provided by the licensed
person.
(4) An order made under subsection (3) shall specify—
(a) the type of services in respect of which charges, fees or levy may be demanded, collected
and retained; and
(b) the duration of the authorization to demand, collect and retain the charges, fees or levy.
(5) A licensed person authorized under subsection (3) shall—
(a) maintain such account, books and records in respect of the payment and collection of
charges, fees or levy as the Chief Inspector may require;
(b) furnish to the Chief Inspector such information, returns and accounts in respect of the
payment and collection of charges, fees or levy as the Chief Inspector may require; and
(c) permit the Chief Inspector or any other person authorized in writing by the Chief Inspector
to have access to or examine or inspect any document, machinery or equipment maintained
or used for the payment or collection of charges, fees or levy.
(6) The authorization of a licensed person under subsection (3) shall not render the Federal
Government liable to any person in respect of any injury, damage or loss occasioned by the failure of
the licensed person to carry out his obligations under this Act in respect of which charges, fees or levy
are demanded, collected and retained.
(7) If a licensed person contravenes any condition of the licence or any of the provisions of any order
made under this section or any of the provisions of subsection (5) with which he is required to comply
he shall be guilty of an offence and shall, on conviction, be liable to a fine not exceeding one hundred
thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or to both.
(8) Notwithstanding the licensing of a person under this section, the Minister may give directions to
the Chief Inspector to exercise any of the functions which under the terms of the licence are to be
carried out by such person.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.6].
7E. Revocation of licence.
(1) If the Chief Inspector is satisfied that a licensed person has breached any condition of the licence,
the Chief Inspector may give a notice in writing to the licensed person requiring him to comply with the
condition which he has breached and take all measures stipulated therein within the period stated in
the notice.
(2) If by the time the period stipulated in the notice expires the licensed person has failed to comply
with the notice, the Chief Inspector shall present a report to the Minister on such failure.
(3) If, after considering the report from the Chief Inspector, the Minister is satisfied that the breach is
serious in nature or affects or may affect the safety and health of workers or members of the public
and that the licensed person has failed or refused to take or has not taken all measures stipulated in
the notice for the purpose of ensuring compliance with the condition which the licensed person has
breached, the Minister may give the licensed person a notice stating that he proposes to revoke the
licence given to such person and the notice shall also state—
(a) the breach alleged against the licensed person and the actions or omissions that
constitute the breach; and
(b) the period (which must not be less than thirty days from the date of the notice) within
which the licensed person may make representations pertaining to the revocation.
(4) After the expiry of the period stated in the notice and after considering any representations made
by the licensed person, the Minister may decide whether to continue with the proposed revocation or
take no further action.
(5) Notice shall be given to the licensed person by the Minister informing him of the decision where
the Minister decides to revoke the licence or take no further action, and the decision shall come into
force on the date the notice is delivered to the licensed person.
(6) The decision of the Minister under this section is final.
(7) Notwithstanding the revocation of the licence, the validity of any certificate of fitness issued by the
licensed person shall continue to be valid until the expiry date thereof and the licenced person shall
continue to assume any obligation, duty and responsibility imposed by or in connection with the
issuance of the certificate of fitness.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.6].
7F. Granting of new licence upon revocation.
(1) Upon the revocation under section 7E of a licence granted to the licensed person, the Minister
may, after consulting the Chief Inspector, appoint another person to carry out, discharge, assume or
perform any of the functions, obligations, duties, responsibilities and conditions conferred or imposed
by the revoked licence, and to receive any payments, benefits or privileges which the person whose
licence is revoked is entitled to receive or enjoy under the terms and conditions of the licence.
(2) The person whose licence is revoked and his agents or employees shall render all necessary
assistance and cooperation to the person appointed by the Minister under subsection (1).
[Ins. Act A1268:s.6].
8. Obstruction an offence.
Any person who—
(a) refuses to allow or wilfully delays or obstructs an Inspector or a licensed person from
entering a factory in the exercise of any power under this Act;
(b) fails to comply with any notice, other than a notice given under subsection 39(3) or 40(4),
lawfully given by a licensed person in the exercise of any power under this Act;
(c) wilfully withholds any information as to who is the occupier or owner of any factory or
machinery or conceals or prevents a person from appearing before or being examined by an
Inspector or a licensed person, or in any manner obstructs an Inspector or licensed person;
(d) conceals the location or existence of any other person or any plant or substance from an
Inspector or a licensed person;
(e) prevents or attempts to prevent any person from assisting an Inspector or a licensed
person;
(f) in any other way, hinders, impedes or opposes an Inspector or a licensed person in the
exercise of his power under the Act or any regulations made thereunder; or
(g) fails to comply with any order lawfully given by an Inspector or a licensed person in the
exercise of any power under this Act,
shall be guilty of an offence and shall on conviction be liable to a fine not exceeding two hundred
thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years or to both.
[Subs. Act A1268:s.7].
9. Confidentiality of information.
(1) Except for the purpose of this Act or for the purpose of any civil or criminal proceedings under this
Act or any other written law, no person appointed under section 4 or licensed person and employees
of the licensed person shall disclose any manufacturing or commercial secret which may at any time
come to his knowledge or has been obtained by him in the course of his duties under this Act.
(2) Any person who contravenes subsection (1) shall be guilty of an offence and shall on conviction
be liable to a fine not exceeding one hundred thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term not
exceeding two years or to both.
[Am. Act A1268:s.8]
PART II
SAFETY, HEALTH AND WELFARE
10. Provisions relating to safety, etc
Without prejudice to any law with respect to local authorities, in respect of any factory, the following
provisions relating to safety shall apply:
(a) foundations and floors shall be of sufficient strength to sustain the loads for which they are
designed; and no foundation or floor shall be overloaded;
(b) roofs shall be of sufficient strength to carry where necessary suspended loads;
(c) all floors, working levels, platforms, decks, stairways, passages, gangways, ladders and
steps shall be of safe construction so as to prevent a risk of persons falling, and structurally
sound so as to prevent a risk of collapse, and shall be properly maintained and kept, as far as
reasonably practicable, free from any loose material and in a non-slippery condition;
(d) such means as are reasonably practicable shall be provided, maintained, and used so as
to ensure safe access to any place at which any person has at any time to work;
(e) every opening, sump, pit or fixed vessel in a floor, or working level shall be securely
covered or securely fenced so as to prevent risk of persons falling; and
(f) all goods, articles and substances which are stored or stacked shall be so placed or
stacked—
(a) in such manner as will best ensure stability and prevent any collapse of the goods,
articles or substances or their supports; and
(b) in such a manner as not to interfere with the adequate distribution of light,
adequate ventilation, proper operation of machinery, the unobstructed use of
passageways or gangways and the efficient functioning or use of fire-fighting
equipment.
11. Persons exposed to explosive, inflammable, etc., substances.
In every factory in which persons are exposed to risk of bodily injury from explosive, inflammable,
poisonous or corrosive substances or ionising radiations, such measures as may be prescribed shall
be taken as will eliminate the risk.
12. Lifting of weights.
No person shall be employed to lift, carry or move any load so heavy as to be likely to cause bodily
injury to him.
13. Provisions against fire.
Without prejudice to any law with respect to local authorities, in every factory there shall be taken
such precautions against fire, and there shall be provided and maintained, such means of escape in
case of fire other than means of exit in ordinary use, and such means of extinguishing fire as may be
prescribed.
14. Construction of machinery.
All machinery and every part thereof including all fittings and attachments shall be of sound
construction and sound material free from defect and suitable for the purpose and shall be properly
maintained.
15. Dangerous parts of machinery.
Every dangerous part of any machinery shall be securely fenced unless it is in such a position or of
such construction as to be as safe to every person employed or working on or entering into the
premises as it would be if securely fenced:
Provided that so far as the safety of a dangerous part of any machinery cannot by reason of the
nature of the operation be secured by means of a fixed guard the requirements of this section shall be
deemed to have been complied with if a device is provided which automatically prevents the operator
from coming or being brought into contact with that part.
16. Projecting material.
In respect of such machinery as may be prescribed, any part of any material carried by that
machinery while it is working thereon which projects beyond any part of the machinery shall be
effectively fenced unless it is in such a position as to be safe to any person employed or working on or
entering into the premises.
17. Machinery for hire or sale must comply with regulations.
No person shall sell or let on hire any machinery other than transmission machinery which does not
comply with any regulations made under this Act applicable to the machinery.
18. Machinery manufactured or repaired must comply with regulations.
(1) No person shall manufacture, repair or instal machinery in such a manner that it does not comply
with the provisions of this Act and any regulations made thereunder applicable to such machinery.
(2) No person shall import any machinery other than transmission machinery which does not comply
with any regulations made under this Act applicable to such machinery.
19. Certificate of fitness.
(1) No person shall operate or cause or permit to be operated any machinery in respect of which a
certificate of fitness is prescribed, unless there is in force in relation to the operation of the machinery
a valid certificate of fitness issued under this Act.
(2) In the case of any contravention of subsection (1) an Inspector shall forthwith serve upon the
person aforesaid a notice in writing prohibiting the operation of the machinery or may render the
machinery inoperative until such time as a valid certificate of fitness is issued.
(3) Certificates of fitness issued under this Act shall be in the forms respectively prescribed, and shall
be valid subject to this Act, for such period as may be prescribed.
(4) A certificate of fitness in respect of any machinery which is being dismantled or repaired or is
damaged for any reason shall terminate upon such dismantlement, repair or damage, but the Chief
Inspector may exempt any machinery from the application of this subsection if in his opinion the
machinery will not cause any danger to any person or property.
(5) For the purpose of subsection (4)—
"damage" means any physical defect caused to any machinery during operation or otherwise which
may affect the strength and integrity of the machinery during subsequent operation;
"dismantle" means to undo any part of any machinery which may affect the strength, integrity or
functional capability of that machinery;
"repair" means any work done to make good any part of any machinery which has been damaged.
(6) Any person who contravenes subsection (1) shall be guilty of an offence and shall, on conviction,
be liable to a fine not exceeding one hundred and fifty thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term
not exceeding three years or to both.
[(4),(5),(6) Ins. Act A1268:s.9].
19A.Power to revoke certificate of fitness obtained by way of fraud or misrepresentation.
(1) The Chief Inspector shall revoke or terminate a certificate of fitness if he is satisfied that the
certificate of fitness has been obtained by way of fraud or misrepresentation.
(2) Any person who is aggrieved by the decision of the Chief Inspector under subsection (1) may,
within fourteen days from the date of such decision being notified to him, appeal to the Minister by
way of writing.
(3) The decision of the Minister under this subsection shall be final.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.10].
20. Duties of persons employed.
(1) No person employed in any factory or in any place where any machinery is installed shall wilfully
interfere with or misuse any means, appliance, convenience or other thing provided in pursuance of
this Act for securing the safety, health or welfare of the persons employed in the factory or the place
where the machinery is installed; and when any means or appliance for securing safety, health or
welfare is provided for the use of the person under this Act, he shall make use of such means or such
appliance.
(2) No person employed in any factory or in any place where any machinery is installed shall wilfully
and without reasonable cause act in any manner so as to cause or to be likely to cause bodily injury
to himself or other persons or damage to any machinery or other property.
21. Duties of occupier.
The occupier shall at all times maintain all safety appliances and machinery.
22. Provisions relating to health.
(1) Without prejudice to any law relating to public health, in respect of any factory the following
provisions relating to health of persons shall apply:
(a) every factory shall be kept in a clean state and free from offensive effluvia arising from any
drain, sanitary convenience or other source and shall be cleaned at such times and by such
methods as may be prescribed and these methods may include lime-washing or colour
washing, painting, varnishing, disinfecting or deodorising;
(b) the maximum number of persons employed at any one time in any workroom in any
factory shall be such that the amount of cubic metre of space and the superficial metre of floor
area allowed in the workroom for each such person are not less than the amount of cubic
metre of space and the superficial metre of floor area prescribed either generally or for the
particular class of work carried on in the workroom;
[Am. Act A1268:s.11].
(c) (i) effective and suitable provision shall be made for securing and maintaining adequate
ventilation by the circulation of fresh air in every part of a factory and for rendering harmless,
so far as practicable, all gases, fumes, dust and other impurities that may be injurious to
health arising in the course of any process or work carried on in a factory;
(ii) the Minister may prescribe a standard of adequate ventilation and the
means by which the standard may be achieved, for factories or for any class
or description of factory or parts thereof;
(d) (i) effective and suitable provision shall be made for securing and maintaining such
temperature as will ensure to any person employed in a factory reasonable conditions of
comfort and prevention from bodily injury;
(ii) the Minister may for factories or for any class of factory or parts thereof
prescribe a standard of reasonable temperature and prohibit the use of any
methods of maintaining a reasonable temperature which in his opinion are
likely to be injurious to the persons employed and direct that thermometers
shall be provided and maintained in such places and positions as may be
specified;
(e) (i) effective provision shall be made for securing and maintaining sufficient and suitable
lighting, whether natural or artificial, in every part of a factory in which persons are working or
passing;
(ii) the Minister may prescribe a standard of sufficient and suitable lighting for
factories or for any class or description of factory or parts thereof or for any
process; and
(f) sufficient and suitable sanitary conveniences as may be prescribed, shall be provided and
maintained for the use of persons in a factory.
(2) (a) Whenever it appears to an Inspector that any process in any factory is likely to affect adversely
the health of any person employed therein or the public he shall report the circumstances in writing to
the Chief Inspector who may thereupon carry out such investigations as he may consider necessary.
(b) Where the Chief Inspector is satisfied—
(i) that such a process is likely to affect adversely the health of any person
employed in the factory or the public; and
(ii) that the process can be modified or means provided to reduce the
possibility of injury to the health of such person or the public as aforesaid,
he shall, after considering any representations made by the occupier of the factory, order that
the process be modified in such manner or that such means be provided as he may direct to
reduce the possibility of injury to the health of that person or the public.
(c) Any person aggrieved by an order made under paragraph (b) may within twenty-one days
of the receipt thereof appeal to the Minister who shall make such order thereon as he deems
fit.
(d) Where the Chief Inspector is satisfied—
(i) that such a process is likely to affect adversely the health of any person employed
in the factory or the public; and
(ii) that the process cannot be modified or means provided to reduce the possibility of
injury to the health of such person or the public as aforesaid,
he shall report the circumstances in writing to the Minister.
(e) The Minister may upon receipt of the report either—
(i) make such regulations controlling or prohibiting the use of the process as he may
consider reasonable; or
(ii) after considering any representations made by any person likely to be affected
thereby by writing under his hand prohibit the carrying out of the process either
absolutely or conditionally or the use of any material or substance in connection
therewith.
(f) For the purpose of enabling any occupier of a factory or other person to make
representations in respect of a proposed order or prohibition under paragraph (b) or (e) the
Chief Inspector or the Minister as the case may be, shall cause to be served on the occupier
or other person a notice specifying the period within which such representations may be
made and containing such particulars as the Chief Inspector or the Minister as the case may
be considers adequate in the circumstances.
(3) An Inspector may require any person employed in any factory in which any of the diseases named
in the Third Schedule has occurred, or is likely to occur, to be medically examined.
23. Exposure to elements.
Effective provision shall be made for securing and maintaining sufficient and suitable means to protect
any person employed from exposure to the elements, and such means may include roof shelters and
wind breaks for protection against rain and wind respectively.
24. Personal protective clothing and appliances.
Where in any factory persons are exposed to a wet or dusty process, to noise, to heat or to any
poisonous, corrosive or other injurious substance which is liable to cause bodily injury to those
persons the Minister may prescribe the provision and maintenance for use of those persons suitable
and adequate personal protective clothing and appliances including where necessary goggles,
gloves, leggings, caps, foot-wear and protective ointment or lotion.
25. Provisions relating to welfare.
(1) In respect of any factory, the following provisions relating to welfare of persons shall apply:
(a) there shall be provided and maintained for the use of persons employed therein—
(i) adequate and suitable accommodation for clothing not worn during working hours;
and
(ii) such arrangements as are reasonably practicable for drying that clothing.
(b) there shall be provided and maintained at suitable places reasonably accessible to all
persons employed therein—
(i) an adequate supply of safe and wholesome drinking water; and
(ii) adequate and suitable facilities for washing which shall be kept in a clean
condition; and
(c) there shall be provided and maintained so as to be readily accessible a first-aid box or
cupboard of the prescribed standard and when more than one hundred and fifty persons are
employed at any one time a suitable first-aid room of the prescribed standard shall also be
provided and maintained.
(2) The Minister may for factories or for any class of factory or parts thereof prescribe standards for
compliance in respect of all the provisions in the foregoing subsection relating to welfare of persons
employed.
PART III
PERSON IN CHARGE AND CERTIFICATES OF COMPETENCY
26. Training and supervision of inexperienced workers.
No person shall be employed at any machine or in any process, being a machine or process liable to
cause bodily injury, unless he has been fully instructed as to the dangers likely to arise in connection
therewith and the precautions to be observed, and—
(a) has received sufficient instruction in work at the machine or process; or
(b) is under adequate supervision by a person who has knowledge and experience of the
machine or process.
27. Chief Inspector may make orders in circumstances.
(1) The Chief Inspector may make special orders for the conduct and guidance of persons employed
in any service involving the management or operation of, or attendance on, or proximity to, any
machinery or process carried on in any factory as appear to him necessary to ensure their safety and
health.
(2) The occupier shall ensure by all reasonable means that the persons exposed to danger are aware
of any such special orders made under subsection (1) and those persons shall observe the said
special orders.
(3) For the purpose of subsection (2) a copy of the Chief Inspector's special orders printed or written
in the appropriate languages and posted in conspicuous places in the vicinity of the machinery or
process to which the said special orders refer, so that all persons referred to shall have free access
and opportunity to read the same, shall be deemed to constitute reasonable means.
28. Young persons.
(1) No young person shall carry out work involving the management of, or attendance on, or proximity
to, any machinery.
(2) It shall be the duty of the owner or occupier to ensure that subsection (1) is observed.
(3) Subsection (1) shall not apply to a young person not being under the age of fourteen years
receiving a course of instruction at a Government technical school or other educational institution or
not being under the age of fifteen years if serving a recognised apprenticeship.
(4) An Inspector may require an owner or occupier to make suitable and effective arrangements to
prevent the ingress of young persons into premises or any part thereof in which machinery is
installed:
Provided that this subsection shall not apply to organised visits to factories for educational purposes
in which case all possible precautions shall be taken to ensure the safety of young persons.
29. Certain machinery not to be operated without certificated staff.
(1) Every occupier shall ensure that machinery which is prescribed to be under the charge of a
certificated engineer, dredgemaster or driver shall not be operated except under the charge of such
engineer, dredgemaster or driver, as the case may be.
(2) No person shall take charge of any machinery which is prescribed to be under the charge of a
certificated engineer, dredgemaster or driver, as the case may be, unless—
(a) he holds a certificate of competency as an engineer, dredgemaster or driver; or
(b) he has a written authority issued by the Chief Inspector.
(3) Every person holding a certificate of competency issued under this Act shall produce and permit
inspection of the same whenever called upon to do so by an Inspector.
29A Machinery not to be manufactured, etc., without written authority.
No person shall manufacture, fabricate, test, install, maintain, dismantle or repair any machinery
which is prescribed unless he has a written authority issued by the Chief Inspector.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.12].
30. Panel of Examiners and Board of Appeal.
(1) For the purpose of this Part there shall be appointed a Panel of Examiners consisting of a
Chairman and such persons as may be prescribed.
(2) The Panel shall hold such examinations as may be prescribed and recommend to the Chief
Inspector the grant to successful candidates at such examinations, the certificates of competency in
the prescribed form.
(3) Examinations shall be conducted in accordance with the directions of the Chief Inspector as
regards the times and places at which they shall be held, their form and content and the manner in
which they shall be conducted.
(4) Every matter referred to the Panel shall be considered and decided by the Chairman and at least
one member thereof:
Provided that the Chairman may permit the examination of engine drivers by one member.
(5) Any person dissatisfied with the decision of the Panel may appeal to the Chief Inspector who will
convene an Appeal Board consisting of such persons as may be prescribed.
PART IV
NOTIFICATION OF ACCIDENT, DANGEROUS OCCURENCE AND DANGEROUS DISEASES
31. Accidents and dangerous occurrence to be reported.
Whenever any accident which —
[Am. Act A1268:s.13]

(a) causes loss of life to any person;
(aa) causes serious bodily injury to any person;
[Ins. Act A1268:s.13]
(b) causes bodily injury to any person so that the person is prevented from following his
normal occupation for more than three clear days excluding the day of the accident; or
[Am. Act A1268:s.13]
(c) causes serious damage to machinery or other property,
or any dangerous occurrence takes place in any factory or in connection with any machinery, the
occupier shall report the accident or dangerous occurrence to the Inspector having jurisdiction for the
area in which the accident or dangerous occurrence has taken place by the quickest means available
and subsequently with the least possible delay, report in writing to the Inspector in the prescribed form
the facts of the matter so far as they are known to him.
[Am. Act A1268:s.13]
32. Notification of occupational diseases.
(1) Every registered medical practitioner attending on, or called in to visit, a patient whom he believes
to be suffering from any of the diseases named in the Third Schedule and contracted in a factory
shall, unless such notice has been previously sent—
(a) forthwith sent to the Chief Inspector a notice stating the name and location of the factory in
which the patient states he is or was last employed, the name and full postal address of the
patient and the disease from which, in the opinion of the registered medical practitioner, the
patient is suffering; and
(b) at the same time send a copy of the notice to the occupier of the factory in which the
patient states he is or was last employed.
33. Investigation and enquiries.
1) An Inspector shall make a preliminary investigation of the circumstances of any accident or

dangerous occurrence referred to in paragraphs 31(a), (aa) and (c) and may make a preliminary
investigation of the circumstances of any accident that causes bodily injury as described in paragraph
31(b), or industrial disease referred to in section 32, reported to him, and shall forward in writing to the
Chief Inspector a report on the investigation and if there has been any loss of life or there is reason to
believe that any person has been fatally injured the Chief Inspector shall send a copy of the
aforementioned report to the nearest Magistrate together with such further report as he may consider
necessary and shall inform the Magistrate whether or not it is proposed to hold an enquiry under
subsection (2).
[Am. Act A1268:s.15]
(2) (a) If upon consideration of the report referred to in subsection (1) it appears to the Chief Inspector
that an enquiry ought to be held into the nature and cause of the accident or dangerous occurrence or
occupational disease, he may cause such an enquiry to be held by a Senior Inspector.
[Am. Act A1268:s.15]

(b) Upon the conclusion of the enquiry the Senior Inspector shall forward to the Chief
Inspector a copy of the evidence taken thereat, together with his finding thereon and such
further report as the Senior Inspector may consider necessary.
(c) Where the Chief Inspector is of the opinion that criminal proceedings ought to be instituted
against any person in connection with the accident or dangerous occurrence or occupational
disease, he shall forward to the Deputy Public Prosecutor a copy of the evidence, finding and
report, submitted in accordance with paragraph (b).
[Am. Act A1268:s.15]
(3) Where the accident or dangerous occurrence referred to in section 31 causes the death of any
person or serious bodily injury to any person or serious damage to machinery or other property, no
alterations or additions shall, without the consent of an Inspector in writing, be made to any machinery
which may have caused such accident or dangerous occurrence nor shall any alterations be made
without such consent to the site of the accident or dangerous occurrence until an Inspector has
completed his investigation:
Provided that nothing herein contained shall operate to interfere with rescue work or work necessary
for the general safety of life or property.
(4) (a) The Chief Inspector may appoint one or more persons of engineering, medical or other
appropriate special skill to assist as assessors in any enquiry held under subsection (2).
(b) Every person not being a public officer serving as an assessor in any such enquiry shall
be entitled to receive from the public funds such remuneration as the Minister may determine.
[Am. Act A1268:s.15]
(5) Nothing in this section shall—
(a) be deemed to require an enquiry to be held before prosecuting any person for any
contravention of this Act or for failure to comply with any lawful order given by an Inspector; or
(b) affect any law relating to the enquiry into the death of any person.
PART V
NOTICE OF OCCUPATION OF FACTORY, AND REGISTRATION AND USE OF MACHINERY
34. Operation of factory.
(1) Every person who at the commencement of this Act occupies or uses any premises as a factory
shall—
(a) within three months of the date submit to the Chief Inspector such particulars as may be
prescribed; and thereafter
(b) within six months of being required so to do by the Chief Inspector submit such further
particulars as may be prescribed.
(2) (a) No person shall except with the written permission of the Inspector begin to use any premises
as a factory until one month after he has served on the Inspector a written notice in the prescribed
form.
(b) This subsection shall not apply to any person who takes over a factory from another
person if there is no change in the nature of the work carried on in the factory provided that
the first person shall within one month of such taking over have served on the Inspector
written notice in the prescribed form.
(3) This section shall not apply to building operations and works of engineering construction.
35. Building operations or works of engineering construction.
(1) Every person who undertakes any building operations or works of engineering construction shall
not later than seven days from the commencement of those operations serve on the Inspector written
notice in the prescribed form.
(2) Subsection (1) shall not apply to—
(a) building operations or works of engineering construction the carrying out of which does not
involve the use of machinery and which the person undertaking them has grounds for
believing will be completed in a period of less than six weeks; and
(b) a person undertaking any operations in a place in which building operations or works of
engineering construction are being carried out in respect of which notice has been given
under subsection (1).
36. Installation of machinery etc.
(1) No person shall install or caused to be installed—
(a) any machinery in any factory; or
(b) any machinery in respect of which a certificate of fitness is prescribed,
except with the written approval of the Inspector.
(2) For the purpose of obtaining the approval referred to in subsection (1) there shall be submitted to
the Inspector such particulars as may be prescribed.
(3) When any machinery in respect of which a certificate of fitness is prescribed has been installed, a
written notice shall be served by the occupier or owner of the factory on—
(a) the Inspector, who may as soon as conveniently may be, make an inspection of the
machinery; or
(b) a licensed person where applicable, who shall within one month from the date of receipt of
the written notice make an inspection of the machinery.
(4) If, upon inspection, the Inspector or the licensed person finds that the machinery—
(a) complies with the requirements under this Act, the Inspector or the licensed person shall
issue upon payment of the prescribed fee a certificate of fitness in the prescribed form
specifying that the machinery has passed the inspection on the date of the inspection; or
(b) does not comply with the requirements, the occupier or owner of the factory shall pay to
the Government or the licensed person such payments as may be prescribed for the services
rendered despite the non-issuance of a certificate of fitness.
(5) Where a certificate of fitness is refused, the Inspector or the licensed person shall specify the
grounds for such refusal.
(6) A person aggrieved by the refusal of the Inspector or the licensed person to issue a certificate of
fitness may appeal to the Chief Inspector, and on such appeal, the Chief Inspector shall cause a re-
inspection to be carried out at the expense of the aggrieved person and after the re-inspection may
cause to be issued or refuse to issue a certificate of fitness.
(7) The decision of the Chief Inspector under subsection (6) shall be final.
(8) The licensed person shall employ only a person with the prescribed qualification and competency
to carry out the inspection and to issue a certificate of fitness under this section.
[Subs. Act A1268:s.16].
37. Application for registration.
(1) Every person who comes into possession of any machinery in respect of which a certificate of
fitness is prescribed, shall send to the Inspector and licensed person such particulars in such manner
as may be prescribed.
[Am. Act A1268:s.17]
(2) Any person who contravenes subsection (1) shall be guilty of an offence and shall, on conviction,
be liable to a fine not exceeding fifty thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one
year or to both.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.17]
38. Register.
(1) There shall be kept in every factory a register in the prescribed form to be called the general
register and there shall be entered in or attached to that register all such particulars as may be
prescribed.
(2) The occupier of every factory shall send to an Inspector or licensed person such extracts from the
general register as the Inspector or licensed person may from time to time require for the purpose of
the execution of his duties under this Act.
[Am. Act A1268:s.18]
(3) The general register and every other register or record or certificate kept in pursuance of this Act
shall be preserved and shall be kept available for inspection by any Inspector for at least two years or
such other period as may be prescribed for any class or description of register or record, after the
date of the last entry in the register or record.
(4) The licensed person shall only have access to information in the general register and any other
register or record or certificate kept in pursuance of this Act pertaining to machinery in respect of
which a certificate of fitness is prescribed.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.18]
39. Moving or alteration of or addition to machinery to be approved.
(1) No person shall move, alter or add to or cause to be moved, altered or added to, any machinery
which is installed for use if the effectiveness of any fencing or any safety appliance is affected by the
moving, alteration or addition, unless he has received in writing the approval of the Inspector thereto.
For the purpose of such approval there shall be submitted to the Inspector details of the proposed
moving, alteration or addition and of the proposed modifications to the fencing and safety appliances
together with the name and address of the person who is to carry out the said moving, alteration or
addition and a sketch showing the details of the modifications.
(2) The occupier of the factory shall notify the Inspector in writing as soon as the moving, alteration or
addition referred to in subsection (1) has been completed.
(3) If the machinery does not comply with the requirements of this Act, the Inspector shall by notice in
writing served on the occupier or where this is not practicable, posted on the premises where the
machinery to which it relates is installed, require such defects as he may specify to be made good or
removed within such period as he shall specify in the notice and the machinery shall not be operated
after the expiry of that period unless the defects have been made good or removed to the satisfaction
of the Inspector who shall thereupon, on payment of the prescribed fee, permit its use and where
applicable endorse the certificate of fitness:
Provided that if the Inspector is of the opinion the defect is likely to cause immediate danger to life or
property, he shall by notice served or posted as aforesaid prohibit the operation of the machinery until
the defect is made good or removed, and in that case the machinery shall not be operated so long as
the prohibition remains unrevoked:
And provided further that the Inspector may in such case render the machinery inoperative by any
means he may deem best suited for the purpose.
40. Periodical inspections.
(1) All factories and machinery in respect of which a certificate of fitness is not prescribed shall be
inspected by an Inspector at such periods and in such manner as may be prescribed;
(1A) All machinery in respect of which a certificate of fitness is prescribed shall be inspected by an
Inspector or a licensed person at such periods and in such manner as may be prescribed;
[Ins. Act A1268:s.19]
(2) The occupier of every factory and the owner or person having possession of any machinery shall
afford to an Inspector all reasonable facilities for inspection and all information as may reasonably be
required in connection therewith.
[Am. Act A1268:s.19]
(2A) For the purpose of subsection (1A), the occupier of every factory and the owner or person having
possession of any machinery in respect of which a certificate of fitness is prescribed shall afford to an
Inspector or a licensed person all reasonable facilities for inspection and testing and all information as
may reasonably be required in connection with the inspection;
[Ins. Act A1268:s.19]
(3) Every engineer and dredgemaster in charge of any machinery and every occupier of a factory,
shall as soon as he becomes aware of any defect therein which is likely to cause bodily injury to any
person or damage to any property, make good or remove the said defect, and if the engineer,
dredgemaster or occupier is unable to make good or remove the said defect he shall cease to operate
such machinery or use such part or parts of the factory and forthwith make a report thereon to an
Inspector.
(4) If in the opinion of an Inspector the use of any part of the ways or works in a factory, or machinery,
whether a certificate of fitness is or is not prescribed in respect of the machinery, is likely to cause
bodily injury to any person or damage to any property, he shall by notice in writing served on the
occupier or where this is not practicable, posted at the premises where the machinery to which it
relates is installed, require the defect to be made good or removed within such period as he shall
therein specify and in every such case that part of the ways or works in that factory shall not be used
or the machinery shall not be operated after the expiry of that period unless the defect has been made
good or removed to the satisfaction of the Inspector expressed in writing:
Provided that if the Inspector is of the opinion that the defect is likely to cause immediate danger to
life or property, he shall by notice served or posted as aforesaid forthwith prohibit the operation and
use of the said machinery until the defect is made good or removed to the satisfaction of the Inspector
expressed in writing:
And provided further that the Inspector may in such case render the machinery inoperative by any
means he may deem best suited for the purpose.
(5) Any factory owner or occupier may apply to the Chief Inspector for approval for a special scheme
of inspection.
(6) The Chief Inspector may approve the application under subsection (5) if he is satisfied that the
prescribed requirements in respect of the machinery in question in relation to the special scheme of
inspection have been fulfilled.
(7) Upon the approval under subsection (6), the inspection of the machinery shall be conducted
according to the special scheme of inspection.
(8) Any person who contravenes subsection 40(3) shall be guilty of an offence and shall, on
conviction, be liable to a fine not exceeding two hundred and fifty thousand ringgit or to imprisonment
for a term not exceeding five years or to both.
[(5) to (8) Ins. Act A1268:s.19]
41. Questions for decision by an Inspector and appeals from such decision
(1) Any person aggrieved by any order made by an Inspector or any decision made by a licensed
person under this Act may within twenty-one days from the date of such order or decision appeal to a
Senior Inspector who may after considering any representations made by that person by order in
writing confirm, annul or vary the order or decision.
[Am. Act A1268:s.20]
(2) Any person aggrieved by any order made by a Senior Inspector under subsection (1) or otherwise
under this Act may within twenty-one days from the date of the order appeal to the chief Inspector
who shall refer it to a Board of Appeal constituted under this section.
(3) A Board of Appeal may after hearing such evidence as it may consider necessary and considering
any representations made confirm, annul or vary the order made by the Senior Inspector.
(4) (a) The Minister shall appoint a Board of Appeal for the purpose of considering any appeal made
under this section.
(b) A Board of Appeal shall consist of the Chief Inspector or a Deputy Chief Inspector as the
Chairman and two members nominated by the Minister, who in his opinion, have wide
experience and knowledge in matters relating to the subject matter of the appeal.;
[Am. Act A1268:s.20]

(c) All questions requiring decision by a Board of Appeal shall be decided by a majority of the
Board.
(d) A copy of the decision of a Board of Appeal, on an appeal referred to it, certified by the
Chairman, shall be served without delay on the person by whom the appeal was preferred.
(da) The decision of the Board of Appeal shall be final and shall not be questioned in
any court.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.20]
(e) Every member of the Board of Appeal may be paid an allowance at such rates as the
Minister may determine.
(5) The Senior Inspector in the case of an appeal under subsection (1) or the Chief Inspector in the
case of an appeal under subsection (2) may direct that the order appealed from shall be suspended
pending determination of the appeal.
42. Report of changes, etc.
It shall be the duty of the occupier of any factory to report to the Inspector any structural change in the
factory or any change in the name of the factory or the nature of work carried on therein.
43. Machinery or factory no longer in use.
It shall be the duty of any occupier who ceases to use any premises as a factory or any machinery to
notify an Inspector of the cessation within thirty days thereof.
44. Notice of sale, hire or transfer.
(1) Any owner who shall sell, hire out or transfer permanently or temporarily to any person any
machinery for which a certificate of fitness has been issued shall, within ten days of the sale, hiring
out or transfer, give notice thereof in writing to an Inspector and a licensed person.
[Am. Act A1268:s.21]
(2) Any person, being a person who purchases for resale used machinery for which a certificate of
fitness is prescribed, shall within ten days of reselling any such machinery, give notice thereof in
writing to an Inspector and a licensed person in such manner as may be prescribed.
[Am. Act A1268:s.21]
45. Copy of report of enquiry may be supplied.
Any person concerned in any enquiry held under this Act shall be entitled, upon payment of the
prescribed fee, to receive a copy of the evidence taken at, and the decision of, the enquiry.
46. Powers of the Chief Inspector and Senior Inspectors at enquiries.
For the purpose of holding enquiries under this Act the Chief Inspector and a Senior Inspector shall
have the power to administer oaths and affirmations and shall be vested with the powers of a First
Class Magistrate for compelling the attendance of witnesses, production of documents, maintaining
order and otherwise duly conducting the said enquiries, and all persons summoned to attend any
such enquiries shall be legally bound so to attend.
PART VI
GENERAL
47. Criminal or civil liability unaffected.
Nothing in this Act shall operate to relieve any owner, occupier, engineer, dredgemaster, driver or
other person from any civil or criminal liability.
47A. Protection against personal liability.
Subject to the provisions of this Act and any regulations made under this Act, no Inspector or licensed
person shall be personally liable for any loss or damage caused by his act or omission in carrying out
the duties under this Act or any regulations made under this Act, unless the loss or damage was
caused intentionally or through recklessness or negligence on the part of the Inspector or licensed
person.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.22]
48. Fees.
(1) All fees payable under this Act shall be paid in such manner and within such period as may be
prescribed.
[Am. Act A1268:s.23]
(2) Any fees payable and due to the Government under this Act shall be a debt due to and
recoverable by the Government.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.23]
(3) Any fees payable and due to a licensed person under this Act shall be a debt due to and
recoverable by the licensed person.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.23]
49. Chief Inspector's powers.
Where the Chief Inspector is satisfied in respect of any particular factory or part thereof or any
particular process that any requirement of any regulations made under this Act need not, having
regard to all the circumstances, be complied with or compliance with such requirement is not
reasonably practicable, he may by certificate in writing, which he may after such notice as he may
consider reasonable in the circumstances revoke, exempt the factory or part or process from
complying with the requirement subject to such conditions as he may specify in the said certificate.
50. Offences.
(1) Subject to subsections (2) to (4) where the occupier of a factory contravenes this Act he shall be
guilty of an offence.
(2) Where the contravention as aforesaid is one in respect of which the owner is by or under this Act
made responsible the owner shall be guilty of an offence.
(3) Notwithstanding subsections (1) and (2) whenever it is proved to the satisfaction of a court that a
contravention of this Act, has been committed by any person other than the occupier or owner of the
factory or machinery in respect of which the contravention has been committed, the owner or occupier
as the case may be shall also be held to be liable for that contravention, and to the penalty provided
therefor, unless he shall prove to the satisfaction of the court that the same was committed without his
knowledge or consent and that he had taken all reasonable means to prevent the same and to ensure
the observance of this Act:
Provided that nothing contained in this section shall be deemed to exempt such first mentioned
person from liability in respect of any penalty provided by this Act for any contravention proved to
have been committed by him.
(4) If the occupier or owner of a factory or machinery avails himself of any exception allowed by or
under this Act and fails to comply with any of the conditions attached to the exception, he shall be
guilty of an offence.
51. Penalties.
(1) Any person who contravenes section 31, subsections 34(1), 36(1), 38(1) and 39(1), shall be guilty
of an offence and shall, on conviction, be liable to a fine not exceeding one hundred thousand ringgit
or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or to both.
(2) Any person who contravenes any other provision of this Act or any regulation made under this Act
for which contravention no penalty is expressly provided shall be guilty of an offence and shall, on
conviction, be liable to a fine not exceeding fifty thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term not
exceeding one year or to both.
[Am. Act A1268:s.24]
(3) Where the offence of which any person is convicted is a continuing offence, such person shall, in
addition to the punishment inflicted in respect of that offence, be further liable to a fine not exceeding
two thousand ringgit for each day or part of a day during which the offence continues after the first
day in respect of which the conviction is recorded.
[Am. Act A1268:s.24]
(4) Any person who without reasonable excuse fails to comply with any written order or notice issued
under subsection 39(3) or 40(4) shall be guilty of an offence and shall on conviction be liable to a fine
not exceeding two hundred and fifty thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five
years or to both and to a further fine not exceeding two thousand ringgit for each day or part of a day
during which the offence continues after the first day in respect of which the conviction is recorded.
[Ins. A1268:s.24]
51A.Jurisdiction to try offences.
Notwithstanding any written law to the contrary, a Court of a First Class Magistrate shall have
jurisdiction to try any offence under this Act and to impose the full punishment for any such offence.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.25]
52. Institution of prosecution.
No prosecution in respect of any offence under this Act shall be instituted except by or with the written
consent of the Public Prosecutor.
52A. Power to compound offences.
(1) The Chief Inspector or any Deputy Chief Inspector or any Senior Inspector appointed under
subsection 4(1) may, with the consent in writing of the Public Prosecutor, compound any offence
committed by any person which is punishable under this Act or any regulations made under this Act.
(2) The Chief Inspector or any Deputy Chief Inspector or any Senior Inspector may, in a case where
he deems it fit and proper so to do, compound an offence by making a written offer to the person who
has committed the offence to compound the offence on the payment to the Chief Inspector or the
Deputy Chief Inspector or the Senior Inspector, as the case may be, within such time as may be
specified in the offer, of such sum of money as may be specified in the offer, which shall not exceed
fifty per centum of the amount of the maximum fine (including the daily fine, if any, in the case of a
continuing offence) to which the person would have been liable if he had been convicted of the
offence.
(3) An offer under subsection (2) may be made at any time after the offence has been committed, but
before any prosecution is instituted, and where the amount specified in the offer is not paid within the
time specified in the offer, or within such extended period as the Chief Inspector or the Deputy Chief
Inspector or the Senior Inspector may grant, prosecution for the offence may be instituted at any time
thereafter against the person to whom the offer was made.
(4) Where an offence has been compounded under subsection (2) no prosecution shall thereafter be
instituted in respect of the offence against the person to whom the offer to compound was made.
(5) Any money paid to the Chief Inspector or a Deputy Chief Inspector or a Senior Inspector under
subsection (2) shall be paid into and form part of the Federal Consolidated Fund.
53. Power to modify agreements.
If by reason of an agreement between the owner and the occupier of premises the whole or any part
of which has been let as a factory the said owner or occupier is prevented from carrying out any
structural or other alterations in the premises which are necessary to enable him to comply with this
Act or in order to conform with any standard or requirement imposed by or under this Act, he may
apply to the High Court for the terms of the agreement to be set aside or modified; and the Court,
after hearing the parties and any witnesses whom they may desire to call, may make an order setting
aside or modifying the terms of the agreement as the Court considers just and equitable in the
circumstances of the case.
_______________________________________________________________________________
*NOTE—See Factories and Machinery (Compounding of Offences) Rules 1978 - [P.U. (A) 85/1978].
54. Power to apportion expenses.
Where in any premises the whole or any part of which has been let as a factory any structural or other
alterations are required in order to comply with this Act or in order to conform with any standard or
requirement imposed by or under this Act, and the owner or occupier, as the case may be, alleges
that the whole or part of the expenses of the alterations ought to be borne by the occupier or owner,
the owner or occupier may apply to the High Court for the expenses of the alterations to be
apportioned between them; and the Court, after hearing the parties and any witnesses whom they
may desire to call, may make an order concerning the apportionment of such expenses as the Court
considers just and equitable in the circumstances of the case, regard being had to the terms of any
contract between the parties, or in the alternative, the Court may, at the request of the owner or
occupier, determine the lease.
55. Exemptions.
(1) Nothing contained in this Act shall apply to—
(a) any factory or machinery operated—
(i) by the armed forces; or
(ii) by agreement with the Government by any visiting force lawfully present in
Malaysia; or
(b) any machinery which is subject to the law relating to merchant shipping.
(2) Any factory and machinery operated by:
(a) the Government of the Federation and the Government of every State shall be exempted
from the provisions of—
(i) the whole of sections 34, 35, 38, 48; and
(ii) sections 36, 37, 39, 40, 43, only in respect of machinery other than steam boilers,
steam receivers, fired pressure vessels, unfired pressure vessels and lifts; and
[Am. Act A1268:s.28]
(b) [Deleted Act A1268:s.28]
(3) The Minister may, by order, exempt either conditionally or absolutely any factory or machinery or
class of factories or machinery from all or any of the provisions of this Act or the regulations made
thereunder and may in like manner cancel or vary any such exemptions.
56. Regulations.
(1) The Minister may make regulations in respect of any matter which may be prescribed under this
Act and in particular—
(a) prescribe the duties of the Chief Inspector and of any of the officers appointed under
section 4 and the duties of a licensed person;
[Am. Act A1268:s.29]
(b) prescribe the records to be kept in respect of machinery and factories and of inspections,
the certificates and any other matters to which this Act relates and the form thereof and the
person by whom the same are to be kept;
(c) prescribe the standard of cleanliness to be observed and the means of removal of
injurious and offensive fumes or dust arising from certain processes in factories, or class or
description of factory and the special measures to be taken to ensure the health of persons
employed therein;
(ca) prescribe the standard of cleanliness and permissible exposure limit to be

observed and the means of removal of or controlling injurious and offensive physical,
biological or chemical hazards arising from certain processes in factories, or classes
or descriptions of factories and the special measures to be taken which may include
employee exposure monitoring, to protect the health of persons employed in the
factories;
[Ins. Act A1268:s.29]
(d) in respect of any matters which may appear to the Minister expedient for the safety, health
and welfare of persons employed at machinery or in factories;
(e) specify the classes of machinery for which certificates of fitness are required and order the
prohibition of the use of condemned machinery, and the marking and disposal of the same;
(f) prescribe the manner of calculating the safe working pressure of steam boilers and unfired
pressure vessels and gas cylinders, the horse power of prime movers and the safe working
load of hoisting machines and tackle;
(g) prescribe the times at which and the manner in which certain classes of machinery shall
be inspected and to empower the Chief Inspector to stipulate the times at which and manner
in which factories and machinery shall be inspected, the notice, if any, to be given in relation
to such inspections and the preparations to be made for such inspections;
(ga) prescribe the requirements, procedure and processing fees in respect of the
approval of a special scheme of inspection;
[Ins. Act A1268:s.29]
(h) prescribe the qualifications to be possessed by, the procedure for the registration of, the
renewal of registration and deregistration of, the duties of and processing fees to be paid by
and the register to be maintained by—
(i) any person before they may be placed in charge of or entrusted with the care or
management of or operating any specified machinery;
(ii) any person manufacturing, fabricating, installing, testing, inspecting, maintaining,

dismantling, or repairing any specified machinery as required under section 29A;
(iii) any person carrying out environmental monitoring including noise monitoring and
audiometric testing; and
(iv) any person carrying out inspection, testing and examination of control equipment;
(i) prescribe the nature of the examinations for certificates of competency as engineers,
dredgemasters and drivers, the form of such certificates, the manner and conditions of the
issue thereof, and the fees to be paid for examinations and certificates and prescribe the
manner and circumstances in which the certificate of competency may be suspended,
cancelled or varied;
(j) prescribe the fee and the manner by which it is to be paid in respect of the inspection of
factories and machinery and the registration of machinery requiring certificates of fitness for
operation, certificates of competency and any other certificates, the forms of such certificates,
the manner and conditions of issue, extension, suspension, revocation and cancellation
thereof and the period for which any such certificate shall remain in force;
(ja) prescribe the requirement, procedure, and processing fees in respect of approval
of any equipment for environment monitoring including noise monitoring, audiometric
testing equipment and facilities, personal protective equipment or laboratory for
analysis;
[Ins. Act A1268:s.29]
(k) prescribe the manner of holding enquiries under section 33; and
(ka) prescribe the qualification and standard of competency of employees of a

licensed person under subsection 36(8); and
(kb) prescribe any terms, conditions or fees for any person to obtain any licence to
manufacture, fabricate, install, import, supply, inspect or maintain and dismantle
boilers, unfired pressure vessels and hoisting machines from the Chief Inspector.
[Ins. Act A1268:s.29]
(l) in respect of any other matters as to which it may appear to the Minister to be expedient for
the better carrying out of this Act.
(2) Where it appears to the Minister that in view of the number and nature of accidents occurring in
any factory or class or description of factory, special provisions ought to be made at that factory or
factories of that class or description to secure the safety of persons therein, he may make special
regulations as may appear to him to be reasonable, requiring the occupier to make such special
provision for supervision in regard to safety, investigation of the circumstances and causes of
accidents and otherwise as may be specified in the regulations.
(3) Where part of a building is let off as a separate factory, the Minister may make regulations to
modify the application of the Act specifying the person, that is to say the owner of the building or the
occupier of the factory, on whom any duties are imposed, or rights conferred, by the respective
provisions of the Act as far as they are applicable, and the liability for any contravention thereof.
57. Medical supervision.
Where it appears to the Minister that in any factory or class or description of factory—
(a) cases of illness have occurred which he has reason to believe may be due to the nature of
the process or other conditions of work;
(b) there may be risk of injury to the health of persons employed in any process; or
(c) persons below the age of eighteen years are, or are about to be, employed in work which
may cause risk of injury to health,
he may make regulations requiring arrangements to be made for the medical supervision of or the
provision of medical treatment of a preventive character for persons, or any class of persons,
employed at the factory or class or description of factory as may be specified in the regulations.
58. Repeal.
The Machinery Ordinance 1953 of the States of Malaya [F.M. Ord. 18 of 1953], and the Machinery
Ordinance of the State of Sabah [Cap. 75] and all the regulations made thereunder are repealed:
Provided that—
(a) any appointments made and any exemptions granted under the aforesaid Ordinances
shall, so far as they are consistent with this Act, be deemed to have been made or granted by
this Act and where applicable under the provisions of this Act shall remain in force until
revoked or superseded by any appointment or exemption made under this Act;
(b) any certificates or written permits to operate any machinery granted under the aforesaid
Ordinances shall remain valid as if they have been granted under this Act; and where
applicable shall have effect for the period specified therein:
Provided further that, in respect of the State of Sabah this section shall not have effect until the whole
of the provisions of this Act are in force in that State.
59. Amendment of Schedule.
The Minister may, at any time by order, amend any of the Schedules.
FIRST SCHEDULE
Dangerous Occurrence.
[Section 3]
1. Bursting of a revolving vessel, wheel, grindstone or grinding wheel moved by mechanical power.
2. Collapse or failure of a crane, derrick, winch, hoist, piling frame or other appliance used in raising
or lowering persons or goods, or any part thereof (except breakage of chain or rope slings), or the
overturning of a crane.
3. Explosion or fire or failure of structure affecting the safety or strength of any room or place in which
persons are employed, or to any machinery or plant contained therein.
4. Explosion or failure of structure affecting the safety or strength of a steam boiler or of an unfired
pressure vessel; the loss of boiler water, the melting of a fusible plug and the bursting of a tube.
SECOND SCHEDULE
SERIOUS BODILY INJURY
[Section 3]
1. Emasculation.
2. Permanent privation of the sight of either eye.
3. Permanent privation of the hearing of either ear.
4. Privation of any member or joint.
5. Destruction or permanent impairing of the powers of any member or joint.
6. Permanent disfiguration of the head or face.
7. Fracture or dislocation of a bone.
8. Any hurt which endangers life, or which causes the sufferer to be, during the space of twenty days,
in severe bodily pain, or unable to follow his ordinary pursuits.
THIRD SCHEDULE
NOTIFIABLE OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES
[Am. Act A1268:s.30]
[Section 32]
1. Dust diseases of the lung—
(a) Silicosis-inhalation of (SiO2) silica containing dust;
(b) Stannosis-inhalation of tin dusts or fumes;

(c) Sidersosis or sidero-silicosis-inhalation of dust containing iron and silica, haematite;
(d) Asbestosis-inhalation of asbestos dust or fibres;
(e) Conditions of respiratory allergy of asthma or chronic bronchitis, or byssinosis resulting

from inhalation of dusts of plant origin as cotton, wood, flax, jute, rice husks, cork, spices,
hemp, sisal, tobacco, tea, flour and the like and mineral dusts as cements, copper, zinc, or
animal dusts as bone or hair;
(f) Other pneumoconioses or fibrotic diseases of the lungs resulting from inhalation of
aluminium or talc, or coal.
2. Systematic intoxication by any of the following metals or their compounds, lead, mercury,
manganese, phosphorous, antimony, chromium, nickel, beryllium.
3. Intoxication resulting from the use of solvents as benzene and other aromatic hydrocarbons,
carbon disulphide, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and petroleum and its derivatives.
4. Pulmonary irritation resulting from inhalation of nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, chlorine, phosgene,
ammonia, etc.
5. Intoxication resulting from handling of insecticides, or herbicides or fungicides as organic

phosphate compounds, nitrogenous and chlorinated compounds.
6. Conditions of occupational dermatosis resulting from handling of mineral oils, acids, alkalis, dusts,
and other irritants.
7. Occupational infections as anthrax, glanders, and leptospirosis, tuberculosis, leprosy (where

occupational exposure to the last two is evident).
8. Malignant disease resulting from handling or inhalation or contact with carcinogenic tars, or
radioactive dusts.
9. Eye conditions resulting from physical trauma as heat cataract, radiation cataract and from irritants.
10. Toxic jaundice resulting from nitro or amino derivatives of benzene or other substances.
11. Subcutaneous or acute bursitis of knee or hand or wrist resulting from manual labour causing
severe or prolonged friction or pressure.
12. Conditions resulting from severe heat exposure such as heat cramps or heat stroke.
13. Hearing loss due to excessive exposure to industrial noise of high sound pressure level.
14. Conditions resulting from exposure to ionizing and non-ionizing radiation.
15. Decompression sickness (caisson disease) and conditions resulting from working under water.
LIST OF AMENDMENTS
Amending law Short title In force from
Act A199 Factories and Machinery (Amendment) 01-8-1973

Act 1973
Act 160 Malaysian Currency (Ringgit) Act 1975 29-8-1975

Act 1978
P.U. (A) 111/2003 Revision of Laws (Rectification of 18-04-2003

Factories and Machinery Act 1967) Order
2003.

Act 2006
Kilang dan Jentera (Pindaan) 1
UNDANG-UNDANG
MALAYSIA
Akta A1268
AKTA KILANG DAN JENTERA (PINDAAN) 2006
2 Undang-Undang Malaysia AKTA A1268
Tarikh Persetujuan Diraja ... ... 5 September 2006
Tarikh diterbitkan dalam Warta ... 14 September 2006

UNDANG-UNDANG MALAYSIA
Akta A1268
AKTA KILANG DAN JENTERA (PINDAAN) 2006
Suatu Akta untuk meminda Akta Kilang dan Jentera 1967.
[ ]
DIPERBUAT oleh Parlimen Malaysia seperti yang berikut:
Tajuk ringkas dan permulaan kuat kuasa
1. (1) Akta ini bolehlah dinamakan Akta Kilang dan Jentera

(Pindaan) 2006.
(2) Akta ini mula berkuat kuasa pada tarikh yang ditetapkan
oleh Menteri melalui pemberitahuan dalam Warta.
Pindaan seksyen 2
2. Akta Kilang dan Jentera 1967 [Akta 139], yang disebut “Akta
ibu” dalam Akta ini, dipinda dalam seksyen 2—
(a) dalam subperenggan (1)(ix), dengan menggantikan
perkataan “five thousand cubic feet” dengan perkataan
“one hundred and forty cubic metres”; dan
(b) dengan memasukkan selepas subseksyen (2) subseksyen
yang berikut:
“(3) Any pipeline used for transporting dangerous
substances which may cause fire, explosion or adverse
health effects to any person (other than petroleum or
petroleum products) which is used in connection with

and for the purposes of a factory, shall be deemed to
be part of the factory.
(4) For the purpose of subsection (3), “pipelines”

means the physical facilities or any part of the physical
facilities through which dangerous substances which
may cause fire, explosion or adverse health effects to
any person (other than petroleum or petroleum products)
in the form of liquid or vapour or any combination of
liquid or vapour are transported, and includes pipes,
pumps, compressors, meters, regulators and fabricated
assemblies.”.
Pindaan seksyen 3
3. Seksyen 3 Akta ibu dipinda—

(a) dengan memasukkan sebelum takrif “article” takrif yang
berikut:
‘ “amusement device” means any contrivance or a

combination of contrivances, or rides, equipment or
plant or any other similar device which are designed
or intended to entertain or amuse people and which
can be installed repeatedly without loss of substance,
whether temporarily or permanently, at fairs, amusement
parks or other locations;
“amusement park” means a tract or area used

principally as a location for amusement devices and
structures;’;
(b) dengan memasukkan selepas takrif “engineer” takrif yang

berikut:
‘ “fair” means an enterprise principally devoted to the

exhibition of products of agriculture or industry and
at or in connection with which amusement devices
and temporary structures are provided;’;
(c) dengan memasukkan selepas takrif “fence” takrif yang

berikut:
‘ “fired pressure vessel” means an enclosed vessel
under pressure greater than atmospheric pressure which
is subjected to direct firing, but does not include a
steam boiler;’;
(d) dalam takrif “hoist”, dengan memasukkan koma selepas

perkataan “carriage”;
(e) dengan menggantikan takrif “hoisting machine” dengan
takrif yang berikut:
‘ “hoisting machine” means any equipment for
lifting, raising or lowering load such as a lift, escalator,
hoist, crane, winch, dragline, piling machine, aerial
cableway, funicular railway, access platform, dumbwaiter,
vertical conveyor lifter and mechanical loading ramp,
and includes transporter, walkalator and other similar
equipment, but does not include manual hoist and
materials handling equipment;’;
(f) dengan memasukkan selepas takrif “Inspector” takrif yang

berikut:
‘ “licensed person” means any person licensed under
section 7D of the Act;’;
(g) dalam takrif “machinery”—

(i) dengan memasukkan selepas perkataan “unfired
pressure vessels,” perkataan “fired pressure vessels,
pipelines,”;
(ii) dengan memasukkan selepas perkataan “driven
machinery,” perkataan “materials handling
equipment, amusement device or any other similar
machinery”;
(iii) dengan memasukkan selepas perkataan “casting,”
perkataan “cutting,”; dan
(iv) dengan menggantikan perkataan “metals” di mana-
mana jua terdapat dengan perkataan “materials”;
(h) dengan memasukkan selepas takrif “maintain” takrif yang

berikut:
‘ “manufacturing or commercial secret” means highly

sensitive information relating to—
(a) any manufacturing process;
(b) a n y p r o d u c t , r a w m a t e r i a l , b y - p r o d u c t
formulation;
(c) any idea of duplication or cloning of product;
or
(d) any technical information on operating system,
and that the information has been declared as

manufacturing or commercial secret in writing by the
occupier or owner;
“materials handling equipment” means any

power-driven equipment for handling materials, and
includes forklift, conveyor, stacker, excavator, tractor,
dumper or bulldozer but does not include hoisting
machine;’;
(i) dengan memasukkan selepas takrif “Panel” takrif yang

berikut:
‘ “petroleum” means any mineral oil or relative

hydrocarbon and natural gas existing in its natural
condition and casinghead petroleum spirit, and
includes—
(a) bituminous shales and other stratified deposits
from which oil can be extracted; and
(b) petroleum products;
“petroleum products” means material derived from

petroleum, natural gas or asphalt deposits, and includes
gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, fuel oil, lubricating oil,
liquefied petroleum gas, wax, grease, butane, benzene,
propane and any like flammable and combustible
liquids;’;
(j) dengan memasukkan selepas takrif “serious bodily

injury” takrif yang berikut:
‘ “special scheme of inspection” means an inspection

system approved by the Chief Inspector pertaining to
periodical inspections for certain classes of machinery
and its auxiliary;’; dan
(k) dengan menggantikan takrif “work of engineering

construction” dengan takrif yang berikut:
‘ “work of engineering construction” means the

construction, extension, installation, repair, maintenance,
renewal, removal, renovation, alteration, dismantling,
or demolition of—
(a) any erection, edifice, structure, caisson, mast,
tower, pylon, wall, fence or chimney, whether
constructed wholly or partly above or below
ground level;
(b) any road works, dock, harbour works, railway,
siding, cableway, tramway line, inland navigation,
air field or aerodrome;
(c) any drainage, sewer, sewage works, irrigation,
river control works, sea defence work or earth
retaining structure;
(d) a n y e l e c t r i c a l , m e c h a n i c a l , w a t e r, g a s ,
petrochemical or telecommunication works;
or
(e) any bridge, viaduct, dam, reservoir, lagoon,
earthworks, pipeline, sewer, aqueduct, culvert,
drive, shaft, tunnel or reclamation works,
and includes—
(aa) any formwork, falsework, scaffold or any works
which form an integral part of, or are preparatory
to or temporary to, the works described in
paragraphs (a) to (e);
(bb) site clearance, soil investigation and improvement,
earth-moving, excavation, laying of foundation,

site restoration and landscaping; and
(cc) such other works as may be specified by the
Minister.’.
Pindaan seksyen 5
4. Seksyen 5 Akta ibu dipinda dengan memasukkan selepas

subseksyen (2) subseksyen yang berikut:
“(3) The Chief Inspector may in writing delegate any

of the functions, powers or duties assigned to him under
this Act to any Deputy Chief Inspector, Senior Inspector or
Inspector, subject to such terms and conditions as he thinks
fit.
(4) A delegation under this section shall not preclude

the Chief Inspector himself from performing or exercising
at any time any of the functions, powers or duties so
delegated.”.
Pindaan seksyen 6

(a) dengan menomborkan semula seksyen yang sedia ada
sebagai subseksyen (1) seksyen itu; dan
yang berikut:
“(2) A licensed person, all his servants and

agents and other persons employed by him shall,
while discharging their duties as a licensed person
and such servants, agents and employees, be deemed
to be public servants within the meaning of the Penal
Code.”.
Seksyen baru 7A, 7B, 7C, 7D, 7E dan 7F
6. Akta ibu dipinda dengan memasukkan selepas seksyen 7

seksyen yang berikut:
“Entry into premises with a search warrant and the power

of seizure
7A. Where information is given on oath to a magistrate that

there is reasonable cause for suspecting that there is in a
factory or premises any article, thing, book, document, plant,
substance, installation or part thereof which has been used
to commit or is intended to be used to commit an offence
under this Act or regulation made thereunder, he shall issue
a warrant under his hand by virtue of which an Inspector
named or referred to in the warrant may enter the factory or
premises at any reasonable time by day or night, and search
for and seize or seal the article, thing, book, document,
plant, substance, installation or part thereof.
Entry into premises without a search warrant and the

power of seizure
7B. Where an Inspector is satisfied upon information received

that he has reasonable grounds for believing that, by reason
of delay in obtaining a search warrant, any article, thing,
book, document, plant, substance, installation or part thereof
in a factory or premises which has been used to commit or
is intended to be used to commit an offence under this Act
or any regulation made thereunder is likely to be removed
or destroyed, he may enter the factory or premises without a
warrant and seize or seal the article, thing, book, document,
plant, substance, installation or part thereof found therein.
Service of list of things seized
7C. The Inspector seizing any article, thing, book, document,

plant, substance, installation or part thereof under section
7A or 7B shall prepare a list of things seized and forthwith,
deliver a copy of the list signed by him to the occupier,
or his agent or servant present in the premises, and if the
premises are unoccupied or if the occupier, or his agent or
servant is absent the Inspector shall, wherever possible, post
a list of the things seized on the premises and make a police
report thereafter.
Appointment, powers and duties of a licensed person
7D. (1) Notwithstanding any other provisions of this Act,

the Minister shall have the power to grant a licence on such
conditions as he may think fit to any person to perform any
of the functions specified in this Act as the functions of a
licensed person as it appears to him to be necessary.
(2) The Minister may, make an order for the purpose of

subsection (1) and in particular but without prejudice to the
generality of the foregoing, such order may—
(a) prescribe the qualification and standards of competency
of persons to be employed by a licensed person;
(b) prescribe the powers of a person employed by a
licensed person to carry out the functions of a
licensed person;
(c) prescribe the records to be kept by a licensed
person;
(d) prescribe the returns to be submitted by a licensed
person to the Chief Inspector at certain intervals;
(e) regulate the inspection by the Chief Inspector of the
premises of a licensed person and the records kept
thereat;
(f) prescribe inspection standards for a licensed person
to comply with; and
(g) prescribe the functions or duties to be carried out
by a licensed person.
(3) The Minister may, by order published in the Gazette,

authorize a licensed person to demand, prescribe, collect
and retain charges, fees and levy in respect of the services
provided by the licensed person.
(4) An order made under subsection (3) shall specify—

(a) the type of services in respect of which charges, fees
or levy may be demanded, collected and retained;
and
(b) the duration of the authorization to demand, collect
and retain the charges, fees or levy.
(5) A licensed person authorized under subsection (3)

shall—
(a) maintain such account, books and records in respect
of the payment and collection of charges, fees or
levy as the Chief Inspector may require;
(b) furnish to the Chief Inspector such information,
returns and accounts in respect of the payment
and collection of charges, fees or levy as the Chief
Inspector may require; and
(c) permit the Chief Inspector or any other person
authorized in writing by the Chief Inspector to
have access to or examine or inspect any document,
machinery or equipment maintained or used for the
payment or collection of charges, fees or levy.
(6) The authorization of a licensed person under subsection

(3) shall not render the Federal Government liable to any
person in respect of any injury, damage or loss occasioned by
the failure of the licensed person to carry out his obligations
under this Act in respect of which charges, fees or levy are
demanded, collected and retained.
(7) If a licensed person contravenes any condition of the

licence or any of the provisions of any order made under this
section or any of the provisions of subsection (5) with which
he is required to comply he shall be guilty of an offence
and shall, on conviction, be liable to a fine not exceeding
one hundred thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term
not exceeding two years or to both.
(8) Notwithstanding the licensing of a person under this

section, the Minister may give directions to the Chief Inspector
to exercise any of the functions which under the terms of
the licence are to be carried out by such person.
Revocation of licence
7E. (1) If the Chief Inspector is satisfied that a licensed

person has breached any condition of the licence, the Chief
Inspector may give a notice in writing to the licensed person
requiring him to comply with the condition which he has
breached and take all measures stipulated therein within the

period stated in the notice.
(2) If by the time the period stipulated in the notice expires

the licensed person has failed to comply with the notice, the
Chief Inspector shall present a report to the Minister on such
failure.
(3) If, after considering the report from the Chief Inspector,
the Minister is satisfied that the breach is serious in nature
or affects or may affect the safety and health of workers or
members of the public and that the licensed person has failed
or refused to take or has not taken all measures stipulated
in the notice for the purpose of ensuring compliance with
the condition which the licensed person has breached, the
Minister may give the licensed person a notice stating that
he proposes to revoke the licence given to such person and
the notice shall also state—
(a) the breach alleged against the licensed person and
the actions or omissions that constitute the breach;
and
(b) the period (which must not be less than thirty days
from the date of the notice) within which the licensed
person may make representations pertaining to the
revocation.
(4) After the expiry of the period stated in the notice and
after considering any representations made by the licensed
person, the Minister may decide whether to continue with
the proposed revocation or take no further action.
(5) Notice shall be given to the licensed person by the

Minister informing him of the decision where the Minister
decides to revoke the licence or take no further action, and
the decision shall come into force on the date the notice is
delivered to the licensed person.
(6) The decision of the Minister under this section is

final.
(7) Notwithstanding the revocation of the licence, the validity

of any certificate of fitness issued by the licensed person
shall continue to be valid until the expiry date thereof and
the licenced person shall continue to assume any obligation,
duty and responsibility imposed by or in connection with the
issuance of the certificate of fitness.
Granting of new licence upon revocation
7F. (1) Upon the revocation under section 7E of a licence

granted to the licensed person, the Minister may, after
consulting the Chief Inspector, appoint another person to
carry out, discharge, assume or perform any of the functions,
obligations, duties, responsibilities and conditions conferred
or imposed by the revoked licence, and to receive any
payments, benefits or privileges which the person whose
licence is revoked is entitled to receive or enjoy under the
terms and conditions of the licence.
(2) The person whose licence is revoked and his agents

or employees shall render all necessary assistance and
cooperation to the person appointed by the Minister under
subsection (1).”.
Pindaan seksyen 8
7. Akta ibu dipinda dengan menggantikan seksyen 8 dengan

“Obstruction an offence
8. Any person who—

(a) refuses to allow or wilfully delays or obstructs an
Inspector or a licensed person from entering a factory
in the exercise of any power under this Act;
(b) fails to comply with any notice, other than a notice
given under subsection 39(3) or 40(4), lawfully
given by a licensed person in the exercise of any
power under this Act;
(c) wilfully withholds any information as to who is the
occupier or owner of any factory or machinery or
conceals or prevents a person from appearing before
or being examined by an Inspector or a licensed
person, or in any manner obstructs an Inspector or
licensed person;
(d) conceals the location or existence of any other person

or any plant or substance from an Inspector or a
licensed person;
(e) prevents or attempts to prevent any person from
assisting an Inspector or a licensed person;
(f) in any other way, hinders, impedes or opposes an
Inspector or a licensed person in the exercise of
his power under the Act or any regulations made
thereunder; or
(g) fails to comply with any order lawfully given by an
Inspector or a licensed person in the exercise of
any power under this Act,
shall be guilty of an offence and shall on conviction be

liable to a fine not exceeding two hundred thousand ringgit
or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years or
to both.”.
Pindaan seksyen 9

“Confidentiality of information
9. (1) Except for the purpose of this Act or for the purpose
of any civil or criminal proceedings under this Act or any
other written law, no person appointed under section 4 or
licensed person and employees of the licensed person shall
disclose any manufacturing or commercial secret which may
at any time come to his knowledge or has been obtained by
him in the course of his duties under this Act.
(2) Any person who contravenes subsection (1) shall

be guilty of an offence and shall on conviction be liable
to a fine not exceeding one hundred thousand ringgit or
to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or to
both.”.
Pindaan seksyen 19
9. Seksyen 19 Akta ibu dipinda dengan memasukkan selepas
subseksyen (3) subseksyen yang berikut:
“(4) A certificate of fitness in respect of any machinery
which is being dismantled or repaired or is damaged for any
reason shall terminate upon such dismantlement, repair or
damage, but the Chief Inspector may exempt any machinery
from the application of this subsection if in his opinion
the machinery will not cause any danger to any person or
property.
(5) For the purpose of subsection (4)—
“damage” means any physical defect caused to any

machinery during operation or otherwise which may affect
the strength and integrity of the machinery during subsequent
operation;
“dismantle” means to undo any part of any machinery which

may affect the strength, integrity or functional capability of
that machinery;
“repair” means any work done to make good any part of

any machinery which has been damaged.
(6) Any person who contravenes subsection (1) shall be

guilty of an offence and shall, on conviction, be liable to a
fine not exceeding one hundred and fifty thousand ringgit
or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years or
to both.”.
Seksyen baru 19A

“Power to revoke certificate of fitness obtained by way of

fraud or misrepresentation
19A. (1) The Chief Inspector shall revoke or terminate a

certificate of fitness if he is satisfied that the certificate of fitness
has been obtained by way of fraud or misrepresentation.
(2) Any person who is aggrieved by the decision of the

Chief Inspector under subsection (1) may, within fourteen

days from the date of such decision being notified to him,
appeal to the Minister by way of writing.
(3) The decision of the Minister under this subsection

shall be final.”.
Pindaan seksyen 22
11. Perenggan 22(1)(b) Akta ibu dipinda dengan menggantikan

perkataan “feet” di mana-mana jua terdapat dengan perkataan
“metre”.
Seksyen baru 29A

“Machinery not to be manufactured, etc., without written

authority
29A. No person shall manufacture, fabricate, test, install,

maintain, dismantle or repair any machinery which is
prescribed unless he has a written authority issued by the
Chief Inspector.”.
Pindaan seksyen 31

(a) dengan memotong perkataan “either”;
(b) dengan memasukkan selepas perenggan (a) perenggan
yang berikut:
“(aa) causes serious bodily injury to any person;”;
(c) dalam perenggan (b), dengan menggantikan perkataan “four

days” dengan perkataan “three clear days excluding the
day of the accident;”; dan
(d) dengan menggantikan perkataan “to the nearest inspector”
dengan perkataan “to the inspector having jurisdiction for
the area in which the accident or dangerous occurrence
has taken place.”.
Pindaan seksyen 32
14. Seksyen 32 Akta ibu dipinda dalam nota bahu dengan

menggantikan perkataan “industrial” dengan perkataan
“occupational”.
Pindaan seksyen 33

(a) dalam subseksyen (1), dengan menggantikan perkataan
“section 31” dengan perkataan “paragraphs 31(a), (aa)
and (c) and may make a preliminary investigation of the
circumstances of any accident that causes bodily injury
as described in paragraph 31(b),”;
(b) dalam perenggan (2)(a) dan (c), dengan menggantikan
perkataan “industrial” dengan perkataan “occupational”;
dan
(c) dalam subseksyen (4)—

(i) dalam perenggan (a), dengan menggantikan perkataan
“Senior” dengan perkataan “Chief”; dan
(ii) dalam perenggan (b), dengan menggantikan perkataan
“may be prescribed” dengan perkataan “the Minister
may determine”.
Pindaan seksyen 36

“Installation of machinery, etc.
36. (1) No person shall install or caused to be installed—

(a) any machinery in any factory; or
(b) any machinery in respect of which a certificate of
fitness is prescribed,
except with the written approval of the Inspector.
(2) For the purpose of obtaining the approval referred to

in subsection (1) there shall be submitted to the Inspector
such particulars as may be prescribed.
(3) When any machinery in respect of which a certificate

of fitness is prescribed has been installed, a written
notice shall be served by the occupier or owner of the
factory on—
(a) the Inspector, who may as soon as conveniently may
be, make an inspection of the machinery; or
(b) a licensed person where applicable, who shall within
one month from the date of receipt of the written
notice make an inspection of the machinery.
(4) If, upon inspection, the Inspector or the licensed person

finds that the machinery—
(a) complies with the requirements under this Act, the
Inspector or the licensed person shall issue upon
payment of the prescribed fee a certificate of
fitness in the prescribed form specifying that the
machinery has passed the inspection on the date of
the inspection; or
(b) does not comply with the requirements, the occupier
or owner of the factory shall pay to the Government
or the licensed person such payments as may be
prescribed for the services rendered despite the
non-issuance of a certificate of fitness.
(5) Where a certificate of fitness is refused, the Inspector

or the licensed person shall specify the grounds for such
refusal.
(6) A person aggrieved by the refusal of the Inspector

or the licensed person to issue a certificate of fitness may
appeal to the Chief Inspector, and on such appeal, the Chief
Inspector shall cause a re-inspection to be carried out at the
expense of the aggrieved person and after the re-inspection
may cause to be issued or refuse to issue a certificate of
fitness.
(7) The decision of the Chief Inspector under subsection

(6) shall be final.
(8) The licensed person shall employ only a person with

the prescribed qualification and competency to carry out
the inspection and to issue a certificate of fitness under this
section.”.
Pindaan seksyen 37

sebagai subseksyen (1) seksyen itu;
(b) dengan memasukkan selepas perkataan “Inspector” perkataan
“and licensed person”; dan
(c) dengan memasukkan selepas subseksyen (1) subseksyen
yang berikut:
“(2) Any person who contravenes subsection (1)

shall be guilty of an offence and shall, on conviction,
be liable to a fine not exceeding fifty thousand ringgit
or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year
or to both.”.
Pindaan seksyen 38

(a) dalam subseksyen (2), dengan memasukkan selepas
perkataan “Inspector” di mana-mana jua terdapat dengan
perkataan “or licensed person”; dan
yang berikut:
“(4) The licensed person shall only have access

to information in the general register and any other
register or record or certificate kept in pursuance of
this Act pertaining to machinery in respect of which
a certificate of fitness is prescribed.”.
Pindaan seksyen 40

(a) dengan menggantikan subseksyen (1) dengan subseksyen
yang berikut:
“(1) All factories and machinery in respect of
which a certificate of fitness is not prescribed shall
be inspected by an Inspector at such periods and in
such manner as may be prescribed.”;

yang berikut:
“(1A) All machinery in respect of which a certificate of
fitness is prescribed shall be inspected by an Inspector
or a licensed person at such periods and in such
manner as may be prescribed.”;
(c) dalam subseksyen (2), dengan menggantikan perkataan

“Every occupier of a factory” dengan perkataan “The
occupier of every factory and the owner or person having
possession of any machinery”;
(d) dengan memasukkan selepas subseksyen (2) subseksyen

yang berikut:
“(2A) For the purpose of subsection (1A), the occupier of
every factory and the owner or person having possession
of any machinery in respect of which a certificate of
fitness is prescribed shall afford to an Inspector or a
licensed person all reasonable facilities for inspection
and testing and all information as may reasonably be
required in connection with the inspection.”; dan
(e) dengan memasukkan selepas subseksyen (4) subseksyen

yang berikut:
“(5) Any factory owner or occupier may apply to the
Chief Inspector for approval for a special scheme of
inspection.
(6) The Chief Inspector may approve the application

under subsection (5) if he is satisfied that the
prescribed requirements in respect of the machinery in
question in relation to the special scheme of inspection
have been fulfilled.
(7) Upon the approval under subsection (6), the

inspection of the machinery shall be conducted
according to the special scheme of inspection.
(8) Any person who contravenes subsection 40(3)

shall be guilty of an offence and shall, on conviction,
be liable to a fine not exceeding two hundred and
fifty thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for a term
not exceeding five years or to both.”.
Pindaan seksyen 41

(a) dalam subseksyen (1)—
(i) dengan memasukkan selepas perkataan “by an
Inspector” perkataan “or any decision made by a
licensed person”;
(ii) dengan memasukkan selepas perkataan “of such
order” perkataan “or decision”; dan
(iii) dengan memasukkan selepas perkataan “vary the
order” perkataan “or decision”; dan
(b) dalam subseksyen (4)—

(i) dengan menggantikan perenggan (a) dengan perenggan
yang berikut:
“(a) The Minister shall appoint a Board of Appeal
for the purpose of considering any appeal
made under this section.”;
(ii) dalam perenggan (b), dengan menggantikan perkataan

“nominated by him as Chairman and two members
selected from the panel appointed under paragraph
(a)” dengan perkataan “as the Chairman and two
members nominated by the Minister, who in his
opinion, have wide experience and knowledge
in matters relating to the subject matter of the
appeal”;
(iii) dengan memasukkan selepas perenggan (d) perenggan
yang berikut:
“(da) The decision of the Board of Appeal shall

be final and shall not be questioned in any
court.”; dan
(iv) dengan menggantikan perenggan (e) dengan perenggan

yang berikut:
“(e) Every member of the Board of Appeal may

be paid an allowance at such rates as the
Minister may determine.”.
Pindaan seksyen 44
21. Seksyen 44 Akta ibu dipinda dalam subseksyen (1) dan (2)
dengan memasukkan selepas perkataan “an Inspector” perkataan
“and a licensed person”.
Seksyen baru 47A

“Protection against personal liability
47A. Subject to the provisions of this Act and any regulations

made under this Act, no Inspector or licensed person shall be
personally liable for any loss or damage caused by his act
or omission in carrying out the duties under this Act or any
regulations made under this Act, unless the loss or damage
was caused intentionally or through recklessness or negligence
on the part of the Inspector or licensed person.”.
Pindaan seksyen 48

sebagai subseksyen (1) seksyen itu; dan
yang berikut:
“(2) Any fees payable and due to the Government
under this Act shall be a debt due to and recoverable
by the Government.
(3) Any fees payable and due to a licensed person

under this Act shall be a debt due to and recoverable
by the licensed person.”.
Pindaan seksyen 51

(a) dengan menggantikan subseksyen (1) dengan subseksyen
yang berikut:
“(1) Any person who contravenes section 31,
subsections 34(1), 36(1), 38(1) and 39(1), shall be
guilty of an offence and shall, on conviction, be
liable to a fine not exceeding one hundred thousand
ringgit or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding
two years or to both.”;
(b) dalam subseksyen (2)—

(i) dengan memasukkan selepas perkataan “Act”
perkataan “or any regulation made under this
Act”;
(ii) dengan menggantikan perkataan “two” dengan
perkataan “fifty’; dan

(iii) dengan memasukkan selepas perkataan “ringgit”
perkataan “or to imprisonment for a term not
exceeding one year or to both.”;
(c) dalam subseksyen (3), dengan menggantikan perkataan
“one hundred” dengan perkataan “two thousand”; dan
(d) dengan memasukkan selepas subseksyen (3) subseksyen
yang berikut:
“(4) Any person who without reasonable excuse

fails to comply with any written order or notice issued
under subsection 39(3) or 40(4) shall be guilty of an
offence and shall on conviction be liable to a fine not
exceeding two hundred and fifty thousand ringgit or
to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years
or to both and to a further fine not exceeding two
thousand ringgit for each day or part of a day during
which the offence continues after the first day in
respect of which the conviction is recorded.”.
Seksyen baru 51A

“Jurisdiction to try offences
51A. Notwithstanding any written law to the contrary, a Court

of a First Class Magistrate shall have jurisdiction to try any
offence under this Act and to impose the full punishment
for any such offence.”.
Pindaan seksyen 52

“Institution of prosecution
52. No prosecution in respect of any offence under this Act
shall be instituted except by or with the written consent of
the Public Prosecutor.”.
Pindaan seksyen 52A
27. Akta ibu dipinda dengan menggantikan seksyen 52A dengan

“Power to compound offences
52A. (1) The Chief Inspector or any Deputy Chief Inspector

or any Senior Inspector appointed under subsection 4(1)
may, with the consent in writing of the Public Prosecutor,
compound any offence committed by any person which is
punishable under this Act or any regulations made under
this Act.
(2) The Chief Inspector or any Deputy Chief Inspector

or any Senior Inspector may, in a case where he deems it
fit and proper so to do, compound an offence by making a
written offer to the person who has committed the offence to
compound the offence on the payment to the Chief Inspector
or the Deputy Chief Inspector or the Senior Inspector, as
the case may be, within such time as may be specified in
the offer, of such sum of money as may be specified in the
offer, which shall not exceed fifty per centum of the amount
of the maximum fine (including the daily fine, if any, in the
case of a continuing offence) to which the person would
have been liable if he had been convicted of the offence.
(3) An offer under subsection (2) may be made at any

time after the offence has been committed, but before any
prosecution is instituted, and where the amount specified in
the offer is not paid within the time specified in the offer,
or within such extended period as the Chief Inspector or the
Deputy Chief Inspector or the Senior Inspector may grant,
prosecution for the offence may be instituted at any time
thereafter against the person to whom the offer was made.
(4) Where an offence has been compounded under subsection

(2) no prosecution shall thereafter be instituted in respect of
the offence against the person to whom the offer to compound

was made.
(5) Any money paid to the Chief Inspector or a Deputy

Chief Inspector or a Senior Inspector under subsection (2)
shall be paid into and form part of the Federal Consolidated
Fund.”.
Pindaan seksyen 55
28. Seksyen 55 Akta ibu dipinda dalam subseksyen (2)—

(a) dalam subperenggan (a)(ii), dengan memasukkan selepas
perkataan “steam receivers” perkataan “, fired pressure
vessels, unfired pressure vessels”; dan
(b) dengan memotong perenggan (b).
Pindaan seksyen 56
29. Subseksyen 56(1) Akta ibu dipinda—

(a) dalam perenggan (a), dengan memasukkan selepas perkataan
“section 4” perkataan “and the duties of a licensed
person;”;
(b) dengan memasukkan selepas perenggan (c) perenggan
yang berikut:
“(ca) prescribe the standard of cleanliness and permissible

exposure limit to be observed and the means of
removal of or controlling injurious and offensive
physical, biological or chemical hazards arising
from certain processes in factories, or classes or
descriptions of factories and the special measures
to be taken which may include employee exposure
monitoring, to protect the health of persons
employed in the factories;”;
(c) dengan menggantikan perenggan (g) dengan perenggan

yang berikut:
“(g) prescribe the times at which and the manner in
which certain classes of machinery shall be
inspected and to empower the Chief Inspector
to stipulate the times at which and manner in
which factories and machinery shall be inspected,
the notice, if any, to be given in relation to such
inspections and the preparations to be made for
such inspections;”;
(d) dengan memasukkan selepas perenggan (g) perenggan

yang berikut:
“(ga) prescribe the requirements, procedure and
processing fees in respect of the approval of a
special scheme of inspection;”;
(e) dengan menggantikan perenggan (h) dengan perenggan

yang berikut:
“(h) prescribe the qualifications to be possessed by,
the procedure for the registration of, the renewal
of registration and deregistration of, the duties
of and processing fees to be paid by and the
register to be maintained by—
(i) any person before they may be placed in
charge of or entrusted with the care or
management of or operating any specified
machinery;
(ii) any person manufacturing, fabricating,
installing, testing, inspecting, maintaining,
dismantling, or repairing any specified
machinery as required under section
29A;
(iii) any person carrying out environmental
monitoring including noise monitoring
and audiometric testing; and
(iv) any person carrying out inspection,
testing and examination of control
equipment;”;
(f) dengan memasukkan selepas perenggan (j) perenggan

yang berikut:
“(ja) prescribe the requirement, procedure, and

processing fees in respect of approval of any
equipment for environment monitoring including
noise monitoring, audiometric testing equipment
and facilities, personal protective equipment or
laboratory for analysis;”; dan
(g) dengan memasukkan selepas perenggan (k) perenggan

yang berikut:
“(ka) prescribe the qualification and standard of
competency of employees of a licensed person
under subsection 36(8); and
(kb) prescribe any terms, conditions or fees for any
person to obtain any licence to manufacture,
fabricate, install, import, supply, inspect or
maintain and dismantle boilers, unfired pressure
vessels and hoisting machines from the Chief
Inspector.”.
Pindaan Jadual Ketiga
30. Jadual Ketiga Akta ibu dipinda dalam tajuk dengan

menggantikan perkataan “INDUSTRIAL” dengan perkataan
“OCCUPATIONAL”.
DICETAK OLEH
PERCETAKAN NASIONAL MALAYSIA BERHAD,
KUALA LUMPUR
BAGI PIHAK DAN DENGAN PERINTAH KERAJAAN MALAYSIA
P.U. (A) 456. 2320
ATOMIC ENERGY LICENSING ACT 1984

RADIATION PROTECTION (TRANSPORT) REGULATIONS 1989
ARRANGEMENT OF REGULATIONS
PART I
PRELIMINARY
Regulation
1. Citation.
2. Interpretation.
PART II
APPLICATION
3. Application.
4. Application of the Radiation Protection (Basic Safety
Standards) Regulations 1988.
PART III
REQUIREMENTS IN PREPARING PACKAGES FOR
TRANSPORT
Chapter I-Requirements for Packagings
5. Classification of packagings.
6. Requirements for excepted packaging.
7. Requirements for Type A packaging.
8. Requirements for Type B packaging.
9. Requirements for industrial packaging.
10. The use of non-conforming packaging.
11. Additional requirements for packaging containing
materials with dangerous properties, in addition to
radioactive properties.
12. Additional requirements for packaging to be transported
by air.
13, Additional requirements for packaging containing fissile
materiaL
14. The use of overpack.
Chapter 2-Content Limits for Packages
15. Content limits for excepted package.

16. Content limits for industrial package.
2321 P.U. (A) 456.
Regulation
17. Content limits for Type A package.

18. Content limits for Type B package.
19. Content limits for packaging containing fissile material.
20. Requirements for special form radioactive material.
Chapter 3-Limits on Radiation Levels on the External

Surface. of Packages and Overpacks
21. Limit on radiation level on external surface of excepted

package.
22. Limit on radiation level on external surface of package and
overpack.
Chapter 4--Limits on Contamination Levels on

Packages and Overpacks
23. Limit for non-fixed contamination on the external or

internal surface of package or overpack.
Chapter 5-Limits on Transport Indices on Packages

and Overpacks
24. Transport index limit for package or overpack.
Chapter 6-Marking, Labelling and Placarding
25. Marking of package.

26. Labelling of package and overpack.
27. Information requirements on labels.
28. Placarding of freight container or tank.
29. Design of labels and placards.
Chapter 7-Categorisation of Packages and Overpacks
30. Categorisation of packages and overpacks.
PART IV
RESPONSIBILITIES IN TRANSPORT OF PACKAGES
Chapter i-General
31. Prohibition.
32. Transport of other goods in the same package.
33. Transport of other goods together with packages.
34. Transport of material having dangerous properties.
35. Transport of non-conforming package.
P.u. (A) 456. 2322
Regulation
36. Requirements for transport of empty package.
37. Reuse of tank.
38. Notification of loss.
39. Customs inspections.
40. Non-delivery.
Chapter 2-Responsibilities of Consignors
41. Packages presented for transport shall comply with PART

III.
42. Control of packages containing fissile materiaL
43. Control of LSA and SCO.
44. Control of package in category I-WHITE.
45. Control of package in category II-YELLOW.
46. Control of package in category III-YELLOW.
47. Control of package in category III-YELLOW under
exclusive use.
48. Transport document.
49. Declarat,ion.
50. Old labels.
51. Information for carrier.
52. Consignor's notification.
53. Package's certificate and operating instruction.
54. Special inspection before first shipment.
55. Inspection before transport.
Chapter 3-Responsibilities of Carriers
56. Transport index limit for conveyance.

57. Limit for non-fixed and fixed contamination of
conveyance.
58. Limits of radiation level for conveyance under exclusive
use.
59. Steps to be taken in case of accident.
60. Steps to be taken on discovering damage or leakage.
61. Package not to be forwarded.
62. The use of conveyance.
63. Package with transport index more than 10.
64. Stowing for transport.
65. Storage in transit.
66. Transport by rail and road.
2323 P.U. (A) 456.
Regulation
67. Special use vessel.
68. Transport by air.
69. Segregation during transport.
Chapter 4-ResponsihiJities of Consignees
70. Examination of the package.
PARTY
ADMINISTRATIVE REQUIREMENTS
Chapter I-General Requirements
71. Items for approval of the Board.

72. Endorsement of foreign approval.
73. Quality assurance.
74. Compliance assurance.
Chapter 2-Approval for Special Form Radioactive

Material
75. Design of special form radioactive material.
Chapter 3-Approval for Package Designs
76. Design of Type B(U) package.

77. Design of Type B(M) package.
78. Package design for fissile material.
79. Serial numbers.
Chapter 4-Approval for Special Shipments
80. Types of special shipment.

81. Approval of special shipment.
82. Approval of shipment under special arrangement.
Chapter 5-Approval Certificates
83. Types of certificate.

84. Identification mark.
Chapter 6-Statements
85. Statement...
P.U. (A) 456. 2324
SCHEDULES
First Schedule Design Requirements for

Excepted Packaging
Second Schedule - Design . Requirements for
Type A Packaging
Third Schedule -- Design Requirements for
Type B Packaging
Fourth Schedule Design Requirements for
Industrial Packaging
Fifth Schedule - Test Procedures for
Demonstrating the Ability of
a Package to Withstand
Normal Conditions of
Transport
Sixth Schedule - Test Procedures for
Demonstrating the Ability of
a Package to Withstand
Accident Conditions of
Transport
Seventh Schedule - Tests for Radioactive
Material
Eighth Schedule - Determination of Transport
Index (TI)
Ninth Schedule - Content Limits for Type A
Packages
Tenth Schedule - Activity Limits for Excepted
Packages
Eleventh Schedule - Conveyance Activity Limits
for LSA and SCQ in
Industrial Packages or
Unpackaged
Twelfth Schedule - Limits of Non-Fixed Con-
tamination on Surfaces
Thirteenth Schedule - Limitations on Homogeneous
Hydrogenous Solutions or
Mixtures of Fissile Material
Fourteenth Schedule - Industrial Package Integrity
Requirements for LSA and
SCQ
Fifteenth Schedule - Excerpts from List of United
Nations Numbers, Proper
Shipping Name and
Description and Subsidiary
Risks
2325 P.U. (A) 456.
Sixteenth Schedule - International System of Units

(SI) Prefixes
Seventeenth Schedule - Categories of Packages
Eighteenth Schedule Signs, Labels and Placards

P.U. (A) 456. 2326

RADIATION PROTECIlON (TRANSPORT) REGULATIONS 1989
IN exercise of the powers conferred by section 68 of the Atomic
Act 304. Energy Licensing Act 1984, the Minister makes the following
regulations:
PART I
PRELIMINARY
Citation. 1. These Regulations may be cited as the Radiation Protection
(Transport) Regnlations 1989.
Interpretation. 2. In these Regulations, unless the context otherwise requires--

"AI" means the maximum activity of a special form radioactive
material permitted in a Type A package;
"A 2 " means the maximum activity of radioactive material,
nuclear material or prescribed substance, other than a special form
radioactive material, permitted in a Type A package;
"accident conditions of transport" means conditions that prevail
during accident, being conditions similar to the conditions
simulated by a combination of the tests specified in the Sixth
Schedule with respect to a package;
"activity" (A) of an amount of radionuclide in a particular
energy state at a given time is the quotient of dN by dt, where dN
is the expectation value of the number of spontaneous nuclear
transformations from that energy state in the time interval dt,
represented by the formula-
A dN/dt;
"annual dose" means the dose received over a period of one
calender year;
"annual dose limit" means the limit of annual dose, whose value
for the respective groups of the population is specified in the
Radiation Protection (Basic Safety Standards) Regulations 1988,
which must not be exceeded;
"cargo aircraft" means any aircraft, other than a passenger
aircraft, which carries goods or property;
"carrier" means any person undertaking the carriage of
radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed substance by
any means of transport;
"competent authority" means a recognized and established
authority in a foreign country exercising in that country a
jurisdiction in respect of the transport of radioactive material,
nuclear material or prescribed substance;
"compliance assurance" means an activity of the Board aimed
at ensuring that the applicable provisions of these Regulations are
met in practice;
2327 P.U. (A) 456.
"consignee" means any person who receives a consignment;

"consignment" means any package, or any load of radioactive
material, nuclear material or prescribed substance, presented by a
consignor for transport;
"consignor" means any person who presents a consignment for
transport and is named as the consignor in the transport
documents;
"containment system" means an assembly of components,
which form part of the packaging, designed for the purpose of
preventing the escape of the radioactive content from a package
during transport;
"contamination" means the presence of any radioactive
material, nuclear material or prescribed substance on a surface in
quantities in excess of 0.4 Becquerel per square centimetres
(Bq/cm2) for beta and gamma and low toxicity alpha emitters, or
0.04 Bq/cm2 for all other alpha emitters;
"criticality" means a self-sustaining chain process of nuclear
fission that can be maintained without an additional source of
neutrons;
"damaged" means the evaluated or demonstrated condition of
the package if it had been subjected to whichever of the following
combination of tests are the more limiting:
(a) the tests to demonstrate the normal conditions of
transport as specified in the Fifth Schedule followed by
the tests to demonstrate the accident conditions of
transport as specified in the Sixth Schedule as applied to a
package containing fissile material; or
(b) the tests to demonstrate the normal conditions of
transport as specified in the Fifth Schedule followed by
the Water Immersion Test as specified in the Sixth
Schedule;
"defined deck area" means an area on the weather deck of a
vessel or on a vehicle deck of a roll-on/roll-off ship or a ferry which
is allocated for the stowage of packages;
"depleted uranium" means uranium containing a lesser mass
percentage of uranium-235 than in the natural uranium:
"design" means the description of special form radioactive
material or packaging which enables such material or packaging to
be fully identified and which may include specifications.
engineering drawings. reports demonstrating compliance with
regulatory requirements and other relevant documentation;
"dose" means dose-equivalent or effective dose-equivalent or
committed effective dose-equivalent or committed dose-
equivalent;
P.u. (A) 456. 2328
"dose rate" means the dose per unit time;

"endorsement" means recognition accorded by the Board to
any form of approval associated with the transport of radioactive
material, nuclear material or prescribed substance issued by a
competent authority;
"enriched uranium" means uranium containing a greater mass
percentage of uranium-235 than in natural uranium;
"exclusive use" means sole use of a conveyance or of a large
freight container with a minimum length of 6 metres by a single
consignor and with all initial, intermediate and final loadings and
unloadings being carried out in accordance with the directions of
the consignor or the consignee;
"fissile material" means uranium-233, uranium-235, plutonium-
238, plutonium-239, plutonium-241 or their combinations but does
not include natural uranium or depleted uranium which has not
been irradiated and natural uranium or depleted uranium which
has been irradiated in thermal reactors;
"fixed contamination" means contamination that cannot be
removed by wiping the contaminated surface with a filter paper, or
wad of dry cotton wool, or any other material of this nature;
"freight container" means a container that is durable in nature
and is specially designed to facilitate the transport of goods by one
or more modes of transport without i.ntermediate reloading;
"LSA" or "low specific activity material" means LSA-I, LSA-II
or LSA-III;
"LSA-J" means-
(a) ores containing naturally occurring radionuclides, such as
uranium and thorium, and uranium~ or thorium
concentrates of such ores; or
(b) solid un irradiated natural uranium or depleted uranium
or natural thorium or their solid or liquid compounds or
mixtures; or
(c) radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed
substance, other than fissile material, for which the A2
value is limited;
"LSA-II" means--
(a) water with tritium concentration up to 0.8 terabecquerel
per litre (TBq/1); or
(b) a material in which the activity is distributed throughout
the material and the estimated average specific activit~
does not exceed 10-4 A2/g for solid and gases, and 10-
A2/g for liquids;
2329 P.U. (A) 456.
"LSA-III" means solids in which-

(a) the radioactive material. nuclear material or prescribed
substance is distributed throughout a solid or a collection
of solid objects, or is essentially uniformly distributed in a
solid compact binding agent such as concrete, bitumen or
ceramic;
(b) the radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed
substance is relatively insoluble or is intrinsically
contained in a relatively insoluble matrix, so that, even
under loss of packaging, the loss of radioactive material,
nuclear material, or prescribed substance per package
when subjected to the tests for LSA-III material as
specified in the Seventh Schedule would not exceed
0.1 A 2 ; and
(c) the estimated average specific activity, excluding any
shielding material, does not exceed 2 x 10- 3 Az/g;
"maximum normal operating pressure" means the maximum
pressure above the atmospheric pressure at the mean sea-level that
would develop in the containment system in a period of one year
under the conditions of temperature and solar radiation
corresponding to the environmental condition of transport in the
absence of venting, external cooling by an ancillary system or
other operational controls during transport;
"multilateral approval" means approval of a design or shipment
under special arrangement by the relevant competent authority of
the country of origin and of each country of transit or into which
th~ consignment is to be transported'
"natural uranium" means uranium containing 0.72 per cent by

weignt of uranium-235 and no other isotope of uranium except
uranium-238 and trace quantities of ur anium-234;
"non-conforming package" or "non-conforming packaging"
means a package or a packaging which does not meet one or more
of the requirements of these Regulations with respect to a package
or a packaging;
"non-fixed contamination" means contamination other than
fixed contamination;
"normal conditions of transport',' means conditions that prevail

during routine transport similar to the conditions simulated by
tests specified in the Fifth Schedule with respect to a package;
"overpack" means an enclosure which is used by a single
consignor to consolidate into one handling unit a consignment of
two or more packages for convenience of handling, stowage and
carriage;
"package" means packaging with radioactive contents as

presented for transport;
P.U. (A) 456. 2330
"packaging" means an assembly of components necessary to

enclose the radioactive contents completel),;
"passenger aircraft" means an aircraft that carries any person

other than a crew member, a carrier's employee in an official
capacity, an authorized representative of the Board or a person
accompanying a consignment;
"quality assurance" means a systematic programme of controls

and inspections applied by a licensee or a person involved in the
transport of radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed
substance which is aimed at providing adequate confidence that
the standard of safety prescribed in these Regulations is achieved
in practice;
"qualified person" means a person who has special knowledge

in the safety measures required in handling radioactive material,
nuclear material or prescribed substance, and in the
decontamination of things contaminated by radioactive material,
nuclear material or prescribed substance and who is approved by
the Board;
"radiation level" means the corresponding dose-equivalent rate

expressed in millisieverts per hour (mSv/h);
"radioactive content" means any radioactive material, nuclear

material or prescribed substance together with any contaminated
solids, liquids or gases within the packaging;
"seQ" or "surface contaminated object" means SeQ-lor

SeQ-II;
"SeQ-I" means a solid object on which-

(a) the non-fixed contamination on the accessible surface
averaged over 300 square centimetres (cmZ) (or the entire
accessible surface if less than 300 cm') does not exceed 4
Bq!cmz for beta and gamma and low toxicity alpha
emitters, or 0.4 Bq/cml for all other alpha emitters; or
(b) the fixed contamination on the accessible surface
averaged over 300 cm z (or the entire accessible surface if
less than 300 cml) does not exceed 4 x 104 Bq/cmZ fOf
beta and gamma and low toxicity alpha emitters, or
4 x lcr Bq/cm2 for all other alpha emitters; or
(c) the non-fixed contamination plus the fixed contamination
on the inaccessible surface averaged over 300 cm l (or the
entire inaccessible surface if less than 300 cml) does not
exceed 4 x 1~ Bq/cmZ for beta and gamma and low
toxicity alpha emitters, or 4 x 103 Bq/cml for all other
alpha emitters;
2331 P.U. (A) 456.
"se~-II" means a solid object on which either the fixed or the

non-fixed contamination on the surface exceeds the applicable
limits specified for seO-f but-
(a) the non-fixed contamination on the accessible surface
averaged over 300 cm' (or the entire accessible surface if
less than 300 cm 2) does not exceed 400 Bq/cm2 for beta
and gamma emitters and low toxicity alpha emitters or 40
Bq/cm2 for all other alpha emitters; or
(b) the fixed contamination on the accessible surface
averaged over 300 cm 2 (or the entire accessible surface if
less than 300 cm 2) does not exceed 8 x 105 Bq/cm 1 for
beta and ~amma emitters and low toxicity alpha emitters
or 8 x 10 Bq/cm' for all other alpha emitters; or
(c) the non-fixed contamination plus the fixed contamination
on the inaccessible surface averaged over 300 cm2 (or the
entire inaccessible surface if less than 300 cm') does not
exceed 8 x 10-'i Bq/cm2 for beta and pamma
'
emitters and
low toxicity alpha emitters, or 8 x 10 Bq/cm 2 for all other
alpha emitters;
"shipment" means the specific movement of a consignment
from origin to destination;
"special arrangement"means an arrangement, approved by the
Board, under which a consignment which does not fully satisfy the
applicable requirements of these Regulations may by transported;
"special form radioactive material" means either an
indispersible solid radioactive material, nuclear material or
prescribed substance or a sealed capsule containing radioactive
material, nuclear material or prescribed substance which satisfies
the requirements specified in regulation 20;
"specific activity" means the activity of a radionuclide per unit
mass of that nuclide;
"special use vessel" means a vessel which by virtue of its design,
or by reason of its being chartered, is dedicated to the purpose of
carrying radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed
substance;
"subcritical" means incapable of reaching criticality;
"tank" means-
(a) a tank container;
(b) a road tank vehicle;
(e) a rail tank wagon; or
(d) a receptacle,
with a capacity of not less than 450 litres if intended to contain
liquids, powders, granules slurries or solids which are loaded as
gas or liquid and subsequently solidified and of not less than 1000
Htres if intended to contain gases;
P.U. (A) 456. 2332
"transport" means all operations and conditions associated with

and involved in the movement of radioactive material, nuclear
material or prescribed substance, including the preparation,
consigning, handling, carriage, storage in transit and receipt at the
final destination of a package;
"transport index" or "TI" means a single number assigned to a
package, overpack, tank or freight container or to unpackaged
LSA-I or SCO-I determined in accordance with the method
specified in the Eighth Schedule;
"transport document" means document accompanying a
package being transported and containing all the necessary
information as specified in regulation 48;
"uncompressed gas" means gas at a pressure not exceeding the
ambient atmospheric pressure at the time the containment system
is closed;
"undamaged" means the condition of the package as it is
designed to be presented for transport;
"unirradiated thorium" means thorium containing not more
than 10-7 grams (g) of uranium-233 per gram of thorium-232;
"unirradiated uranium" means uranium containing not more
than 10-6 g of plutonium per gram of uranium-235 and not more
than 9 megabecquerels (MBq) of fission products per gram of
uranium-235;
"vehicle" means a structure capable of moving or being moved'
by road or by rail;
"vessel" means any seagoing vessel or inland waterway craft
used for carrying cargo.
PART II
APPLICAnON
3. (1) These Regulations shall apply to transport of radioactive
materials, nuclear materials or prescribed substances by aU modes
on land, water or in the air, including transport which is incidental
to the use of radioactive materials, nuclear materials or prescribed
substances.
(2) Notwithstanding subregulation (1), these Regulations shall
not apply- .
(a) within establishments where radioactive materials,
nuclear materials or prescribed substances are produced,
used or stored, other than storage in transit;
(b) to human beings who have been implanted with
radioisotopic cardiac pacemakers or other devices, or
who have been treated with radiopharmaceuticals;
2333 P.u. (A) 456.
(c) to any radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed

substance which is an integral part of a conveyance.
(3) These Regulations shall not apply where there are
provisions in force to the contrary in any international c-Onvention
to which the Government of Malaysia is a party and where such
convention exists, the transport of radioactive materials, nuclear
materials or prescribed substance shall be in accordance with the
provisions provided therein.
4. The Radiation Protection (Basic Safety Standards) Application

oftbe
Regulations 1988 shall apply for the protection of transport Radiauon
workers and members of the public who may be exposed to Protection
(Basic Safety
ionising radiation arising from the transport of radioactive SI.UIdaJ:ds)
materials, nuclear materials or prescribed substances, except Replalions
1988.
where otherwise provided in these Regulations. P.U. (A)
61188.
PART III
REQUIREMENTS IN PREPARING PACKAGES FOR TRANSPORT
Chapter i-Requirements for Packagings
5. (1) For the purpose of these Regulations, there shall be four Clauilica·
categories of packagings that may be used for the transport of ~~.
radioactive materials, nuclear materials or prescribed substances,
namely-
(a) excepted packaging;
(b) Type A packaging;
(c) Type B packaging; and
(d) industrial packaging.
(2) Type B packagings shall be further categorised into two,

namely, Type B(U) packaging and Type B(M) packaging.
(3) Industrial packagings shall be further categorised into three,
namely. industrial packaging Type 1 (IP-l), industrial packaging
Type 2 (IP-2) and industrial packaging Type 3 (IP-3).
6. An excepted packaging shall satisfy all the requirements RequirelllCnts

specified in the First Schedule. for excepted
packaging.
7. A Type A packaging shall' satisfy all the requirements Requiremenl5

specified in the Second Schedule. :::...:.t
8. A Type B packaging shall satisfy all the requirements specified RequiremenlS
in the Third Schedule • forT~ B
packagtng.
9. An industrial packaging shall satisfy all the requil'ements RequiremenlS

specified in the Fourth Schedule. for industrial
packaging.
P.U. (A) 456. 2334
The use of non- 10. (1) The Board may authorize the use of a non-conforming
conforming
packaging. packaging if-
(a) conformity with the relevant requirements of these
Regulations is in the opinion of the Board impracticable;
and
(b) suitable measures to compensate for the known or the
anticipated non-conformities are available and the Board
believes that the overall levels of safety in transport and
in stowage is at least equivalent to that which would have
been provided if all the relevant requirements of these
Regulations had been meL
(2) An application for authorization to use non-conforming

packaging under subregulation (1) shall include a written
statement of-
(a) the manner and degree to which the packaging does not
conform to the relevant requirements of these
Regulations;
(b) the facts on which the applicant bases his belief that
compliance with the relevant requirements of these
Regulations would be impracticable;
(c) the details of all measures that are proposed to be taken
to compensate for the known or anticipated non-
conformities; and
(d) any additional information that the Board deems
necessary to evaluate the application.
(3) An authorization issued by the Board pursuant to

subregulal10n (1) shall be in writing and shall be subject to such
terms and conditions as the Board deems necessary in the interests
of health, safety, security and the environment.
Additional 11. A packaging to be used for the transport of radioactive

requirements material, nuclear material or prescribed substance having
for packaging
containing dangerous properties, in addition to radioactive properties, shall
materials
with dangerous
comply with the following additional requirements:-
properties, in
addition to (a) the package design shall take into account all the relevant
radioactive
properties. dangerous properties, including explosiveness,
flammability, pyrophoricity, toxicity and corrosiveness;
and
(b) the package design shall take into account the formation
of other dangerous substances that may result from the
reaction between the radioactive content of the package
and the atmosphere or water in the event of any damage
to the containment system.
2335 P.U. (A) 456.
12. A packaging to be used for the transport of radioactive Additional

requirements
material, nuclear material or prescribed substance by air shall for packaging
comply with the following additional requirements: to be
transported
by air.
(a) the temperature of the accessible surface of the package
shall not exceed 50° C at an ambient temperature of 38° C
with no account taken for insolation;
(b) the integrity of the containment system of the package
shall not be impaired if they were exposed to ambient
temperatures ranging from -40° C to +55° C; and
(c) if the packaging is designed to be used for the transport of
radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed
substance in liquid state, it shall be so designed as to
withstand, without leakage, an internal pressure which
produces a pressure differential of not less than 95
kilopascals (kPa).
13. A packaging to be used for the transport of fissile material Additional

requirements
shall comply with the following additional requirements under the for packaging
normal conditions of transport: containing
fissile
material.
(a) neither the volume of the package nor any of its
associated spacing on the basis of which the criticality of
the package was assessed shall suffer more than 5%
reduction;
(b) the configuration of the fissile material and the geometry
of the containment system of the package shall not be
significantly altered so as to lead to an unacceptable
increase in the neutron multiplication;
(c) if any physical defect to the package should occur, such
defect shall not permit the entry of a 10 centimetres (cm)
cube;
(d) water shall not leak into or out of any part of the package;
and
(e) the package shall remain subcritical.
14. An overpack may be used by a consignor for the purpose of The use ot
consolidating two or more packages into one handling unit for overpack.
convenience of handling, stowage and carriage. •
Chapter 2-Content Limits for Packages

15. (1) An excepted package shall not contain an activity greater Content
limits for
than--- ex.:epted
package.
(a) the limits specified in columns (B) and (C) of the Tenth
Schedule where the radioactive material, nuclear material
or prescribed substance is enclosed in or forms a
component part of an instrument or other manufactured
article; or
P.U. (A) 456. 2336
(b) the limits specified in column (D) of the Tenth Schedule

where the radioactive material. nuclear material or
prescribed substance is not enclosed in or does not form a
component part of an instrument or other manufactured
article.
(2) An excepted package may contain any quantity of such

article manufactured of unirradiated natural uranium,
unirradiated depleted uranium or unirradiated natural thorium
provided that the outer surface of the uranium or thorium is
enclosed in an inactive sheath made of metal or some other
substantial materials.
(3) Without prejudice to subregulation (1), an excepted

package may contain fissile material if it contains---
(a) not more than 15 g of fissile material, provided that the
smallest external dimension of each excepted package is
not less than 10 cm; or
(b) a homogeneous hydrogeneous solution or a mixture of
fissile materials and if the radioactive contents do not
exceed the limits of the values of the parameters specified
in the Thirteenth Schedule;
(e) not more than 1% by mass of uranium enriched in
uranium-235 and a total plutonium and uranium-233
content not exceeding 1% of the mass of uranium-235,
provided that the fissile material is distributed essentially
homogenously throughout the material and provided
further that if uranium-235 is present in metallic, oxide
or carbides forms, it shall not form a lattice arrangement
within the package; or
(d) not more than 5 g of fissile material in any 10 litre
volume, provided that the excepted package maintains
the limitations on fissile material distribution under
conditions likely to be encountered in the normal
conditions of transport; or
(e) not more than 1 kilogram of total plutonium, provided
that the content of plutonium-239 or plutonium-241 or
their combination does not exceed 20% by mass; or
(/) not more than 2% by mass of liquid solutions of uranyl
nitrate enriched in uranium-235, provided that the total
plutonium and uranium - 233 content does not exceed
0.1 % of the mass of uranium-235, and with a minimum
nitrogen to uranium atomic ratio (NIU) of 2.
(4) For unpackaged fissile material, the quantity limitation

specified in subregulation (3) shall apply to the consignment being
carried in or on a conveyance.
2337 P.U. (A) 456.
16. The radioactive content of an industrial package containing Content

LSA or SeQ shall be so restricted that- limits fo,
industrial
pac~age.
(a) the radiation level at 3 metres (m) from the unshielded
material or object or collection of objects does not exceed
10 millisieverts per hour (mSvlh); and
(b) the activity in a single package shall not exceed the limit
for conveyance specified in the Eleventh Schedule.
17. 0.) The radioactive content of a Type A package shall not be Content
greater than A 1 for a special form radioactive material or A z for all ~:. ~r
other forms of radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed package.
substance.
(2) For the purpose of these Regulations the values of Al and
A z shall be as specified in the Ninth Schedule.
18. A Type B(U) package or Type B(M) package shall not Content
contain- limits for
Type B
p",kage.
(a) activity greater than that which is authorized for the
package design;
(b) radionuclides different from that which is authorized for
the package design; and
(e) radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed
substance in a form or a physical or chemical state
different from that which is authorized for the package
design.
19. (1) All packagings contammg fissile material shall comply Content
limits for
with the applicable activity limits for respective packages as packaging
specified in regulations 15, 16, 17 and 18. containing
flSSible
materiaL
(2) A packaging containing fissile material shall not contain-
(a) a mass of fissile material greater than that which is
authorized for the package design;
(b) any fissile material different from that which is authorized
for the package design; and
(e) any fissile material in a form, physical state or chemical
state, or in a spatial arrangement different from that
which is authorized for the package design.
(3) The fissile material content of a package shall be restricted
such that the package remains subcritical under any or all of the
following conditions:
(a) the package is damaged or undamaged;
(b) water leaks into or out of all voids of the package·
including those within the containment system;
P.U. (A) 456. 2338
(c) maximum neutron multiplication under the configuration

of the fissile material and moderator within the package;
(d) maximum neutron reflection if the package were fully
enclosed by an envelope of water 20 cm thick or its
equivalent or such greater l1eutron reflection as may
additionally be reflected by the material of the package;
(e) maximum neutron multiplication under new
configuration or moderation of the package following
rearrangement of the fissile material within the package
or rearrangement due to material losses from the
package; and
(f) maximum neutron reflection if the package were fully
enclosed by an envelope of water 20 cm thick or its
equivalent or such greater neutron reflection as may
additionally be reflected by the material of the package
following rearrangement of the fissile material or
moderator within the package or rearrangement due to
material losses from the package.
(4) The fissile material content of a package shall be restricted
such that if an array of "N" such packages were stacked together
in any arrangement, the stack remains subcritical.
(5) The value of "N" shall be derived such that if "5N"
undamaged packages with nothing in between the packages and
442N" damaged packages with hydrogenous m<1deration between
the damaged packages to the extent that it would result in the
greatest neutron multiplication were stacked together in any
arrangement and the stack is closely reflected on all sides by an
envelope of water 20 em thick or its equivalent the resulting
neutron reflection does not cause criticality to the stack.
(6) Subcriticality evaluation of a package containing irradiated
fissile material shall be based on the actual irradiation experience,
taking into account the significant variation in composition of the
fissile materiaL
(7) Subcriticality evaluation of a package containing irradiated
fissile material of unknown irradiation experience shall be based
on the following assumptions:
(a) the material is regarded as unirradiated if its neutron
multiplication decreases with irradiation; and
(b) the material is regarded as irradiated to the maximum
neutron multiplication if its neutron multiplication
increases with irradiation.
(8) Subcriticality evaluation of a package containing un-
specified fissile material, such as residues or scrap, whose fissile
composition, mass, conc..entration, moderation ratio or density is
not known or cannot be identified, shall be based on the
2339 P.u. (A) 456.
assumption that each parameter that is not known has the value
which gives the maximum neutron multiplication under normal
conditions of transport.
20. (1) The design of a special form radioactive material shall Requirement
require the approval of the Board. for special
fonn
tadioactive
(2) Radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed material.
substance shall not be transported in a package as a special form
radioactive material unless it is so designed that it would satisfy the
following requirements:
(a) at least one of its dimensions is not less than 5 millimetres
(mm);
(b) it would not break or shatter if it were subjected to-
(i) the Impact Test, the Percussion Test and the
Bending Test as specified in Part II of the Seventh
Schedule; or
(ii) any other equivalent tests approved by the Board;
(c) it would not melt or disperse if it were subjected to-
(i) the Heat Test as specified in Part II of the Seventh
Schedule; or
(U) any other equivalent tests approved by the Board;
(d) the activity in the water if it were subjected to-
(i) the Leaching Test specified in Part II of the
Seventh Schedule, would not exceed 2 kilo-
becquerels (kBq); or
(ii) any other equivalent tests approved by the Board
for sealed sources, would not exceed the limit set
by the Board; and
(e) when a sealed capsule constitutes part of a special form
radioactive material, the capsule is so constructed that it
can be opened only by destroying it.
Chapter 3-Limits on Radiation Levels on the External

Surface of Packages and Overpacks
21. The radiation level at any point on the external surface of an Limit on
excepted package shall not exceed 5 microsieverts per hour radiation
level on
(",Svlh). external
suna"" of
.,,,,,pted
package.
22. (1) The radiation level at any point on the external surface of Limit on
radiation
an overpack or of a package other than an excepted package shall level on
not exceed 2 mSvlh. external
surface of
(2) Notwithstanding subregulation (1),the radiation level at package and
overpack.
any point on the external surface of a package or an overpack to be
transported under exclusive use shall not exceed 10 mSvlh.
P.u. (A) 456. 2340
Chapter 4-Limits on Contamination Levels on Packages and

Overpacks
Umit for 23. (1) The non-fixed contamination on the external surface of a
non-fixed
contamination package shall be kept as low as is practicable and, under conditions
on tbe
external or
likely to be encountered in the nonna) conditions of transport,
internal shall not exceed the levels specified in the Twelfth Schedule.
surf""" of
pactage or (2) In the case of a freight container or an overpack, the level of
overpack,
the non-fixed contamination on the external or the internal
surfaces shall not exceed the limits specified in the Twelfth
Schedule.
Chapter 5-Limits on Transport Indices on Packages and

Overpacks
Transpon 24. Except for a consignment to be transported under exclusive
index limit
fOf package use or special arrangement, the transport index (TI) of any
Of overpack, individual package or overpack shall not exceed 10.
Chapter 6-Marking, Labelling and Placarding

Marking of 25. (1) Each package of gross weight exceeding 50 kg shall have
pactase, its pennissible gross weight legibly and durably marked on the
outside of the 'package.
(2) Each package which conforms to a Type A package design
shall be legibly and durably marked on the outside of the package
with the marking "TYPE A".
(3) Each package which confonns to the requirements specified
in regulation 8 shall be legibly and durably marked on the outside
of the package with-
(a) the identification mark assigned to that design by the
Board;
(b) a serial number to identify each packaging which
confonns to that design; and
(c) the marking "TYPE B(U)" for a Type B(U) package
design or the marking "TYPE B(M)" for a Type B(M)
package design.
(4) Each package which conforms to a Type B(U) or Type
B(M) package design shall be conspicuously and durably marked
with a trefoil symbol-
(a) which shall confonn to the model specified in Figure 1 of
the Eighteenth Schedule;
(b) which shall be placed on the outside of the package by
embossing, stamping or other means; and'
(c) which shall be resistant to fire and water.
2341 P.U. (A) 456.
26. (1) Each package, other than an excepted package, and each Labelling
of package
overpack, tank or freigh£ container shall have labels which and overpack.
conform to the labels specified in Figure 2, 3 or 4 of the Eighteenth
Schedule, according to the appropriate category.
(2) The labels shall be affixed to the external side of two
opposite sides of a package or an overpack, or to the external side
of all the four sides of a freight container or tank.
(3) Expected packages shall be labelled with the marking
"Radioactive" on the internal surface of the package as a warning
of the existence of radioactive material, nuclear material or
prescribed substance and the warning shall be clearly visible on
opening the package.
(4) The requirement of subregulation (3) need not be complied
with if-
(a) the radioactive content of the package already bears the
marking "Radioactive"; or
(b) the excepted package contains any manufactured article
in which the radioactive content consists solely of
unirradiated natural uranium, unirradiated depleted
uranium or unirradiated natural thorium.
(5) Any labels which do not relate to the contents shall be
removed or otherwise rendered invisible.
27. (1) Each label shall contain information on the radioactive Information
requlrements
content, activity and transport index of the labelled package. on labels
(2) The respective symbols of radionuclides as specified in

column (A) of Table I of the Ninth Schedule shall be used for the
purpose of describing the radioactive content other than LSA-1.
(3) For mixtures of radionuclides-
(a} the respective symbols of the most restrictive nuclides
must be be listed to the extent the space permits; and
(b) if inclusive of the group of LSA or SeQ, it shall be shown
by using "LSA-II", LSA-III", "SeQ-I" or "SeQ-II", as
appropriate, following the symbol of the radionuclide.
(4) For LSA-I, the symbol "LSA-I" shall be used.
(5) The maximum activity of the radioactive contents during
transport, expressed in units of becquerels (Bq) using the
appropriate SI prefix as specified in the Sixteenth Schedule shall
be used for the purpose of describing the activity, but for a fissile
material, the mass in units of grams (g), or multiples thereof, may
be used.
(6) For overpacks, tanks and freight containers, the "contents"
and "activity" entries on the label shall bear the information
required in subregulations (2), (3), (4) and (5), totalled together
P.u. (A) 456. 2342
for the entire contents of the overpacks, tanks or the freight

containers.
(7) For overpacks or freight containers containing mixed loads

of packages with different radionuclides, the "content" and
"activity" entries may simply read "see transport documents".
(8) Each package in category II-YELLOW or III-YELLOW
shall have its transport index marked on its label.
Placarding 28. (1) A tank or a large freight container containing packages

of freight
container other than excepted packages, shall bear four placards which shall
or tank. conform with the model specified in Figure 5 of the Eighteenth
Schedule and which shall be affixed in a vertical orientation to
each side wall and each end wall of the freight container or tank;
and any placards which do not relate to the contents shall be
(2) As an alternative to the use of a label and a placard, it is
permitted to use only labels as shown in Figures 2, 3 and 4
provided that they are enlarged so as to comply with the minimum
dimensions as specified in Figure 5 of the Eighteenth Schedule.
(3) Where the consignment in the freight container or tank is-
(a) unpackaged LSA-I; or
(b) SeO-I; or
(c) a consignment of a single United Nations Number
commodity as set out in column (B) of the Fifteenth
Schedule to be transported under exclusive use,
the appropriate United Nations Number as specified in column
(A) of the Fifteenth Schedule shall also be displayed in black digits
of not less than 65 mm. high-
(aa) in the lower half of
(i) the placard specified in Figure 5 of the Eighteenth
Schedule; or
(ii) the enlarged labels, if enlarged labels are used,
against the white background; or
(bb) on the placard as specified in Figure 6 of the Eighteenth
Schedule which shall be affixed immediately adjacent to
either the main placard or the enlarged label, on all four
sides of the freight container or tank.
Design of 29. The labels and placards required by these Regulations shall
labels and
placards. conform to the appropriate designs specified in Figures 1,2,3,4,5
and 6 of the Eighteenth Schedule and shall conform to the colours
specified in Figures 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 of the Eighteenth Schedule.
2343 P.u. (A) 456.
Chapter 7-Categori.~ation of Packages and Overpacks
30. (1) All packages and overpacks to be transported shall be Categorisation

categorised. into category I-WHITE, II-YELLOW or III- ~.\'':,''vke::~ks
YELLOW 10 accordance with the conditions specified in the
Seventeenth Schedule.
(2) In determining the appropriate category of a package-
(a) both the transport index and radiation level on the surface
of the package shall be determined and where the
transport index satisfies the condition for one category
but the surface radiation level satisfies the condition for a
different category, the package shall be assigned the
category which is higher; and
(b) category I-WHITE, II-YELLOW and III-YELLOW
shall be regarded as the lowest, medium and highest
category respectively for the purpose of paragraph (a).
(3) Packages to be transported under exclusive use or a special
arrangement or overpacks containing packages to be transported
under exclusive use or a special arrangement shall be assigned to
category III-YELLOW.
PART IV
RESPONSIBILmES IN TRANSPORT OF PACKAGES
Chapter J·-General
31. (1) Without prejudice to the requirements of subregulation Prohibition.

(1) of regulation 10, no person shall transport or cause to be
transported any radioactive material, nuclear material or
prescribed substance unless-
(a) it is packed in a packaging whose design meets all the
requirements of these Regulations; and
(b) the consignment is packed, marked, labelled, categorised
and placarded in accordance with all the requirements of
these Regulations.
(2) No person shall transmit any radioactive material, nuclear
material or prescribed substance by post.
32. (1) A package shall not contain any item other than its Transport
of other
radioactive content. goods in
the same
(2) Notwithstanding subregulation (1)- package.
(a) a package may contain such articles or documents which

are necessary for the safe use of its radioactive content
provided that there is no interaction among the articles or
documents and between,them and the packaging or its
radioactive contents which would reduce the safety of the
package;
P.U. (A) 456. 2344
(b) a package which contains LSA or SCQ may contain other

items therein provided that there is no interaction among
items and between them and the packaging or its
radioactive contents which would reduce the saft(ty of the
package.
Transpon of 33. A person may transport other goods together with a package
other goods
together with in the same conveyance under exclusive use provided that the
packages. arrangements are controlled only by the consignor and it is not
prohibited by other regulations.
Transpon of 34. In addition to the radioactive properties, any other

material
bavins
dangerous properties of the radioactive contents, including
danserous explosiveness, flammability, pyrophoricity, toxicity and
properties.
corrosiveness, shall be taken into account in preparing the package
and during transport.
Transpon of 35. (1) A consignment of any non-conforming package

non-conforminS
package.
authorized by the Board under regulation 10 shall not be
transported except under a special arrangement approved by the
Board.
(2) Transportation of a non-conforming package under special
arrangement which involves international trans boundary
movement shall require multilateral approval.
Rcouirements 36. An empty packaging which had previously been used for the
for transpon
of empty transport of radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed
package. substance may be transported as an expected package provided
that-
(a) it is in a well-maintained condition and securely closed;
(b) the outer surface of any uranium or thorium in its
structure is covered with an inactive sheath made of metal
or some other substantial material;
(c) the level of internal non-fixed contamination does not
exceed one thousand times the levels specified in the
Twelfth Schedule for excepted packages; and
(d) any labels or placards which may have been displayed on
it in compliance with the requirements of Chapter 6 of
PART III are removed or otherwise rendered invisible.
Reuse of
lank.
37. A tank which has been used for the transport of radioactive
material, nuclear material or prescribed substance shall not be
used for the storage or transport of other goods unless it is fully
decontaminated.
Notification 38. In the event of loss or suspected loss of a consignment or part

of Iou.
of the consignment, the consignor, carrier or epnsignee shall
jointly or severally forthwith notify the Board of such loss.
2345 P.U. (A) 456.
39. Any package opened on customs instructions shall be Customs

impecti<lftS.
restored by the consignee or consignor or their agents to the
conditions which comply with these Regulations for subsequent
transportation to its final destination.
40. In cases of non-delivery where neither the consignor nor the ,-Ion-dclivcry.
consignee can be identified, whoever is in possession of the
package shall ensure that it be placed in a safe location and shall
notify the Board immediately.
Chapter 2-Responsibilities of Consignors
41. The consignor shall ensure that all packages or overpacks Packages
presellted
comply with all the requirements as specified in PART III of these for transport
Regulations before the packages are presented for transport. shaI1 comply
with
PART III.
42. (1) The consignor shall ensure that all packages containing Colltrolof
fissile material comply with all the relevant requirements of these :ow:::,
Regulations. IissiIe
material.
(2) The consignor shall ensure that fissile material is packed and
transported in such a manner that its subcriticality is maintained
under all conditions of tr&nsport.
(3) The consignor shall ensure that the following contingencies

are considered in preparing the package and in transport:
(a) water leaking into or out of the package;
(b) the loss of efficiency of built-in neutron absorbers or
moderators;
(c) the possible rearrangement of the fissile material within
the package;
(d) the possible reduction of spaces between the packaging
and the radioactive content;
(e) the package becoming immen:ed in water or buried in
snow; and
(f) the possible effects of changes in temperature.
43. (1) If tht! LSA or the SeQ is to be transported in an industrial Control of

package, the consignor shall ensure that it is packed in a package ~~~ and
with the appropriate integrity level as specified in the Fourteenth
Schedule.
(2) The consignor shall ensure that the total activity of an LSA
or SeQ in any single conveyance does not exceed the limits
specified in the Eleventh Schedule.
P.u. (A) 456. 2346
(3) The consignor may cause LSA-I (other than ores containing
naturally occurring radionuclides) or, subject to subregulation (4),
SeO-I to be transported unpackaged if-
(a) the unpackaged material does not escape from the
conveyance and the integrity of the shielding is not
affected under the normal conditions of transport; and
(b) the conveyance is under exclusive use.
(4) For SeO-I, the requirement specified in paragraph (b) of

subregulation (3) shall only apply if-
(a) the accessible and inaccessible surface contamination is
more than 4 Bq!cm2 for beta and gamma emitters and low
toxicity alpha emiters or 0.4 Bq/Cm2 for all other alpha
emitters; and
(b) it is suspected that the non-fixed contamination on the
inaccessible surface is more than 4 Bq/cm2 for beta and
gamma emitters and low toxicity alpha emitters or 0.4 Bq!
cm 2 for all other alpha emitters.
(5) The consignor shall ensure that LSA or seo which is or
contains fissile material is packed and transported in accordance
with all the applicable requirements of these Regulations.
Control of 44. The consignor shall ensure that-

package
in category (a) the radiation level at any point on the external surface of
I·WHITE.
a package in categori I-WHITE does not exceed 5I-LSv/h;
and
(b) the transport index of a package in category I-WHITE
does not exceed O.

package
in category
II·YELLOW.
(a) the radiation level at any point on the external surface of a
package in category II-YELLOW does not exceed 0.5
mSvlh; and
(b) the transport index of a package in category II-YELLOW
does not exceed 1.

package
in category
III·YELLOW.
(a) the radiation level at any point on the external surface of a
package in category JII-YELLOW does not exceed 2 mSv!
h;and
(b) the transport index of a package in category III-
YELLOW does not exceed 10.
Control of 47. (1) Notwithstanding regulation 46, the consignor shall ensure
package
in category that the radiation level at any point on the external surface of a
III·YELLOW
under
package in category III-YELLOW to be transported under
exclusive exclusive use does not exceed 10 mSv/h.
use.
2347 P.U. (A) 456.
(2) Any package whose transport index is greater than 10 shall

be transported only under exclusive use.
48. (1) The consignor shall ensure that a transport document is Transport
prepared for each consignment. document.
(2) The transport document shall contain the following

information, as applicable, in the order given:
(a) the proper shipping name, as specified in column (B) of
the Fifteenth Schedule;
(b) the United Nations Class Number "7";
(c) the words "RADIOACfIVE MATERIAL", unless
those words are contained in the proper shipping name;
(d) the United Nations Number assigned to the material as
specified in column (A) of the Fifteenth Schedule;
(e) forLSA, the group notation, namely, "LSA-I",
"LSA - II" or "LSA - III", as appropriate;
(I) for SCO, the group notation, namely, "SCO-I" or
"SCO-II", as appropriate;
(g) the name or symbol of each radionuclide as specified in
column (A) of Table I of the Ninth Schedule;
(h) a description of the physical and chemical form of the
material, or a notation that the material is a special form
radioactive material;
(i) the maximum activity of the radioactive contents during
transport expressed in units of becquerels (Bq) with the
appropriate SI prefix as specified in the Sixteenth
Schedule, but for fissile material, the total mass of the
fissile material in units of grams (g), or appropriate
multiples thereof, may be used in place of the activity;
(j) the category of the package, that is, I - WHITE,
II-YELLOW or III-YELLOW;
(k) the transport index (for categories II - YELLOW and
III-YELLOW only);
(I) for all items and materials transported under the
provisions for an excepted package, the description
"RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL, EXCEPTED
PACKAGE", and the proper shipping name of the
substance or article being transported and the United
Nations Number as specified in the column (A) of the
Fifteenth Schedule;
(m) for a consignment of fissile material in an excepted
package the words "FISSILE EXCEPTED";
P.U. (A) 456. 2348
(n) the identification mark of the Board or each competent

authority approval certificate (special form radioactive
material, special arrangement, package design or
shipment) applicable to the consignment;
(0) for consignments of packages in an overpack or a freight
container, a detailed statement of the contents of each
package within the overpack or the freight container and,
where appropriate, of each overpack or freight container
in the consignment (and if packages are to be removed
from the overpack or freight container at a point of
intermediate unloading, the appropriate transport
document shall be made available); and
(p) where a consignment to be shipped under exclusive use,
the statement "EXCLUSIVE USE SHIPMENT".
Declaration . 49. (1) The consignor shall include in the transport document a
declaration in the following terms or in terms having an equivalent
meaning:
"I hereby declare that the contents of this consignment are
fully and accurately described above by the proper shipping
name and are classified, packed, marked and labelled, and
are in all respects in proper condition for transport by _ _
according to the applicable Malaysian and international
regulations." .
(2) If the intent of the declaration is already a condition of
transport within a particular international convention to which
Malaysia is a party, the consignor need not produce a declaration
as in subregulation (1) for that part of the transport covered by the
convention.
(3) The declaration shall be signed and dated by the consignor.
Old labels. SO. When an empty packaging which had previously contained
radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed substance is
transported as an excepted package, the consignor shall remove old
labels or otherwise render them invisible.
Information 51. (1) The consignor shall provide in the transport documents
for carrier,
instructions regarding actions, if any, that are required to be taken
by the carrier and such instructions shall include at least the
following:
(a) the supplementary operational instructions for loading,
stowage, transport, handling, and unloading of the
package, overpack, freight container or tank including
any special stowage provisions for the safe dissipation of
heat in compliance with paragraph (a) of subregulation
(2) of regulation 64 or a statement that no such
instructions are necessary;
(b) any restriction on the mode of transport or conveyance
and any necessary routing instructions; or
2349 P.U. (A) 456.
(c) an emergency plan appropriate to the consignment.

(2) The applicable competent authority certificates need not
accompany the consignment, but the consignor shall be prepared
to provide them to the carrier before loading, unloading and any
trans-shipment.
52. (1) If a package is transported for the first time after the ConSignor'.
package design approval certificate is issued, the consignor shall notification.
ensure that a copy of the certificate is submitted to the Board or

the competent authority of each country through or into which the
package is to be transported, before the first shipment is made.
(2) The consignor shaH notify the Board and the competent
authority of,each country through or into which the consignment is
to be transported if the following is involved:
(a) a Type B(U) package containing radioactive material,
nuclear material or prescribed substance with an activity
greater than 3x103 Al or 3xHf A 2 , as appropriate, or
1000 TBq whichever is the lower;
(b) a Type B(M) package; or
(c) any shipment under a special arrangement.
(3) The notification mentioned in subregulation (2) shall be in

the hands of the Board or each competent authority at least 7 days
prior to the commencement of the shipment, but the consignor is
not required to send the notification if the required information
has been included in the application for approval of the shipment
under regulation 81.
(4) The notification shall include-

(a) sufficient information, including all applicable certificate
numbers and identification marks, to enable the
identification of the package;
(b) information on the date of the shipment, the expected
date of arrival and the proposed routing;
(c) the name of the radioactive material, nuclear material or
prescribed substance;
(d) a description of the physical and chemical form of the
substance or whether it is a special form radioactive
material; and
(e) the maximum activity of the radioactive contents during
transport expressed in units of becquerels (Bq) with an
appropriate SI prefix as specified in the Sixteenth
Schedule, except for fissile material, where the mass in
units of grams (g), or multiples thereof, may be used in
place of the acti-..ity.
P.U. (A) 456. 2350
Package's 53. Before making any shipment, the consignor shall ensure that
certificate
and ope-
he has-
rating lfiw
structions, (a) a copy of every certificate applicable to the package; and
(b) a copy of the operating instructions with regard to the
proper closing of the package and other preparations for
the shipment.
Special 54. Before the first shipment of any package, the following
inspection
before first
requirements shall be fulfilled:
shipmenL
(a) if the design pressure of the containment system exceeds
35 kPa, the consignor shall ensure that the containment
system of the package conforms to the approved design
requirements relating to the capability of that system to
maintain its integrity under pressure:
(b) for each Type B package and for each packaging
containing fissile material, the consignor shall ensure that
the effectiveness of its shielding, containment system,
and, where necessary, the heat transfer characteristics,
are within the limits applicable to or specified for the
approved design; and
(c) for each packaging containing fissile material, where
neutron poisons are included as components of the
package, the consignor shall cause tests to be performed
to confirm the presence and distribution of those neutron
poisons.
Inspection 55. (1) The consignor shall ensure that before any consignment is
before
transpon. transported the following items are checked-
(a) all closures, valves or other openings of the package are
properly closed in accordance with instructions set out by
the designer, manufacturer or distributor of the package;
(b) any feature of the package that could be used as a point of
attachment for lifting purposes but which is not designed
for that purpose has been removed or otherwise rendered
unusable;
(c) in the case of a Type B(M) package or Type B(U)
package, thermal and pressure equilibria have been
attained;
(d) for each Type B package and for each packaging
containing fissile material, all the requirements specified
in the approval certificates and the relevant provisions of
tbes.;:; Regulations have been satisfied;
(e) the consignee has been advised of the transport of the
material to him, has made reasonable arrangements for
receipt of the material, and has received a copy of any
applicable package design approval certificate; and
2351 P.u. (A) 456.
(f) the carrier has been advised of the nature of the material,
and has received a copy of the package design approval
certificate and other information to ensure the safety of
the package.
Chapter 3-Responsibilities of Carriers
56. (1) The carrier shall ensure that the total number of packages, Transpon
index
tanks, freight containers or overpacks aboard a single conveyance limit for
is limited such that the total sum of the transport indices aboard conveyance.
the conveyance does not exceed the respective values specified in
TABLE IV of the Eighth Schedule.
(2) Subregulation (1) shall not apply to consignments of
LSA-1.
57. (1) The carrier shall ensure that the non-fixed contamination Limit for
non-fixed
of a conveyance or equipment or part thereof does not exceed the and fixed
limits specified in the Twelfth Schedule and the radiation level on contamina-
tion of
any surface resulting from fixed contamination does not exceed 5 conveyance.
#LSv/h.
(2) Any conveyance or equipment or part thereof which has
become contaminated above the limits specified in the Twelfth
Schedule or whose radiation level exceeds 5 #LSv/h shall not be
reused unless it is decontaminated by a qualified person and the
residual radiation level on any surface resulting from fixed
contamination after decontamination does not exceed 5 #LSvlh.
(3) A conveyance or an equipment routinely used for the
carriage of radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed
substance shall be periodically checked to determine the level of
contamination; and the frequency of such checks shall be related
to the likelihood of contamination.
(4) The radiation level under conditions likely to be
encountered in the normal conditions of transport shall not exceed
2 mSvlh at any point on, and 0.1 mSv/h at 2 m from, the external
surface of the conveyance.
(5) Subregulation (1) shall not apply to an overpack, freight
container or conveyance dedicated to the transport of LSA or
SeQ under exclusive use.
58. (1) For a conveyance under exclusive use the carrier shall Umits of
radiation
ensure that the radiation level at any point on the outer surface of level for
the conveyance or, in the case of an open conveyance, at any point conveyance
under
on the vertical planes projected from the outer edges of the exclusive use.
conveyance, on the upper surface of the load, and on the lower
external surface of the conveyance does not exceed 2 mSvlh.
(2) Notwithstanding subregulation (1), the limit of 2 mSvlh
specified in that subregulation may be exceeded only if-
(a) the conveyance is equipped with an enclosure which,
during the normal conditions of transport, prevents
unauthorized persons from entering it;
P.U. (A) 456. 2352
(b) measures are taken to secure the package or overpack so

that its position within the conveyance remains fixed
during the normal conditions of transport; and
(e) there is no loading or unloading of the consignment
between the beginning and end of the shipment.
(3) The radiation level shall not exceed 0.1 mSvlh at any point
2 m from the outer lateral surfaces of the conveyance, or, if the load
is transported in an open conveyance, at any point 2 m from the
vertical planes projected from the outer edges of the conveyance.
(4) In the case of a road vehicle used as a conveyance the
radiation level at any normally occupied position shall not exceed
0.02 mSVIh'
Step" to be 59. In the event of an accident during the transport of a package,

taken in case
of accident. the carrier shall take steps to implement the emergency plan
provided by the consignors.
Step" to be 60. (1) If it is suspected or evident that the package is damaged or

taken on
discovering
leaking, the carrier shall-
damage or
leakage. (a) immediately inform the Board;
(b) immediately restrict access to the package; and
(e) make assessment on the extent of resulting contamination
and the radiation level.
(2) The scope of the assessment specified in paragraph (e) of
subregulation (1) shaH include the package, the conveyance, the
adjacent areas, the store and, if necessary, all other materials
which have been carried in the same conveyance or stored
together.
(3) Additional steps to minimize the radiation risks to persons
shall be taken, when necessary, in accordance with provisions
established by the Board, the competent authority or international
organizations.
Package 61. The carrier shall ensure that a leaking package or a package
not to be
forwarded. with physical defect which results in the limits for contamination
and radiation level on its external surface to be exceeded-
(a) is not removed except under the supervision of the Board
o!' any person authorized by the Board; and
(b) is not forwarded until it is decontaminated, repaired or
nC~K;Oltioned.
100 use of 62. (1) The carrier shall ensure that the conveyance used for the
conveyance.
transport of packages complies with the requirements specified in
regulations 56, 57 and 58.
2353 P.u. (A) 456.
(2) Category II-YELLOW or Category III - YELLOW

packages or overpacks shall not be carried in compartments
occupied by passengers, except those exclusively reserved for
couriers specially authorized to accompany the packages or
overpacks.
63. The carrier shall ensure that- Package with

transport
(a) a package having a transport index greater than 10 or index more
than 10.
having surface radiation level greater than 2 mSv/h is
transported only under exclusive use or special
arrangement; and
(b) the sum of transport indices in a single freight container
or conveyance under exclusive use does not exceed the
limits specified in Table IV of the Eighth Schedule.
64. (1, The carrier shall ensure that a consignment is securely Stowing for
stowed. transport.
(2) A package or an overpack may be carried among packaged

general cargo without any special stowage provisions if-
(a) its surface heat flux does not exceed 15 watts per square
metre (W/m2) and the immediate surrounding cargo is not
in sacks or bags; and
(b) no specific requirements are imposed in the approval
certificate;
(3) The carrier may mix packages with different kinds of
radioactive contents, including fissile material, and may mix
different kinds of packages with different transport indices during
transport without specific approval from the Board except in the
case of a shipment under special arrangement in which case
specific authorization shall be obtained from the Board.
(4) The carrier shall ensure that during loading of tanks and
freight containers and accumulation of packages, overpacks, tanks
and freight containers-
(a) the total number of packages, overpacks, tanks and
freight containers aboard a single conveyance is limited
such that the total sum of the transport indices aboard the
conveyance does not exceed the values specified in Table
IV of the Eighth Schedule except for consignments of
LSA - I in which case there shall be no limit on the sum of
the transport indices; and
(b) the radiation level under conditions likely to be
encountered in the normal conditions of transport does
not exceed 2 mSv/h at any point on, and 0.1 mSv/h at 2 m
from, the external surface of the conveyance.
P.u. (A) 456. 2354
Storage in 65. (1) The carrier shall ensure that-

ttansil.
(a) the number of category II-YELLOW and category
III - YELLOW packages, overpacks, tanks, freight
containers and conveyances grouped together in anyone
storage area, such as the transit area, terminal building,
store-room or assembly yard, is limited such that the total
sum of their transport indices in any individual group of
such packages, overpacks, tanks, freight containers or
conveyances does not exceed 50; and
(b) groups of such packages, overpacks, tanks, freight
containers or conveyances are stored so as to maintain a
spacing of at least 6 m between a group of packages,
overpacks, tanks freight containers or conveyances and
other groups of such packages, overpacks, tanks, freight
containers or conveyances.
(2) Where the transport index of a single package, overpack,
tank or freight container exceeds 50 or the total transport index on
board a conveyance exceeds 50, as specified and permitted in
Table IV of the Eighth Schedule, the carrier shall ensure that such
single package, overpack, tank, freight container or conveyance is
stored such that there is a spacing of at least 6 m between it and--
(a) another such single package, overpack, tank, freight
container or conveyance; or
(b) other groups of packages, overpacks, tanks or freight
containers or other conveyance.
(3) The provisions of subregul&.tions (I) and (2) do not apply to
a consignment containing LSA-1.
Transport 66. (l) The carrier shall display the placard specified in Figure 5
by raU
and road. of the Eighteenth Schedule-
(a) on the external side of each of the two lateral walls, in the
case of a rail vehicle; or
(b) on the external side of each of the lateral walls and on the
rear wall, in the case of a road vehicle;
where the rail vehicle or the road vehicle is carrying packages,
overpacks, tanks or freight containers labelled with any of the
labels as specified in Figure 2, 3 or 4 of the Eighteenth Schedule or
is carrying consignments under exclusive use.
(2) Notwithstanding subregulation (1), for rail vehicles or road
vehicles without sides, the carrier may affix the placard directly on
the consignment-carrying unit, provided that the placard is readily
visible, but need not affix any placard where the consignment-
carrying unit is a tank or a large freight container which has
already been affixed with enlarged labels.
(3) If the vehicle is not carrying any consignment, the cartier
shall ensure that placards already affixed to the vehicle are
2355 P.u. (A) 456.
(4) Where the consignment in or on the conveyance is-

(a) unpack aged LSA-I; or
(b) SCO- I; or
(c) a consignment of a single United Nations Number
commodity as set out in column (B) of the Fifteenth
Schedule to be transported under exclusive use,
the appropriate United Nations Number as specified in column
(A) of the Fifteenth Schedule shall also be displayed, in black
digits not less than 65 mm high, either in the lower half of the
placard as specified in Figure 5 of the Eighteenth Schedule, against
the white background, or ~)D the placard specified in Figure 6 of
the Eighteenth Schedule.
(5) When the placard as specified in Figure 6 of the Eighteenth
Schedule is used for the purpose of subregulation (4), the placard
shall be affixed immediately adjacent to the main placard.
(6) The carrier shall ensure that no person other than the driver
or his assistant is permitted in road vehicles carrying packages,
overpacks, tanks or freight containers bearing category
II - YELLOW or category III - YELLOW labels.
67. (1) The carrier shall ensure that a package with a surface Special
use vessel
radiation level greater than 2 mSv/h is not transported in a vessel
except under special arrangement or exclusive use.
(2) The transport of consignments by means of a special use
vessel need not comply with the requirement of subregulation (1) of
regulation 56 ii-
(a) there is a radiation protection programme for the
shipment approved by the Board or the competent
authority of the flag state of the vessel and, if so required,
by the competent authority of the country of destination
or transit;
(b) the stowage arrangement has been predetermined for the
whole voyage, including any consignment to be loaded at
ports of call en route; and
(c) the loading, handling and stowage and the unloading of
the consignment are supervised by the consignor or the
consignee.
68. (1) The carrier shall ensure that the following are not TrollllpO<1
by air.
transported by air:
(a) a vented Type B(M) package;
(b) a package requiring external cooling by an ancillary
cooling system;
(c) a package subject to operational controls during
transport; and
P.U. (A) 456. 2356
(d) a package containing liquid pyrophoric materials.

(2) The carrier shall ensure that a package with a surface
radiation level greater than 2 mSvlh, is not transported by air
except under special arrangement.
(3) A Type B(M) package or a consignment under special
arrangement shall not be transported on any passenger aircraft.
Segregation 69. (1) The carrier shall, during transport, segregate packages,
during
tralIsport.
overpacks, freight containers and tanks-
(a) from places occupied by transport workers and members
of the public;
(b) from undeveloped photographic film; and
(c) from other dangerous goods.
(2) For the purpose of paragraph (a) of subregulation (1), the
distance between a package, overpack, tank or freight container
and transport workers or members of the public shall be
determined such that the annual dose received by them does not
exceed 5 mSv for transport workers and 1 mSv for members of the
public.
(3) For the purpose of paragraph (b) of subregulation (1), the
and undeveloped photographic film shall be determined such that
the radiation exposure to the undeveloped photographic film does
not exceed 0.1 mSv per consignment of such film.
(4) For the purpose of paragraph (c) of subregulation (1), the
and other dangerous goods shall be determined such that it is in
compliance with the relevant transport regulations for dangerous
goods of each of the countries through or into which the package,
overpack, tank or freight container will be transported, and,
where applicable, with the regulations of the international
transport organisation, as well as these Regulations.
Chapter 4-Responsibilities of Consignees

70. (1) A consignee shall, as soon as practicable on receipt of a
consignment and before opening it, examine the package for any
defects to the package or leakage of its radioactive content.
(2) If the package has or appeared to have defects or its
radioactive content is found or appears t.o be leaking, the
consignee shall-
(a) measure the radiation levels on and at 1 m' from the
external surface of the package; and
(b) measure the activity of the non-fixed contamination on
the external surface of the package.
2357 P.u. (A) 456.
(3) The consignee shall report the result of the measurement

carried out pursuant to sutregulation (2) to the Board and to the
consignor-
(a) within five clear days, if the radiation level exceeds the
limits prescribed by these Regulations; and
(b) forthwith, notwithstanding paragraph (a), if the radiation
level exceeds 10 mSv/h and 200 J,l.Sv/h respectively on and
at 1 m from the external surface of the package.
(4) The consignee shall retain records of all observations made
pursuant to subregulations (2) and (3) in a form suitable for
inspection for a period of at least two years and if requested to do
so, provide the Board or a Senior Public Officer with full access to
such records.
PART V
Chapter i-General Requirements
71. The following items shall require the approval of the Board: Items for
approval of
(a) the design of a special form radioactive material; the Board.
(b) the design of a Type B package;

(c) the design of a package to be used for the transport of
fissile material exceeding the limits specified in
subregulation (3) of regulation 15 for excepted packages;
(d) special shipments;
(e) radiation protection programmes for a special use vessel;
(/) special arrangements; and
(g) the assignment of Al or A2 values to individual
radionuclides which are not listed in Table I of the Ninth
Schedule.
72. Notwithstanding regulation 71, the Board may endorse any Endorsement
of foreign
approval issued by the competent authority of a foreign country approval.
with respect to the items mentioned in paragraphs (a), (b), (c),
(d), (e), (f) and (g) of regulation 71.
73. (1) Any approval of the items specified in paragraphs (a), (b) Quality
assurance.
and (c) of regulation 71 shall be contingent upon the adequacy of
quality assurance.
(2) Quality assurance shall cover the design, manufacture,
testing, documentation, use, maintenance and inspection of all
packages or special form radioactive materials.
74. (1) The Board may carry out compliance assurance to ensure ComplianC'..e
assurance
that quality assurance is being carried Ollt to the satisfaction of the
Board.
P.U. (A) 456. 2358
(2) The licensee shall-

(a) provide facilities to the Board in carrying out compliaoce
assurance; and
(b) demonstrate to the Board or any competent authority
that-
(i) the construction methods and materials used for
the construction of the packaging or the special
form radioactive material are in accordance with
the approved design specifications; and
(ii) all packagings or special form radioactive materials
built to an approved design are maintained so that
they continue to comply with all the relevant
requirements of these Regulations, even after
repeated use.
Chapter 2-Approval For Special Form

Radioactive Material
Design of 75. An application for approval of a design for special form
..,.aal form
radioactive
radioactive material shall include-
material,
(a) a detailed description of the radioactive material, nuclear
material or prescribed substance and if a capsule, the
content of the capsule with particular reference made to
both physical and chemical states;
(b) a detailed statement of the design of any capsule to be
used;
(c) a statement of the results of the tests specified in Part II of
the Seventh Schedule, or evidence based on calculations
to show that the special form radioactive material meers
the relevant requirements of these Regulations; and
(d) evidence of a quality assurance.
Chapter 3-Approval For Package Designs

Design of 76. (1) Each design of Type B(U) package shall require the
T)'pC B(U)
pa<:kage,
approval of the Board.
(2) An application for approval of a Type B(U) package design

shall include-
(a) a detailed description of the proposed radioactive
contents with particular reference to its physical and
chemical states and the nature of the radiation emitted;
(b) a detailed statement of the design, including certified
engineering drawings, schedules of materials and
methods of construction to be used;
2359 P.U. (A) 456.
(c) a statement of the results of the tests specified in Third

Schedule or evidence based on calculations or other
evidence that the design meets the relevant requirements
of these Regulations;
(d) the proposed operating and maintenance instructions for
the use of the packaging;
(e) information on the materials used to construct the
containment system, its specification and the tests to be
made if the packaging is designed to have a maximum
normal operating pressure in excess of 100 kPa;
(/) a statement and justification of any assumption made in
the safety analysis relating to the characteristics of the
fuel where the proposed radioactive content is an
irradiated fuel;
(g) any special stowage provisions necessary to ensure the
safe dissipation of heat from the package, with
consideration given to the various modes of transport and
type of conveyance or freight container to be used;
(h) a reproducible illustration not larger than 21 em by 30 cm
showing the make-up of the package; and
(i) evidence of quality assurance.
(3) Where the Type B(U) package is to be used for the

transport of fissile material involving international transboundary
movement, the design of such package shall require multilateral
approval.
77. (1) Each design of Type B(M) package shall require the Design of
approval of the Board. !!:'.:';M)
(2) An application for the approval of a Type B(M) package
design shall include-
(a) all the information required in subregulation (2) of
regulation 76 for Type B(U) packages;
(b) a list of the requirements specified in Part II of the Third
Schedule which the proposed design does not conform to;
(c) any proposal for supplementary operational controls to be
applied during transport which is not specified in these
Regulations but are necessary to ensure the safety of the
package or to compensate for the deficiencies listed in
paragraph (b);
(d) a statement relating to any restrictions on the mode of
transport and to any special loading, carriage, unloading
or handling procedures; and
P.U. (A) 456. 2360
(e) the maximum and minimum ambient conditions expected

to be encountered during transport and which have been
taken into account in the design.
(3) Where the Type B(M) package is to be used for transport
involving international transboundary movement, the design of
such package shall require multilateral approval.
Package 78. (1) Each design of a package for the transport of fissile
design for
fissile
material exceeding the limits specified in silbregulation (3) of
material. regulation 15 for excepted packages shall require the approval of
the Board.
(2) An application for approval shall include information
necessary to satisfy the Board that the design meets all the
requirements of these Regulations pertaining to the transport of
fissile material and evidence of quality assurance.
(3) Where a package is to be used for the transport of fissile
material exceeding the limits specified in subregulation (3) of
regulation 15 for excepted packages involving international
transboundary movement, the design of such package shall require
multilateral approval.
Serial 79. (1) The manufacturer of a packaging or a special form

numbers.
radioactive material shall assign a serial number to each packaging
or special form radioactive material manufactured to a design
approved by the Board.
(2) The manufacturer or the maker shall notify the Board of the
serial numbers.
(3) The Board shall maintain a register of such serial numbers.
Chapter 4-Approval for Special Shipments

Types of 80. (1) The following special shipments shall require approval of
special
shipment.
the Board or, if it involves international transboundary
movement, multilateral approval:
(a) the shipment of a Type B(M) package specially designed
to allow controlled intermittent venting;
(b) the shipment of a Type B(M) package containing
substance whose activity is greater than 3 x 103 At or
3 x 103 A 2 , as appropriate, or 1000 terabecquerels (TBq),
whichever is the lo~er;
(c) the shipment of packages containing fissile materials if the
sum of the transport indices of the packages exceeds 50 as
permitted in Table IV of the Eighth Schedule; and
(d) the shipments by a special use vessel.
2361 P.u. (A) 456.
(2) For the purpose of paragraph (d) of subregulation (1), the

radiation protection programme for the shipment shall require the
approval of the Board or, if it involves international
transboundary movement, multilateral approval.
81. An application for approval of a special shipment shall Approval of

spedal
provide the following information: shipment.
(a) the period of time for which the approval is sought;

(b) the actual radioactive contents of the package; the
expected modes of transpor!; the type of conveyance and
the probable or the proposed route; and
(c) the details of how the speciai precautiorls, special
administrative or operational controls, referred to in the
package design approval certificates, are to be put into
effect.
82. (1) An application for approval of a shipment under special Approval of

shipment under
arrangement shall include the information necessary to satisfy the special
Board that the overall level of safety in transport is at least arrangement.
equivalent to that which would have been provided if all the

applicable requirements of these Regulations had been met.
(2) The application shall also include-
(a) a statement why the package cannot be prepared in
accordance with the applicable requirements of these
Regulations and which part of the regulatory
requirements the package does not comply with; and
(b) a statement of any special precautions, special
administrative or operational controls which are to be
employed during transport to compensate for the non-
conformity with the applicable requirements of these
Regulations.
(3) Each consignment shipped under a special arrangement
shall require multilateral approval if it involves international
transboundary movement.
Chapter 5-Approval Certificates

83. (1) There shall be five types of approval certificates which Types of
certificate.
may be issued by the Board, namely, approval certificates for-
(a) the design of a special form radioactive material;
(b) the design of all packages, other than expected packages
containing fissile material;
(c) the design of Type B packages;
(d) a special shipment; and
(e) a special arrangement.
P.u. (A) 456. 2362
(2) The package design and special shipment approval

certificates may be combined into a single certificate.
Identifica· 84. Each approval certificate issued by the Board shall be

tion mark,
assigned an identification mark and the mark shall be of the
following generalized type:
MALlNumberlfype code,
where
(a) "MAL" represents the international vehicle registration
identification code of Malaysia;
(b) "Number" represents the number assigned by the Board;
and
(c) "Type code" represents the following, used in the order
listed:
"AF" for Type A package design for fissile
material;
"B(U)" for Type B(U) package design;
"B(U)F" for Type B(U) package design for
fissile material;
"B(M)" for Type B(M) package design;
"B(M)F" for Type B(M) package design fo
fissile material;
"IF" for industrial package design for fissile
material;
"8" for special form radioactive material;
"TH for special shipment; and
"X" for special arrangement.
Chapter 6-Statements
Statement, 85. All statements on the labels, placards, markings and in the
transport document shall be in the national language, and in any
other language if necessary.
FIRST SCHEDULE
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR EXCEPTED PACKAGINGS

(Regulation 6)
(1) An excepted packaging shall be so designed in relation to its mass, volume and shape that it
can be easily and safely handled and transported. It shall be so designed that it can be properly
secured m or on the conveyance during transport.
(2) It shall be so designed such that any lifting attachments on the packaging will not fail and if
failure of the attachment should occur, the ability of the package to meet other rp.quirements of
these Regulations would not be impaired. Assessment shall take into account appropriate safety
factors to cover snatch lifting.
2363 P.u. (A) 456.
(3) Attachments or any other features on the outer surface of the packaging which could be used
for lifting shall be designed either to support the mass of the package in accordance with the
requirements in paragraph (2) or shall be removable or otherwise rendered incapable of being
used during transport.
(4) As far as practicable, the packaging shall be so designed and finished that its external surfaces
are free from protruding features and can be easily decontaminated.
(5) As far as practicable, the outer layer of the packaging shall be so designed as to prevent the
collection and retention of water.
(6) Any features added to the package at the time of transport which are not part of the package
shall not reduce its safety.
(7) It shall be so designed that its mtegrity is not effected under acceleration, vibration or
vibration resonance which may occur under normal conditions of transport. In particular, the
effectiveness of the closing devices on the various receptacles as a whole shall not deteriorate and
its nuts, bolts and other securing devices shall not become loose or be released unintentionally,
even after repeated use.
(8) The materials of the packagmg and its compone.nts or structures shall be physically and
chemically compatible with each other and with the radioactive contents. Account shall be taken
of their behaviour under irradiation.
(9) All valves through which the radioactive contents could otherwise escape shall be protected
against unauthorized operation.
(10) The packaging, in addition, shall comply with the requirement of regulation 11 if it is to
contain material with dangerous properties other than radioactive properties, such as
explosiveness, flammability, pyrophoricitv. chemical toxicity and corrosiveness.
SECOND SCHEDULE
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR TYPE A PACKAGINGS
(Regulation 7)
(1) A Type A packaging shall meet all the requirements specified in the First Schedule.
(2) The smallest overall external dimension of the packaging shall not be less than 10 cm.
(3) The packaging shall incorporate, on its external surface, a feature, such as a seal, which is not
readily breakable and which, while intact, will be evidence that the package has not been opened.
(4) Any tie-down attachments on the packaging shall be so designed that, under both normal and
accident conditions of transport, the forces in those attachments shall not impair the ability of the
package to meet all the requirements of these Regulations.
t5) The design of the packaging shall take into account the effect of temperature changes ranging
from -40°C to 700C on the components of the packagmg Special attention shall be given to the
effect of freezing temperatures on the package contents in liquid form and to the potential
degradation of packaging materials within a given .temperature range.
(6) The design shall include a containment system securely closed by a positive fastening device
which cannot be opened unintentionaUy or by a pressure which may arise from within the
package itself.
(7) If the containment system forms a separate unit of the package, it shall be capable of being
securely closed by a positive fastening device which is independent of any other part of the
package.
(8) The design of any component of the containment system shall take into account, where
applicable, the radiolytic decomposition of liquids and other vulnerable materials and the
generation of gas by chemical reaction and radiolysis.
P.u. (A) 456. 2364
(9) The containment system shall retain its radioactive contents under a reduction of ambient
pressure to 25 kPa,
(10) All valves, other than pressure relief valves. shall be provided with an enclosure to retain
any leakage from the valve.
(11) A radiation shield which encloses a component of the package specified as a part of the
containment system shall be so designed as to prevent the unintentional release of that
component from the shield. Where the radiation shield and such component within it form a
separate unit, the radiation shield shall be capable of being securely closed by a positive fastening
device which is independent of any other structure of the packaging,
(12) A Type A package shall be so designed that if it were subjected to the tests to demonstrate
its ability to withstand the normal conditions or transport as specified in the Fifth Schedule, it
would not-
(a) lose or disperse its radioactive contents; and
(b) lose its shielding intergrity which would result in more than a 20% increase in the
radiation level at any point on its external surface.
(13) A Type A packaging to be used for the transport of radioactive liquids shall satisfy the
following additional requirements:
(a) the design shall make provisions for ullage to accommodate variations in the
temperature of the contents, dynamic effects and filling dynamics;
(b) it shall satisfy the requirements as specified in paragraph (12) except that the height of
the drops for the Penetration Test and the Free Drop Test shall be increased to 1.7 m
and 9 m respectively; and
(e) the design shaH incorporate a containment system composed of primary inner and
secondary outer containment components designed to ensure retention of the liquid
contents with the secondary outer containment components in case the primary inner
components leak, or alternatively, a sufficient absorbent material shall be provided to
enable it 10 absorb twice the volume of its liquid contents and such absorbent material
shall be suitably positioned so as to be in contact with the liquid in the event of leakage.
(14) A Type A packaging to be used for the transport of radioactive gases, either compressed or
uncompressed, shall meet the additional requirements as specified in subparagraph (b) of
paragraph (13).
(15) The requirement specified in paragraph (14) shall not apply if the packaging is designed for
the transport of-
(a) tritium in gaseous state with an activity not exceeding 40 TBq; or
(b) noble gases in gaseous state with an activity not exceeding A2 •
(16) The packaging in addition. shall comply with the requirement of regulation 12 if it is be
carried by air.
THIRD SCHEDULE
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR TYPE B PACKAGINGS

(Regulations 8, 77 (2) (b)
PART I
General Design Requirements for Type B Packagings
(1) A Type B packaging shall meet all the requirements specified in paragraphs (1), (2), (3), (4),
(5), (6), (7), (8), (9), (10), and (11) of the Second Schedule.
2365 P.U. (A) 456.
(2) It shall be so designed that if the package, while containing the maximum allowable
radioactive content, were subjected to the tests demonstrating its ability to withstand the
accident conditions of transport as specified in the Sixth Schedule, it would retain sufficient
shielding to ensure that the radiation level at 1 m from any point on the surface of the package
would not exceed 10 mSvlh.
(3) It shall be so designed that, under the ambient conditions, the heat generated within the
package by the radioactive content shall not, under normal conditions of transport, adversely
affect the integrity of the package to meet all the applicable requirements of these Regulations if
it is left unattended for a period of one week.
(4) In complying with the requirement of paragraph (3), particular attention shall be paid to the
effects of heat, which-
(a) may alter the arrangement, the geometrical form or the physical state of the radioactive
contents or, if the radioactive content is enclosed in a can or a receptacle, cause the can,
receptacle or the radioactive content to deform or melt;
(b) may lessen the efficiency of the packaging through diferential thermal expansion,
cracking or melting of the radiation shielding material; or
(e) may, in combination with moisture, accelerate corrosion.
TABLE 1. Insolation data
Form and location of surface Insolation for 12 hours per day

(Wlnrl
(A) (8)
Flat surfaces transported horizontally:

-base none
- other surface 800
Flat surfaces not transported horizontally:
- each surface 200'
Curved surfaces 400'
• Alternatively, a sine function may be used, with an absorption coefficient adopted and the effects of possible ...,flection from
neighbouring objectS neglected.
(5) It shall be so designed that, under the ambient condition, the temperature on its accessible
surfaces shall not exceed 50"C. This requirement shall not apply to a package to be transported
under exclusive use.
(6) Without prejudice to the requirement of regulation 12, the temperature of the ambient
condition sha.ll be assumed to be at 3S·C and the solar insolation condition shall be assumed to be
as specified in the Table I for the purpose of requirements specified in paragraphs (3) and (5).
(7) A package which includes thermal protection shall be so designed that such a proteclion will
remain effective after the package is subjected to-
(a) the tests for demonstrating its ability to withstand the normal conditions of transport as
specified in the Fifth Schedule; and
(b) a combination of the Mechanical Test Drop I and the Me.::hanical Test Drop II or the
mechanical Test Drop II and the Mechanical Test Drop III, as appropriate, as specified
in the Sixth Schedule.
(S) Any thermal protection on the exterior of the package shall not be rendc;red ineffective by
conditions likely to be encountered in the normal or accident conditions of transport and other
conditions such as ripping, cutting, skidding, abrasion or rough handling.
P.U. (A) 456. 2366
(9) It shall be so designed that if it were subjected to the tests for demonstrating its ability to
withstand the normal conditions of transport as specified in the Fifth Schedule it would not-
(a) disperse its radioactive content;
(b) lose its radioactive content to more than 10- 6 A2 per hour; and
(e) lose its shielding integrity which would result in more than 20% increase in radiation
level at any point on its external surface.
(10) It shall be so designed that if it were subjected to-
(a) the tests for demonstrating its ability to withstand the accident conditions of transport, as
specified in the Sixth Schedule;
(b) the Mechanical Test Drop II, as specified in the Sixth Schedule;
(e) the Thermal Test, as specified in the Sixth Schedule;
(d) the Water Immersion Test, as specified in the Sixth Schedule; and
(e) either--
(i) the Mechanical Test Drop III, as specified in the Sixth Schedule, for a package
with a mass not greater than 500 kg, an overall density not greater than 1000
kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m l ) based on external dimensions and radioactive
contents greater than 1000 A2 not as special form radioactive material; or
(ii) the Mechanical Test Drop I, as specified in the Sixth Schedule, for all other
packages,
the accumulated loss of radioactive contents in a period of one week does not exceed 10 A z for
krypton-85 and does not exceed A2 for all other radionuclides. The evaluation shall take into
account the external contamination limits specified in regulation 23 and in the Twelfth Schedule.
(11) For the purpose of paragraphs (9) and (10), where the radioactive content of a package
would be a mixture of different radionudides. the value of A z for the mixture shall be determined
in accordance with the method specified in the Ninth Schedule. For krypton-85 the effective A z
value of 100 TBq may be used.
PART II
Design Requiremems for Type B( U) Packagings
(12) A Type B(U) packagings shall meet all the general requirements for Type B packagings
specified in Part I.
(13) Its design shall not include a pressure relief system which would allow the release of its
radioactive content to the environment.
(14) It shall be so designed that if it were at the maximum operating pressure and subjected to-
(aJ the tests for demonstrating its ability to withstand the normal conditions of transport, as
specified in the Fifth Schedule; or
(b) the tests for demonstrating its ability to withstand the accident conditions of transport,
as specified in the Sixth Schedule,
the level of strains in its containment system would not attain values which would adversely affect
the integrity of the package such that it would fail to meet the applicable requirements of these
Regulations.
(15) It shall be so designed that it shall never attain a maximum normal operating pressure
exceeding a gauge pressure of 700 kPa.
(16) The maximum temperature on its accessible surface during transport shall not exceed 85°C
in the absence of insolation under the normal conditions of transport. Account may be taken of
barriers or screens intended to give protection to the transport worker without the need for the
barriers or screens being subject to any test.
2367 P.D. (A) 456.
(17) Without \,rejudice to the requirement of regulation 12, it shaH be so desiRlled as to ensure
that its integnty is not affected when used in an ambient tempreture ranging from-4O"C to
+38"C.
(18) Compliance with the permitted activity release limits shall depend neither upon filter nor
upon a mechanical cooling system.
(19) If the packaging is to be used for the transport of irradiated nuclear fuel with an activity
greater than 37 petabecquerels (PBq), it shall, in addition, be so designed that if it were subjected
to the Water Immersion Test, as specified in the Sixth Schedule, there would be no rupture of its
containment system.
(20) The design shall make provision for ullage to accommodate variations in the temperature of
the contents, dynamic effects and filling dynamics if it is to be used for the transport of
radioactive Jiq uids.
(21) The packaging, in addition, shall comply with the requirement of regulation 12 if it is to be
carried by air.
PART III
Design Requirements for Type B(M) Packagings
(22) A Type B(M) packaging shall meet all the general requirements for Type B packagings, as
specified in Part I, and as far as practicable it shall also meet all the requirements for Type B(U)
packagings, as specified in Part II.
(23) Notwithstanding paragraph (22), the requirement for the ambient condition may be
different from that which have been specified in Part I provided that it is approved by the Board.
(24) The design of a Type B(M) packaging may incorporate a pressure release system for
intermittent venting provided that the operational controls for the venting are acceptable to the
Board.
(25) The packaging, in addition, shall comply with the requirement of re~ulation 12 if it is to be
carried by air.
FOURTH SCHEDULE
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL PACKAGINGS

(Regulation 9)
PART I
DeSign Reqllirements for Industrial Packagings Type I (lP-l)
(1) An industrial packaging Type 1 (IP-l) shall meet all the requirements for excepted
packaging, as specified in the First Schedule.
(2) The packaging, in addition, shaH comply with the requirement of regulation 12 if it is to be
carried by air.
PART II
Design Requirements for Industrial Packagings Type 2 (lP-2)
(3) An industrial packaging Type 2 (IP-2) shall meet all the requirements as speCified in Part I for
industrial packagings Type 1 (IP-I).
P.u. (A) 456. 2368
(4) The packaging shall not lose or disperse its radioactive contents and shall not lose its
shielding integrity which would result in more than a 20% increase in the radiation level at any
point on its external surface if it w.::re to be subjected to--
(a) the Free Drop Test and the Stacking Test as specified in the Fifth Schedule; or
(b) any other equivalent tests which are approved by the Board.
PART III
Design Requirements for Industrial Packagings Type 3 (lP-3)
(5) An industrial packaging Type 3 (IP-3) shall meet all the requirements for indumial
packaging Type 1 (IP-I), as specified in Part I.
(6) It shall meet all the requirements for a Type A package, as specified in the Second Schedule.
FIFTH SCHEDULE
TEST PROCEDURES FOR DEMONSTRATING THE ABILITY OF

A PACKAGE TO WITHSTAND NORMAL CONDITIONS OF TRANSPORT
(Regulation 2, Second and Third Schedules)
PART I
Preparation of Specimen
(1) (a) A specimen package or a prototype shall be carefully selected such that its characteristics
and expected range or radioactive contents are closely similar to the characteristics and
radioactive contents of a package which is normlllly presented for transport.
(b) If a scale model package is used, its scale and the scale of the test tools and procedures
shall be appropriate and all features which are significant shall be incorporated in preparing tbe
model, test tools and procedures.
(c) A specimen package or a prototype used in the tests specified in this Schedule is
hereinafter referred to as a "specimen".
(2) All specimens shall be examined carefully before testing to identify and record their faults or
damage including the following:
(a) divergence from the design;
(b) defects in construction: and
(c) corrosion or other deterioration; and
(d) distortion of features.
(3) The containment system and other external features of the specimen shall be clearly specified
and recorded so that if any need arises to refer to any part of the specimen, it may be done simply
and clearly.
PART n
Test Procedure
(4) The specimen shall be subjected to the Free Drop Test, the Stacking Test and the
Penetration Test «r:iha' order) preceded in each case by the Water Spray Test.
(5) The time interval between the conclusion of the Water Spray Test and the sllcceeding tests
shall be such that the water has soaked in to the maximum extent, without appreciable drying of
the exterior of the spe<:imen. In the absence of any evidence to the contrary, this interval shall be
taken to be two hours if the water spray is applied from four directions simultaneously. No time
interval shall elapse, however if the water spray is applied from each of the four directions
consecutively.
2369 P.U. (A) 456.
(6) Subject to the requirements specified m paragraph (5), the same specimen may be used for
all the tests.
Water Spray Test

(7) The specimen shall subjected to a water spray that simulates exposures to rainfall of
approximately 5 cm per hour for at least one hour.
Free Drop Test
(8) The specimen shall be dropped onto a target so as to suffer maximum damage in respect of
the safety features to be tested.
(9) The height of the drop shall be measured from the lowest point of the specimen to the upper
surface of the target. It shall be not less than the distance specified in Table I for the respectivl'!
mass specified therein.
(10) The target shall be a flat horizontal surface with special characteristics such that any increase
in its resistance to displacement or deformation upon impact by the specimen would not
significantly increase the damage to the specimen.
(11) Where the specimen is that of a package meant to be used for the transport of fissile
material the Free Drop Test shall be preceded by a free drop from a height of 0.3 m on each
corner or, in the case of a cylindrical package, onto each of the quarters of each rim.
(12) (a) For a package with a rectangular shape and made of fibreboard or wood, with a mass
not exceeding 50 kg, a separate specimen shall be subjected to a free drop onto each corner from
a height of 0.3 m.
(b) For a package with a cylindrical shape and made of fibreboard or wood, with a mass not
exceeding 100 kg, a separate specimen shall be subjected to a free drop onto each of the quarters
of each rim from a height of 0.3 m.
(13) If the package is meant to be used for the transport of radioactive liquids or gases, the
specimen shall be subjected to a modified Free Drop Test in which it is dropped onto a target
such that its containment system suffers the maximum damage. The height of the drop measured
from the lowest part of the specimen to the upper surface of the target shall be 9 m.
(14) Where it can be demonstrated that the test specified in paragraph (18) is more severe for the
specimen in question then the test specified in paragraph (13) need not be carried out.
TABLE I. Free drop distance for Free Drop Test
Package mass (kg) Free drop

distance (m)
(A) (B)
package mass < 5 000 1.2

5 000 ~ package mass < 10 000 0.9
10 000 ~ package mass < 15 000 0.6
package mass"" 15 000 0.3
Stacking Test
(15) Unless the shape of the packaging effectively prevents stacking, the specimen shall be
subjected, for a period of 24 hours, to a compressive load equal to whichever is the greater of the
following:
(a) the equivalent of 5 times the mass of the actual package; and
(bi the equivalent of 13 kPa multiplied by the vertically projected area of the package.
The load shall be applied uniformly to two opposite sides of the specimen, one of which shall be
the base on which the package would normally rest.
P.u. (A) 456. 2370
Penetration Test
(16) The specimen shall be placed on a rigid, flat, horizontal, surface which shall not move
significantly while the test is being carried out.
(17) (a) A bar of 3.2 cm in diameter with a hemispherical end and a mass of 6 kg shaD be
dropped and directed to fall, with its longitudinal axis vertical, onto the centre of the weakest part
of the specimen, so that, if it penetrates sufficiently far, it will hit the containment system. The
bar shall not be significantly deformed by the test performance.
(b) The height of drop of the bar measured from its lower end to the intended point of impact
on the upper surface of the specimen shall be 1 m.
(18) If the package is meant to be used for the transport of radioactive liquids or gases, the
Penetration Test shall be modified such that the drop height is increased from 1 m to 1.7 m.
(19) Where it can be demonstrated that the test specified in paragraph (13) is more severe for the
specimen in question then the test specified in paragraph (18) need not be carried out.
PART III
Assessment of the Results

(20) After the specimen bas been subjected to the applicable tests specified in Part II, an
appropriate method of assessment shall be used to assure that the requirements of these
Regulations have been met. Parameters, data and the method of calculations used in evaluation
shall be those which are generally agree to be reliable and conservative.
(21) (a) Faults and damage to the specimen shall be identified and recorded.
(b) The results of the tests shall be used to determine whether the integrity of the
containment system and shielding of the specimen has been retained to the extent required by
these Regulations.
(c) For packages containing fissile material, it shall also be determined whether the
applicable requirements of these Regulations pertaining to the transport of fISSile material are
fully met.
SIXTH SCHEDULE
TEST PROCEDURES DEMONSTRATING TIlE ABIUIT OF A PACKAGE

TO WITIiSTAND ACCIDENT CONDITIONS OF TRANSPORT
(Regulation 2, Second and Third Schedules)

PART I
(1) (a) The preparation of specimens shall be the same as specified in Part I of the Fifth
Schedule.
(b) A specimen package or a prototype used in tests specified in this Schedule is hereinafter
referred to as a "sPecimen".
PART II
Test Procedures
(2) The specimen shall be subjected to the Mechanical Test and the Thermal Test, in that order.
Following tbese tests either the same specimen 9r a separate specimen shall ,be subjected to the
Water Immersion Test.
(3) If t;he package is meant to be used for transporting irradiated' nuclear fuel. the Water
Immersion Test shall be modified such that the specimen is immersed under a bead of water of at
least 200-m for a period of not less than one hour. For demonstration purposes, an external gauge
.pressure of.at least 2 megapascaIs (MPa) shall be deemed to meet the requirement.
2371 P.u. (A) 456.
(4) (a' If the package is meant to be used for transporting fissile material, the specimen shall be
subjected to an additional test, that is, the Water Leakage Test which shall be carried out after
the Mechanical Test and the Thermal Test.
(b) The Water Leakage Test is not necessary for a package whose design has assumed greatest
reactivity following any conceivable water in-leakage or out-leakage from the package.
Mechanical Test
(5) The Mechanical Test consists of three different drop tests, that is the Mechanical Test Drop
I, Mechanical Test Drop II and Mechanical Test Drop III. The,applicable drop shall be chosen
depending on the regulatory requirements of the package under test.
(6) The target shall be a flat horizontal surface with special characteristics such that any increase
in its resistance to displacement of deformation upon impact by the specimen would not
(7) The order in which the specimen is subjected to the drops shall be such that, on completion of
the Mechanical Test, the specimen shall have suffered such damage as will lead to the maximum
damage in the Thermal Test which follows.
Mechanical Test Drop I

(8) A specimen shall be dropped onto the target so as to suffer the maximum damage, and the
height of the drop measured from the lowest point of the specimen to the upper surface of the
target shall be 9 m.
Mechanical Test Drop II

(9) A specimen shall be dropped so as to suffer the maximum damage onto a bar rigidly mounted
perpendicularly on the target. The height of the drop measured from the intended point of impact
of the specimen to the upper surface of the bar shall be 1 m.
(10) The bar shall be of solid mild steel of circular section, (15.0±0.5) cm in diameter and 20 cm
long. If a longer bar would cause greater damage to the specimen then a longer bar shall be used.
The upper end of the bar shall be flat and horizontal with its edges rounded off to a radius of not
more than 6 mm.
Mechanical Test Drop III

(11) A specimen shall be subjected to a dynamic crush test by positioning the specimen on the
target so as to suffer maximum damage by the drpp of a 500 kg mass from 9 m onto the specimen.
The mass shall consist of a solid mild steel plate 1 m by 1 m and shall fall in a horizontal attitude.
The height of the drop shall be measured from the underside of the plate to the highest point of
the specimen.
Thermal Test
(12) The Thermal Test shall consist of-
(a) the exposure of a specimen fully engulfed, except for a simple support system, in a
hydrocarbon fuel/air fire of sufficient extent and in sufficiently quiescent ambient
conditions to provide an emissivity coefficient of at least 0.9, with an average flame
temperature of at least 800"C for a period of 30 minutes; or
(b) any other thermal exposure which provides the equivalent total heat input to the
specimen.
(13) The fuel source shall extend horizontally at least 1 m, and shall not extend more than 3 m,
beyond any external surface of the specimen, and the specimen shall be positioned 1 m above the
surface of the fuel source.
(14) After the cessation of external heat input, the specimen shall not be cooled artificially and
any combustion of materials of the specimen shall be ~owed to proceed naturally. For
demonstration purposes, the surface absorptivity coefficient shall be either 0.8 or that value
which the specimen may be demonstrated to possess if exposed to the heat source as specified in
paragraph (12) and the convective coefficient shall be that value which the designer can justify if
the package were exposed to the heat source as specified in paragraph (12).
P.U. (A) 456. 2372
(15) With respect to the initial conditions for the Thermal Test, the demonstration of compliance
shall be based upon the assumption that the specimen is in equilibrium at an ambient temperature
of 38°C. The effects of solar radiation may be neglected prior to and during the tests, but must be
taken into account in the subsequent evaluation of the specimen response.
Waler Immersion Test

(16) The specimen shall be immersed under a head of water of at least 15 m for a period of not
less than eight hours in the attitude which will lead to maximum damage to the specimen. For
demonstration purposes, an external gauge pressure of at least 150 kPa shall be deemed to meet
the requirement.
Water Leakage Test

(17) The specimen shall be immersed under a head of water of at least 0.9 m for a period of not
less than eight hours and in the attitude for which maximum leakage of the specimen is expected.
PART III
Assessment of the Test Results
(18) After the specimen has been SUbjected to the apphcable tests specified in Part II, an
appropriate method of assessment shall be used to assure that the requirements ot these
shall be those which are generally agreed to be reliable and conservative.
(b) The result of the tests shall be used to determine whether the integrity of the containment
system and shielding has been retained to the extent required by these Regulations.
(c) For packages containing fissile material, it shall also be determined whether the applicable
requirements of these Regulations pertaining to the transport of fissile material are fully met.
SEVENTH SCHEDULE
TESTS FOR RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL

(Regulations 20 (2), 75 (e))
PART I
Test for LSA-III
A solid material representing no less than the entire contents of a package shall be immersed
for 7 days in water at the ambient temperature. The volume of water to be used in the test shall be
sufficient to ensure that at the end of the 7 day test period the free volume of the unabsorbed and
unreacted water remaining shall be at least 10% of the volume of the solid test sample itself. The
water shall have an initial pH of 6-8 and a maximum conductivity of 1 millisiemen per metre
(mS/m) at 200C.
PART II
Tests for Special Form Radioactive Material
SEcnON I
(1) (a) The preparation of specimen shall be the same as specified in Part I of the Fifth Schedule.
(b) If the specimen is a special form radioactive material in a sealed capsule, the capsule shall
be carefully characterised and specified.
(2) The special form radioactive material used in the tests specified in this Part ishereinafter
referred to as a "specimen".
2373 P.V. (A) 456.
SECI10N II
Test Procedures
(3) The specimen shall be subjected to the Impact Test, the Percussion Test, the Bending Test
and the Heat Test. A different specimen may be used for each of the tests. The tests shall be
f.:>llowed by the Leaching Test or any other equivalent tests which are approved by the Board.
(4) A specimen that comprises or simulates radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed
substance enclosed in a sealed capsule may be exempted from the Impact Test, Percussion Test
and Heat Test provided that it is subjected to any other equivalent tests which are approved by
the Board.
Impact Test
(5) (a) The specimen shall be dropped onto the target from a height of 9 m.
(b) The target shall be a flat horizontal surface with special characteristics such that any
increase in its resistance to displacement or deformation upon impact by the specimen would not
Percussion Test
(6) (a) The specimen shall be placed on a sheet of lead which is supported by a smooth solid
surface and struck by the flat face of a steel billetso as to produce an impact equivalent to that
resulting from a free drop of 1.4 kg through 1 m.
(b) The flat face of the billet shall be 25 mm in diameter with the edges rounded off to a radius
of (3.0±0.3) mm.
(c) The lead shall be of the kind with hardness number 3.5 to 4.5 on the Vickers scale and its
thickness shaH be not more than 25 mm. It shall cover an area greater than that which is covered
by the specimen.
(7) A fresh surface of lead shall be used for each impact and the billet shall strike the specimen so
as to cause maximum damage.
Bending Iest
(8) This test shall apply only to a long and slender specimen with a minimum length of 10 cm and a
length to minimum width ratio of not less than 10.
(9) (a) The specimen shall be rigidly clamped in a horizontal position so that one half of its
length protrudes from the face of the clamp.
(b) The orientation of the specimen shall be such that the specimen wiII suffer maximum
damage when its free end is struck by the flat face of a steel billet.
(c) The billet shall strike the specimen so as to produce an impact equivalent to that resulting
from a free vertical drop of 1.4 kg through 1 m.
(d) The flat face of the billet shall be 25 mm in diameter with the edges rounded off to a radius
of (3.0±0.3) mm.
Heat Test
(10) A specimen shall be heated in air to a temperature of SOO"C and held at that temperature for
a period of 10 minutes and shall then be allowed to cool.
P.U. (A) 456. 2374
Leaching Test
(11) For a specimen which comprises or simulates an indispersible solid material, the Leaching
Test shall be perfonned as set out below.
(a) The specimen shall be immersed for' days in water at ambient temperature. The
volume of water to be used in the test shall be sufficient to ensure that at the end of the
'-day test period, the free volume of the unabsoned and unreached water remaining
shall be at least 10% of the volume of the solid test sample itself. The water shall have an
initial pH of ~8 and a maximum conductivity of 1 mSim at :ZOOC.
(b) The water with the specimen shall then be heated to a temperature of (50±5)OC and
maintained at this temperature for 4 hours.
(c:) The activity of the water shall then be detennined.
(d) The specimen shall then be stored for at least' days in still air of relative humidity not
less than 90% at 3O"C.
(e) The specimen shall then be immersed in water of the same specification as in (a) above
and the water with the specimen heated to (50±5)OC and maintained at this temperature
for 4 hours.
(f) The activity of the water shall then be determined.
(12) (a) For a specimen which comprises or simulates a radioactive material, nuclear material or
prescribed substance enclosed in a sealed capsule, the test shall either be a Leaching Test or any
other equivalent tests which are approved by the Board.
(b) The Leaching Test shall consist of the steps set out below.
(i) The specimen shall be immersed in water at ambient temperature. The water shall have
an initial pH of ~ with a maximum conductivity of 1 mSlm at :ZOOC.
(il) The water and the specimen shall be heated to a temperature of (50±5)OC and
maintained at this temperature for 4 hours.
(iii) The activity of the water shall then be detennined.
(iv) The specimen shall then be stored for at least' days in still air at a temperature of not
less than 3O"C.
(v) The process in (i), (ti) and (iii) shall be repeated.
Sl!cnON III
Assessment of the Results
(13) After the specimen has been subjected to the applicable tests specified in Section 11, an
appropriate method of assessment shall be used to assure that the requirements of these
shall be those which are generally agreed to be reliable and conservative.
(b) The result of the tests shall be used to determine whether the integrity of the special fonn
radioactive material has been retained to the extent required by regulation 20.
2375 P.u. (A) 456.
EIOHrH SCHEDULE
DETERMINATION OF TRANSPORT INDEX (TI)
(Regulations 2,56 (1), 63 (b), 64 (4) (a), 65 (2), 80 (1) (c»
(1) The TI based on radiation exposure control for a package, overpack, tank, freight container,
or for unpackaged LSA-I or SeO-I, shall be the number derived in accordance with the
procedure set out below.
(a) (i) Determine the maximum radiation level at a distance of 1 m from the external
surface of the package, overpack, tank, freight container, or unpackaged LSA - I
and SeO-i.
(ii) Where the radiation level is determined in units of millirem per hour (mremlh).
the value so obtained shall be the TI.
(iii) Where the radiation level is determined in units of millisievert per hour (mSvlh),
the value so determined shall be multiplied by 100 to get the TI.
(b) For uranium ores, thorium ores or their concentrates, the maximum radiation dose rate
at any point 1 m from the external surface of the load shall be taken as specified in Table
I.
(c) For tanks, freight containers and unpackaged LSA-I and SeO-I, the value determined
in step (a) above shall be multiplied by the appropriate factor specified in Table II.
The number so obtained shall be rounded up to the first decimal place (e.g. 1.13 becomes 1.2).
Where it is equal to 0.05 or less, the number shall be considered as zero.
(2) The TI based on nuclear criticality shall be obtained by dividing the number 50 by the value
of N derived using the procedures specified in subregulation (5) of regulation 19 (i .e. TI =5O/N).
(3) The value of TI based on nuclear criticality may be zero, provided that an unlimited number
of packages grouped together remains subcritical (i.e. N is effectively equal to infinity).
(4) The TI for each consignment shall be determined in accordance with appropriate method
specified in Table III.
(5) The TI of each freight container or conveyance shall not exceed the respective limit specified
in Table IV.
TABLE I. The maximum dose rate at any point 1 m from the external surface of uranium or
thorium ores and concentrates
Ores/concentrates of Thorium or Uranium Dose rate

(mSv/h)
(A) (8)
Ores and physical concentrates of uranium and thorium 0.4

ehemical concentrates of tborium 0.3
Chemical concentrates of uranium, other than uranium 0.02
hexaAuoride
P.U. (A) 456. 2376
TABLE II. Multiplication factors for determining transport index for large dimension loads
Size of load· Multiplication factor

(A) (8)
~ize of load :10; 1 m' 1

1 m' < size of load :10; 5 m' 2
5 m' < size of load :10; 20 m2 3
size of load > 20 m' 10
• Largest crotIHeCtionai area of lite load being measured.
TABLE III. Determination of transport index (TI)
Item Contents Metlwds of determining TI I

(A) (8) (C)
Packages Non-fissile 11 for radiation exposure control

material
Fissile Material The larger of the TI for radiation exposure con-

trol and the 11 for nuclear criticality control
Non-rigid overpacks Packages Sum of TI's of all packages contained
Rigid overpacks Packages The sum of the 11's of all packages contained, or,
for the original consignor, either the 11 for
radiation exposure control or the sum of the
TI's of all packages
Freight containers Packages or Sum of the 11's of all packages and over-
overpacks packs contained
.
LSA'Or SeQ Either the sum of the 11's or the larger of the 11 i
for radiation exposure control and the TI for •
nuclear criticality control
Freight containers Packages or Either the sum of the 11's or the larger of the 11
(under exclusive overpacks for radiation exposure control and the 11 for
use) nuclear criticality control
I
Tanks Non-fissile 11 for radiation exposure control
material
i
Fissile material The larger of the TI for radiation exposure con-

trol and the 11 for nuclear criticality control
Unpackaged LSA-I and SeQ-I The 11 for radiation exposure control

2377 P.U. (A) 456.
TABLE IV. TI Limit for freight containers and conveyances
of freight colllainer Limit on total sum of Tl's in a single freight container

or conveyance or aboard a conveyance
~----------------~
Not under exclusive use Under exclusive use
Non-fisJile Fissile Non-fissile Fissile
material material material material"
(A) (8) (e) (D) (E)
Freight containerb
Small 50 50 Not applicable Not applicable
Large 50 50 No limit 100e
Vehicle 50 50 No limit 100"
Aircraft
Passenger 50 50 Not applicable Not applicable
Cargo 200 50 No limit 1000
Inland water-way vessel 50 50 No limit 1()(f
Seagoing vessel d
1. Huld, compartment or defined deck area
Packages, overpacks, 50 50 No limit 1()(f
small freight
containers b
Large. frei§ht 200 e 50 No limit 100<
contamers
2. Tmal ve~se/
Packages, etc. 200< 200" No limitf 200t
Large freight No limite No limite No limit No limite
containers
3. Special use vesseJK Not Not No limit As approved'
applicable applicable I
I
I
.--l
• Provided that the transport is direct from the consignor to the consignee without any
intermediate in-transit storage, where the total TI exceeds 50.
b A small freight container is that which has eith~r an overall outer dimension less than 1.5 m, or
an internal volume of not more than 3.0 cubic metre (m 3 ). Any other freight container snail be
considered as large freight container.
C In cases in which the total TI is greater than 50, the consignment shall be so handled and stowed
that it is always separated from any other package, overpack, tank or freight container carrying
radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed substances by at least 6 m. The intervening
space between groups may be occupied by other cargo in accordance with regulation 33 only.
d For seagoing vessels the requirements given in 1 and 2 shall both be fulfilled .
• Provided that the packages. overpacks, tanks or freight containers, as applicable, are stowed so
that the groups are separated from each other by at least 6 m.
f Packages or overpacks carried in or on a vehicle under exclusive use may be transported by a
vessel provided that they are not removed from the vehicle at any time while on board the
vessel.
g For special use vessels, such as those used for the carriage of several irradiated fuel flasks, the
maximum total sum of TI's shall be subject to multilateral approval, based upon the specific
cin:umstances, subject to the requirements of regulation 67.
P.U. (A) 456. 2378
NINTH SCHEDULE
CONTENT LIMITS FOR TYPE A PACKAGES
(Regulations 17 (2), 27 (2), 48 (2) (g) and 71 (g)

(1) The requirements laid down in regulation 17 shall be deemed to be complied with if the
activity of the radioactive content of a Type A package does not exceed the AI and A2 values
given in Table I for single radionuclides.
(2) For single radionuclides whose identities are known but are not listed in Table I, the
requirements laid down in regulation 17 shall be deemed to be complied with if the values of At
and A2 used are calculated such that-
(a) (i) for each radioactive decay chain in which the radionuclides are present in their
naturally occurring proportions and in which no daughter nuclide has a half-life
either longer than 10 days or longer than that of the parent nuclide shall be
considered as a single radionuclide and the activity to be taken into account and the
values of AI and A z to'be applied shall be those corresponding-to the parent nuclide
of that chain; or
(ii) in the case of radioactive decay chains in which any daughter nuclide has a half-life
either longer than 10 days or greater than that of the parent nuclide, the parent and
such daughter nuclides shall be considered as mixtures of different nuclides; and
(b) the values so obtained are approved by the Board.
(3) For mixtures of radionuclides whose identities and respective activities are known, the
requirements laid down in' regulation 17 shall be deemed to be complied with if the following
conditions are met:
(a) for a special fonn radioactive material:
2
B (i)
"1
AI (i)
i
(b) for other fonns of radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed substance:
B (i)
A2 (0
where
B (i) is the activity of radionuclide (i);
AI (i) is the At value for radionuclide (i); and
A z (i) is the A2 value for radionuclide i,
(4) Alternatively, an A2 value for a mixture of radionuclides may be detennined as foUows:
f (i)
A2 (i)
where
f (0 is the fraction of activity of nuclide i in the mixture; and
A2 (i) is the appropriate A2 value for nuclide i.
2379 P.u. (A) 456.
(5) When the identity of each radionuclide is known but the individual activities of some of the
radionuclides are not known, the radionuclides may be grouped and the lowest AI orA2 value, as
appropriate, for the radionuclides in each group may be used in applying formulas in paragraphs
(3) and (4). Groups may be based on the total alpha activity and the total beta/gamma activity
when these are known, using the lowest AI or A2 values for the alpha emitters or beta/gamma
emitters, respectively.
(6) For the individual radionuclides or for mixtures of radionuclides for which relevant data are
not available, the requirements of regulation 17 shall be deemed to be complied with if the AI
and A2 values specified in Table II are used.
TABLE I. At and A2 values for single radionuclides. t
Radionuclides
Symbol Name Al (T8q) A2 (T8q)

(atomic number)
(A) (8) (C) (D)
22SAc(·) Actinium (89) 0.6 1xlO- 2

UlAc 40 2xlO- s
228Ac 0.6 0.4
tOSAg Silver (47) 2 2
100Ag'" 0.6 0.6
lloAg'" 0.4 0.4
IIIAg 0.6 0.5
26Al Aluminium (13) 0.4 0.4
141Am Americium (95) 2 2xlO- 4
141Am'" 2 2xlO- 4
143Am 2 2xlO- 4
37Ar Argon (18) 40 40
39Ar 20 20
4tAr 0.6 0.6
42Ar(·) 0.2 0.2
72As Arsenic (33) 0.2 0.2
nAs 40 40
74As 1 0.5
76As 0.2 0.2
77As 20 0.5
111 At Astatine (85) 30 2
193Au Gold (79) 6 6
IMAu
1"Au 10 10
196Au 2 2
198Au 3 0.5
IWAu 10 0.9
131Ba Barium (56) 2 2
133Ba'" 10 0.9
------------~-----------------------------------------------------------------------
t D. Symbol «) against radionudides symbols. wherever it appears In this Table llleans At and/or A, values are limited by
daugbler product de<:ay.
b. Symbol ( .. ) against radionuclides symbols, wherever it .ppean in this Table means AI and A, values are unlimited for
radiation control purposes only. For nuclear eriticality safety this material is subject 10 the control placed on fissile material.
P.u. (A) 456. 2380
TABLE I-(cont.)
Radionuclides
Symbol Name Al (TBq) A2 (TBq)

(atomic number)
(A) (B) (e) (D)
133Ba 3 3
140]3a(0) 0.4 0.4
7Be Beryllium (4) 20 20
lOSe 20 0.5
2IlSBi Bismuth (83) 0.6 0.6
206Bi 0.3 0.3
207Bi 0.7 0.7
2lOSjm(0) 0.3 3xlO- 2
210Si 0.6 0.5
ZI2Bi(0) 0.3 0.3
247Bk Berkelium (9'1) 2 2xlO- 4
24~k 40 8x10- 2
76Br Bromine (35) 0.3 0.3
77Br 3 3
82Br 0.4 0.4
llC Carbon (6) 1 0.5
14C
40 2
41ea Calcium (20) 40
40
45ea 40 0.9
47ea 0.9 0.5
lO9Cd Cadmium (48) 40
113Cdm
20 9xlO- 2
115eam 0.3 0.3
115Cd 4 0.5
139Ce Cerium (58) 6 6
141Ce 10 0.5
143Ce 0.6 0.5
144Ce(0) 0.2 0.2
248Cf Californium (98) 30 3X10- 3
Z49a 2 2x10- 4
250a 5 5xlO- 4
25 1Cf 2 2xlO- 4
252Cf 0.1 lxlO- 3
25~ 40 6xlO- 2
~ 3x 10- 3 6xlO- 4
:!<6Q Chlorine (17) 20 0.5
:!l8Q 0.2 0.2
z.wcm Curium (96) 40 2xlO- 2
241Cm 2 0.9
~m 40 lxlO- 2
24lCm 3 3xlO- 4
244Cm 4 4xlO- 4
245Cm 2 2xlO- 4
244iCm 2 2xlO- 4
247em 2 2x10- 4
2381 P.u. (A) 456.
TABLE I-(collt.)
RadionucIides

(atomic number)
(A) (B) (C) (D)
248Cm 4xlO- 2 5xlO- s

5SCo Cobalt (27) 0.5 0.5
S6Co 0.3 0.3
57Co 8 8
5BCom 4() 4()
S6CQ 1
IiOCo 0.4 0.4
slCr Chromium (24) 30 30
129es Caesium (55) 4 4
l31es 4() 4()
u~ 1 1
I~IB 4() 9
134es 0.6 0.5
U5es 4() 0.9
136es 0.5 0.5
137Cs(*) 2 0.5
64eu Copper (29) 5 0.9
67eu 9 0.9
u9[)y Dysprosium (66) 20 20
165Dy 0.6 0.5
I66Dy(*) 0.3 0.3
l~r Erbium (68) 4() 0.9
171Er 0.6 0.5
147Eu Europium (63) 2 2
148Eu 0.5 0.5
14~U 20 20
I~U 0.7 0.7
152Eu'" 0.6 0.5
152Eu 0.9 0.9
IS4Eu 0.8 0.5
15SEu 20 2
IS6Eu 0.6 0.5
18F Fluorine (9) 1 0.5
52Fe(*) Iron (26) 0.2 0.2
"Fe 4() 4()
!l9f'e 0.8 0.8
~e 4() 0.2
67Ga Gallium (31) -6 6
68Ga 0.3 0.3
72Ga 0.4 0.4
148Gd(*) Gadolinium (64) 0.4 0.4
148Qd 3 3xlO-4
ISlGd 10 5
l~\lGd 4 9·5
68Ge(*) Germanium (32) 0.3 0.3
71Ge 4() 4()
------------------------------------------------------------------
P.u. (A) 456. 2382
TABLE 1-(cont.)
Radionuclides

(atomic number)
(A) (B) (C) (D)
77Ge 0.3 0.3

17lHf(O) Hafnium (72) 0.5 0.3
175Hf 3 3
18lHf 2 0.9
182Hf 4 3xlO- 2
IMHg(O) Mercury (SO) 1 1
19sHg'" 5 5
197Hg'" 10 0.9
197Hg 10 10
203Hg 4 0.9
163Ho Holmium (67) 40 40
166Hom 0.6 0.3
I66Ho 0.3 0.3
1231 Iodine (53) 6 6
1241 0.9 0.9
1231 20 2
1261 2 0.9
129J Unlimited Unlimited
1311 3 0.5
1321 0.4 0.4
1331 0.6 0.5
1341 0.3 0.3
1351 0.6 0.5
1l11n Indium (49) 2 2
1l3Inm 4 4
lt4In m(*) 0.3 0.3
l15ynDi 6 0.9
lll'1r Iridium (77) 10 10
190Jr 0.7 0.7
1921r 1 0.5
193JrD1 10 10
lMIr 0.2 0.2
4OJ( Potassium (19) 0.6 0.6
42K 0.2 0.2
43K 1 0.5
81Kr Krypton (36) 40 40
ssK£DI 6 6
ssKr 20 10
87Kr 0.2 0.2
l37La Lanthanum (57) 40 2
l~ 0.4 0.4
LSA Low specific activity material (see definition in regulation 2)
2383 P.u. (A) 456.
TABLE I-(cont.)
Radionuclides
Symbol Name AI (TBq) A z (TBq)

(atomic number)
(A) (B) (C) (D)
172Lu Lutetium (71) 0.5 0.5

173Lu 8 8
174Lu'" 20 8
174Lu 8 4
177Lu 30 0.9
MFP For Mixed Fission Products, use formula for mixtures or Table II
28Mg(*) Magnesium (12) 0.2 0.2
s2Mn Manganese (25) 0.3 0.3
53Mn Unlimited Unlimited
54Mn 1 1
56Mn 0.2 0.2
93Mo Molybdenum (42) 40 7
~o 0.6 0.5
13N Nitrogen (7) 0.6 0.5
llNa Sodium (11) 0.5 0.5
14Na 0.2 0.2
~ra Niobium (41) 0.7 0.7
93Nb'" 40 6
94Nb 0.6 0.6
95Nb 1 1
97Nb 0.6 0.5
147Nd Neodymium ~60) 4 0.5
l~d 0.6 0.5
5~i Nickel (28) 40 40
63Ni 40 30
6.5Ni 0.3 0.3
23sNp Neptunium (93) 40 40
~p 7 1xlO- 3
237Np 2 2xlO- 4
~p 6 0.5
U150s· Osmium (76)
1910sm 40 40
1910s 10 0.9
1930s 0.6 0.5
19405(*) 0.2 0.2
32p Phosphorus (15) 0.3 0.3
33p 40 0.9
230pa Protactinium (91) 2 0.1
231Pa 0.6 6xlO- 5
233pa 5 0.9
201Pb Lead (82) 1
202Pb 40 2
203pb 3 3.
2O!iPb Unlimited Unlimited
P.U. (A) 456. 2384
TABLE I-(cont.)
Radionuclides
Simbo/ Name AI (TBq) A] (TBq)

(atomic number)
(A) (B) (C) (0)
21Opb(*) 0.6 9x 10- 3

212Pb(*) 0.3 0.3
103Pd Palladium (46) 40 40
107 Pd(*) Unlimited Unlimited
109Pd 0.6 0.5
143Pm Promethium (61) 3 3
144Pm 0.6 0.6
145Pm 30 7
147Pm 40 0.9
I 48Pmm 0.5 0.5
149Pm 0.6 0.5
IS1pm 3 0.5
2011pO Polonium (84) 40 2xlO'-2
209po 40 2xlO- 2
21OpO 40 2x 10- 2
142Pr Praseodymium (59) 0.2 0.2
143Pr 4 0.5
188Pt(*) Platinum (78) 0.6 0.6
191pt 3 3
193ptm 40 9
193pt 40 40
195Ptm lO 2
197Ptm 10 0.9
197Pt 20 0.5
236pU Plutonium (94) 7 7xlO- 4
237Pu 20 20
238Pu 2 2xlO- 4
23~ 2 2xlO- 4
240pu 2 2xlO- 4
241pU 40 !XlO- 2
242p.., 2 2xlO- 4
244PU(*) 0.3 2xlO- 4
223Ra(*) Radium (88) 0.6 3xlO- 2
224Ra(*) 0.3 6xlO- 2
22SRa(*) 0.6 2x lO-2
226Ra(*) 0.3 2xlO- 2
228Ra(*) 0.6 4xlO- 2
81Rb Rubidium (37) 2 0.9
83Rb 2 2
84Rb 1 0.9
86Rb 0.3 0.3
87Rb Unlimited Unlimited
Rb (Natural) Unlimited Unlimited
183Re Rhenium (75) 5 5
184Rem 3 3
-----------------------~------------------------------------------------------------
2385 P.u. (A) 456.
TABLE I-(cont.}
Radionuclides
Symbol Name AJ (TBq) A2 (TBq)

(atomic number)
(A) (B) (e) (D)
184Re
186Re 4 0.5
187Re Unlimited Unlimited
188Re 0.2 0.2
l~e 4 0.5
Re (Natural) Unlimited Unlimited
~ Rhodium (45) 2 2
10lRh 4 4
unRhm 2 0.9
I02Rh 0.5 0.5
I03Rhm 40 40
I05Rh 10 0.9
222Rn(') Radon (86) 0.2 4x10- 3
9'7Ru Ruthenium (44) 4 4
lO3Ru 2 0.9
I05Ru 0.6 0.5
I06Ru(O) 0.2 0.2
35S Sulphur (16) 40 2
I22Sb Antimony (51) 0.3 0.3
12Agb 0.6 0.5
125Sb 2 0.9
126gb 0.4 0.4
44& Scandium (21) 0.5 0.5
46Sc 0.5 0.5
47Sc 9 0.9
48Sc 0.3 0.3
seo Surface Contaminated Objects (see definition in regulation 2)
75Se Selenium (34) 3 3
79ge 40 2
31Si Silicon (14) 0.6 0.5
32Si 40 0.2
145Sm Samarium (62) 20 20
I47Sm Unlimited Unlimited
tslSm 40 4
153Sm 4 0.5
I\3S n(O) Tin (50) 4 4
117snm 6 2
119SnM 40 40
121snm 40 0.9
l2lgn 0.6 0.5
125Sn 0.2 0.2
126gnn 0.3 0.3
82Srn Strontium (38) 0.2 0.2
8SS~ 5 5
P.U. (A) 456. 2386
TABLE I-(cont.}
Radionuclides

(atomic number)
(A) (B) (C) (D)
"Sr 2 2
87Sr'" 3 3
89Sr 0.6 0.5
~r(*) 0.2 0.1
91Sr 0.3 0.3
92Sr(*) 0.2 0.2
T (All form) Tritium (1) 40 40
178'fa Tantalum (73) 1 1
l"Ta 30 30
182oy'a 0.8 0.5
1"Tb Terbium (65) 40 10
1~ 1 0.7
l60Jb 0.9 0.5
~c'" Technetium (43) 2 2
"Tc'" 0.4 0.4
"Tc'" 0.4 0.4
~c'" 40 40
~c Unlimited Unlimited
"Tc 0.7 0.7
~c'" 8 8
~c 40 0.9
lI"Te(*) TeHurium (52) 0.2 0.2
121TeM 5 5
121Te 2 2
lDreM 7 7
12"fem 30 9
In-reM ( . ) 20 0.5
I17Te 20 0.5
1217eM ( . ) 0.6 0.5
1217e 0.6 0.5
131TeM 0.7 0.5
13'Te(·) 0.4 0.4
2l7Th Thorium (90) 9 lxlO- 2
228J'h(.) 0.3 4xlO- 4
n90Jb 0.3 3xlO- s
l30fh 2 2xlO- 4
231Th 40 0.9
2»Jb Unlimited Unlimited
~(.) 0.2 0.2
Th (natural) Unlimited Unlimited
~(.) Titanium (22) 0.5 0.2
:zoon Thallium (81) 0.8 0.8
lOin 10 10
:mn 2 2
-n 4 0.5
-~----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2387 P.u. (A) 456.
TABLE I-(cont.}
Radionuclides
Symbol Name Al (TBq) A, (TBq)

(atomic number)
(A) (B) (C) (D)
167Tm Thulium (69) 7 7

l6&fm 0.8 0.8
l»rm 4 0.5
I7lTm 40 10
230tJ Uranium (92) 40 lxlO- 2
232U 3 3xlO- 4
233U 10 1 xlO- 3
2l4U 10 1 X 10- 3
:mU Unlimited (**) Unlimited ( •• )
2J6U 10 lxlO- 3
238U Unlimited Unlimited
U (natural) Unlimited Unlimited
U (enriched 5% Unlimited (*0) Unlimited ( •• )
or less)
U (enriched more 10 lxl0- J
than 5%)
U (depleted) Unlimited Unlimited
4Ily Vanadium (23) 0.3 0.3
4"V 40 40
17IIW(·) Tungsten (74) 1
181W 30 j()
lasW 40 0.9
I87 W 2 0.5
188W(*) 0.2 0.2
122Xe(*) Xenon (54) 0.2 0.2
123Xe 0.2 0.2
127Xe 4 4
131Xem 40 40
133Xe 20 20
1J5Xe 4 4
87y Yttrium (39) 2 2
My 0.4 0.4
90y 0.2 0.2
91ym 2 2
fly 0.3 0.3
92y 0.2 0.2
93y 0.2 0.2
l/i11yb Ytterbium (70) 3 3
175Yb 30 0.9
65Zn Zinc (30) 2 2
69Znm 2 0.5
69Zn 4 0.5
SSZr Zirconium (40) 3 3
93Zr 40 0.2
"Zr 1 0.9
97Zr 0.3 0.3
P.u. (A) 456. 2388
TABLE II: General values for AI and A z
Contents AI (TBq) A] (TBq)

(A) (B) (C)
Only beta or gamma emitting nuclides are known to 0.2 0.02

be present
Alpha emitting nuclides are known to be present or 0.1

no relevant data are available
TENTH SCHEDULE
AcnVITY LIMITS FOR EXCEPTED PACKAGES

(Regulation 15 (1»
Instrument and articles Materillis
Physical state Item limils" Package limils" Packoge limils"

of contents (B) (C) (D)
(A)
Solids:
special form 1O- 2A I AI 10-3A I
other forms 1O- 2A 2 Az lO- 3A 2
Liquids: 1O- 3A z lO-IAz lO- 4 A z
Gases:
tritium 2XlO- 2A 2 2XIO- IA z 2XIO- zA l
special form 1O- 3A I lO-zA I 1O-3A I
other forms lO-3A z 10-zA z lO- 3A z
2389 P.U. (A) 456.
ELEVENTH SCHEDULE
CONVEYANCE ACTIVllY LIMITS FOR LSA AND seo IN
INDUSTRIAL PACKAGES OR UNPACKAGED
(Regulations 16 (b), 43 (2»
Activity limit for Activity limit for a hold

Nature of material conveyances other than or compartment of
by inland water-way an inland water craft
(A) (B) (CI
LSA-I No limit No limit

LSA - II and LSA - III
Non-combustible solids No limit lOOA2
Combustible solids lOOA2 10A2
All liquids lOOA2 lOA2
All gases lOOA2 lOA2
SCO lOOA 2 10A2
TWELFrH SCHEDULE
LIMITS OF NON·FIXED CONTAMINATION ON SURFACES
(Regulations 23,36 (c), 57 (1), 57 (2))
Applicable Limits •
Bq/crrr a
Contaminated surface
f' II!
(A) (B) (C)
External surface of excepted package 0-4 0.04

External and internal surfaces of overpacks, freight containers or
conveyances and their equipment for carrying excepted packages or
non-radioactive consignment 0.4 0.04
Extewai surface of packages other than excepted packages 4 0.4
External and internal surfaces of overpacks, freight containers or
conveyances and their equipment for carrying packages other than
excepted packages or non-radioactive consignment 4 0.4
External surfaces of freight containers, and conveyances and their
equipment used in the carriage of unpack aged radioactive material 4 0.4
• These applicable limi" shan determined by averaging over any area of 300 square centimetres (cm2) of any part of the surface.
b lbeIe limi" shall be applicable 10 beta and gamma emitters and low toxicity a1pha emilie,. .
• Tbc:Sc limi" abaU be applicable 10 aU other alpha emitters.
P.U. (A) 456. 2390
THIRTEENTH SCHEDULE
LIMITATIONS ON HOMOGENEOUS HYDROGENOUS SOLUTIONS

OR MIXTURES OF FISSILE MATERIAL
(Regulation 15 (3) (b))
Parameters Uranium-235 Any other fissile

only material (including
mixtures
(A) (8) (C)
Minimum H/Xa 5200 5200

Maximum concentration of fissile material 5 5
grams per litre (gil)
Maximum mass of fissile material in a package or 500
conveyance (g)
• Where HIX i. tbe ratio of the number of hydrogen atoms to the number of atoms of fissile nuclide.
b With a total plulDllium and uranium-233 content of not more tban 1% of tbe mass of uranium-23S.
FOURTEENTH SCHEDULE
INDUSTRIAL PACKAGE INTEGRITY REQUIREMENTS FOR

LSA AND SCO
(Regulation 43 (1))
Industrial package type

Contents
Exclusive use Not under
exclusive use
(A) (8) (C)
LSA-Ia
Solid IP-l IP-l
Liquid and gas IP-l IP-2
LSA-II
Solid IP-2 IP-2
Liquid and gas IP-2 IP-3
LSA-III IP-2 IP-3
SCO-Ia IP-l IP-l
SCO-II IP-2 IP-2
• Under tbe conditions specified in subregulation (3) of regulation 43, LSA-i and SCO-i may be transponed unpackaged.
2391 P.u. (A) 456.
FIFTEENTH SCHEDULE
EXCERPTS FROM LIST OF UNITED NATIONS NUMBERS,

PROPER SHIPPING NAME AND DESCRIPTION AND
SUBSIDIARY RISKS
(Regulations 28 (3), 48 (2) and 66 (4»
United Nations Subsidiary

Proper Shipping Name risks
Number
(A) (B) (C)
2910 RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL, EXCEPTED

PACKAGE,
- INSTRUMENTS or ARTICLES
- LIMITED QUANTITY OF MATERIAL
- ARTICLES MANUFAcruRED FROM
NATURAL URANIUM or DEPLETED
URANIUM or NATURAL lHORIUM
- EMPTY PACKAGING
2912 RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL, LOW SPECIFIC

ACTIVITY (LSA), N.O.S."
2913 RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL, SURFACE

CONTAMINATED OBJECfS (SCO)
2918 RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL, FISSILE, N.O.S.·
2974 RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL, SPECIAL FORM

N.O.S."
2975 lHORIUM METAL, PYROPHORIC Liable to spon·

taneous combustion
2976 lHORIUM NITRATE, SOLID Oxidizing substance
2977 URANIUM HEXAFLUORIDE, FISSILE Corrosive

containing more than 1.0 percent uranium-235
2978 URANIUM HEXAFLUORIDE, fissile excepted Corrosive

or non-fissile
2979 URANIUM METAL, PYROPHORIC Liable to spon·

tabeous combustion
2980 URANYL NITRATE HEXAHYDRATE Corrosive

SOLUTION
2981 URANYL NITRATE, SOLID Oxidizing substance
2982 RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL, N.O.S.·
• N.b.s.-Not otherwise specified.

P.u. (A) 456. 2392
SIXTEENTH SCHEDULE
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS SI PREFIXES
(Regulations 27 (5), 48 (2) (i), 52 (4) (e)
MUltiplying factor PrefIX Symbol

(A) (8) (C)
1 000 000 000 000

000 000 1018 exa E
1 000 000 000
000 000 = 1015 pcta P
1 000 000
000 000 = 1012 tera T
1 000
000 000 = Hf giga G
1
000 000 = 111' mega M
000 1 = 1()3 kilo k
100 = 1()2 hecto h
10 =W deka da
0.1 = 10- 1 deci d
0.01 = 10- 2 centi c
0.001 = 10- 3 milli m
0.000 001 = 10- 6 micro u
0.000 000 001 = 10- 9 nano n
0.000 000 000 001 10- 12 pica P
0.000 000 000 000 001 "" 10- 15 ,emto f
0.000 000 000 000 000 001 10- 18 alto a
SEVENTEENTH SCHEDULE
PART I
CATEGORIES OF PACKAGES
(Regulations 30 (1»
Characteristics of paclc4ge
Transport Maximum radiation level

Category
index at any point on external
surface
(A) (8) (C)
o Not more than 0.005 mSv/h I-WHITE

More than 0 but not More than 0.005 mSv/h but not more
more than 1 than 0.5 mSv/h II-YELLOW
More than 1 but not More than 0.5 mSv/h but not more
more than 10 than 2 mSv/h III-YELLOW
More than 10 More than 2 mSv/h but not more than III-YELLOW·
10 mSv/h
• To be tralIIpOrted only under exclusive . - or special arrangement.

2393 P.u. (A) 456.
PART II
CATEGORIES OF OVERPACKS INCLUDING FREIGHT

CONTAINERS WHEN USED AS OVERPACKS
Transport index Ca,egory

(A) (B)
o I-WHITE
TI greater than 0 but less than or equal to 1 II-YELLOW
TI greater than 1 III-YELLOW
EIGHTEENTH SCHEDULE
SIGNS. LABELS AND PLACARDS
(Regulations 25 (4) (a), 26 (1), 28, 29, 66 (1), 66 (4),66 (5»
FIGURE 1: The radiation warning symbol shall consist of the conventional

trefoil design shown. D is the diameter of the central circle. For
signs, the minimum value of D shall be 8 mm.
P.U. (A) 456. 2394
FIGURE 2: Category I-WHITE label. The background colour of the label shall be white, the
colour of the trefoil and the p,inting shall be black and tbe colour of tbe category bar
sball be red.
FIGURE 3: Category II-YELLOW label. The background colour of tbe upper balf of the label
shall be yellow and of tbe lower balf white, the colour of tbe trefoil and tbe printing
sball be black and tbe colour of tbe category bars sba1l be red.
2395 P.U. (A) 456.
FIGURE 4: Category III-YELLOW label. The background colour of the upper half of the label
shall be yellow and of the lower half white, the colour of the trefoil and the printing
shall be black and the colour of the category bars shall be red.
FIGURE 5: Placard. Minimum dimensions are given; when larger dimensions are used the relative
proportions must be maintained. The figure "7" shall not be less than 25 mm high. The
background colour of the upper half of the placard shall be yellow and of the lower
half white, the colour of the trefoil and the printing shall be black. The use of the word
"RADIOACITVE" in the bottom half is optional to allow the alternative use of this
placard to display the appropriate United Nations Number for the consignment.
P.U. (A) 456. 2396
~I-**-*~IJ~
~~_300mm------i-i.r-l0mm
*
FIGURE 6: Placard for separate display of the United Nations Number. The background colour of
the placard shall be orange and the border and United Nations Number shall be black.
The symbol ...... " denotes the space in which the appropriate United Nations
Number as specified in column (A), Sixteenth Schedule shall ~ displayed.
Made the 15th November 1989.

[LPTA (S): TAD/016/1 Kit. 2; PN. (PU2) 425BI1I1.]
On behalf and in the name of the Prime Minister,
DATUK DR SULAIMAN BIN HAJI DAuD,

Minister in the Prime Minister's Department
DAnJ!!: HAll MUKH'TAR SHAMSUDDIN. P,S,D" J,S.D .• g,M,S,. S.M.T.• S,M,P,. !!:.M.N .• P.I.S,. KETUA PENGARAH PERCETAKAN NEGARA.
MALAYSIA
LEMBAGA PERLESENAN TENAGA ATOM
(ATOMIC ENERGY LICENSING BOARD)
KEMENTERIAN SAINS, TEKNOLOGI &
INOVASI
(MINISTRY OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY &
INNOVATION)
BATU 24, JALAN DENGKIL
43800 DENGKIL.
SELANGOR
03 JANUARI 2011
NOTIS PEMBERITAHUAN AELB
Bil. 01/2011
PERLAKSANAAN PERATURAN-PERATURAN PERLESENAN TENAGA

ATOM (PERLINDUNGAN SINARAN KESELAMATAN ASAS) 2010
TUJUAN
1. Tujuan notis pemberitahuan ini adalah untuk memaklumkan kepada semua

pemegang lesen di bawah Akta Perlesenan Tenaga Atom 1984 (Akta 304) mengenai
perlaksanaan Peraturan-Peraturan Perlesenan Tenaga Atom (Perlindungan Sinaran
Keselamatan Asas) 2010 {P.U. (A) 46}.
LATAR BELAKANG
2. Bagi melindungi orang awam, pekerja dan alam sekitar daripada bahaya sinaran
mengion, pada tahun 1988, Peraturan-Peraturan Perlindungan Sinaran (Standard
Keselamatan Asas) 1988 {P.U.(A) 61} telah diwartakan dan digunapakai. Peraturan-
Peraturan ini adalah terpakai untuk semua aktiviti yang melibatkan penggunaan aplikasi
sinaran mengion dalam pelbagai bidang di Malaysia. Keperluan perundangan berkaitan
keselamatan sinaran di bawah Akta 304 diperjelaskan melalui Peraturan-Peraturan ini
yang merangkumi semua aspek perlindungan daripada bahaya sinaran kepada orang
awam, pekerja dan alam sekitar.
1
3. Selaras dengan komitmen Lembaga Perlesenan Tenaga Atom (AELB) selaku
badan yang bertanggungjawab dalam mengawal dan mengawalselia penggunaan
tenaga atom di Malaysia, Peraturan-Peraturan Perlindungan Sinaran (Standard
Keselamatan Asas) 1988 telah disemak semula dan digantikan dengan Peraturan-
Peraturan Perlesenan Tenaga Atom (Perlindungan Sinaran Keselamatan Asas) 2010
yang mula berkuatkuasa pada 15 Februari 2010.
ARAHAN AELB
5. Pemakaian Peraturan-Peraturan Perlesenan Tenaga Atom (Perlindungan

Sinaran Keselamatan Asas) 2010 ini akan dilaksanakan secara berperingkat kepada
semua pemegang lesen sebagaimana yang dinyatakan dalam Peraturan 79 iaitu
seperti berikut:
5.1. Semua pemegang lesen sedia ada (iaitu lesen yang dikeluarkan
sebelum 15 Februari 2010) yang masih mempunyai lesen yang sah
semasa Peraturan-Peraturan ini mula dikuatkuasakan diberi tempoh
sehingga 14 Februari 2012 untuk mematuhi semua keperluan
Peraturan-Peraturan tersebut, dan
5.2 Pemegang lesen yang baru (iaitu lesen yang dikeluarkan selepas 15
Februari 2010) dikehendaki untuk mematuhi semua keperluan
Peraturan-Peraturan tersebut serta merta mulai tarikh Peraturan-
Peraturan ini dikuatkuasakan.
6. Walau bagaimanapun, pemegang lesen sedia ada digalakkan supaya dari

semasa ke semasa untuk mempraktiskan kehendak Peraturan-Peraturan Perlesenan
Tenaga Atom (Perlindungan Sinaran Keselamatan Asas) 2010 ini semasa berurusan
dengan sinaran mengion.
2
PENUTUP
7. Jika terdapat sebarang pertanyaan berhubung dengan notis pemberitahuan ini,

sila berhubung melalui alamat di bawah;
Pengarah
Bahagian Dasar, Kod & Standard
Lembaga Perlesenan Tenaga Atom
Kementerian Sains, Teknologi & Inovasi
Batu 24, Jalan Dengkil
43800 Dengkil
Selangor Darul Ehsan.
No. Telefon :03-89225888

No.Faks :03-89223685
E-mail :pbs@aelb.gov.my
Laman Web :http://www.aelb.gov.my
3
LAWS OF MALAYSIA
Act 304

2
Date of Royal assent … … … 27th June 1984
Date of Publication in Gazette … 28th June 1984
First Print … … … … … 1984
Second Print … … … … … 1987
Third Print … … … … … 1990

3
LAWS OF MALAYSIA
Act 304
________________
ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS
_____________________
PART 1
PRELIMINARY
Section
1. Short title, commencement and application.
2. Interpretation.
PART II
ATOMIC ENERGY LICENSING BOARD
3. Establishment of the Atomic Energy Licensing Board.
4. Chairman of the Board.
5. Executive Secretary to the Board.
6. Meetings of the Board.
7. Rules for regulating meeting and proceedings.
8. Functions of the Board.
9. Committees of the Board.
10. Power to charge, receive and recover fees.
11. Power of the Minister to issue directions.
PART III
CONTROL AND LICENSING
12. Licensing of nuclear installation and of activities.
13. Classification of licences.
14. Exclusion of activity of prospecting or mining and requirement for reporting
15. Licensing authority.
[Arrangement of Sections]
Section
16. Application for licence.
17. Conditions in licences.
18. Security for licences.
19. Registers.
20. Returns.
21. Return of every sale of radioactive material, etc.
22. Cancellation or suspension of licence.
23. Renewal of licence.
24. Licencee to obtain prior approval of appropriate authority
for change of address.
PART V
HEALTH AND SAFETY
25. Protection of workers

PART VI
DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE
26. Control of disposal of radioactive waste.

27. Control of accumulation of radioactive waste.
28. Appropriate authority may direct licensee to rectify
situation where facilities not adequate.
29. Appropriate authority may order licencee or other person to adopt measures to
protect life, health and property.
30. Transport radioactive waste with prior authorization of
appropriate authority.
31. Discretion to consult Director-General of Environmental Quality.
PART VII
APPEALS
32. Appeals.
5
ATOMIC ENERGY LICENSING
PART VIII
POWERS OF SEIZURE AND ARREST
OFFENCES AND FORFEITURE
Section
33. Search warrant.
34. Circumstances for search without warrant.
35. Right of entry. Etc.
36. Taking samples, etc.
37. Indemnity of Government of Malaysia, appropriate
authority and public officer.
38. Forfeiture.
39. Obstruction of inspection, search or investigation an
offence.
40. Offence
41. Secrecy.
PART IX
LIABILITY FOR NUCLEAR DAMAGE
42. Meaning of “installation operator” for purposes of Part.
43. Liability of installation operator.
44. Liability for nuclear damage from nuclear material in
transit.
45. Absolute and exclusive liability.
46. Exceptions to liability.
47. Recourse action.
48. Government to claim compensation for nuclear damage
to environment.
49. Gross negligence or international act of claimant.
50. Liability of single operators liable.
51. Carrier of nuclear material or person handling radioactive
waste designated as installation operator.
52. Several installation operators liable.
53. Liability of single operator of several nuclear installations involved in one nuclear
accident.
54. Non-nuclear damage deemed nuclear damage.
55. Certificate to carrier.
56. Several nuclear installations on same site.
57. Investigation of nuclear incidents.
ACT 304
Section
58. Compulsory examination and treatment.
59. Limit of liability.
60. Financial security
61. Government indemnity.
62. Intervention in court proceedings.
63. Prescription with rights and action.
64. Prescription of respect to nuclear material stolen, lost, jettisoned or abandoned.
65. When claims exceed maximum limit.
PART X
GENERAL
66. Exclusion
67. Delegation of powers and duties.
68. Regulations.
69. Exemptions.
70. Repeal of Radioactive Substances Act 1968.
71. Operation of Act.
7
LAWS OF MALAYSIA

ACT 304
An Act to provide for the regulation and control of atomic

energy, for the establishment of standards on liability for
nuclear damage and for matters connected therewith or related
thereto.
[1 February 1985]
BE IT ENACTED by the Duli Yang Maha Mulia Seri Paduka
Baginda Yang di-Pertuan Agong with the advice and consent
of the Dewan Negara and Dewan Rakyat in Parliament
assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:
PART I
PRELIMINARY
Short title,
1. (1) This Act may be cited as the Atomic Energy commence-
Licensing Act 1984 and shall come into force on such date as ment and
application.
the Minister may appoint by notification in the Gazette.
(2) This Act shall apply throughout Malaysia.

Interpreta-
2. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires- tion
"appropriate authority" means-
(a) the Director-General of Health where the activity to
be licensed or licensed under this Act is in respect of a
medical purpose as determined by the Board; or
(b) the Board where the activity to be licensed or
licensed under this Act is in respect of a purpose other
than a medical purpose;
"atomic energy" means all energy of whatever type derived
from or created by the transmutation of atoms;
[Pt. I, S. 2]
8 ACT 304
"Board" means the Atomic Energy Licensing Board

established under section 3;
"conveyance" includes a ship, train, vehicle, an aircraft,
and any other means of transport by which persons or
goods may be carried;
"dealing", in relation to any radioactive material, nuclear
material, prescribed substance or irradiating apparatus,
means any activity involving the manufacturing, trading,
producing, processing, purchasing, owning, using,
transporting, transferring, handling, selling, storing,
importing or exporting of such radioactive material,
nuclear material, prescribed substance or irradiating
apparatus;
"environment" shall have the meaning assigned to that
Act 127. expression in section 2 of the Environmental Quality Act
1974 and, in addition thereto, shall include the marine
environment;
"installation operator" means a person licensed under this
Act by the appropriate authority as the operator of a
nuclear installation;
"ionizing radiation" means electromagnetic radiation or
corpuscular radiation capable of producing ionization in its
passage through matter;
"irradiating apparatus" means apparatus capable of
producing ionizing radiation;
"licensee" means the holder of a licence issue under this
Act;
"nuclear damage" means any loss of life, injury to the
person, loss of, loss of use of, or damage to, property, or
loss in, loss of use of, or damage to, the environment,
which arises out of or results from-
(a) radioactive properties or a combination of
radioactive properties with toxic, explosive or other
hazardous properties of nuclear fuel or radioactive
products or waste in, or of nuclear material coming
from, originating in, or sent to, a nuclear installation; or
(b) ionizing radiation emitted by any other source of
radiation inside a nuclear installation;
[Pt. I, S. 2]
ATOMIC ENERGY LICENCING 9
"nuclear fuel" means any material which is capable of

producing energy by a self-sustaining chain process of
nuclear fission, either alone or in combination with some
other material, and includes fissionable material in the
form of uranium metal, alloy or chemical compound, and
such other material as the Board may from time to time by
order in the Gazette determine to be nuclear fuel for the
purposes of this Act;
"nuclear incident" means any occurrence or a series of
occurrences, having the same origin, which causes or cause
nuclear damage;
"nuclear installation" means-
(a) any nuclear reactor other than one with which a
means of sea or air transport is equipped for use as a
source of power, whether for propulsion thereof or for
any other purpose;
(b) any factory using nuclear fuel for the production of
nuclear material;
(c) any factory using nuclear material for the production
of nuclear fuel or any factory designed or adapted for
the processing of nuclear material, including the
reprocessing of irradiated nuclear fuel; or
(d) any facility where nuclear material is placed or
stored other than storage incidental to the carriage of
such material:
Provided that the appropriate authority may determine that
several nuclear installations of one installation operator
which are located at the same site shall be considered as a
single nuclear installation;
"nuclear material" means nuclear fuel or other material
used for the fabrication of nuclear fuel;
“nuclear reactor” means any structure containing nuclear
fuel in such an arrangement that a self-sustaining chain
process of nuclear fission can occur therein without an
additional source of neutrons;
[Pt. I. S. 2]
10 ACT 304
"person" means any individual, partnership, private or
public body whether corporate or not, institution or
organization, or any international body, institution or
organization enjoying legal personality under the law of
the country or the territory of the country where the nuclear
installation is situated;
"prescribed" means prescribed by the Minister in
regulations;
"radioactive material" means any nuclear fuel, radioactive
product or radioactive waste;
"radioactive waste" means any waste which consists
wholly or partly of-
(a) a substance or article which if it were not waste
would be radioactive material; or
(b) a substance or article which has been contaminated
in the course of the production, storage or use of any
substance or by contact with or proximity to any other
waste within the meaning of paragraph (a) of this
definition;
“radiologist” means a registered medical practitioner who
has received special training and has special knowledge in
the use or application of ionizing radiation for diagnosing
any condition of the human body;
"radiotherapist" means a registered medical practitioner
who has received special training and has special
knowledge in the use or application of ionizing radiation or
a prescribed substance for the purpose of treating or
alleviating any abnormal condition of the human body or
for any other purpose requiring such specialized
knowledge;
"registered dentist", "registered medical practitioner",
"registered pharmacist" and "registered veterinary surgeon"
mean respectively a dentist, a medical practitioner, a
pharmacist and a veterinary surgeon, each registered as
such in accordance with the provisions of the written laws
relating to the registration of such persons;
"regulations" means regulations made under this Act;
[Pt. I-II, S. 2-4]
ATOMIC ENERGY LICENCING 11
"senior public officer" means any public officer authorized

in writing generally or specially by the appropriate
authority to exercise powers under this Act and includes
the Director-General of Health where he is the appropriate
authority;
"this Act" includes regulations and other subsidiary
legislation made under this Act and anything else done
under this Act or under such regulations or other subsidiary
legislation.
PART II
ATOMIC ENERGY LICENSING BOARD
Establish-ment
3. (1) There is established for the purposes of this Act a body of the Atomic
to be known as the Atomic Energy Licensing Board whose Energy
members shall be appointed by the Minister. Licensing
Board.
(2) The Board shall consist of a Chairman and four other
members, all of whom shall have scientific or technical
qualifications relevant to atomic energy or other disciplines
connected therewith. Among the members there shall be a
representative each from the Ministry responsible for health
and the Ministry responsible for matters under this Act.
(3) A member of the Board shall, unless he sooner resigns or
vacates his office or his appointment is sooner revoked, hold
office for a term of three years and shall be eligible for
reappointment.
(4) The appointment of any member of the Board may be
revoked at any time by the Minister without assigning any
reason therefor.
(5) A member of the Board may by letter under his hand
addressed to the Minister resign his office and such resignation
shall become effective upon its acceptance by the Minister.
(6) The members of the Board may be paid such allowances
and other expenses in connection with the work of the
Board as the Minister may from time to time determine
with the concurrence of the Minister of Finance.
Chairman of
4. (1) Subject to subsection (3), the Chairman of the Board the Board.
shall preside over all its meetings.
[Pt. II, S. 4-8]
12 ACT 304
(2) The Chairman shall not vote on any matter before the
Board except as provided under section 6 (3).
(3) The Minister may appoint any member of the Board to act
as temporary Chairman during any period when-
(a) the Chairman is unable for any reason to perform
his duties and functions or exercise his powers under
this Act; or
(b) the office of Chairman is vacant;
and any member so appointed to act as temporary Chairman
may accordingly perform the duties and functions and exercise
the powers of the Chairman during such period.
Executive 5. The head of the department in the Ministry responsible for

secretary matters under this Act shall be the executive secretary to the
to the
Board. Board
6. (1) The Board shall meet at least three times a year at such
times and at such places as the Chairman may appoint.
Meetings
of the (2) Four members, including the Chairman, shall constitute the
Board. quorum of the Board.
(3) In the event of an equal division of votes on any matter
before the Board, the Chairman shall have the casting vote.
Rules for
regulating 7. Subject to this Act, the Board may make rules for
meetings and regulating its meetings and proceedings, and those of
proceedings. committees appointed under section 9.
Functions of the 8. The Board shall, in addition to any other functions assigned .
Board to it under this Act, have the following functions:
(a) to advise the Minister and the Government of
Malaysia on matters relating to this Act and
developments pertaining thereto with particular
reference to the implications of such developments for
Malaysia;
(b) to exercise control and supervision over the
production, application and use of atomic energy and
matters incidental thereto;
[Pt. II, S. 8-11]
ATOMIC ENERGY LICENCING BOARD 13
(c) to establish, maintain and develop scientific and
technical cooperation with such other bodies,
institutions or organizations in relation to nuclear
matters or atomic energy as the Board thinks fit for the
purposes of this Act;
(d) where so directed by the Government of Malaysia,
to perform or provide for the performance of the
obligations arising from agreements, conventions or
treaties relating to nuclear matters or atomic energy to
which Malaysia is a party where such agreements,
conventions or treaties relate to the purposes of this
Act; and
(e) to do such other things arising out of or
consequential to the functions of the Board under this
Act which are not inconsistent with the purposes of this
Act, whether or not directed by the Minister.
Committees of
9. (1) The Board may from time to time appoint such the Board.
committees as it considers necessary or expedient to assist it in
the performance of its functions under this Act.
(2) Subject to this Act and any rules made under section 7,
such committees may regulate their own procedure.
(3) The members of such committees may be paid such
allowances and other expenses in connection with the work of
the committees as the Minister may from time to time
determine with the concurrence of the Minister of Finance.
Power to
10. (1) The Board shall have the power to charge and receive charge, receive
fees and, through the Government of Malaysia, recover fees and recover
for any services rendered by the Board. fees.
(2) The power under subsection (1) shall be without prejudice

to the power of the Minister under section 68 (2)(m).
Power of the
11. The Minister may from time to time give the Board Minister to
directions not inconsistent with this Act as to the policy to be issue
followed in the performance of the functions and the exercise directions.
of the powers of the Board and the Board shall give effect to
such directions.
[Pt. III. S. 12-13]
14 ACT 304
PART III
CONTROL AND LICENSING
12. (1) Without prejudice to the requirements of any other

Licensing law, no person shall-
Of nuclear
installation
And of
(a) site, construct or operate a nuclear installation;
activities.
(b) deal in, possess or dispose of any radioactive
material, nuclear material, prescribed substance or
irradiating apparatus,
unless he is the holder of a valid licence issued under
section 16 (5) by the appropriate authority for such
purpose and as specified in the licence.
(2) Subsection (1) shall not apply in respect of-
(a) any radioactive material, nuclear material,
prescribed substance or irradiating apparatus carried as
part of the stores or equipment of any ship or aircraft;
and in the event of doubt whether such radioactive
material, nuclear material, prescribed substance or
irradiating apparatus is so carried, a certificate issued
by the Board stating that such radioactive material,
nuclear material, prescribed substance or irradiating
apparatus is or is not part of such stores or equipment
shall be final and conclusive; or
(b) any person acting lawfully under the supervision or
instruction of a person in possession of a valid licence
issued under this Act.
(3) A licence for using any radioactive material, nuclear
material, prescribed substance or irradiating apparatus for
diagnostic or therapeutic purposes may be issued only to a
registered medical practitioner, registered veterinary surgeon,
radiologist, radiotherapist or registered dentist.
Classifica-
tion of
13. (1) The Minister may make regulations under section 68
licences
(2)(c) for the classification of licences issued under this Act.
[Pt. III, S. 13-16]
ATOMIC ENERGY LICENSING 15
(2) No person shall use any radioactive material, nuclear

material, prescribed substance or irradiating apparatus for any
purpose other than that specified in the licence issued to him in
respect of that radioactive material, nuclear material,
prescribed substance or irradiating apparatus.
Exclusion of
14. (1) For the avoidance of doubt, the expressions activity of
"producing" and "production" in this Act in relation to any prospecting or
radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed substance mining and
shall not include either of the activities of prospecting or requirement for
mining for any radioactive material, nuclear material or reporting.
prescribed substance. These activities shall be governed by the
relevant laws relating to mining.
(2) Any person who, in carrying out either of the activities of
prospecting or mining or both, encounters, discovers or comes
into possession of any radioactive material, nuclear material or
prescribed substance shall immediately report such fact to the
Board in writing and shall comply with all directions that the
Board may give in the matter, being directions not inconsistent
with the relevant laws relating to mining.
Licensing
15. (1) Subject to this section, the licensing authority under authority.
this Act shall be the Board.
(2) The Board shall grant a general licence to the Director-
General of Health to issue separate licences on behalf of the
Board to any person applying for a licence to undertake any of
the activities referred to in the classification of licences under
this Act where such activities are in respect of medical
purposes.
(3) The Director-General of Health shall process the
application in the same manner as is provided under this Act
for the processing of a licence issued by the Board and any
reference hereinafter to the expression "license" shall, unless
the context otherwise requires, mean a licence issued by the
appropriate authority, being the Director-General of Health or
the Board, as the case may be.
Application for
16. (1) An applicant for a licence under this Act shall first licence.
make an application in that behalf to the Board.
[Pt. III, S. 16-18]
16 ACT 304
(2) Upon such application being made, the Board shall

determine if the activity to be licensed is in respect of a
medical purpose or a purpose other than a medical purpose.
(3) If the Board determines that the activity to be licensed is in
respect of a medical purpose, the Board shall refer the
application to the Director-General of Health for the Director-
General of Health to consider the application.
(4) If the Board determines that the activity to be licensed is in
respect of a purpose other than a medical purpose, the Board
shall proceed to deal with the application.
(5) The appropriate authority may thereafter issue to the
applicant a licence in the prescribed form upon payment of the
prescribed fee or may, if it thinks fit, refuse to issue such
licence.
(6) Every licence issued under this Act shall, unless sooner
cancelled or suspended, continue in force for such period not
exceeding three years as the appropriate authority may in each
case determine.
Condition of 17. (1) Licences issued under this Act shall be subject to such
licences. conditions as may, be imposed by the appropriate authority
which may in respect of the conditions imposed by it, add to,
vary or revoke such conditions at any time.
(2) Without prejudice to subsection (1), a licence referred to in
the classification of the licences may be restricted to
radioactive materials, nuclear materials or prescribed
substances of a specified kind or kinds, or may be restricted to
specified diagnostic or therapeutic purposes, which are limited
in their type and nature; and a licence issued in respect of an
irradiating apparatus may be restricted to a specified kind or
kinds of such apparatuses, or may be restricted to specified
diagnostic or therapeutic purposes, which are limited in their
type and nature.
Security for 18. (1) The appropriate authority may require that before any
licences licence is issued under this Act, such security as it may specify
shall be furnished for the due observance of the conditions of
the licence.
[Pt. III, S. 18-21]
(2) Without prejudice to the other provisions of this Act,
where there is any breach of any of the conditions of the
licence, such security or part thereof as the appropriate
authority may determine shall be forfeited to the Government
of Malaysia.
Registers.
19. (1) The appropriate authority shall keep and maintain such
registers as may be prescribed for the purposes of this Act.
(2) The contents of every such register may be proved in any
proceeding without production of the register by a certificate
under the hand of the appropriate authority and every such
certificate shall be prima facie proof of the matters stated
therein.
Returns.
20. (1) Every licensee who has in his possession or under his
control any radioactive material, nuclear material, prescribed
substance or irradiating apparatus shall make a return of such
radioactive material, nuclear material, prescribed substance or
irradiating apparatus to the appropriate authority as may be
prescribed.
(2) Every such return shall specify the quantity and the type of
irradiating apparatus in the possession of or under the control
of the licensee together with such other particulars as the
appropriate authority may from time to time require.
Return of every
21. (1) A return of every sale of any radioactive material, sale of
nuclear material, prescribed substance or irradiating apparatus radioactive
shall be submitted to the Board by the person selling the material, etc.
irradiating apparatus within two weeks of the sale and such
return shall contain the authenticated name and address of the
person to whom the radioactive material, nuclear material,
prescribed substance or irradiating apparatus is sold, in
addition to any other particulars that the Board may require.
(2) Where the radioactive material, nuclear material,
prescribed substance or irradiating apparatus is sold in respect
of a medical purpose, the Board shall forward a copy of the
return to the Director-General of Health.
[Pt. IV, S. 22-24]
18 ACT 304
PART IV
CANCELLATION, SUSPENSION AND RENEWAL
OF LICENCES
Cancella- 22. (1) The appropriate authority may at any time under any
tion of of the following circumstances in its discretion cancel, or
suspension suspend for such period as it may think fit, any licence issued
of licence. under this Act-
(a) where the licensee has committed an offence under
this Act
(b) where the licensee has committed a breach of any
of the conditions of the licence;
(c) where the licensee ceases to work or operate the
nuclear installation in respect of which the licence was
issued; or
(d) where in the opinion of the appropriate authority it
would be in the public interest so to do.
(2) Where a licence has been cancelled or suspended, the
appropriate authority may at the time of such cancellation or
suspension, or from time to time thereafter during the
remainder of the period for which if it were not for the
cancellation or suspension the licence would have been valid,
give the licensee such directions as it may deem necessary in
the public interest and the licensee shall comply with all such
directions.
Renewal of 23. (1) A licence issued under this Act may from time to time
licence. be renewed.
(2) An application to renew a licence shall be made to the
appropriate authority in such manner as may be prescribed.
(3) The appropriate authority may on such application renew
the licence or may, if it thinks it fit so to do, refuse to renew
the licence.
Licensee to
obtain prior 24. Every licensee shall obtain the prior approval of the
approval of appropriate authority in respect of any change of address of
appropriate the premises specified in the licence.
authority for
change of
address.
[Pt. V, S. 25]
PART V
HEALTH AND SAFETY
25. (1) Every licensee shall comply with all such directives as Protection of
the appropriate authority may issue from time to time for the workers.
protection of the health and for the safety of workers and all
other persons from ionizing radiation, including directives in
respect of matters pertaining to-
(a) conditions of exposure;
(b) dose limitation;
(c) occupational exposure;
(d) medical exposure;
(e) exposure of members of the public and persons
other than workers, excluding medical exposure;
(f) accidental exposure;
(g) emergency exposure; and
(h) exposure other than any of those specified in
paragraphs (a) to (g).
(2) If the appropriate authority has reasonable cause to believe
that any worker has been or is likely to be exposed to ionizing
radiation, the appropriate authority may require the licensee-
(a) to provide and require such worker to wear
approved personnel-monitoring devices;
(b) to keep records of dose and type of ionizing
radiation to which such worker has been or is likely to
be exposed;
(c) to install or use monitoring devices in work places
to record the amount of ionizing radiation present and
to keep records thereof; and
(d) to provide medical examination for such worker by
an approved registered medical practitioner at such
intervals as the appropriate authority may determine.
(3) The appropriate authority may in its discretion require the
licensee to provide at such intervals as it may determine
medical examination by an approved registered medical
practitioner for all or any of the workers of the licensee who
are exposed or are likely to be exposed to ionizing radiation.
[Pt. V-VI, S. 25-27]
20 ACT 304
(4) Any registered medical practitioner performing a medical

examination under subsection (2)(d) or (3) shall inform the
appropriate authority in the prescribed form of every worker
whose health is or is reasonably suspected to be affected by
ionizing radiation.
(5) For the purposes of this section, "worker" includes any
person working under the instruction of the licensee, whether
or not employed by the licensee, in the handling or use of, or
who will come into contact with, any radioactive material,
nuclear material, prescribed substance or irradiating apparatus.
(6) The Minister may prescribe the basic safety standards for
the protection of workers and all other persons against ionizing
radiation.
PART VI
DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE
Control of 26. (1) No person shall dispose of or cause to be disposed any

disposal of radioactive waste without the prior authorization in writing of
radioactive the appropriate authority.
waste.
(2) Any authorization given under this section may be subject
to such conditions as the appropriate authority may impose.
Control of 27. (1) No person shall accumulate or cause to be

accumula- accumulated any radioactive waste on any premises without
tion of the prior authorization in writing of the appropriate authority.
radioactive
waste (2) Any authorization given under this section may be subject
to such conditions as the appropriate authority may impose.
(3) Where the disposal of any radioactive waste has been
authorized under section 26 and in accordance with that
authorization the waste is required or permitted to be
accumulated with a view to subsequent disposal thereof, no
further authorization under this section shall be necessary to
enable the waste to be accumulated or caused to be
accumulated in accordance with the authorization given under
section 26.
[Pt. VI, S. 27-31]
(4) For the purposes of this section, where any radioactive
material, nuclear material or prescribed substance is produced,
kept or used in or on any premises and any substance arising
from the production, keeping or use of that radioactive
material, nuclear material or prescribed substance is
accumulated in any part of the premises appropriated for the
purpose and is retained there for a period of not less than three
months, that substance arising from such production, keeping
or use shall, unless the contrary is proved, be presumed-
(a) to be radioactive waste; and
(b) to be accumulated on the premises with a view to
subsequent disposal thereof.
28. If it appears to the appropriate authority that adequate Appropriate

facilities are not available for the safe accumulation, storage or authority may
direct licensee to
disposal of any radioactive waste, the appropriate authority rectify situation
may direct the licensee to rectify the situation and the licensee where facilities
shall give effect to such direction. not adequate.
29. Where any situation or condition endangering life, health, Appropriate

property or the environment is found to exist in or on any authority may
order licensee or
premises, nuclear installation, conveyance or site, the other person to
appropriate authority may direct the licensee or any other adopt measures to
person, who in its opinion is responsible for such premises, protect life, health
nuclear installation, conveyance or site to adopt such measures and property.
as would eliminate or protect against such situation or
condition.
30. (1) No person shall transport any radioactive waste Transport of
without the prior authorization in writing of the appropriate radioactive waste
with prior
authority. authorization of
appropriate
(2) Any authorization given by the appropriate authority under authority.
this section may be subject to such conditions as the
appropriate authority may think necessary to impose for the
protection of the public.
31. In the performance of its functions under this Part, the Discretion to
appropriate authority may, if it thinks it fit so to do, consult the consult Director-
General of
Director-General of Environmental Quality appointed under Environmental
section 3(1) of the Environmental Quality Act 1974 on any Quality.
matter under this Part.
[Pt. VII-VIII, S. 32-33]
22 ACT 304
PART VII
APPEALS
Appeals. 32. (1) Any person who is dissatisfied with any decision of the
appropriate authority made under this Act may within thirty
days after being notified of such decision give notice of appeal
in writing to the Minister in the prescribed manner.
(2) The Minister shall as soon as is practicable cause to be
served on the appellant a written notice specifying the date,
time and place at which the appeal is to be heard:
Provided that the date so specified shall in no case be earlier
than thirty days from the date of service of such notice.
(3) The grounds of appeal shall be submitted to the Minister
not less than ten days before the date fixed for the hearing of
the appeal.
(4) At the hearing of the appeal the appellant may be present
either in person or by counsel and the Minister may call for
such evidence as he thinks fit.
(5) The Minister may, after hearing the appeal, make an order
confirming or setting aside the decision of the appropriate
authority or make such other order as he thinks fit, and the
order of the Minister shall be final and shall not be subject to
any appeal or review in any court.
(6) All parties concerned shall give effect to the decision of the
Minister in the matter.
PART VIII
POWERS OF SEIZURE AND ARREST, OFFENCES
AND FORFEITURE
Search 33. (1) Whenever it appears to any Magistrate, upon written

warrant. information on oath and after such inquiry as he deems
necessary, that there is reasonable ground to believe that in or
on any premises, site, nuclear installation or conveyance there
is concealed, kept, deposited or stored any radioactive
material, nuclear material, prescribed substance or irradiating
apparatus in respect of which an offence has been committed
under this Act, or any book or document directly or indirectly
[Pt. VIII, S. 33]
relating to or connected with any dealing in any radioactive

apparatus which was, or any intended dealing of the same
which would be, an offence under this Act, that Magistrate
may issue a warrant authorizing any named senior public
officer, by day or night and with or without assistance-
(a) to enter the premises, site, nuclear installation or
conveyance and there to search for and seize such
radioactive material, nuclear material, prescribed
substance, irradiating apparatus, book or document;
(b) to arrest any person being in or on the premises,
site, nuclear installation or conveyance in whose
possession or under whose control such radioactive
material, nuclear material, prescribed substance,
irradiating apparatus, book or document is found, or
whom such officer reasonably believes to have been
dealing in such radioactive material, nuclear material,
prescribed substance or irradiating apparatus, or to
have been in possession or control of such book or
document or to have brought, received concealed, kept,
deposited or stored such radioactive material, nuclear
material, prescribed substance, irradiating apparatus,
book or document.
(2) Such officer may if it is necessary so to do, with or without
assistance-
(a) break open any door or window or part of the
premises, site, nuclear installation or conveyance to
have ingress thereinto;
(b) forcibly enter the premises, site, nuclear installation
or conveyance and every part of it;
(c) remove by force any obstruction to entry, search,
seizure and removal as he is empowered to effect; and
(d) detain every person found in or on the premises,
site, nuclear installation or conveyance until the
premises, site, nuclear installation or conveyance has
been searched.
[Pt. VIII, S. 34-35]
24 ACT 304
Circums- 34. (1) Whenever it appears to any senior public officer that
Tances for there is reasonable ground to believe that in or on any
Search premises, site, nuclear installation or conveyance there is
without
concealed, kept, deposited or stored, in contravention of this
warrant
Act, any radioactive material, nuclear material, prescribed
substance, irradiating apparatus, book or document as is
described in subsection (1) of section 33 and he has reasonable
ground for believing that by reason of the delay in obtaining a
search warrant the object of the search is likely to be
frustrated, he may exercise in, upon and in respect of the
premises, site, nuclear installation or conveyance all the
powers mentioned in section 33 in as full and ample a manner
or if he had been so empowered by warrant.
(2) Any senior public officer may stop and search, and seize if
necessary, any conveyance which he has reasonable ground
for believing to be used for the carriage of any radioactive
material, nuclear material, prescribed substance, irradiating
apparatus, or any other thing liable to forfeiture under this Act.
35. (1) Without prejudice to sections 33 and 34, any senior
Right of
entry, etc public officer shall, for the purposes of this Act, have the right
to-
(a) enter, inspect and search at all times any premises,
site, nuclear installation or conveyance in which such
officer has reasonable ground to believe that there is
stored or kept any radioactive material, nuclear
material, prescribed substance or irradiating apparatus
or there is being conducted any activity in respect of
which a licence is required under this Act, for the
purpose of examining, testing or calibrating that
material, substance or irradiating apparatus, as the case
may be; or
(b) require the licensee or occupier of the premises, site
or nuclear installation or the person in charge of the
conveyance to provide such information or documents
in the possession or control of such licensee, occupier
or person relating to any activity in respect of which a
licence is required under this Act as the officer may
specify.
[Pt. VIII, S. 35-38]
(2) Any officer exercising powers under subsection (1)

shall produce his letter of authorization or document
of identification on demand.
36. Without prejudice to the other provisions of this Part, any Taking of
senior public officer may, while in or on the premises, site, samples, etc.
nuclear installation or conveyance referred to in this Part-
(a) take, without payment, such samples of any
material or substance which he believes to be
substance or radioactive waste as are necessary for the
examination and testing thereof; or
(b) make copies of or extracts from any drawing, plan
or document found therein and, for the purpose of
making such copies or extracts, may remove any such
drawing, plan or document after giving a signed receipt
for the same and retain possession thereof for a period
not exceeding fourteen days.
37. The Government of Malaysia, the appropriate authority or Indemnity of

any public officer acting under this Act shall not be liable to Government
of Malaysia,
indemnify any person who has suffered any damage to or loss appropriate
of property resulting from any entry, search or seizure under authority and
this Act unless the damage or loss shall have been caused by public officer.
the wilful neglect or wilful default of the appropriate authority
or public officer.
38. (1) Any radioactive material, nuclear material, prescribed Forfeiture.
substance, irradiating apparatus or radioactive waste in respect
of which an offence under this Act is committed, or any book,
document or conveyance connected with such offence, is
liable to forfeiture.
(2) Anything ordered to be forfeited under this Act shall be
disposed of in such manner as the appropriate authority may
direct.
[Pt. VIII, S.39]
26 ACT 304
39. Any person who-

Obstruction of
inspection, (a) refuses any senior public officer access to any
search or premises, site, nuclear installation or conveyance
investigation an which he is entitled to have under this Act;
offence.
(b) assaults, obstructs, impedes or delays any senior
public officer in effecting any entry which he is
entitled to effect under this Act, or in the execution of
any duty imposed or power conferred under this Act;
(c) fails to comply with any lawful demand or order of
any senior public officer in the execution of any duty
imposed or power conferred under this Act;
(d) refuses or neglects to give to any senior public
officer any information which may reasonably be
required and which he has in his power to give;
(e) furnishes to any senior public officer as true,
information which he knows or has reason to believe to
be false;
(f) conceals or attempts to conceal or fails to produce
any radioactive material, nuclear material, prescribed
substance, irradiating apparatus, radioactive waste,
book or document in relation to which there is
reasonable ground for suspecting the commission of an
offence under this Act;
(g) escapes or attempts to escape from lawful custody
after having been arrested for an offence under this
Act;
(h) rescues or attempts to rescue or causes to be
rescued any person who has been duly arrested or
anything which has been duly seized under this Act; or
(i) before or after any seizure under this Act, breaks or
destroys anything to prevent such seizure,
commits an offence under this Act and is, on

conviction, liable to imprisonment for a term not
exceeding five years or a fine not exceeding five
thousand ringgit or to both.
[Pt. VIII,40-41]
40. (1) Any person who contravenes any of the provisions of Offence.
this Act commits an offence under this Act.
(2) Any person who commits an offence under this Act is, on
conviction, where no penalty is expressly provided therefor,
liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years or a
fine not exceeding one hundred thousand ringgit or both.
(3) Where an offence under this Act is committed by a body
corporate, every person who at the time of the commission of
the offence was a director or officer of that body corporate
commits that offence:
Provided that nothing in this subsection shall render any such
person so liable if he proves that he exercised all due diligence
and took all reasonable precautions to prevent the commission
of such offence and that such offence was committed without
his knowledge, consent and connivance.
(4) Any person who would have been liable under this Acr to
any penalty for anything done or omitted if such thing had
been done or omitted by him personally, shall be liable to the
same penalty if such thing had been done or omitted by his
partner, agent or servant, unless he proves that he exercised all
due diligence and took all reasonable precautions to prevent
the doing or omission of such thing and that such thing was
done or omitted without his knowledge, consent and
connivance.
(5) Without prejudice to the provisions of the Criminal F.M.S.
Procedure Code, the prosecution of any offence committed
Cap.6.
under this Act may be conducted by the appropriate authority
or any senior public officer authorized in writing generally or
specially so to do by the appropriate authority.
41. Except for the purposes of this Act or of any proceedings Secrecy.
under this Act, no person shall disclose any information
obtained under this Act.
[Pt. IX, S. 42-43]
28 ACT 304
PART IX
42. For the purposes of this Part, "installation operator"
Meaning
“installation means-
operator” for (a) a person licensed under this Act by the appropriate
purpose of Part. authority as the operator of a nuclear installation; or
(b) a person who but for the cancellation or suspension
of a licence issued under this Act would be the holder
of such a licence.
43. (1) The installation operator shall be liable for nuclear
Liability of
insatllation damage upon proof that such damage has been caused by a
operator. nuclear incident-
(a) in his nuclear installation; or
(b) involving nuclear material coming from or
originating in his nuclear installation, and occurring-
(i) before liability with regard to the nuclear
incident involving the nuclear material has been
assumed, pursuant to the express terms of a
contract in writing, by another installation
operator; or
(ii) in the absence of such express terms, before
another installation operator has taken charge
of the nuclear material;
or
(c) involving nuclear material sent to his nuclear
installation, and occurring-
(i) after liability with regard to a nuclear
incident involving the nuclear material has been
assumed by him, pursuant to the express terms
of a contract in writing, from another
installation operator; or
(ii) in the absence of such express terms, after
he has taken charge of the nuclear material:
Provided that if nuclear damage is caused by a nuclear
incident occurring in a nuclear installation and involving
nuclear material stored therein incidental to the carriage of
such material, paragraph (a) shall not apply where another
installation operator or any other person is solely liable as
provided in paragraph (b) or (c).
[Pt. IX, S. 43-44]
(2) The installation operator shall be liable for such nuclear
damage upon proof that the damage has been caused by a
nuclear incident involving nuclear material in the course of
carriage-
(a) to his nuclear installation from a place outside
Malaysia from the time that the conveyance in which
the nuclear material is carried enters Malaysia; or
(b) from his nuclear installation to a place outside Malaysia up
to the time that the conveyance in which the nuclear material
is carried leaves Malaysia.
(3) Subsection (2) shall not apply where-
(a) there is any bilateral or multilateral arrangement to the
contrary between the Government of Malaysia and the
government of the country from which or to which the nuclear
material is carried; or
(b) there is any applicable provision in force to the contrary in
an international convention to which the Government of
Malaysia and the government of the country from which or to
which the nuclear material is carried are parties,
and where there is such arrangement or convention to the
contrary in force, the liability of the installation operator and
all other persons shall be determined in accordance therewith.
PART IX
44. (1) Where nuclear material is being carried through Liability for
Malaysia in transit on its way to its intended destination nuclear
damage from
outside Malaysia and a nuclear incident occurs in Malaysia, nuclear
the person licensed to transport the nuclear material by the material in
competent authority in the country from which the nuclear transit.
material is being carried out of shall be liable for any nuclear
damage caused.
(2) No person shall carry any nuclear material in transit
through Malaysia to its intended destination outside Malaysia
unless such person-
(a) furnishes such financial security as may be required by the
Board; and
[Pt. IX, S. 44-47
30 ACT 304
(b) furnishes proof to the satisfaction of the Board that he is

authorized by the country from which the nuclear material is
being carried out of so to do.
Absolute 45. (1) The liability of the installation operator for any nuclear .
and damage shall be absolute.
exclusive
liability. (2) Except as otherwise provided in this Part, no person other
than the installation operator shall be liable for nuclear
damage.
Exceptions
46. (1) Notwithstanding any provision to the contrary in this
to liability
Act, no person shall be liable for any nuclear damage caused
by a nuclear incident directly due to an Act of armed conflict,
hostilities, civil war, insurrection or a grave natural disaster of
an exceptional character.
(2) The installation operator shall not be liable under this Act
for nuclear damage-
(a) to the nuclear installation itself or to any property on the
site of that nuclear installation which is used or to be used in
connection with that nuclear installation; or
(b) to the conveyance in which the nuclear material involved
was carried at the time of the nuclear incident.
47. (1) Where nuclear damage has been caused by a nuclear
Recourse
actions. incident, the installation operator concerned shall have a right
of recourse only-
(a) if there is such a right pursuant to the express terms of a
contract in writing with another installation operator or any
other person;
(b) if the nuclear incident results from an Act or omission with
intent to cause damage, against the person who has acted or
omitted to Act with such intent; or
(c) if the nuclear incident results from stolen nuclear material,
against the person who stole or unlawfully received the
nuclear material causing the incident.
[Pt. IX, S.47-52]
(2) The right of recourse of the installation operator concerned

under this section shall not in any way affect his liability under
section 45 to persons other than those referred to in this
section.
48. Where there is any nuclear damage to the environment, a Governments
claim for compensation shall be made by the Government of to claim
compensation
Malaysia, the Government of a State in Malaysia or by both, for nuclear
as the case may be, according to whether the segment of the damage to
environment that is damaged is within the jurisdiction of the environment.
Government of Malaysia, of a State in Malaysia or of both.
49. If the installation operator proves that the nuclear damage Gross
resulted wholly or partly either from the gross negligence of negligence or
intentional
the person suffering the damage or from an Act or omission of Act of
such person with intent to cause damage, the court may relieve claimant.
the installation operator from paying compensation in respect
of the damage suffered by such person.
50. Nothing in this Act shall affect the liability outside this Liability not
Act of the installation operator for nuclear damage for which, affected by
Act.
by virtue of section 46 (2)(b), he is not liable under this Act.
51. The appropriate authority may, subject to such terms and Carrier of
conditions as may be prescribed, designate a carrier of nuclear nuclear
material or
material or a person handling radioactive waste, at the request person
of the carrier or such person and with the consent of the handling
installation operator concerned, as installation operator in radioactive
place of the installation operator concerned in respect of such waste
nuclear material or radioactive waste respectively. Upon such designated as
installation
designation such carrier or such person shall be considered as operator
an installation operator for the purposes of this Part.
52. (1) Where nuclear damage engages the liability of more Several
than one installation operator, all the installation operators installation
operators
involved shall, in so far as the damage attributable to each liable.
operator is not reasonably separable, be jointly and severally
liable.
[Pt. IX, S. 52-55]
32 ACT 304
(2) Where a nuclear incident occurs in the course of carriage

within Malaysia of nuclear material, either in one and the same
conveyance or, in the case of storage incidental to carriage, in
one and the same nuclear installation, and causes nuclear
damage which engages the liability of more than one
installation operator, the total liability shall not exceed the
amount established under section 59.
(3) Subject to section 61 (2), in neither of the cases referred to
in subsections (1) and (2) shall the liability of any one
installation operator exceed the amount established under
section 59.
Liability of 53. Subject to section 43, where several nuclear installations

single of one and the same installation operator are involved in one
operator of nuclear incident, such installation operator shall be liable in
several respect of each nuclear installation involved up to the amount
nuclear
installations established under section 59.
involved in
one nuclear 54. Whenever both nuclear damage and damage other than
incident. nuclear damage have been caused by a nuclear incident or
jointly by a nuclear incident and one or more other
Non-nuclear occurrences, such damage shall, to the extent that it is not
damage deemed
nuclear damage
reasonably separable from the nuclear damage, be deemed for
the purposes of this Part to be nuclear damage caused by that
nuclear incident. Where, however, damage is caused jointly by
a nuclear incident for which provision is made under this Part
and by an emission of ionizing radiation for which provision is
not made under this Part, nothing in this Act shall limit or
otherwise affect liability, either as regards any person
suffering nuclear damage, or by way of recourse or
contribution, or of any person who may be held liable in
connection with that emission of ionizing radiation.
Certificate to 55. (1) The installation operator shall provide a carrier of

carrier nuclear material with a certificate issued by or on behalf of the
insurer or other financial guarantor furnishing the financial
security required under section 60.
[Pt. IX, S.55-58]
2) The certificate shall state the name and address of the

installation operator and the amount, type and duration of the
financial security and these particulars shall not be disputed by
the person for whom or on whose behalf the certificate was
issued.
(3) The certificate shall also indicate the nuclear material in
respect of which the financial security applies and shall
include a statement by the appropriate authority that the person
designated is an installation operator within the meaning of
this Part.
56. The appropriate authority may determine that several Several

nuclear installations of one installation operator which are nuclear
installations
located at the same site shall be considered as a single nuclear on same site.
installation for the purposes of this Part.
57. (1) Any nuclear incident involving the application of this Investigation
Act shall be forthwith reported to the Board. The installation of nuclear
incidents.
operator concerned shall provide the Board with all
information which it requires with a view to evaluating the
extent of nuclear damage involved.
(2) The Board shall make an investigation of the cause and the
extent of the nuclear damage of the nuclear incident, and to the
extent that the Board deems it to be in the public interest, the
Board's findings may be made available to the public and to
the parties involved, for the purposes of this Part.
58. (1) After the occurrence of a nuclear incident, the Board Compulsory
may adopt such measures as are appropriate to determine the examination
and
persons who were or might have been exposed to ionizing treatment.
radiation resulting from such nuclear incident.
(2) Notwithstanding any law to the contrary and for the
purposes of carrying into effect the measures referred to in
subsection (1), the Board may-
(a) require any person suspected or likely to be
affected by exposure to ionizing radiation to be
medically examined by a competent authority or body
appointed by the Minister;
[Pt. IX, S 58-60]
34 ACT 304
(b) cause any such person to be removed to a hospital

or other place specially designated for the treatment,
detection or observation of any nuclear damage to such
person, and to detain such person until he can be
discharged without danger to himself or others; or
(c) cause a post-mortem examination to be made on
any corpse where the death is suspected to have been
caused by a nuclear incident or exposure to ionizing
radiation.
(3) Any person who refuses, fails or neglects to submit for
examination, treatment, detection or observation under this
section or refuses or obstructs the post-mortem examination of
a corpse under this section commits an offence and is, on
conviction, liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding
one month or a fine not exceeding two hundred ringgit or both.
Limit of 59. (1) Notwithstanding any law to the contrary but subject to
liability this Part, the liability of an installation operator for nuclear
damage under this Act shall be limited to an amount
equivalent at the commencement of this Act to fifty million
ringgit for any one nuclear incident.
(2) The Board may, taking into account the size and nature of
the nuclear installation, the extent of the damage involved or
any other circumstances, prescribe a different limit of liability
from that provided under subsection (1) but such different
limit of liability shall in no event be less than an amount
equivalent at the commencement of this Act to twelve million
ringgit for any one nuclear incident.
(3) The amounts referred to in subsections (1) and (2) shall not
include any interest or costs awarded by the court in actions
for compensation for nuclear damage.
60. (1) No licence to operate a nuclear installation or to
import or export nuclear material into or from Malaysia shall
Financial
be issued under this Act by the appropriate authority to an
security.
installation operator or any other person unless the installation
operator or other person secures and maintains insurance or
other financial security covering his liability for nuclear
damage under this Act.
[Pt. IX, S. 60-61]
(2) The Board shall prescribe the type and terms of the
insurance or other financial security which shall be secured
and maintained by the installation operator or any other
person, and such insurance or other financial security may
include private insurance, private contractual indemnity, self-
insurance or a combination thereof or other evidence of
financial ability to pay compensation under this Act.
(3) Notwithstanding any law to the contrary, no insurer or
other financial guarantor may suspend, cancel or vary the type
and terms of the insurance or other financial security provided
under this section without giving notice in writing of at least
two months to the Board of its intention so to do or, in so far
as such insurance or other financial security relates to the
carriage of nuclear material, during the period of the carriage
in question.
61. (1) The Government of Malaysia may, where it considers Government
it necessary so to do, indemnify the installation operator liable indemnity.
and provide the necessary funds for the payment of claims for
compensation for nuclear damage which have been established
against the operator to the extent that the yield of insurance or
other financial security is inadequate to satisfy such claims:
Provided that the indemnity so provided by the Government of
Malaysia, together with the yield of insurance or other
financial security, shall not in the aggregate exceed the
maximum amount established under section 59 for any one
nuclear incident.
(2) Notwithstanding subsection (1), where it appears that
claims for compensation for nuclear damage caused by a
nuclear incident may exceed the limit of liability established
under section 59, the Board shall furnish a report to the
Minister with its recommendations for the appropriation of
additional funds for the payment of claims for such
compensation and the Minister shall cause the report to be laid
forthwith before the Dewan Rakyat.
(3) Upon such report being laid before it, the Dewan Rakyat
may by resolution appropriate additional funds for such
purpose if it considers it necessary
[Pt. IX, S. 61-64]
36 ACT 304
in the interests of the nation that the limit of liability

established under section 59 should be exceeded but not
otherwise.
Intervention 62. When, after the occurrence of a nuclear incident, the
in court Government of Malaysia intends to indemnify the installation
proceedings.
operator pursuant to section 61, the court adjudicating any
claim for compensation arising from the nuclear incident shall
allow the Government of Malaysia to intervene in the
proceedings at any time before final judgment
Prescription 63. (1) Subject to subsection (2), rights to compensation under

of rights and this Act shall cease after twenty years from the date of the
actions. nuclear incident.
(2) Actions for compensation under this Act shall be barred
unless brought within twenty years from the date on which the
person suffering nuclear damage had knowledge or should
reasonably have had knowledge of such damage:
Provided that-
(a) any person who claims to have suffered nuclear
damage and who has brought an action for
compensation within the period applicable pursuant to
this subsection may amend his claim to take into
account any aggravation of the damage, even after the
expiry of that period; and
(b) final judgment has not been entered in the case.
Prescription 64. (1) Where nuclear damage is caused by a nuclear incident

with respect to involving nuclear material which had at any time been stolen,
nuclear material
stolen, lost,
lost, jettisoned or abandoned, the period within which to bring
jettisoned or actions for compensation pursuant to section 63 shall be
abandoned. computed from the date of that nuclear incident and not from
the date such nuclear material had been stolen, lost, jettisoned
or abandoned.
(2) For the avoidance of doubt, the actions for compensation in
the circumstances referred to in subsection (1) shall lie against
the installation operator by virtue of section 45 but without
prejudice, however, to his right of recourse under section 47,
and any person
Pt. IX-X, S. 64-68]
against whom the installation operator has a right of recourse

under section 47 shall not be entitled to bring any claim for
compensation against the installation operator.
65. When it appears that the nuclear damage from a nuclear When claims
incident may exceed the limit of liability established under exceed
maximum
section 59, and upon application by the Government of limit.
Malaysia where it intends to Act pursuant to section 61, the
court having jurisdiction in the matter shall issue such orders
as may be necessary to assure the equitable distribution of
compensation, including orders apportioning the payments to
be made to claimants and orders permitting partial payment to
be made before final determination of the total claims.
66. Without prejudice to rights of compensation under any Exclusions.
other law, the Minister may, if he determines that the small
extent of the risks involved so warrants, exclude any
prescribed small quantitites of any radioactive material,
nuclear material or prescribed substance from the application
of this Part.
PART X
GENERAL
67. (1) The Board may from time to time, subject to any Delegation of
special or general directions, delegate to any person or class of powers and
duties.
persons. (whether by name or office) such of its powers and
duties under this Act as it may think fit.
(2) Any delegation made under this section may at any time be
revoked or varied by the Board.
68. (1) The Minister may, for the purpose of carrying out the Regulations.
provisions of this Act, make regulations, including
regulations-
(a) for controlling, supervising and licensing the
production, application and use of atomic energy; and
(b) for regulating the production, import, export,
transport, refining, possession, ownership, use, sale or
disposal of or other dealing in any
[Pt. X, S. 68]
38 ACT 304
substance, irradiating apparatus or any other thing that
in the opinion of the Minister may be used for the
production, use or application of atomic energy.
(2) Without prejudice to the generality of subsection (1),

regulations may also be made for all or any of the following
purposes-
(a) making provision to secure that any radioactive product or
radioactive waste from any source whatsoever is accumulated
or disposed of safely;
(b) prescribing the method of treatment or disposal of any
conveyance, package or container that has been used to carry,
hold or store any radioactive material, nuclear material,
prescribed substance, irradiating apparatus or radioactive
waste;
(c) prescribing the purposes for which any radioactive
apparatus may be used and providing for the classification of
licences issued under this Act;
(d) prohibiting or restricting the use of any specified
radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed substance,
or of any specified radioactive material, nuclear material or
prescribed substance containing more than a specified
concentration of any radioactive chemical element;
(e) prohibiting or restricting the use of any specified type of
irradiating apparatus;
(f) requiring compliance with standards relating to
measurement of ionizing radiation;
(g) regulating the issuance by registered medical practitioners
of prescriptions containing any prescribed substance;
(h) regulating the dispensing and compounding by registered
pharmacists of prescriptions containing any prescribed
substance;
(i) providing for the making of returns in respect of any
irradiating apparatus
[Pt. X. S. 68-70]
and of the types and quantities of radioactive materials,

nuclear materials, prescribed substances or irradiating
apparatuses held;
(j) providing for the keeping by purchasers of radioactive
materials, nuclear materials, prescribed substances or
irradiating apparatuses of records specifying the purposes for
which the radioactive materials, nuclear materials, prescribed
substances or irradiating apparatuses are used, and for the
inspection of these records, and for the making of returns of
entries in these records;
(k) providing for the keeping of records of all applications of
ionizing radiation or prescribed substances for diagnostic or
therapeutic purposes;
(l) providing for the procedure and prescribing the forms for
applications, licences, registers, notices and other documents
required for the purposes of this Act;
(m) prescribing fees in respect of any licence under this Act or
for any matter in respect of which fees may be imposed under
this Act;
(n) providing for the regulation of appeals under Part VII; or
(o) prescribing anything which may be required for the
purposes of this Act.
69. (1) The Minister may by order in the Gazette, subject to Exemptions.
such conditions or restrictions as he may consider necessary or
expedient to impose, exempt any person or class of persons
from any or all of the provisions of this Act.
(2) Any order made under this section shall be laid before both
Houses of Parliament.
70. The Radioactive Substances Act 1968 is repealed: Repeal of
Radioactive
Provided that any permit issued under that Act shall remain substances
valid and be deemed to have been issued as a licence under Act 1968.
this Act by the appropriate authority, depending upon whether Act 17/68
the activity licensed is in
[Pt. X, S. 70-71]
40 ACT 304
respect of a medical purpose or a purpose other than a medical

purpose as determined by the Board, and shall have effect for
the period specified therein.
Operation
71. This Act shall be in addition to, and not in derogation of,
of Act
any other law relating to dangerous goods in force in any part
of Malaysia.
LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 2
September 1996
GUIDELINES ON RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING FOR

OIL AND GAS FACILITIES OPERATORS
ASSOCIATED WITH TECHNOLOGICALLY
ENHANCED NATURALLY OCCURING RADIOACTIVE
MATERIALS (TENORM)
ATOM I C ENERGY
LI CENSI NG BOARD
Kementerian Sains, Teknologi dan Inovasi,
Batu 24, Jalan Dengkil, 43800 Dengkil,
Selangor Darul Ehsan.
Tel : 03-89284100/89267699
Faks : 03-89223685
Homepage: http://www.aelb.gov.my
1
LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 2
September 1996
CONTENTS PAGE
1.0. SCOPE OF THE GUIDE 3
2.0. GLOSSARY 3
3.0. BACKGROUND 7
4.0. THE ATOMIC ENERGY LICENSING ACT 1984 (ACT 304) 8
5.0. MONITORING PARAMETERS 8
6.0. MONITORING REQUIREMENT 9
7.0. GENERAL GUIDELINES 10
8.0. USEFUL REFERENCES 11
APPENDIX A 13
APPENDIX B 15
APPENDIX C 18
APPENDIX D 21
APPENDIX E 23
APPENDIX F 25
APPENDIX G 28
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LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 2
September 1996
1.0 SCOPE OF THE GUIDE
1.1. This guide addresses the scope of radiological monitoring, which can be applied to
the oil and gas exploration and production facilities.
1.2. This guide contains recommended parameters to be monitored, locations for

monitoring and other general requirements.
1.3. The general guidelines are also for;
a. Dealing with radioactive contamination with TENORM in the oil and gas
exploration and production facilities;
b Entry, inspection and repair for large vessels;
c. Inspection and maintenance of equipment suspected of being

contaminated with TENORM;
d. Cleaning of items of equipment contaminated with TENORM;
e. Pulling well tubular contaminated with TENORM; and
f. Transport of equipment contaminated with TENORM.
1.4. This guide shall be subjected to changes by the AELB from time to time when or
where necessary.
2.0 GLOSSARY
"AELB" means Atomic Energy Licensing Board.
"Annual dose" means the dose received over a period of one calendar year.
"Annual dose limit" means the value of the annual dose that must not be exceeded.
"Approved registered medical practitioner" means a registered medical practitioner who is

approved by AELB to be responsible for the medical surveillance of workers.
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LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 2
September 1996
"Classified person" means a person who has been so designated in accordance with the
following conditions:
1. Subject to paragraph (3), the employer shall designate as classified
persons those of his employees who are likely to receive a dose of ionising
radiation, which exceeds three-tenths of the annual dose limit and shall
forthwith inform those employees that they have been so designated.
2. The employer shall not cease to treat an employee as a classified person

except at the end of a calendar year, unless he is required to do so by an
approved registered medical practitioner, and in any case where he ceases
to treat an employee as a classified person the employer shall forthwith
inform the employee that he is no longer a classified person.
3. An employer shall not designate an employee as a classified person unless:

a. That employee is aged 18 years or over; and
b. Subject to an approved registered medical practitioner has
certified in the health record that, in his professional opinion, that
employee is fit to be designated as a classified person.
“Clean area,” means an area where the annual dose received by a worker is not likely to
exceed one-tenth of the annual dose limit.

centimetres (Bq cm -2) for beta and gamma and low toxicity alpha emitters, or 0.04 Bq cm-2 for
all other alpha emitters.
"Controlled area" means an area where the annual dose received by a worker is likely to
exceed three-tenths of the annual dose limit.
"Conveyance" means includes a ship, train, vehicle, an aircraft, and any other means of
transport by which persons or goods may carried.
"Dose rate" means the dose per unit time.
4
LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 2
September 1996

A controlled area is one where the dose rate exceeds 7.5 µSv h-1
A supervised area is 1 one where the dose rate exceeds 2.5 µSv h-1 but is
less than 7.5 µSv h-1
b. Where there is surface contamination only (assuming radium-226, natural

thorium and progeny):
A controlled area is one where the contamination on a surface exceeds
7 Bq cm-2
A supervised area is one where the contamination level exceeds 2 Bq
cm–2 but is less than 7 Bq cm-2
c. Where there is airborne contamination only (assuming natural thorium as

the most restrictive radionuclide):
A controlled area is one where the airborne contamination level exceeds
1 X 10-2 Bq cm-3 .
A supervised area is one where airborne contamination is between 3 X 10-3
Bq m-3 and 1 x 10-2 Bq m-3
d. Where there is a combination of two more of external radiation, surface

contamination or airborne contamination:
A controlled area is one where the dose rate or contamination level is
greater than that appropriate to a supervised area for each separate
component. For example, a controlled area would be designated if:
External dose rate exceeds 2.5 µSv h-1
and surface contamination exceeds 2 Bq cm-2
or
External dose rate exceeds 2.5 µSv h-1
and airborne contamination exceeds 3 x 10-3 Bq m-3
“Environment" means shall have the meaning assigned to that expression Section 2 of the
Environmental Quality Act 1974 and, in addition thereto, shall include the marine environment.
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LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 2
September 1996
"Exploration and production" means oil "and gas exploration and production refer to all
activities and/or facilities that are involved in the exploration of petroleum (oil and/or gas) which
begin after sufficient exploration/appraisal programme has been initiated and end when the
petroleum is made available at the point of export, ready to be export or further processed.
"Radioactive contamination" means the contamination of any material, surface or

environment or of any person, including both external skin contamination and internal
contamination, irrespective of method of intake, by any radioactive material, nuclear material or
prescribed substance.
"Radioactive material" means any nuclear fuel, radioactive product or radioactive waste.
"Radiation Protection Officer (RPO)" means a technically competent person appointed by

the licensee and approved by AELB in writing, to supervise the implementation of the
appropriate radiation protection regulations, measures and procedures.
"Radiation Protection Supervisor (RPS), (may also be known as an assistant RPO)"

means a technically competent person appointed by the licensee and approved by AELB in
writing to assist the RPO in supervising the implementation of the appropriate radiation
protection regulations, measures and procedures.
"Radioactive waste" means any waste, which consists wholly or partly of-
a. A substance or article which if it were not waste would be radioactive
material; or
b. A substance or article which has been contaminated in the course of the
production, storage or use of any radioactive material, nuclear material or
prescribed substance or by contact with or proximity to any other waste
within the meaning of paragraph (a) of this definition.
"Supervised area" means an area where the annual dose received by a worker could exceed
one-tenth but is not likely to exceed three-tenth of the annual dose limit.
"TENORM" means technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive material.
"Transport" means all operation and conditions associated with and involved in the movement
of radioactive material, nuclear material or prescribed substance, including the preparation,
consigning, handling, carriage, storage in transit and receipt at the final destination of a
package.
"Worker" means any person working under the instruction of the licensee, whether or not
employed by the licensee, in the handling or use of, or in any activity that will bring him into
contact with, any radioactive material, nuclear material, prescribed substance or irradiating
apparatus.
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LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 2
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3.0 BACKGROUND
3.1. The presence of technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials

(TENORM) were detected in association with oil and gas production as early as 1904
in Canada and have since been observed in many hydrocarbon provinces. Discovery
of TENORM in scales and sludge’s on production equipment during the late 1980's in
Malaysia oil and gas production industry spotlighted potential health hazards from
radiation.
3.2. Scale begins to form in oil production tubing and process equipment as a
consequence of associated water production. In offshore areas, seawater injection
for reservoir pressure maintenance can aggravate the situation if there are chemical
incompatibilities between the seawater and formation water. The less saline
seawater may dissolve additional salts from minerals present in reservoir strata.
Temperature and pressure changes as the well fluids pass through production
equipment cause scale deposits under certain conditions. The most common scales
are calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, and barium sulphate and strontium
sulphate.
3.3. TENORM found in oilfield operations originates in subsurface oil and gas formations
and is typically transported to the surface in produced water. As the produced water
approaches the surface and its temperature drops, precipitates form in tubing strings
and surface equipment. The resulting scales and sludges may contain radium as
well as other uranium and thorium daughter products. In addition, radon is
sometimes contained in produced natural gas and can result in the formation of thin
radioactive lead films on the inner surface of gas processing equipment.
3.4. Measurements on the outer surface of equipment containing TENORM usually

indicate levels of radiation that are below levels considered to be concern. When
equipment is opened for inspection or repair, personnel can be exposed to
radioactivity by inhaling or ingesting TENORM. Therefore, in this situation, workers
should take precautions to prevent the generation of dust and wear protective
equipment. It is also important that TENORM waste or equipment containing
TENORM be managed and disposed by methods that protect the public from
unnecessary exposures.
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4.0 THE ATOMIC ENERGY LICENSING ACT 1984 (ACT 304)
4.1. The Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984 prescribed by provision of Section 12(1) b,
quotes.
"Without prejudice to the requirements of any other law, no person shall deal in,
possess or dispose of any radioactive material, nuclear material, prescribed
substance or irradiating apparatus, unless he is the holder of a valid license issued
under section 16(5) by the Board".
4.2. With regard to accumulation, disposal or transport of radioactive waste Section 26(1),
27(1) and 30(1) of the Act quotes respectively,
"No person shall disposed of or cause to be disposed, any radioactive waste without
the prior authorization in writing of the appropriate authority ".
"No person shall accumulate or cause to be accumulated any radioactive waste or

any premises without the prior authorization in writing of the appropriate authority".
"No person shall transport any radioactive waste without the prior authorization in
writing of the appropriate authority".
5.0 MONITORING PARAMETERS
5.1. All operators shall employ a Radiation Protection Officer (RPO) [regulation 23(1)
Radiation Protection (Basic Safety Standards) Regulations 19881 or appoint a
consultant approved by the Board [regulation 23(2) Radiation Protection (Basic
Safety Standards) Regulations 1988] for the purpose of monitoring and consultation
on radiological hazards. The monitoring shall include but not limited to the following
parameters.
5.1.1. External Radiation

External radiation from deposited scales is normally low due to shielding
effect of the vessel walls. In situ monitoring could be conducted using
calibrated survey meters and for long term accumulation using
thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD). The external radiation shall not
exceed 0.5 µ Sv h-1, which is equivalent to 1.0 mSv a year.
5.1.2. Surface Contamination

Surface alpha and beta contamination shall be monitored using portable
contamination monitors on any accessible surfaces. The surface will be
considered to be contaminated if for alpha emitters it exceeds 0.04 Bq cm-2
and others 0.4 Bq cm -2
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5.1.3. Airborne Contamination Monitoring

In dusty working environment, airborne dust shall be sampled and analyzed
for gross alpha and beta activity for determination of uranium 238 and
thorium 232 activity. The activity concentration shall not exceed
0.01 Bq m-3 for uranium and 0.001 Bq m-3 for thorium dust.
5.1.4. Management of Scales and Sludge

Scales and sludge collected from any works shall be sampled and analyzed
for its radioactivity content. The scales and sludge collected shall not be
accumulated or disposed without prior approval by the AELB. For disposal
purpose the operators shall be required to carry out a Radiological Impact
Assessment (RIA) of all proposed disposals to demonstrate that no
member of public will be exposed to more than 1 msv/year from all
activities. Scope of RIA is shown in Appendix A.
5.2. The routine monitoring is recommended to be conducted at a suitable frequency for

at least once a year for normal operation and shall include parameters 5.1.1 and
5.1.2.
5.3. Similar monitoring shall also be conducted prior to and after shutdown, workover, and
descaling and related equipment maintenance, which shall include parameters 5.1.1,
5.1.2 and 5.1.3
6.0 MONITORING REQUIREMENT

6.1. Once the existence of scales is established, it is essential that regular monitoring of
the overall production system is performed in order to establish the extent of
deposition. The monitoring shall include but not limited to the following locations.
6.1.1. Top Side Production System

The deposition could extent throughout the oil production train, the
produced water system and the gas separation system, Consequently,
many equipment’s are liable to scaling, and these may undergo
maintenance, replacement or simple cleaning. Personnel must have prior
knowledge of how to deal safety and effectively with this problem prior to
commencing such works.
6.1.2. Offloading Points

The monitoring shall also be conducted on associated flow lines in order to
establish whether the scales have been transferred through the risers to be
deposited within these offloading points.
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6.1.3. Terminals
Processing terminals from installations shall also routinely monitored. The
deposition may similarly extend throughout the whole oil processing and
water treatment system.
7.0 GENERAL GUIDELINES
7.1. When and where the derived limits in section 5.0 are exceeded, the operators shall
inform the AELB for negotiation of the necessary regulatory requirements.
7.2. Scope of RIA (Appendix A).
7.3. Guidelines for radioactive contamination with TENORM in oil and gas exploration and
production facilities (Appendix B).
7.4. Guidelines for the entry, inspection and repair of large vessels (Appendix C).
7.5. Guidelines for the inspection and maintenance of equipment suspected of being
contaminated with TENORM (Appendix D).
7.6. Guidelines for the cleaning of item of equipment contaminated with TENORM
(Appendix E).
7.8. Guidelines for pulling well tubular contaminated with TENORM (Appendix F).
7.9. Guidelines for the transport of equipment contaminated with TENORM (Appendix G).
7.10. The operators shall organize a suitable training programme for all personnel working
in supervised or controlled areas on a regular basis. The training shall include basic
introduction to radiation protection to detail technical work procedures involving
radioactive scales, surface contamination and contaminated air.
7.11. The transportation of any scales, sludges, contaminated tubing or any equipment
shall be in accordance with the requirements of Radiation Protection (Transport)
Regulation 1989.
7.12. All descaling process shall be conducted, monitored or supervised by RPO or

Radiation Protection Supervisor (RPS) or consultant recognised by the AELB.
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8.0 USEFUL REFERENCES
The following are useful references to be read together with this guide:-
1. Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984 (Act 304): AELB, Kuala Lumpur.
2. Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984. Radiation Protection (Licensing) 1986: AELB,
Kuala Lumpur.
3. Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984. Radiation Protection (Basic Safety Standards)
1988: AELB, Kuala Lumpur.
4. Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984. Radiation Protection (Transportation) 1989:

AELB, Kuala Lumpur.
5. International Atomic Energy Agency (1983). Radiation Protection of Workers in

Mining and Milling Radioactive Ores: IA.EA Safety Series No. 26, IAEA, Vienna.
6. International Atomic Energy Agency (1995). IAEA Expert Reports Project 544
MAL/9/011-4 Technical Assistance to AELB, IAEA, Vienna.
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APPENDICES
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APPENDIX A
RADIOLOGICAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (RIA)

FOR OIL AND GAS SLUDGES
RIA METHODOLOGY
The methodology for the RIA study that will employed for the project is outlined as follows: -
Assessment of the radiological impact or consequences of releases of contaminated sludge into the
environment involves a quantities estimate.
The assessment involves the following steps:

i. Collection/compilation of site specific data characterising the geohydrological setting,
background radiation levels and radioactivity concentration in various environmental
media including soil, subsoil, surface water, ground water, airborne dusts, fauna and
flora.
ii. Identification and quantification of the source terms (input of naturally occurring
radioactive materials into the proposed landfill), the chemical and physical form of the
radionuclides the points of release, and the time distribution of release.
iii. Identification of the potential environmental pathways.
iv. Identification of the critical population.
v. Assessment of the individual and collective dose and its associated excess cancer
risks using a computer modelling.
REPORTING
The report will be formatted as follows:
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY (English and BM versions)
PROJECT BACKGROUND
- Project title
- Project initiator
- Statement of need
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PROJECT DESCRIPTION
- Technical data
- Maps and diagrams
- Emissions to the environment
THE EXISTING ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL SIGNIFICANT IMPACT
RADIOLOGICAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

- Scope
- Source of impact
- Nature of Impact (magnitude and duration)
- Significance of impact
MITIGATION AND ABATEMENT MEASURES
RESIDUAL IMPACTS
CONCLUSIONS
DATA SOURCES
DETAILS OF ASESSMENT MODELS
LIST OF REFERENCES
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APPENDIX B
GUIDELINES FOR RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINATION WITH TENORM IN THE OIL AND GAS
EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION FACILITIES
1. This guidelines applies to non-classified persons who must be aged 18 years or over and are
employed in CONTROLLED AREAS in the inspection, operation, manipulation, maintenance
and cleaning of equipment which is contaminated by TENORM.
2. A CONTROLLED AREA means any area in which either the dose equivalent rate is greater
than 7.5 µSv h-1 or the surface contamination is greater than 7 Bq cm-2 or where the dose
equivalent rate exceeds 2.5 µSv h-1 and the surface contamination level exceeds 2 Bq cm-2
and where the dose equivalent rate does not exceed 30 µSv h-1.
[The dose equivalent rate limit of 30 µSv h-1 is such that a person who works in that area for
the maximum permissible time of 500 hours is likely to exceed three-tenths of the annual dose
limit for a radiation workers of 50 mSv/year (i.e. 15 mSv)].
3. The equipment referred to in paragraph no. 1 (Appendix A) means any pipework, enclosed
vessel or component of plant which is contaminated or is liable to be contaminated by scale,
sludge or active and to a level in exceeds of 7 Bq cm-2 or which gives rise to a dose equivalent
rate to penetrating radiation in exceeds of 7.5 µSv h-1 but nor exceeding 30 µSv h-1.
4. No person shall be employed in CONTROLLED AREAS in the processes specified in

paragraph no. 1 (Appendix A) for more than 500 hours in any calendar year.
5. No person shall stay longer than necessary in a CONTROLLED AREA.
6. A record of the time spent in the controlled area and the dose rate and surface contamination
level shall be kept for each person employed in accordance with these guidelines.
7. No person shall be employed in a CONTROLLED AREA or engaged on the maintenance,

cleaning or manipulation of equipment unless Work Permit in accordance with paragraph no. 8
(Appendix A) has been issued.
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8. Every Work Permit issued for the purposes of paragraph no. 7 (Appendix A) shall state:
a. The name of the person to whom it is issued;
b. The equipment and work to which it refers;
c. The guidelines under which the work is to be carried out; and
d. The period of time for which it is valid
and shall be signed by the RPO or RPS.
9. Any person working in accordance with the conditions of a Work Permit specified in paragraph
no. 7 (Appendix A) and no. 8 (Appendix A) shall wear suitable protective clothing as specified
in the appropriate guidelines.
10. Dedicated washing, changing and monitoring facilities shall be provided as close as is
reasonably practical to the exit from a CONTROLLED AREA. After decontamination, any
person leaving a CONTROLLED AREA must be monitored for contamination and should be
advised to wash his face and hands as soon as possible.
11. Eating, drinking, chewing of gum, or doing anything, which might encourage the ingestion of
contamination, will be prohibited when working with TENORM.
Minor cuts, etc, must be covered with suitable waterproof adhesive dressings before entry to
the area.
12. All reasonably practical measures, as specified in the relevant guidelines, shall be taken to
reduce the production of airborne radioactive material and to prevent the spread of surface
contamination within the plant.
13. On completion of work and before removing the restriction, designated areas must be
monitored and the contamination levels and doses equivalent rates shown to be less than 2 Bq
cm-2 and less than 2.5 µSv h-1 respectively.
Where it is not possible to decontaminate to these levels, the area must remain SUPERVISED
or CONTROLLED and appropriate precautions taken and records amended.
14. The dose equivalent rate shall be measured frequently whilst work is being carried out in a
CONTROLLED AREA or on relevant equipment. In the event that a dose rate exceeds 30
µSv h-1 work shall cease in that area or on that equipment and the RPO or RPS shall be
immediately notified. Work will only be allowed to commence under new terms which will be
specified after consultation between the Company Safety Officer or Platform Supervisor and
the RPO or RPS.
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15. The RPO or RPS must ensure that workers employed under these guidelines are familiar with
the procedures laid out in these guidelines and in any relevant guidelines, which are in force.
16. a. The RPO or RPS shall keep radiological Exposure Records for the calendar year to
which they apply. The records shall be kept for a minimum of five years from the
date of the last entry.
b. Permit to work shall be kept for a minimum of five years from the date of the last entry.
c. Records relating to long term SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREAS (see no. 13,
Appendix A) shall be kept the RPO or RPS at site until restrictions can be lifted.
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APPENDIX C
GUIDELINES FOR THE ENTRY, INSPECTION AND REPAIR OF LARGE VESSELS
1. These GUIDELINES apply to work on or inside vessels affected or potentially affected by

TENORM. Since these vessels may be or may give rise to CONTROLLED or SUPERVISED
AREAS, work should only proceed when suitable calibrated radiation dose rate and surface
contamination measuring instruments are available, under the guidance of the RPO or RPS,
and in accordance with the measure described below.
2. Before any work is carried out on the vessel, dose equivalent rates should measured external
to the vessel in order to give a preliminary indication of the extent of the TENORM within the
vessel. Attempts should then be made to remove as much sand and sludge from the vessel as
possible by remote means such as sand washing. The sand and sludge from the vessel may
itself be contaminated and if so should be disposed of in accordance with no. 12 (appendix B)
of the guidelines.
3. Prior to work commencing, a marked area of minimum practical size should be set up at point
of access to the vessel and at any point where pipework is to disconnect from the vessel.
Eating, drinking, etc must be prohibited within this area.
4. The marked areas should have suitable sheeting, laid on the floor or scaffolding platform and
should be cordoned off and clearly marked. Waterproof protection clothing, comprising of one-
piece coveralls gloves, boots and respirators should be available at the entrance to the areas.
Water and paper towels should also be provided for decontamination.
5. It should be assumed that the marked areas would become contaminated to at least
SUPERVISED AREA levels. Entry to them shall be strictly limited to workers working in
accordance with these guidelines. Periodic contamination measurements shall be made to
determine if there are needs to be upgraded to a CONTROLLED AREA at which time entry
would be restricted to Classified Workers or persons working in accordance with the guidelines.
6. All workers entering a SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREA must wear protective clothing
and the respirators provided.
7. When pipework is disconnected from the vessel the RPO or RPS should take measurements to
ascertain whether contamination is present inside the pipework. If so, the ends of the pipework
should be sealed (e.g. wrapped with plastic sheeting) and any smaller items such as gasket
rings should be sealed in plastic bags.
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8. After the access points to the vessel have been opened, the interior of the vessel should be
hosed down to remove loose contamination, sand and sludge. So far as is possible this should
be done from the points of access, and before anyone actually enters the vessel. The hoses
used should be earthen to the vessel.
9. The RPO or RPS should make an initial assessment of the radiation hazard by measuring
radiation dose rates and contamination levels through the access point.
The first person to enter the vessel will be the RPO or RPS and he will wear full breathing
apparatus and protective clothing.
The RPO or RPS will make radiation dose rate and surface contamination measurements
within all accessible areas of the vessel and will declare areas of the vessel either free of
contamination, a SUPERVISED AREA or a CONTROLLED AREA. A normal Work Permit will
be issued for a vessel free of contamination. If contamination is present a Work Permit will
specify that work may continue in accordance with these GUIDELINES. If the vessel is
declared a CONTROLLED AREA entry will be strictly limited to Classified Workers or persons
working in accordance with the guidelines. Work will not proceed if the measured dose rate
exceeds 30 µsvh-1 and the Platform Supervisor or Company Safety Officer must be
immediately notified.
10. Workers authorised in accordance with the vessel's area designation may now enter the
vessel. If high pressure water jetting or grit blasting is to be carried out the workers should
wear approved breathing apparatus or filter respirators in addition to their protective clothing.
For other operations inside the vessel workers should wear a filter respirator and appropriate
protective clothing.
11. When work starts on equipment which has been declared a CONTROLLED AREA, the RPO or
RPS should ensure that a record is kept for each non-classified person as detailed in the
guidelines (no.6, Appendix A).
12. Any discharge from the vessel may comprise radioactive waste and therefore must be disposed
of in accordance with the conditions of the issued to the site or installation.
13. When any components inside the vessel are loosened for removal, any scale which might be
released should be washed away. The component parts themselves should be cleaned as far
as possible before they are removed from the vessel.
14. All items of equipment removed from the vessel should be monitoring for contamination. If
contamination greater than 2 Bq cm-2 is present and cannot be removed within the designated
are, the items should be wrapped in plastic prior to their removal to another designated storage
or cleaning area. Items to be cleaned should be cleaned in accordance with the GUIDELINES
FOR CLEANING CONTAMINATED EQUIPMENT (Appendix E).
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15. Prior to any worker leaving the vessel his protective clothing should be washed down to
remove any loose contamination.
16. Before any worker is allowed to leave a SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREA his protective
clothing, must be monitored for contamination. If any contamination is present it should be
wiped down using wet paper towels until the contamination is less than 2 Bq cm-2. All
protective clothing used inside a SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREA should be removed
before leaving the area. The worker should be advised to wash his face and hands as soon as
possible.
17. All tools and ancillary equipment used inside the vessel should be monitored for contamination
when they are removed from the vessel. If contamination is present it should be wiped off
using wet paper towels.
18. Any item of equipment which are contaminated, and which are to be disposed of, should be
disposed of in accordance with the GUIDELINES FOR THE TRANSPORT OF EQUIPNIENT
CONTAMINATED WITH TENORM (Appendix F).
19. On completion of the job the floor coverings used in SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREAS
should be removed and the floor should be monitored for contamination. If contamination is
present the floor should be cleaned until the contamination is below 2 Bq cm -2.
20. Any drains used within the SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREA should be flushed with
copious amounts of water on completion of the job.
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APPENDIX D
GUIDELINES FOR THE INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT SUSPECTED OF

BEING CONTAMINATED WITH TENORM
1. These guidelines apply to work on pipework of equipment in areas affected for potentially
affected by TENORM. They apply in addition to normal Work Permit requirements. This
equipment may be or may give rise to CONTROLLED AREAS or SUPERVISED AREAS.
Work should proceed only when suitable calibrated radiation and surface contamination
measuring instruments are available; under the guidance of the RPO; and in accordance with
the measures described below.
2. A marked area of minimum practical size should be set up around the piece of equipment to be
worked on. Eating, drinking, etc. must be prohibited within the marked area.
3. The marked area should have sheeting laid on the floor, or scaffolding platform. The areas
should be cordoned off and clearly marked. Waterproof protective clothing, comprising one
piece coveralls, gloves, boots and respirators should be available at the entrance to the areas.
4. The area should be cordoned off, and entry to the area should be strictly limited to workers
working in accordance with these guidelines.
5. All workers entering the area must change into the protective clothing provided.
6. When the equipment has been opened up, the RPO or RPS will make radiation dose rate and
surface contamination measurements and will declare the equipment either frees from
contamination, a SUPERVISED AREA or a CONTROLLED AREA. A normal Work Permit will
be issued for equipment free from contamination. If contamination is present a Work Permit
will specify that work continue in accordance with these GUIDELINES. If the equipment is
declared a CONTROLLED AREA, entry to the marked area will be strictly limited to persons
working in accordance with the guidelines or Classified Workers. Work will not proceed if the
measured dose rate exceeds 30 µSv h-1.
7. When it is practicable, component parts should be hosed down in situ before they are removed
from the piece of equipment being worked. All components, tools, etc. removed from the
equipment should be monitored for contamination. If contamination greater than 2 Bq cm-2 is
present and cannot be removed within the designated area the items should be wrapped in
plastic prior to their removed to another designated storage or cleaning area. Items to be
cleaned should be cleaned in accordance with the GUIDELINES FOR CLEANING
CONTAMINATED EQUIPMENT.
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8. Items of equipment which are to be scrapped or sent for renovation should be disposed if in
accordance with the GUIDELINES FOR THE TRANSPORT OF CONTAMINATED
EQUIPMENT.
9. The RPO or RPS should ensure that representative samples of the radiological contamination
encountered on the equipment are taken and sent for content and specific activity (Bq g-1)
analysis.
10. Before any worker is allowed to leave a SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREA his protective
clothing, must be monitored for contamination. If any contamination is present it should be
wiped down using wet paper towels until the contamination is less than 2 Bq cm-2. All protective
clothing used inside a SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREA should be removed before
leaving the area. Workers should be advised to wash their faces and hands as soon as
possible.
11. When work starts on equipment which has been declared a CONTROLLED AREA the RPO or
guidelines (no. 6, Appendix A).
12. On completion of the job any tools and equipment used during the job should be monitored for
contamination. If any contamination is present this should be removed by wiping with wet
paper towels.
13. On completion of the job the floor covering, used in a SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREA
should be removed and the floor should be monitored for contamination is present, the floor
should be cleaned until contamination of the job.
14. Any drains used within the SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREAS should be flushed with
copious amounts of water on completion of the job.
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APPENDIX E
GUIDELINES FOR THE CLEANING OF ITEMS OF EQUIPMENT CONTAMINATED WITH TENORM
1. These guidelines should be applied when it is necessary to clean items of equipment

contaminated with TENORM.
2. A SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREA should be set up as appropriate in which the

cleaning operations are to be carried out. Eating, drinking, etc must be prohibited in the area.
3. It is responsibility of the RPO or RPS to choose the location for the SUPERVISED or
CONTROLLED AREA and to approve its design and construction.
The CONTROLLED or SUPERVISED AREA should be set up in such a way as to prevent the
spread of radioactive contamination from it. Waterproof protective clothing, comprising one
piece coveralls, gloves, boots and respirators should be available at the entrance to the area.
4. The preferred method for cleaning is by water washing or high pressure water jetting. If
mechanical means are used, the item of equipment being cleaned should be kept wet at all
times to minimise the production of airborne contamination.
5. Workers carrying out the cleaning must wear protective clothing, comprising one piece
coveralls, glove and boots. If high pressure jetting is being used, airline breathing apparatus or
approved respirators should be worn. If mechanical means are being used, filter respirators
should be used. If the area is CONTROLLED, work must be carried out by Classified Workers
or in accordance with the SCHEME CONTROLLED, works must be carried out by Classified
Workers or in accordance with the guidelines.
6. When items have been cleaned to a satisfactory mechanical condition they should be
monitored to check for residual radioactive contamination. If contamination in excess of 2 Bq
cm-2 is present the items should be wrapped in plastic bags before they are removed from the
SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREA and until they are re-installed IN THE PLANT OR
DISPOSED OF AS APPROPRIATE. If no contamination is present the items can be handled
in a normal manner.
7. Before any worker is allowed to leave a SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREA, his protective
clothing must be monitored for contamination. If any contamination is present it should be
wiped down using wet paper towels until the contamination is less than 2 Bq cm-2. All protective
clothing used inside a SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREA should be removed before
leaving the area. Workers should be advised to wash their face and hands as soon as
possible.
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8. When works starts on equipment which has been declared a CONTROLLED AREA the RPO or
guidelines (see no. 6, Appendix A).
9. Any solid lumps of TENORM released during the job should be collected and placed in a
container. The lumps should then be broken up and disposed of in accordance with the
conditions of the disposal licence [Radiation Protection (Licensing) Regulations 1986 Part 11
Classification of License Section 3(G) and also Part IV Application for Amendment and
Renewal of License, Section 13 (l)] .
10. The RPO or RPS should ensure that representative samples of the radiological contamination
encountered in the vessel are taken and sent for content and specific activity (Bq g-1) analysis.
11. On completion of the job any tools and equipment used should be monitored for contamination
before they are removed from the area. If any contamination is present it should be wiped off
with wet paper towels.
12. On completion of work and before removing the restrictions, designated areas must be
monitored and the contamination levels and doses equivalent rates shown to be less than 2 Bq
cm-2 and less than 2.5 µsvh-1 respectively.
Where to decontaminate to these levels, then the area must remain SUPERVISED or
CONTROLLED and appropriate precautions taken and records amended.
13. The drains within the SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREA should be flushed with copious
volumes of water on completion of the job.
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APPENDIX F
GUIDELINES FOR PULLING WELL TUBULARS CONTAMINATED WITH TENORM
1 The guidelines must be applied when it is known or suspected that the well tubular to be pulled
have internal or external surface contamination is excess of 2 Bq cm-2
Note: The GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT apply
to the removal of flow lines, Xmas trees, etc.
2. A permit to work, countersigned by the RPO or RPS, must be issued to allow the opening of
any equipment which is suspected or know to contact TENORM.
3. Prior to pulling tubular the working area of the drill floor, excluding the doghouse, should be
designated and marked as a SUPERVISED AREA. Entry to this area should be strictly limited
to those working in accordance with these GUIDELINES. Eating, drinking, etc must be
prohibited within the marked area.
4. As far as is practicable, the flooring of the designated area should be covered with sheeting.
Protective clothing comprising one piece coveralls, gloves, boots, respirators should be
available at the entrance to the drill floor. Workers handling uncapped tubular must wear this
clothing.
5. Water and paper towels should be provided inside SUPERVISED and CONTROLLED AREAS
for decontamination of protective clothing.
6. The first five joints of tubing recovered should be monitored by the RPO or RPS -for
contamination and dose rate. If contamination and dose rate greater than 2 Bq cm -2 and 2.5
µSv h-1 are found, the area will remain SUPERVISED or if greater than 7 Bq cm-2 and 7.5 µSv
h-1 be upgraded to CONTROLLED AREA when the guidelines will apply.
If contamination is less than 2 Bq cm-2, restrictions may be relaxed, but the contamination level
should me measured every ten joints or when the interior condition of the tubing appears to
change if this is sooner.
Subsequent restrictions will depend upon the contamination levels found.
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7. If contamination is found and the drill floor working is continues to be designated a

SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREA. All personnel working in the drill floor must wear full
protective clothing.
The protective clothing must be monitored of contamination. If any contamination is present it
should be wiped down using wet paper towels until the contamination is less than 2 Bq cm-2.
All protective clothing used inside a SUPERVISED or CONTROLLED AREA should be
removed leaving the designated area personnel should be advised to wash their faces and
hands.
8. Before each tubing connection is broken, it should be checked to ensure that it is drained of
fluid. The bottom of each joint of contaminated tubing should be capped with a solid cap
immediately the connection is broken or immediately after carrying out the contamination
survey. The joint must be capped while it is still hanging vertically. As the joint is swung out
through the 'V' door the top of the joint should be capped with a solid cap.
9. Each joint of contaminated tubing should be clearly marked with an identification number and
labelled 'TENORM Contamination'. The identification number should be such that the well of
origin and the position of the joint in the well can be traced.
10. Radiation dose rate measurements should be made around bundles of tubing on the pipe rack.
If the dose rate is greater than 7.5 µSv h-1 entry to this area should be restricted and a record
to how long anyone spends inside the area will have to be kept as detail in the GUIDELINES.
If the dose rate measurement is between 2.5 µ h-1 to 7.5 µSv h-1 the area will become a
SUPERVISED AREA.
If the absence of surface contamination (i.e. the radioactive material is sealed inside the
capped tubular the requirement to wear respirators will not apply.
11. The RPO or RPS should ensure that a record is kept for all non-classified workers involved in
CONTROLLED AREAS in handling uncapped tubular, decontaminating the CONTROLLED
AREA or entering a CONTROLLED AREA which may exist due to accumulation of tubing on
the piperack.
12. Regular check should be made to monitor whether any contamination is present on surfaces of
the drill floor, well compartment and pipe deck storage area. If any contamination is present
this should be wiped away using wet paper towels.
Hosing away of contamination should only be done when the contamination can be directed
straight into drains leading to the sea sump or mud outfall. On completion of the job a full
check should be made of all CONTROLLED or SUPERVISED AREAS and areas below them
which may have become contaminated for residual contamination.
26
LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 2
September 1996
13. Samples of any scale or sludge found inside the tubing string should be taken and sent for
radiochemical analysis to determine its specific activity.
14. If contamination has been found, the mud system should be flushed, drained and checked to
ensure that no contamination remains on completion of the workover. All tools used during the
workover must be monitored for contamination, which should be removed by wiping with wet
paper towels.
15. The procedure for transport and disposal of contaminated tubular is detailed in GUIDELINES
FOR THE TRAINSPORT OF EQUIPMENT CONTAMINATED WITH TENORM (APPENDIX
G).
27
LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 2
September 1996
APPENDIX G
GUIDELINES FOR THE TRANSPORT OF EQUIPMENT CONTAMINATED WITH TENORM
GENERAL
Disposal of any equipment contaminated with radioactive scale must be in STRICT ACCORDANCE with
the terms of the licence issued by the Atomic Energy Licensing Board for the particular installation or
terminal.
1. Equipment contaminated with TENORM must be sent for decontamination prior to its
'disposal'. These guidelines govern the transportation of equipment for decontamination. They
apply to all equipment contaminated with radioactive scale or sludge which has a surface
contamination greater than 0.04 Bq cm-2. In this context 'disposal' means equipment, which
may later be resold, reused or scrapped.
2. The equipment must be sent for decontamination to a company, which is licensed to carry out
such work by the Atomic Energy Licensing Board.
Prior to shipment, the RPO or RPS must make an estimate of the total weight of scale
contained within the equipment. Samples of the scale should also be taken and sent for
content and specific activity analysis.
3. The loss of TENORM from each item must be prevented. This may be achieved in the case of
small items by wrapping in plastic sheeting or in the case of pipework, tubular or large items by
capping or sealing each opening.
4. Items suitable for containerisation must be individually labelled and securely stowed within a
cargo carrying unit allocated and labelled specifically for that particular consignment of
equipment contaminated with TENORM.
Tubular / deck cargo must be segregated and labelled in accordance with the Radiation
Protection (Transport) Regulations 1989 and prepared for shipment in the normal manner.
5. Prior to shipment the RPO or RPS should ensure that each individual item including each
tubular is clearly marked with an identification number (ID).
In addition tubular will have an ID number, which should relate to the well of origin and the
position of the joint in the well.
28
LEM/TEK/33 Rev. 1
02 December 2008
CODE OF PRACTICE ON
IN INDUSTRIAL
RADIOGRAPHY

Kementerian Sains, Teknologi dan Inovasi
Batu 24, Jalan Dengkil, 43800 Dengkil
Selangor Darul Ehsan
Tel: 03-89225888
Fax: 03-89223685 / 03-89254578
Web Site: http://www.aelb.gov.my
1
CODE OF PRACTICE ON RADIATION
PROTECTION IN INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
PART I
INTRODUCTION
1. Purpose of Code of Practice 1

2. Specialized Meanings for “shall” and "should" 1
3. Definitions 1
PART II
ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES
Chapter 1: Compliance With Legal Requirements
4. The Relevant Act and Subsidiary Legislations 3

5. Licence Requirement 4
Chapter 2: Responsibilities of Persons Involved in

Industrial Radiography
6. Responsibilities of a Licensee
6.1 Compliance with Licence Conditions 4
6.2 Protection of Workers and Members of the Public 4
6.3 Establishment and Implementation of a Radiation 5
Protection Programme
6.3.1 Establishment of a Radiation Protection Programme 6
6.3.1.1 Organizational Structure Pertaining to 6
Radiation
Protection
6.3.1.2 Employment of a Radiation Protection 8
Officer
6.3.1.3 Medical Surveillance of a Worker 9
6.3.1.4 Personal Monitoring 9
6.3.1.5 Area Monitoring 10
6.3.1.6 Operational Limit 11
6.3.1.7 Classification of Working Areas and 11
Setting Up
of Barriers
6.3.1.8 Normal Working Procedures 11
6.3.1.9 Procedures for Transportation of a 11
Package
Containing Sealed Source
6.3.1.10 Procedures Under Normal Conditions 12
6.3.1.11 Training of a Worker 13
6.3.1.12 Procedures for Keeping and Transferring 13
Records / Document
6.3.2 Implementation of a Radiation Protection 13
Programme
i
6.3.2.1 Arrangement for the Service of an 16
Approved
Registered Medical Practitioner
PART III
RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT SAFETY DEVICES
Chapter 3: Radiographic Equipment
10. General Requirements 17

11. Apparatus for X Radiography 17
11.1 General Requirements 17
11.2 Regular Inspection of the X-Ray Equipment 17
12. Apparatus for Gamma Radiography 18
12.1 General Requirements 18
12.2 Maintenance of an Apparatus for Gamma Radiography 20
13. Pipeline Crawler Equipment 21
Chapter 4: Safety Devices
14. General 22
15. Approved Personnel Monitoring Devices 23
16. Survey Meter 23
17. Warning Sign 23
18. Notices 28
PART IV
NORMAL WORKING PROCEDURES
Chapter 5: Planning A Working Procedure
19. General 29
20. Radiographic Sites 29
21. Prior to Radiographic Operation 29
22. During Radiographic Operation 36
23. After Radiographic Operation 36
Chapter 6: Planned Special Exposure
Chapter 7: Storage
25. Storage of Apparatus for X Radiography 37

26. Storage of a Sealed Source 37
26.1 General 38
26.2 Storage Pit 38
26.3 Storage Room 39
26.4 Storage Enclosure 39
26.5 Temporary Storage Vehicle 39
ii
Chapter 8: Source Changing
27. General Procedures 40
PART V
TRANSPORTATION OF A PACKAGE CONTAINING
SEALED SOURCE
28. General Procedures 41
Chapter 9: Packaging
29. General 41
30. Receiving of a Packaging Containing Sealed Source 41
31. Labeling of a Packaging Containing Sealed Source 42
32. Requirements for Import/Export of Radiographic 42
Equipment
Chapter 10: Requirements for Transportation of a

Package Containing Sealed Source
33. General 44
34. Transportation of a Package Containing Sealed Source by 45
Road
Sea or Inland Waterway Vessel
Air
PART VI
PROCEDURES UNDER ABNORMAL SITUATIONS
Chapter 11: General Requirements
37. Reporting 48
38. Equipment to be Used Under Abnormal Situations 48
Chapter 12: Procedures Under Abnormal Situations

With Radiographic Equipment While In Operation
39. X-Ray Equipment 48

40. Sealed Source 49
41. Pipeline Crawler Machine 51
Chapter 13: Procedures Under Abnormal Situations

With Radiographic Equipment While Not In Operation
42. Damage or Malfunction 51

43. Sealed Source Involved in Fire 51
44. Theft or Loss of Radiographic Equipment 52
45. Accident While Transporting a Package Containing 52
Sealed Source
iii
Chapter 14: Overexposure

46.1 For Workers 53
46.2 For Members of the Public 53
References 54
Appendix 64
iv
PART I
INTRODUCTION
1. Purpose of Code of Practice
(a) The purpose of this Code of Practice is to provide minimum requirements

for radiation protection in the use of x and gamma rays in industrial
radiography.
2. Specialized meanings for "shall" and "should"
The words shall and should, where used in this Code, have specialized meanings:
"Shall" indicates that the particular requirement is to be complied with. "Should"
indicates that the particular requirement is to be complied, wherever practicable to
further improve the situation or performance.
3. Definitions
"abnormal situation" means any event which may cause over exposure to workers
and members of the public [P.U (A)61 Reg.3];
"apparatus for gamma radiography” means an apparatus, including its exposure

container and accessories, designed to enable gamma radiation emitted by a sealed
source to be used for industrial radiography;
"Board" means the Board established under section 3 of the Atomic Energy
Licensing Act 1984 [Act 304 Sec .3];
“calibrated” means an instrument, component or system that has undergone the

measurement of, or adjustment to, to ensure its accuracy or response is acceptable
and the processes are performed by an agency recognized and approved by the
appropriate authority;
"collimator" means a device to limit a useful beam to the required cross-sectional

area of interest;
"controlled area" means any area in which specific protection measures and safety
provisions are or could be required for controlling normal exposures or preventing
the spread of contamination during normal working condition, and preventing or
limiting the extent of potential;
"exposure container" means a shield in the form of a container designed to allow

controlled use of gamma radiation and employing one or more sealed sources;
"fully enclosed site" means an enclosed site such as a shielded room, the boundary
of which is formed wholly by suitably designed physical barriers and access is
controlled by physical barriers;
1
"Half-Value-Layer (HVL)” means thickness of a certain material required to
reduce radiation of a known energy range and intensity, to half of its original
intensity. This can also be expressed as the quotient of 0.693 by the linear
attenuation coefficient of the material;
"industrial radiography" means a non-destructive technique of examining structure

of materials utilizing x-rays, neutron or gamma rays;
“interlock” means a device or system for precluding access to an area of radiation

hazard either by preventing entry or by automatically stopping the exposure;
"leak test" means a technique for checking the escape of radioactive material from
the source capsule;
"leakage radiation" means all radiation emitted from the exposure container or x-
ray tube housing other than the useful beam;
"open site" means a site, where the boundary of the controlled area is formed by
physical barriers, but access to the area is not prevented by these physical barriers
alone;
"partly enclosed site” means an enclosed site, the boundary of which lies wholly
or partly outside the suitably designed physical barriers;
“package” means packaging with radioactive contents as presented for transport;
"person" means any individual, partnership, private or public body whether

corporate or not, institution or organization, or any international body, institution
or organization enjoying legal personality;
"planned special exposure" means voluntary exposure during normal operation

whereby one or more of the annual dose limits for a worker are likely to be
exceeded, permitted only in situations when alternative techniques, which do not
involve such exposure, cannot be used [P.U (A)61 Reg.3];
"public area" means the area which is normally visited or occupied by members of
the public;
"radiographic equipment" includes x-ray equipment for industrial radiography,

apparatus for gamma radiography and pipeline crawler equipment;
"source" means any material or irradiating apparatus which emits x or gamma

radiation suitable for industrial radiography;
2
"shutter" means a device fixed to the x-ray tube housing or exposure container
capable of intercepting the useful beam;
"source changer" means a device designed and used for replacement of sealed
source in an exposure container;
"special arrangement" means an arrangement, approved by the Board, under which

a consignment which does not fully satisfy the applicable requirements of these
Regulations may be transported;
"Tenth-Value-Layer (TVL)”means the thickness of a certain material required to

reduce the radiation of a known energy range and intensity, to one-tenth of its
original intensity. This can also be expressed as the quotient of 2.303 by the linear
attenuation coefficient of the material;
"useful beam" means that part of the radiation which passes through the window,
aperture, cone or other collimating device of the x-ray tube or exposure container;
"worker includes any person working under the instruction of the licensee,
whether or not employed by the licensee, in the handling or use of, or who will
come into contact with, any radioactive material or irradiating apparatus [P.U
(A)61 Reg. 3].
PART II
ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES
Chapter 1: Compliance With Legal Requirements
4. The Relevant Act and Subsidiary Legislations
4.1 Radiation protection in industrial radiography activities in Malaysia are governed

by the following legal instruments:
(a) The Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984 (Act 304)
(b) The Radiation Protection (Licensing) Regulations 1986 (P.U.(A) 149)
(c) The Radiation Protection (Basic Safety Standards) Regulations 1988
(P.U.(A) 61)
(d) The Radiation Protection (Transport) Regulations 1989. (P.U.(A) 456).
4.2 The Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984 is the principle law while the Radiation
Protection (Licensing) Regulations 1986, the Radiation Protection (Basic Safety
Standards) Regulations 1988 and the Radiation Protection (Transport) Regulations
1989 are the subsidiary legislations made under it. The Radiation Protection (Basic
Safety Standards) Regulations 1988 and the Radiation Protection (Transport)
Regulations 1989 specify the operational safety requirements, while the Radiation
Protection (Licensing) Regulations 1986 specifies the requirements to obtain a
licence.
3
4.3 A licence issued for industrial radiography is provided with conditions of licence,
which shall be complied with [Act 304 Sec.17].
5. Licence Requirement
Any person who wishes to practice industrial radiography shall obtain a licence
for:
(a) Class A (sealed source)
(b) Class C (x-ray equipment)
(c) Class D (transport)
as applicable to the proposed activities, from [Act 304 Sec.12 (1)].
Chapter 2: Responsibilities of Persons Involved in

6. Responsibilities of a Licensee
6.1 Compliance with Licence Conditions
The licensee shall comply with licence conditions and the relevant provisions of
the Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984 and its subsidiary legislations [Act 304
Sec.17].
6.2 Protection of Workers and Members of the Public
The licensee shall ensure that the annual dose limits (ADLs) specified in Table 1
are not exceeded.
Table 1: Annual Dose Limits (ADLs).
Types of Exposure Dose (mSv)

EXPOSURE OF WORKERS
1/ 2/
Whole body exposure 20
Partial body exposure 50
(average dose for each organ
except lens of the eye) 500
(average dose for lens of the eye) 150
Planned special exposure
Over one calendar year 2 x ADL
Over life time 5 x ADL
EXPOSURE OF THE MEMBERS OF THE

3/
PUBLIC: 1
4/
50
Whole body exposure
Partial body exposure
4
1/ For a female worker of reproductive capacity, any exposure shall be as uniformly
distributed with time as is practicable.
2/ For a pregnant worker, the dose to the foetus accumulated over a period of between the
confirmation of pregnancy and the date of delivery shall not exceed 1 mSv.
3/ The limit shall be 5 mSv where the person is likely to be exposed at or near the limit for
many years provided that the average annual dose over the life time does not exceed
1mSv.
4/ The limit applies to the skin and lens of the eye only. Others organs have no limits for
such organs are already made inherently safe in the setting up of the whole body limit.
6.3 Establishment and Implementation of a Radiation Protection Programme
The licensee shall establish and implement a radiation protection programme as

shown in Figure 1[P.U.(A)149 Regs. 12 and 13).
Radiation Protection Programme
Establishment of the Programme which Implementation of the Programme which

includes the following: includes the following:
i). the organizational structure i). employment of Radiation Protection

pertaining to radiation protection. Officer (RPO).
ii). roles and responsibilities. ii). arrangement for the services of a
iii). the medical surveillance of a Approved Registered Medical
worker. Practitioner (ARMP).
iv). the personnel monitoring.
v). the area monitoring.
vi). the operational limit
vii). the classification of working areas
viii). the normal working procedures.
ix). the procedures under abnormal
situations.
x). the procedures for transportation
of a package containing sealed
source.
xi). the training of a worker.
xii). the procedures for keeping and
transferring records/documents.
Figure 1: Outline of Establishment and Implementation of a Radiation Protection

Programme
5
6.3.1 Establishment of a Radiation Protection Programme
The programme shall be consistent with provisions of the Act and any
subsidiary legislations made thereunder, which shall include:
6.3.1.1 Organizational Structure Pertaining to Radiation Protection
The licensee shall establish the overall organizational structure pertaining to

radiation protection and shall include specific delegation of authority and
responsibility for the radiographic operations.
For the purpose of Radiation Protection Programme, radiation personnel shall

be specified as Radiation Protection Officer, Radiation Protection Supervisor,
Operator, and Trainee Operator whose responsibilities as follows:
a) Responsibilities of Radiation Protection Officer (RPO)
In general, a RPO appointed pursuant to the Act 304 for the activities of
industrial radiography shall implement a radiation protection programme as
specified in Figure 1 in paragraph 6.3[P.U.(A)61Reg.3 and P.U.(A)149
Reg.12(b)].
Notwithstanding the requirement of such a programme, the RPO shall also

[P.U.(A)61Reg. 3].
i). Implement safe working procedures for:
a. Normal operation, including storage and source changing (as in

Part IV)
b. Transportation of a package containing sealed source (as in Part
V).
c. Abnormal situations (as in Part VI).
ii). Supervise the implementation of appropriate radiation protection

Regulations, measures and procedures [P.U.(A)61Reg. 3].
b) Responsibilities of Radiation Protection Supervisor
The Radiation Protection Supervisor (RPS) shall carry out the following duties:
i). to carry out RPO‟s duties during his absence and to report to him
when he returns to work.
ii). to assist RPO in complying with the requirements of the Act 304 and
its subsidiary legislations.
6
c) Responsibilities of an Operator
The principal responsibilities of an operator includes the following:

i). shall be thoroughly familiar with the normal working procedures and
procedures under abnormal situations [P.U.(A)61Reg.5(1)].
ii). shall comply with radiation protection programme, safe working procedures
and instructions given; and refrain from careless and reckless practices or
actions that may result in unnecessary exposure to himself or others
[P.U.(A)61Reg.54(1)].
iii). shall ensure that he is equipped with a film badge, other optional approved
personnel monitoring devices as required (see Table 3) and a survey meter, at
all times while engaged in radiographic operations [P.U.(A)61Reg.54(3)].
iv). He shall take all reasonable precautions to prevent damage to equipment and
keep it in good operating condition [P.U.(A)61Reg.54(4)].
v). Unless duly authorized, he shall not interfere with any method or process
adopted for the control of exposure to ionizing radiation [P.U.(A)61Reg.54(4)].
vi). He shall use, as instructed, all facilities provided to minimize radiation

exposure [P.U.(A)61Reg.54(2)].
vii). He shall notify the RPO or the supervisor immediately in the event of any
accident or incident [P.U.(A)61Reg.54(5)].
viii). He shall notify the RPO or the supervisor immediately if his film badge, pocket
dosemeter or audible alarm monitor is lost, damaged or observed to be off
scaled [P.U.(A)61Reg.54(5)]
ix). He shall always check the exposure container with a survey meter before it is
moved or put into operation to ensure that the source is in its secured and
shielded position [P.U.(A)61Reg.54(1)]
x). In any abnormal situations, he shall take necessary steps in accordance with the
established procedures and he shall immediately inform the RPO or the
supervisor [P.U.(A)61Reg.54(5)]
xi). To strictly and closely supervise a trainee operator when operating radiographic
equipment.
d) Responsibilities of Trainee Operator

The responsibility of trainee operator is to assist an operator in performing industrial
radiography activity.
7
e) Joint Responsibilities
When work is done jointly by a number of workers, they shall understand their own joint
responsibilities for controlling the exposure to others as well as themselves and that they
shall be adequately supervised by RPO or RPS [P.U.(A)61Reg.54].
Chart 1: Example of Organization Chart
Licensee
Person Responsible Towards Licence (OBTL)
Radiation Protection Officer
Radiation Protection Supervisor
Operator
Trainee operator
6.3.1.2 Employment of Radiation Protection Officer (RPO)
The licensee shall employ a Radiation Protection Officer (RPO) and an

operator whose responsibilities are described in paragraphs 6.3.1.1 [P.U. (A)
61 Reg. 23 & P.U (A) Reg. 12(1)]:
a) Radiation protection officer (RPO) is a technically competent

person appointed by the licensee and approved by the Board in
writing, to supervise the implementation of appropriate radiation
protection Regulations; measures and procedures including the
radiation protection programme [P.U. (A) 61 Reg. 23]. In the
event, that the service of RPO cease for some reasons, licensee
shall appoint a new RPO. An RPO could be an RPS or consultant
approved by the Board.
b) Operator is a worker who is recognized in writing by the Board to

perform the radiographic operations, under the supervision of a
RPO or a Radiation Protection Supervisor (RPS). In order to get
recognition from the Board, the worker shall pass the
examinations recognized by the Board and shall comply with the
directives issued by the Board from time to time [P.U.(A) 149
Reg.12(1)].
8
In addition, the licensee should also employ a Radiation Protection
Supervisor (RPS) and trainee operator [P.U.(A) 149 Reg.12(1)].
c) Radiation Protection Supervisor (RPS) is a technically competent

person appointed by the licensee and approved by the Board in
writing to assist the RPO in supervising the implementation of the
appropriate radiation protection Regulations, measures and
procedures including the radiation protection programme. A RPS
shall be at least an operator [P.U.(A) 149 Reg.12(1)].
d) Trainee operator is a worker whose duty is to assist an operator.

He is allowed to operate the radiographic equipment under strict
and close supervision by an operator. [P.U.(A) 149 Reg.12(1)].
6.3.1.3 Medical Surveillance of a Worker

The licensee shall ensure that medical surveillance of a worker is carried out
as in Table 2 [P.U.(A) 61 Reg.32, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39 and 42]
Table 2: Medical surveillance of a worker
Pre-employment medical examination 1/

Periodic review of health 2/
3/
Medical examination at termination of employment or retirement
Special medical examination 4/
1/ To be carried out prior to employment.
2/ To be carried out at least once in two years.
3/ To be carried out not later than 14 days after cessation of employment.
4/ To be carried out
(i) whenever the worker receives dose exceeding ADLs
(ii) more frequently if the worker's exposure conditions and state of health so
requires.
(iii) Reason to believe that the person has been exposed to radiation due to
abnormal situation.
6.3.1.4 Personal Monitoring
Any authorized non-radiation worker who enters a controlled area shall wear a
personal dosimeter. But radiation worker shall wear either a thermoluminiscent
dosimeter (TLD) or a film badge. [P.U.(A)61 Reg.26(1)]. However, other
approved personnel monitoring devices for assessment of external exposures
may also be worn (see Table 3) [P.U.(A)61 Reg.26(1)]. All accumulated dose
shall be recorded and documented.
9
Table 3: Approved Personal Monitoring Devices for Assessment of External
Exposures
Monitoring Device Requirement of Wearing

Film Badge, TLD 1/ Mandatory for RPO, supervisor, operator and trainee
operator.
Pocket Dosimeter 2/ Optional for RPO, supervisor, operator and trainee
operator.
Audible Alarm Monitor 3/ Optional for RPO, supervisor, operator and trainee
operator.
1/ The device should be worn visibly at chest or waist level.
2/ The device should be worn at chest level.
3/ The device shall be worn on chest level. It shall be capable of giving a recognizable
signal at dose rate of 0.1mSv/h ± 50% It shall be kept switched on during radiographic
operation.
For all workers, the sum of doses of X-ray and gamma rays received in one
calendar year shall be as low as reasonably achievable and shall not exceed any
of the ADL‟s prescribed in Table 1 in paragraph 6.2 [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 6(1), 8, 9,
10, 11 and 12].
6.3.1.5 Area Monitoring
Area monitoring for the supervised and controlled areas associated with fully
enclosed, partly enclosed and open sites shall be done for the following cases
[P.U (A)61 Reg.25]:
a) Before the operation.

b) During the operation.
c) After the operation.
d) To review the foreseeable types of accidents.
Table 4 indicates recommended methods of area monitoring for external

exposures in the fully enclosed, partly enclosed or open site industrial
radiography and recommended method for recording accumulated dose on the
surrounding area of a fully enclosed site.
Table 4: Recommended method of area monitoring for external exposures.
Modes of monitoring Monitoring devices Objectives

Survey 1/ To measure and record
to be carried out before, Portable survey meter, ambientradiation dose rates.
during and after containing a suitable detector
operations. (e.g. compensated GM).
Continuous monitoring
Integrating dosemeter, such as To record accumulated dose
2/
film badge or thermo in the surrounding areas (i.e
with monthly changes
luminescent dosemeter (TLD) outside the exposure room).
of monitoring device.
10
1/ To be carried out in fully enclosed, partly enclosed or open site industrial radiography.
2/ To be carried out in the outside area of fully enclosed site industrial radiography only
and the monitoring device is recommended to be placed on the outside physical barriers.
In addition, area monitoring for the supervised and controlled areas in a fully
enclosed site, shall also be done for the following cases [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 25]:
a) Before starting operation in a new facility.

b) Whenever there are, or may have been fundamental changes to the
pre-existing facility.
c) When practical changes in the protection system in working
process have been made.
6.3.1.6 Operational Limit
The licensee shall establish an operational limit which is a dose constraint,

lower than the ADL that shall not be exceeded during operation. It shall be
established by the licensee and subject to the approval from the Board
[P.U.(A)61 Reg.2 & 47].
The Board recommends 18 mSv/year as the operational limit. However, in all

cases the licensee shall apply ALARA principle [P.U.(A)61 Reg.5].
In the event, the limit being exceeded the licensee shall inform the Board of
the occurrence [P.U.(A)61 Reg.55].
The licensee shall ensure that classification of working areas and setting up of
barriers are carried out as in Table 5 [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24].
6.3.1.8 Normal Working Procedures
The licensee shall establish normal working procedures with respect to the
proposed activity to be carried out (as in Chapter 4) [P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(b)].
6.3.1.9 Procedures for Transportation of a Package Containing Sealed Source
The licensee shall establish procedures for transportation of a package

containing sealed source in accordance with the Radiation Protection
(Transport) Regulations 1989 and any other relevant Regulations pertaining
to it (as in Chapter 5) [P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)].
11
SITES
Fully Enclosed Partly Enclosed/Open
Choice of the site Prior approval for the proposed Should be out of the vicinity of the
design and siting of the exposure public whenever possible.
room shall be obtained from the
Board before any radiographic work Exposure limit shall not be
is undertaken. exceeded.
Supervision Should be under direct control of a Shall be under supervision of an

licensee. RPO or an RPS.
Boundary/barrier It shall be constructed of solid Shall be defined at a controlled area

building material (i.e, concrete, etc). (i.e. 7.5 µSv/h at the barrier).
The dose rate at any point outside Appropriate warning signs and
the external wall including doors or notices shall be provided at the
adjoining area should not exceed boundary.
2.5 µSv/h.
Workers should be outside the
The warning signs, notices and barrier, i.e during radiographic
signals (lights) shall be installed at operation. The RPO and RPS shall
all accessible wall. not enter supervised and controlled
areas except in case of gamma
The warning signal should be radiography, during winding out and
actuated before and until winding in radiography source
completion of the operation.
Interlock Effective interlocks that are

foolproof and designed to fall-to-
safety shall be provided.
Suitable means of exit shall be

provided.
In the event of an exposure being

terminated by an interlock, it be
possible only to reinitiate the
operation from the control panel.
The control panel of any x-ray unit

shall be so wired that it cannot be
operated, unless the door is fully
closed.
Notes The source activity used in the

exposure room shall not be greater
than what has been approved
12
6.3.1.10 Procedures Under Abnormal Situations
The licensee shall establish procedures to be used under abnormal situations

with respect to the proposed activity to be carried out (as in Chapter 6)
[P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(b)].
6.3.1.11 Training of a Radiation Worker
Every worker shall be thoroughly trained and familiarized with [P.U.(A)61

Reg. 49(1)].
a) The sources of radiation radiographic and ancillary equipment

associated with his job and be able to recognize its malfunction.
b) His duties and responsibilities.
c) The potential health risks of work with ionizing radiations and the
need for appropriate safe practices.
d) Measurement methodology of the ionizing radiations.
e) Radiation protection methods and compliance with the provisions
of the Radiation Protection (Basic Safety Standards) Regulations
1988.
f) Normal working procedures.
g) Procedures under abnormal situations.
The appropriate retraining and updating of skill and knowledge of the

workers shall be provided at least once in every three years [P.U.(A)61
Reg.49(2)].
6.3.1.12 Procedures for Keeping and Transferring Records/Documents.
a) All records or documents as listed in Table 6 shall be kept and

made available for inspection at licensee‟s premise, to the SPO
[P.U.(A)61 Reg.55].
b) When a worker ceases to be employed by the licensee, his medical
record shall be submitted to the Board. [P.U.(A)61 Reg.45(5)].
c) When a new worker joins the licensee, after working as a
radiographer or other work with ionizing radiation elsewhere, the
licensee shall obtain the medical record from the Board
[P.U.(A)61 Reg.45(7)].
d) The licensee who ceases operations shall submit medical records
of all workers to the Board for retention [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 45(6)].
6.3.2 Implementation of a Radiation Protection Programme
To implement the radiation protection programme, the licensee shall employ

an RPO whose responsibilities as given in para 6.3.1.1 [P.U.(A)61 Reg.
23(1)].
13
Table 6: Records / Documents to be Kept in Carrying Out Activities Related to Industrial
Radiography
Records Documents to be kept Form to be Duration of Notes

used maintenance
confidentiality
Valid 1. Class A Licence issued Shall be kept A copy of a

licence licence. by the Board. as long as licence shall be
issued by 2. Class C licence is valid make available for
the Board licence. inspection at
premises or
radiographic sites.
Medical 3. Medical LPTA/BM/5 Shall be kept Shall transfers the

record of a record (as provided as long as he medical records of
worker (Section A) by the Board). remains as a workers to the
worker Board once the
licensee ceases
Shall be kept operations.
for 30 years
4. Exposure after the In case of
record retirement or exposure to a
(Section B) termination of worker exceeding
his the annual dose
employment limit, the result
after which it shall be submitted
shall be to an ARMP and
transferred to the Board.
the Board
The former The worker

licensee shall concerned shall be
submit the informed of the
medical record results in writing
when not later than 2
requested by weeks after the
the new results are
licensee. available.
Shall be
confidential.
For all 5. Return of LPTA/BM/3 Shall be kept An inventory audit

sealed possession of (as provided as long as of all sealed
sources radioactive by the Board). license is sources should be
material. valid. carried out at
appropriate
intervals at least
once a year.
14
6. Certificate (As provided Shall be kept Shall get the
for special by the for 2 years original copy from
form manufacturer). after the date the manufacturer.
radioactive of last
material. possession
7. Isotope (Appendix 1) Shall be kept Within 7 days after

movement Note: for at least 3 the end every
record Import/Export years after the month, a
(applicable and movement date of last completed form
for East form entry. shall be submitted
Malaysia). to the Board.
8. Records (Appendix 2). Shall be kept Should be carried

radiation for at least 3 out once in 7 days.
leakage test years after the
of an date of last
exposure entry.
container.
9. Leak test As provided For a new a source

certificate of by an a leak test
a sealed approved lab. certificate shall be
obtained from the
manufacturer and
shall be carried out
at least once every
12 months.
For each x- 10. Return of LPTA/BM/3 Shall be kept Shall include all
ray possession of (as provided as long as a tests specified by
equipment irradiating by the Board). licence is the manufacturer
apparatus. valid. and the Board.
Maintenance 11. Records of Shall be kept Shall include all

test records performance as long as a test specified by
for gamma test by a licence is the manufacturer.
radiographic manufacturer valid. Records these shall
equipment or an be kept, showing
approved details of any
laboratory in defects and any
accordance action taken to
with the remedy them.
Malaysian
standard or
other
standard
recognized
by the Board.
15
Calibration 12. Records of As provided Shall be kept
record. the by a for at least 2
maintenance calibration years after the
which have centre date of last
been carried recognized by calibration.
out devices. the Board.
Survey meter
13. Certificate of
calibration.
A record of 14. (i) For fully Should use Shall be kept Should include any
area enclosed site. proper records. as long as the significant events
monitoring exposure room concerning
Record should be is still in radiation
kept on result of service. protection.
initial area
monitoring of the
working area or
if there is major
modifications
have been done.
(ii) For partly Should use an Should be kept Should include any
enclosed and area log-book. for at least 2 significant events
open sites. years after the concerning
operation. radiation
Record should be protection.
kept on results of
area monitoring:
a. When starting
work.
(iii) For storage

facility
Other 15. Records and Shall be kept Keep other records

records and reports of an as long as a is and reports as
reports accident. valid. required by the
which the Board time to
Board time.
deems
necessary.
6.3.2.1 Arrangement for the Services of an Approved Registered Medical Practitioner

(ARMP).
The licensee shall arrange for the services of an ARMP who shall carry out
medical surveillance of a worker [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 32(2)].
16
PART III
RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT AND
SAFETY DEVICES
Chapter 3: Radiographic Equipment
10. General Requirements
10.1 In all cases, the equipment chosen shall comply with the Malaysian standards
or other standards which are recognized by the Board [P.U.(A)149 Reg.
12(b)].
10.2 No equipment shall be used for purposes other than those for which it has
been designed. [P.U.(A)149 Reg. 2(b) and P.U.(A)61 Reg. 5]
10.3 All radiographic equipment shall be [P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)]:
a) Under continuous control of an RPO or a supervisor.
b) Maintained in good working condition.
Any defects in the smooth functioning of the equipment, however trivial,

should be immediately attended to. Defective equipment, under no
circumstances shall be put into operation [P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)].
11. Apparatus for X Radiography
11.1 General Requirements
11.1.1 With the exception in paragraph 11.1.2, every x-ray tube used for industrial
radiography shall be enclosed in a housing such that the dose rate due to
leakage radiation measured at a distance of 1 m from the anode does not
exceed 10 mSv/h at every specified rating of that x-ray tube in that housing
[P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)].
11.1.2 Exception from requirement in paragraph 11.1.1 is a permitted for "megavolt"

x-ray equipment when used in a fully enclosed site. In such cases the dose
rate due to leakage radiation, measured at a distance of 1 m from the anode
shall not exceed 0.1 (10 %) of the dose rate in the useful beam at that distance
[P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)].
11.1.3 The dose rate outside the auxiliary equipment, e.g. high tension generator,
shall not exceed 0.2 mSv/h at 50 mm from the surface, or 0.02 mSv/h at any
readily accessible place within the controlled area. If the transformer of valve
enclosure is located outside the controlled area, these exposure should be
reduced [P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)].
17
11.1.4 X-ray equipment shall be installed in such a manner that at commissioning, it
can be demonstrated that the design emission characteristics are reproducible
[P.U.(A)149Reg.12(b)].
11.1.5 Commissioning and test procedures for new x-ray systems shall be conducted
according to the Malaysian Standards, or other standards recognized by the
Board, to confirm that the system meets applicable performance requirements
before they are put into use [P.U.(A)149Reg.12(b)].
11.2 Regular Inspection of the X-Ray Equipment
In carrying out any Regular inspection, reference should be made to the

manufacturer's operating and maintenance manuals. The inspection include,
but no limited to the following points [P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)]:
a) All cables should be checked frequently for cuts or damages.

b) All connections should be correctly and securely coupled.
c) Protective caps on plugs and sockets should be replaced after use to
prevent ingress of dust and moisture.
d) Watertight connectors should be used correctly and securely coupled.
e) Regular inspection shall be performed and recorded to verify that all
warning signs remain in places and indicators are operating properly.
12. Apparatus for Gamma Radiography
12.1 General Requirements
12.1.1 Gamma-ray radiography shall be done by using an apparatus which complies

with Malaysian standards or other standards recognized by the Board.
Apparatus operated by removing the sealed source from the exposure
container on a handling torch (e.g.: torch type exposure container) is
PROHIBITED in Malaysia [P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)].
12.1.2 Apparatus for gamma radiography is classified according to the mobility of

the exposure container [P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)]:
a) Class P: a portable exposure container, designed to be carried by one

man alone.
b) Class M: a mobile but not portable exposure container, designed to be

moved easily by suitable means provided for the purpose. (for
example; Co-60)
c) Class F: a fixed installed exposure container or one with mobility

restricted to a particular working area.
12.1.3 The radiation leakage from an exposure container (when in the locked
position and loaded with sealed sources of maximum activity) shall not
exceed the dose rate limits shown in Table 7 [P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(b)].
18
Table 7: Maximum Radiation Leakage from an Exposure Container
Maximum Dose Rate (mSv/hr)
On the
1 m from the
external 50 mm from the external
Class surface of
surface of surface of container
container
container
P 2 or 0.5 0.02
M 2 or 1 0.05
F 2 or 1 0.1
If radiation leakage exceeds the values shown in Table 7, the exposure container
shall be withdrawn from use and arrangements shall be made immediately for its
repair and if necessary, its decontamination [P.U.(A)149Reg.12(b)]
12.1.4 Table 8 summarizes the general design requirements for all exposure containers
[P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)].
Table 8: General Design Requirements for all Exposure Containers
Items Notes
Collimator Means should be provided to collimate the radiation beam such that it
shall be possible to put the device into the working position without
bringing parts of the human body into the direct beam.
Indicator Indication of Sealed Source Position
Clear indication shall be given as to whether the sealed source is in

the secured or exposed position.
Control mechanism
Control mechanism shall be clearly marked to indicate the direction

of movement to move the source to the secured position and to move
the source to the exposing position.
Lock Shall be either of the safety type i.e. lockable without a key, or an
integral lock from which the key cannot be withdrawn while an
exposure container is in operation.
Shall retain the source in a secured position.
Shall not, if the lock is damaged, prevent the source when it is in the
working position from being returned to its secured position.
19
12.1.5 The surface of the source capsule, particularly the beam aperture, together with
any other location likely to be contaminated in the event of a leakage, shall be
tested, at least once every 12 months. Should the probable presence of free
activity of more than 185 Bq be indicated, the source shall be considered as
leaking [P.U.(A)149Reg.12(b)].
12.2 Maintenance of an Apparatus for Gamma Radiography
12.2.1 Annual maintenance shall only be undertaken by a recognized service provider

by the Board.
In carrying out any maintenance, reference should be made to the manufacturer's

operating and maintenance manuals [P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)]. Any such
maintenance should follow good engineering practice and this includes
[P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)]:
a) An apparatus should be cleaned after use from any foreign matter such as
mud and water.
b) All screws, nuts or connections of an exposure container should be
checked for tightness.
c) Any moving part should be lubricated periodically with the correct
lubricant.
d) Confirmation that the source locking mechanism operates.
e) Examination of the source assembly and cable connections cleanliness,
wear of damage.
f) Firm connections between the source assembly and cable; the cable
sheath and container; and projection sheath and container.
g) Examination of control cables and projection sheaths for kinks, tears,
thread damage or other deficiencies.
h) Checking the control cable movement through the control mechanism
and, where the cable is detachable, protecting the exposed ends by means
of a covering or a cap.
12.2.2 An exposure container shall be checked to ensure that it is permanently and
indelibly marked by engraving, stamping or other means with the following
[P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)].
20
a) The trefoil symbol (as in Figure 2).
Note: The following colours shall

be used:
BLACK: for the design; and
YELLOW: for the background.
Figure 2: Basic trefoil symbol with proportions based on a central circle of

diameter D. The minimum size of D shall be 8mm1 [P.U.(A)61
Reg.24]
b) The word „RADIOAKTIF‟ in letters not less than 10 mm in height.
c) The maximum activity or authorized rating and specified radionuclides for

the container.
d) The manufacturer's type and serial number of the exposure container.
e) The mass of the exposure container and details of any depleted uranium
shielding incorporated.
f) The radionuclide, activity, reference date and serial number of the sealed
source contained.
13. Pipeline Crawler Equipment
13.1 All requirements for x-ray and apparatus for radiography (paragraphs 11 and 12)
should also be applied to pipeline crawler equipment. The additional features as
shown in Table 9 should also be taken into account, when using a pipeline
equipment [P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)].
21
Table 9: Additional Features for Pipeline Crawler Equipment
Items Notes
Warning Suitable warning signals (e.g. automatic audible or Signals visible
signals located in a box outside the pipe) capable of alerting
persons in the vicinity of the crawler, whatever other distractions
there might be, should be provided.
It should be possible to differentiate between the pre-exposure

warnings, (e.g. a steady signal for the first, and an interrupted
signal for the second).
Other Design All associated sources should be provided with suitable storage
Features containers.
Except during an exposure, the sum of the dose rates from the
exposure container (if any), the tell-tale sources and the control
sources should not exceed 100 uSv/h on the accessible surface of
the pipe under test.
During temporary interruption of use, the apparatus should be

cordoned and supervised to prevent access the sources.
The control sequence designed so that unintended exposures are

prevented.
13.2 During normal operation of pipeline crawler, when it is required to make a

pipeline entry (e.g. to recover it), it is of the utmost importance to take the
appropriate precautions to ensure that the radiation level and atmosphere
inside the pipe are safe from toxic gases, welding or other toxic fumes.
Alternatively, appropriate breathing apparatus shall be worn. For the latest
safety requirements, refer to the relevant authorities.
Chapter 4: Safety Devices
14. General
As a minimum, the following safety devices shall be made available during

any radiographic operation [P.U. (A) 61 Reg. 50(1)]:
a) Approved personnel monitoring devices.

b) Survey meter.
c) Warning signs.
d) Notices.
22
15. Approved Personnel Monitoring Devices
Approved personnel monitoring devices to be used during radiographic

operations shall be TLD or film badge. However additional monitoring
devices such as pocket dosimeter and audible alarm monitor may also be used
[P.U.(A)61 Reg. 26(2)]. Methods on how to use approved personnel
monitoring devices to monitor individual external exposures are shown in
Table 10 [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 50].
16. Survey Meter
16.1 Survey meter shall be calibrated [P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(b)]:
a) Before taking into use for the first time.

b) Annually.
c) After repair of any defects.
16.2 The meter shall be used to achieve the following minimum objectives [P.U.(A)61
Reg. 50(1)]:
a) To monitor the dose rate at the barriers, that is to check that the barriers for
the controlled area are positioned correctly.
b) To check that an exposure container is in the secured position with the sealed
source shielded after use.
c) To help locate a jammed or lost source.
d) To monitor working conditions.
16.3 Calibration of survey meter shall be done annually or after every repair by the
calibration centre recognized by the Board [P.U.(A)61 Reg.50(2)]. The calibration
record shall be kept by the licensee [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 55].
16.4 A survey meter in use shall carry a valid calibration sticker from the calibration
centre recognized by the Board [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 50(1)].
16.5 Prior to every use, a check shall be made that; the meter detects the presence of
radiation (e.g. by placing it near the surface of an exposure container in a closed
condition) and should always make certain that the meter is set to the maximum
range [P.U.(A)61Reg. 24 and P.U.(A)456 Reg. 25].
17. Warning Signs
17.1 Warning sign bearing the trefoil symbol as in Figure 2 in paragraph 12.2.2 shall be
used in the following instances [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24 and P.U.(A)456 Reg. 25]:
a) To label a source.
b) To set up barriers for controlled areas, where it shall be posted clearly in
strategic places.
c) For a storage facility.
d) For transportation of a package containing sealed source.
23
17.2 Warning sign shall incorporate a trefoil symbol as in Figure2 paragraph 12.2.2 and
the words "BAHAN RADIOAKTIF" or “SINAR-X” or other appropriate
descriptions to indicate the source [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24].
17.3 The warning sign should preferably be fire resistant. Examples of the most widely
used warning signs are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Examples of Warning Signs.
24
Table 10: Monitoring individual radiation worker external exposure using approved personal monitoring devices
Approved TLD Film Badge Pocket Dosimeter Audible alarm monitor

personnel
monitoring
devices
Conditions
Protection/safety of Should be protected from: Should be protected from: Should be checked for good Should avoid mechanical
devices 1. excessive heat 1. excessive heat working order before use. damage, shock or entry of
2. moisture 2. moisture moisture.
3. pressure 3. pressure Should be handled
carefully. Should be tested daily by
Should be stored in a suitable Should be stored in a suitable holding it close to a source
low background area. low background area. Should avoid mechanical in its shielded position.
damage, shock or entry of
Should not be carried home. Should not be carried home. moisture.
Shall not be left at a place Shall not be left at a place where
where radiation sources are radiation sources are likely to be
likely to be present. present.
Usage Mandatory, throughout Mandatory, throughout Optional, throughout Optional as occasion

radiographic operation. radiographic operation. radiographic operation. demands such as at
operation. (Note: Should
respond to at least 7.5uSv/h.
25
Record The TLD shall be sent for The film badge shall be sent for Reading should be noted in Reading should be noted in
assessment to the approved processing to the approved a Register against the name a Register against the name
laboratory every month and the laboratory every month and the of each worker before and of each worker before and
results shall be kept. results shall be kept. after use. after use.
An individual film badge record

is recommended (see Appendix
3)
If it is not returned Steps are to be taken by the Steps are to be taken by the RPO
RPO to obtain the TLD to obtain the film badge without
without delay. delay.
Lost A thorough investigation A thorough investigation should

should be made. be made.
If it is not recovered, shall be If it is not recovered, shall be

reported to the Board and that reported to the Board and that
personnel involve shall be personnel involve shall be
supplied with new TLD. supplied with new film badge.
Damage or Shall immediately report to the Shall immediately report to the

unintentional RPO or the supervisor. RPO or the supervisor.
exposure
The RPO or the supervisor The RPO or the supervisor shall
26
shall immediately send the immediately send the film badge
TLD to the approved to the approved laboratory for
laboratory for urgent urgent processing.
processing.
A new film badge should be
A new film badge should be provided to the affected person
provided to the affected person before he is redeployed for
before he is redeployed for radiation work.
radiation work.
Suspected His TLD shall be submitted His film badge shall be submitted The dose should be The dose should be
accidental exposure for urgent assessment for urgent assessment recorded and documented. recorded and documented.
to the personnel
A new TLD should be A new film badge should be
provided to the affected person provided to the affected person
before he is redeployed for before he is redeployed for
radiation work. radiation work.
27
18. Notices
18.1 The notices shall be in Bahasa Malaysia and in other languages if

necessary [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24(1)]. As a minimum, notices shall include
words such as “AWAS”, “BAHAYA” or equivalent [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24].
18.2 The name, address and telephone number of the RPO responsible for the
site, shall be displayed on each notice [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24].
18.3 The notices should be fire resistant and have durable black lettering embossed
or stamped on a white background [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24(2)]. Typical examples
are shown in Figure 4.
AWAS AWAS
ALAT PENGAWASAN SINARAN PARAS SINARAN TINGGI
DIPERLUKAN MELEBIHI KAWASAN BAHAN
HAD INI RADIOAKTIF
CAUTION CAUTION
Radiation monitoring devices High radiation level Area of

needed beyond this limit radioactive material
Nama Pegawai Nama Pegawai

perlindungan sinaran: perlindungan sinaran
Alamat : Alamat :
No. Telefon : No. Telefon :
Figure 4 : An example of notice
18.4 Notices may be incorporated with warning signs as shown in Figure 5

[P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24(2)]
BAHAYA
JANGAN MASUK
Danger White
No entry Nama Pegawai background
perlindungan sinaran :
Yellow
background
Alamat :
No. Telefon :
BAHAN
RADIOAKTIF
Figure 5: An example of a Notice with Warning Sign Incorporated.
28
PART IV
NORMAL WORKING PROCEDURE
Chapter 5: Planning A Working Procedure
19. General
When planning a working procedure, the main objective shall be TO

MINIMIZE radiation exposure to workers and members of the public [P.U
(A) 61 Reg. 5].
At least two workers should be employed for every job site, that is an
operator and an RPO or a supervisor [P.U. (A) 61Reg. 23(6)].
Radiography works should not be carried out in public area. However, if

radiography work has to be carried out in public area, the licensee shall obtain
written approval from the Board as required in the conditions of licence. In
this case, either RPO or supervisor shall be present at the site.
Radiography work procedures in public area, as well as transportation and

storage requirements are the as specified in this Code of Practice.
20. Radiographic Sites
Industrial radiography shall be carried out at one of the following

radiographic sites [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24(1)]:
a) Fully enclosed site.

b) Partly enclosed site.
c) Open site.
Where reasonably practicable the industrial radiography should be carried

out in a fully enclosed site [P.U.(A)61 Reg.5]. The requirements for
radiographic sites are shown in Table 5 in paragraph 6.3.1.6 [P.U (A) 61 Reg.
24].
21. Prior to Radiographic Operation
The following factors shall be taken into account when planning a working
procedure prior to radiographic operation [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 5]:
21.1 Permission to work: Shall be obtained from person responsible for the site.
21.2 Radiographic site: The areas should not be occupied by members of public.
Members of public shall be excluded from the controlled area prior to
radiographic operation.
21.3 Radiographic technique: Should be that which involves least exposures

consistent with the needs of a good radiograph.
29
21.4 Radiographic parameters: Should be consistent with good technique and
practice using appropriate film, penetrameter, screen, suitable exposure time,
etc.
21.5 Radiographic and non-radiographic works: Should be segregated whenever

practicable.
21.6 Collimator and local shielding: Should be made available and used whenever
possible.
21.7 General Safety Equipment
a) Approved personnel monitoring device: Shall be available to all

workers involved. Radiographic operation shall not proceed without
this equipment.
b) Survey meter: Shall have a valid calibration sticker. Radiographic
operation shall not proceed if the survey meter is not available; is not
in good working order, or is damaged.
c) Warning devices: Should be provided in the form of lamps or audible
signals or both.
d) Warning signs and notices: Shall be used to identify and define a
controlled area.
21.8 A storage facility: Shall be provided to the standards described in Chapter

7 (Paragraph 26)
21.9 Source activity or output of x-ray equipment: Should be selected to give

reasonable exposure times whilst minimizing the dose to workers. The work
should be organized to comply with the ALARA principle. If the dose rate is
expected to exceed this criterion, one or more of the following courses of
action should be taken:
a) Collimator should be used when practicable.

b) Use the accessories which provide more shielding for the worker.
c) Use a source with lower activity or reduce the power of x-ray
equipment.
d) Reduce the time for exposure, for example by:
i). Using “fast” film.
ii). Reducing source to film distance.
iii). Reducing the workload individual worker by distributing the
work evenly among other workers.
21.9.1 Allowable working time: Should be calculated by measuring the dose rate
and substituting it in the following equation:
Allowable working = operational limit mSv / year

time (h/year) dose rate mSv / h
Example 1 :How many hours could an operator spend each month in an area,
in which the dose rate is 0.05 mSv/h with an operational limit of 18
mSv/h year?
30
Solution :
Allowable working time = operational limit mSv / year

dose rate mSv / h
= 18 mSv / year
0.05 mSv / h
= 360 h/year
Therefore, the allowable time is 360 h/year.
If the allowable working time (hours in a week is required, a proper

calculation must be made, but it shall not correspond to a figure exceeding 18
mSv/year.
21.9.2 The position of control panel (in the case of x-ray) or winding cable (in the
case of gamma ray) shall be carefully chosen. If possible it should be outside
the controlled area. If this is not possible, the distance from the control point
panel/winding cable to the radiation source shall be maximized by
straightening control panel/winding cable and the guide tube. The control
panel/winding cable should be placed behind any convenient shielding which
will provide further protection. The worker should not remain inside the
controlled area during the exposure. The route taken to and from the control
panel/winding cable should not cross the useful beam.
21.10 Barriers for controlled areas: Shall be established before starting

radiographic operation and NOT during the operation, when there may
already be people in the areas. A preliminary estimate of distance from the
working position to the barrier position can be made using one of the
following methods [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24 (2)]:
estimated by using a graph. An example of a graph indicating barrier
distances of Ir-192 and Co-60 is shown in Figure 6.
21.10.2 Using the Inverse Square Law
calculated using inverse square law which is expressed as:
respectively from the source.
31
Example 2: The dose rate at lm from a particular sealed source is 0.2 mSv/h.
At what distance will it be a dose rate of 7.5 µSv/h?
Solution :
Therefore, a dose rate of 7.5 uSv/h will be at a distance of 5.16 m.
21.10.3 Using Dose Rate Constant
21.10.3.1 To calculate barrier distances from a sealed source, the dose rate constant
“k-factor” can be used by using the following mathematical expression:
I/ d2 = kA ; where
I is the dose rate (mSv/h)
k is the dose rate constant (mSv/h/GBq) at a distance of 1 m from the source

(see Table 11).
A is the activity (GBq)
Example 3: What is the dose rate from at 1GBq Co-60 source at 2 m?
Solution :
1 GBq of Co-60 gives a dose rate of 0.306 mSv/h at 1m. If the dose rate at 2
m = I2, then by inverse square law:
Therefore, the dose rate at 2 m is 76.5 uSv/h.
32
21.10.3.2 The above method can also be applied for x-rays by replacing "activity
(GBq)” with "tube current – (mA-min” (see, Table 12).
Table 11 : The dose rate constant (k-factor) of common sealed sources
Sealed Sources k (mSv/h/GBq at 1 m)

Co-60 0.345
Cs-137 0.078
Ir-192 0.125
Table 12 : Example of dose rate constant for various kilovoltages after passing
through a copper filter.
Tube Voltage “k – Factor”

(kV) (mSv/mA.min at 1 m)
0.07 mm Cu 0.10 mm Cu 0.5 mm Cu
50 3.2 1.8 -
75 7.0 5.0 0.5
100 12.0 8.5 1.6
150 23.0 17.5 6.0
200 36.0 29.0 12.5
250 19.0
300 28.0
400 56.0
500 80.0
1000 330.0
Example 4 : What is the dose rate at 5m from an x-ray machine operated at

the following conditions: tube Voltage :150 kV; tube current (A) : 10 mA;
filter : 0.1mm Cu?
Solution :
Therefore, dose rate at 5 m in is 420 mSv/h
21.11 Provision of Shielding
Dense materials such as lead, concrete or iron should be used as shielding

materials for x and gamma rays. The thickness of a required shielding
material can be calculated by:
33
21.11.1 Using Half-Value Layers (HVL) or Tenth-Value Layers (TVL) :
The thickness of a required shielding material can be calculated by using the

using the so-called HVL and TVL which are mathematically expressed as:
I = I0/2n (for HVL) ; and

I = I0/10n (for TVL) ; where
n is the number HVL or TVL required respectively.

I0 is the initial dose rate.
I is the dose rate after penetrating a n HVL or n TVL thickness of
the materials
The approximate values of TVL and HVL for various materials for different
sources are shown in Table 13.
Example 5: A 200 x-ray equipment is operating at 10 by using 0.5 mm

Copper filter. Calculate the thickness of concrete wall required to reduce the
dose rate at 1 m to a limit of 2.5 uSv/h.
Solution :
k-factor with 0.5 mm Copper = 12.5 mSv/mA - min (from Table 12)
Number of HVL‟s required = 2n = Io

I
= 12.5 x 600
2.5 x 10-3
2n = 300 x 104
n = 22
From Table 13, HVL of concrete at 200 kVp = 26 mm; so 26 mm x 22 =

572 mm thick of concrete is required as a barrier
34
Table 13: Approximate value of TVL and HVL for various materials for different
sources (Thickness in mm).
Sources Lead Steel Concrete

TVL (mm) HVL(mm) TVL(mm) HVL(mm) TVL(mm) HV(mm)
x-rays
50 kVp 0.25 0.07 1.5 0.5 14 9
100 kVp 1.0 0.3 5.5 2 54 17
150 kVp 1.0 0.3 13 4 70 22
200 kVp 1.4 0.45 19 6 86 26
250 kVp 3.2 1.0 36 12 90 28
300 kVp 4.9 1.5 45 15 102 30
Co-60 41.2 12.4 73.7 22.1 218.4 66
Ir-192 16.3 4.8 50.8 15.5 157.5 48.3
21.11.2 Using a Transmission Factor
The thickness of shielding material can also be calculated by using the

following mathematical expression :
I = AkT
d2 ; where
I is the dose rate mSv/h
A is the activity of the sources (GBq)
k is the dose rate constant (mSv/h/GBq) at a distance of 1 m
T is the transmission factor which may be defined as the ratio of

the dose rate with and without barriers.
Graphs showing the thickness factor, T, for x and gamma rays by various
thickness of common shielding materials are shown in Figures 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
12, 13 and 14.
Example 6: What thickness of concrete is required to reduce the radiation

from a 1 TBq Ir-192 sources to an acceptable level for members of the public
who are working at a distance of 4 m from this sources? Total weekly
exposure time is 10 hours
35
22. During Radiographic Operation
The following factors shall be considered during radiographic operation

[P.U. (A) 61 Reg. 24]:
22.1 RPO/RPS/Operator/trainee operator shall ensure safety of workers and to

avoid unauthorized usage of radiographic equipment and to ensure
compliance with legislation.
22.2 RPO/RPS/Operator/trainee operator shall be constantly alert and stay in

positions where they can ensure the effectiveness of the barrier. Should the
barrier breaks for any reasons or any member of the public enters the
controlled area, the source shall be returned immediately to its shielded
position or the X-ray equipment be switched off.
23. After Radiographic Operation
The RPO/RPS/Operator/trainee operator shall ensure that all radiographic

equipment including the source, warning sign and notices have been removed
from the site. A final area monitoring shall be made before the site is vacated
on completion of work. He should then inform the person responsible for the
site, when this has been completed [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 25].
Chapter 6 : Planned Special Exposure
24.1 Any proposed planned special exposure shall not be carried out except with
prior approval in writing from the Board [P.U.(A)61 Reg.10(1)].
24.2 The procedures which are intended under a planned special exposure shall
minimize exposure to workers. The dose limit for a planned special exposure
as shown in Table 1 in paragraph 6.2 shall not be exceeded [P.U.(A)61 Reg.
10(4)].
24.3 Only workers who are volunteers may participate in the planned special
exposure. Before accepting volunteers, the following shall be taken into
account [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 10 (3)].
36
a) Previous experience
b) State of health
c) Special skill
d) Social and economic responsibilities
24.4 The licensee shall not permit a worker to participate in the planned special
exposure [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 10(5)];
a) If, during the previous 12 months, the worker has received an

exposure giving rise to a dose in excess of the ADLs laid down in
Table 1 in paragraph 6.2.
b) If the worker has previously received accidental or abnormal
exposures giving rise to doses, the sum of which exceeds five times
the ADLs laid down in Table 1 in paragraph 6.2.
c) If the worker is a female of reproductive capacity.
24.5 Before carrying out a duty under a planned special exposure, the worker shall
be thoroughly informed about the potential risks involved and fully
instructed in the measures to be taken to keep the exposures as low as is
reasonably achievable [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 10(6)].
24.6 After a planned special exposure is completed, the dose received shall be
reported to the worker concerned, the ARMP and to the Board, not later
than 2 weeks after the results are available [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 10(8)].
25. Storage of Apparatus for X radiography
With X-ray equipment, no special storage facility is required other than

protection against theft, vandalism or unauthorized usage. A small lockable
storeroom or cupboard will suffice. Keys to the X-ray control panel and
storeroom should be kept by the Operator or RPO or supervisor [P.U.(A) 61
Reg. 52].
26. Storage of a sealed source
26.1 General
26.1.1 When not in use, exposure containers shall be stored in a facility such as a
storage pit, a storage room or a storage enclosure [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 52 &
P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(b)].
26.1.2 Prior approval for the proposed design and siting of a storage facility
shall be obtained from the Board before it is put into use [P.U.(A)149
Reg. 12(b)].
26.1.3 In selecting a location for a storage facility, the licensee shall take into
account the presence of any hazard including risks due to fire and flood.
Radioactive sources should be separated from other hazardous substances
such as combustible, corrosive and explosive materials [P.U.(A)149 Reg.
12(b)].
37
26.1.4 The storage facility should be at a place that will avoid the need to transport a
package containing a sealed source, over great distances [P.U.(A) 149 Reg.
12(b)].
26.1.5 The storage facility shall be made from materials with a minimum of one-
hour fire resistant and should be located in a suitable isolated area of
minimum occupancy [P.U.(A) 149 Reg. 12(b)].
26.1.6 Other equipment such as notices, barrier equipment and radiographic

equipment should not be kept in the same store as the sealed source.
26.2 Storage Pit
26.2.1 A storage pit can be constructed to provide a storage facility either at

company‟s premises or remote locations where the requirement may be
temporary. The pit (refer Figure 15) should be prepared before the sealed
source is brought to the site [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 52 & P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(b)].
26.2.2 The dose rate at the fence shall be less than 2.5 uSv/h and the dose rate in
areas accessible to members of public shall not exceed 1 mSv/y [P.U.(A)61
Regs. 8, 9, 11 & 12].
26.2.3 It is suggested that the storage pit be constructed as follows [P.U.(A)149 Reg.
12(b)]:
a) A vertical steel tube 0.5 m to 1m diameter and about 1m to 2 m long

with a welded base sunk into the ground with just sufficient
protrusion.
b) Should be fitted with a "coat-hanger" hook-type bracket inside the
tube next to the top.
c) The whole assembly should be waterproofed. Care should be taken to
avoid water seepage into the pit which should be duly protected.
d) The pit shall be enclosed at a distance of at least 1.6 m by a fence with
2 lockable gate and the keys for the gate and storage pit shall be kept
by the RPO or the supervisor.
38
26.2.4 Embossed type warning signs and notices shall be clearly posted on the lid
of the storage pit and on the 4 walls of the fence (refer Figure 5 in paragraph
18.4) [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24].
26.3 Storage Room
26.3.1 The licensee should store exposure containers in a storage room [P.U.(A)61
Reg. 52 & P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(b)].
26.3.2 The storage room should be provided with adequate illumination and
ventilation. Provision should be made to switch off all the electrical services
from the outside of the storage room [P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)].
26.3.3 The dose rates outside the adjoining walls of the storage room shall not
exceed 2.5 uSv/h provided that the dose received by members of the public
shall not exceed 1 mSv/y [P.U.(A)61 Regs. 8, 9, 11 & 12].
26.3.4 The storage room shall be lockable and access to the room shall be restricted.
The key of the storage room shall be kept by the Operator or RPO or the
supervisor [P.U. (A) 149 Reg. 12(a) and P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24].
26.3.5 Warning signs and notice shall be clearly posted at 4 walls as well as at the
entrance of the storage room (refer Figure 5 in paragraph 18.4) [P.U.(A)61
Reg. 24].
26.4 Storage Enclosure
26.4.1 The use of storage enclosure is allowed only where the construction of
storage room or storage pit is not possible (e.g.: at barges or offshore)
[P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(b)].
26.4.2 The boundary of storage enclosure shall be formed by a physical barrier to

prevent access [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24].
26.4.3 The dose rate at accessible places outside a physical barrier shall not exceed
2.5 uSv/h provided that dose received by members of the public shall
not exceed 1 mSv/y [P.U.(A)61 Regs. 8, 9, 11 & 12].
26.4.4 Warning signs and notices shall be conspicuously posted in strategic places
(refer Figure 5 in paragraph 18.4) [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24].
26.4.5 The storage enclosure shall be under the supervision of the Operator or RPO
or the supervisor [P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(b) and P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24].
26.5 Temporary Storage Vehicle
26.5.1 Under a special condition, exposure container may be stored temporarily in a

vehicle with prior approval in writing from the Board.
26.5.2 Vehicle used for this purpose shall not be parked in public area.
39
Chapter 8: Source Changing
27. General Procedures
27.1 Source changing shall be performed only with the use of an appropriate
source changer and by a person specifically trained and authorized to do so.
Any licensee who wants to do source changing on his own shall get prior
approval from the Board [P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(a)] and P.U.(A)61 Reg. 24].
27.2 The precautions for radiographic operations shall also be applied when
changing a source. These include [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 5]:
a) Making sure prior to the operation, that approved personnel

monitoring devices and all necessary equipment, including any special
tool and shielding materials are available.
b) Obtaining and following source changing manuals from the
manufacturer. The manuals should include a complete diagram of the
device.
c) Establishing of a controlled area.
d) The operations should be carried out at a flat, hard and dry surface.
e) When the new (replacement) source has been transferred to the
exposure container, make survey by using a survey meter to ensure
that both sources have been returned to their shielded positions.
Radiation leakage shall not exceed any of the leakage limits as
specified in Table 7in paragraph 12.1.3. Transport label outside the
container has to be changed to indicate the new sources.
f) Lock both the exposure container and source changer.
g) Return both the exposure container and source changer to a storage
facility.
40
PART V
TRANSPORTATION OF A PACKAGE CONTAINING SEALED
SOURCE
28. General Procedures
28.1 Transportation of a package containing sealed source shall be carried out in

accordance with the Radiation Protection (Transport) Regulation 1989
P.U.(A)456 Reg. 3].
28.2 In formulating the procedures for the transportation of a package containing

sealed source, the licensee shall also take into account, the involvement of a
person who has very little understanding in radiation protection [P.U.(A)61
Regs. 4 & 5].
28.3 Within 7 days after the end of every month, the licensee shall complete and
submit to the Board, the isotope movement record (see Appendix 1) for the
previous movements of a package containing sealed source [P.U.(A)61 Reg.
55].
Chapter 9: Packaging
29. General
29.1 The exposure container supplied by the manufacturer shall not be used to
contain other type of sealed source or with the same type of sealed source
with higher activity, other than for which it is intended, except with prior
approval from the Board [P.U.(A)456 Regs. 18 & 30].
29.2 The licensee wishing to design his on package shall have it certified by the
Board before it is put into use [P.U.(A)456 Regs. 20, 71 & 75].
30. Receiving Package Containing Sealed Source
30.1 A consignee of a package containing sealed source shall make arrangements

to receive it when it is delivered [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 5].
30.2 The consignee shall, as soon as practicable on receive of a consignment and

before opening it, examine the package containing sealed source for any
defects or leakage of its radioactive content. The licensee shall survey it with
a survey meter as soon as possible. Radiation leakage shall not exceed any of
the leakage limits specified in Table 7 in paragraph 12.1.3. If the radiation
leakage exceeds any of the leakage limits, it shall be secured, a controlled
area shall be established and appropriate actions shall be taken to rectify the
situations [P.U.(A)456 Reg. 70].
41
30.3 If the package containing sealed source has or appears to have defects or its
radioactive content is found or appears to be leaking, the consignee shall
[P.U.(A)456 Reg. 70]:
a) Measure the radiation level at 1 m from the external surface of it and

on its surface.
b) Measure the contamination level on the external surface of it.
30.4 The consignee shall report the result of the measurement carried out (using
LPTA/BM/3 form) to the Board [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 55]:
a) Within five working days, if the radiation level exceeds the prescribed
limits.
b) Immediately, notwithstanding sub-paragraph (a), if the radiation level
exceeds 10 mSv/h and 2 mSv/h, respectively on and at 1 m from the
external surface, of the package containing sealed source.
30.5 The consignee shall retain records of all observations in the LPTA/BM/3
form for a period of at least two years and if requested to do so, provide the
Board with full access to such records [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 55].
31. Labeling of a Package Containing Sealed Source
31.1 When the package containing sealed source is to be transported, additional

labeling as shown in Table 14 other than the labels permanently fixed to the
package containing sealed source should be provided [P.U.(A)456 Regs. 25,
26, 27 & 29].
31.2 The additional label should include:
a) The radioactive contents e.g. Ir-192.

b) The maximum activity of radioactive material in Bacquerel (Bq) at the
time of transport.
c) The transport index.
32. Requirements for Import/Export of Radiographic Equipment
32.1 The licensee shall obtain import/export authorization from the Board
(Appendixes 4 & 5) prior to the import or export of radiographic equipment
[P.U.(A)61 Reg. 55 and P.U.(A)149 Reg.12(b)].
32.2 This authorization will be issued subject to submission of the following

documents [P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(b) and P.U.(A)61 Reg. 55]:
a) Approval certificate for the design of a type B package.

b) Approval certificate for the design of a special form radioactive
material.
32.3 When the activity or import/export of radiographic equipment has been

completed, the licensee has to send all the following documents to the Board
[P.U.(A)61 Reg. 55] :
42
a) Shipper‟s declaration for dangerous goods.
b) Custom‟s clearance documents.
c) Department of civil aviation approval permit for the transportation of
the dangerous goods by air.
d) Other documents required by the Board.
Table14: Transport Labels [P.U.(A)456 Regs. 27 (1) and (29) ]
Label Transport conditions (dose

rate)
CATEGORY I- WHITE at surface : ≤ 0.005 mSv/h
at 1 m : 0 mSv/h
Transport index :0
The background colour of shall be white, the colour of the

trefoil and the printing shall be black and the colour of the
bars shall be red.
CATEGORY II –YELLOW at surface : ≤ 0.5 mSv/h
at 1 m : 0 mSv/h
Transport index : does not

exceed 1
The background colour of the upper half of the label shall

be yellow and of the lower half white, the colour of the
category bars shall be red.
43
CATEGORY III –YELLOW
under normal condition :
at surface :≤ 2 mSv/h
at 1 m : ≤ 0.1 mSv/h
Transport index : does not exceed

10
under exclusive use :
at surface : ≤ 10 mSv/h
at 1 m : ≤ 10 mSv/h
Transport index : No limit

The background colour of the upper half of the label shall
be yellow and of the lower half white, the colour of the
category bars shall be red.
Chapter 10: Requirements For Transportation of a Package Containing Sealed

Source
33. General
33.1 The package containing sealed source having activities of 27 Curie (1 TBq) in
the case of Ir-192 or 11Ci (0.4 TBq) in the case of Co-60 or more should be
properly packed in a transit box (that comply USNRC) and placed in a
compartment of a vehicle and it shall be securely locked. The key should be
available with an Operator or RPO or a supervisor. The consignment shall be
firmly secured to prevent any movement during transport [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 5].
33.2 The package containing sealed source having an activity less than 27 Curie (1
TBq) in the case of Ir-192 or 11 Ci (0.4 TBq) in the case of Co-60 need not
to be packed in a transit box (that comply USNRC). The package shall be
placed in a compartment of a vehicle.
33.3 A package containing sealed source which does not satisfy all the applicable
requirements of the Radiation Protection (Transport) Regulation 1989 shall
be transported only by a special arrangement [P.U.(A) 456 Reg. 35].
33.4 A package containing sealed source shall be segregated from places occupied
by the transport workers and the members of the public and any exposures to
them shall not exceed 5 mSv/y respectively [P.U.(A)456 Reg. 35].
33.5 A package containing sealed source shall be segregated from radiographic

films or other photographic films and any exposure to such film shall not
exceed 0.1 mSv per consignment of the films [P.U.(A)456 Reg. 69(3)].
44
33.6 A package containing sealed source shall be segregated from other dangerous
good [P.U.(A)456 Reg. 69(4)].
34. Transportation of a Package Containing Sealed Source by Road
34.1 All related requirement and accessories required for the safe handling of an
exposure container such as [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 5]:
a) Survey meter.
b) Rope complete with pennants.
c) Warning sign board e.g. “BAHAYA – KAWASAN SINARAN”.
d) 4 stanchions for supporting barrier line.
should also be transported together with the exposure container. In this case,
the use of transport checklist as in Appendix 6 is recommended.
34.2 Under Exclusive Use
a) When the vehicle is under exclusive use for transporting a package

containing sealed source, the radiation level at any normally occupied
positions shall not exceed 0.02 mSv/h. The radiation level on the
outside walls of the vehicle and at 2 m from it shall not exceed
2mSv/h and 0.1mSv/h, respectively [P.U.(A)456 Reg. 58(1)].
b) The route used shall be planned in such a way that the time taken for
the transportation is minimized [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 5].
c) The road vehicle carrying a package containing sealed source shall

display placards as shown in Figure 16, on each external lateral side
on the rear of the vehicle.
In the case of a vehicle, the placards shall be displayed on the two lateral
external sides [P.U.(A)456 Reg. 66].
For road vehicle without sides, the placard shall affixed directly on the
package, provided that the placards are readily visible [P.U.(A)456 Reg.
66(22)].
d) Placards affixed to the vehicle shall be removed when no package

containing sealed source is being transported [P.U.(A)456 Reg. 50].
e) At no time shall passengers other than an assistant driver be carried in

the same vehicle transporting a package containing sealed source. The
RPO or the supervisor shall be in constant attendance during any
movements of the package containing sealed source [P.U.(A) 149
Reg. 12(1) and P.U.(A)456 Reg. 63].
f) The approved personnel monitoring devices shall be provided to the

driver and his assistant before transporting a package containing
sealed source [P.U.(A)456 Reg. 69(2).
45
g) A vehicle containing a package which contain sealed source other
than white label packages should not be parked for more than an hour
unless there is a clear space of at least 2 m all round the vehicle when
it is parked [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 5].
h) A vehicle containing a package which contain sealed source should

not be left unattended in any public place [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 5].
i) The consignor shall make out and sign a transport document

(Appendix 7), for each consignment of a package containing sealed
source, and shall be attached to the container when offered for
transport. A copy of this transport document shall also be displayed
conspicuously in the driver‟s compartment [P.U.(A)456 Regs. 48 &
49].
Figure 16 : Placard
* Note: Minimum dimensions are given; when larger dimensions are used, the
relative proportions must be maintained. The figure “7” shall not be less than 25mm
high. The background colour of the upper and lower halves shall be yellow and
white, respectively. The colour of the trefoil and the printing shall be black
[P.U.(A)456 Reg. 29]
34.4 Under Non-Exclusive Use
The licensee shall get prior approval from the Board for transportation of a
package containing sealed source under non- exclusive use [P.U.(A) 61 Reg.
55].
46
35. Transportation of a Package Containing Sealed Source by Sea Inland
Waterway Vessel
In addition to the Radiation Protection (Transport) Regulations 1989, the

requirements of the latest addition of IMDG-Code shall also be complied
with, when transporting a package containing sealed source by sea or inland
waterway vessel [P.U.(A)456 Reg. 3(3)].
36. Transportation of a Package Containing Sealed Source by Air
In addition to the Radiation Protection (Transport) Regulations 1989, the

requirement of the latest edition of the “ICAO and IATA – Dangerous Goods
Regulations” shall also be followed transporting a package containing sealed
source by air [P.U.(A)456 Reg. 3(3)].
47
PART VI
PROCEDURES UNDER ABNORMAL
SITUATIONS
37. Reporting
Upon discovery any abnormal situations shall be reported to the :
Atomic Energy Licensing Board,

Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation,
Batu 24, Jalan Dengkil,
43800 Dengkil,
Tel : 03-8922 5888

Faks : 03-8922 3685
Within 24 hours after the incident happened. The licensee shall submit to the
Board a detailed written report of the abnormal situations within 30 days after
such incident [P.U.(A)61 Regs. 31, 53(1) and 55(1)].
38. Equipment To Be Used Under Abnormal Situations
Suitable equipment to used under abnormal situations shall be kept at each

radiographic site or at a location within easy reach of a radiographic site,
which should include [P.U.(A) 149 Reg. 12(b)]:
a) Rope
b) Handlamp
c) Bags of lead shot, at least two bags of 2 kg each.
d) Lead pot
e) Cutter
f) Handling tongs, at least 1 meter long
g) Other appropriate tools.
Chapter 12 : Procedures Under Abnormal Situations With

Radiographic While In Operation
39. X- Ray Equipment
The following actions shall be taken by an operator/supervisor at the site in

case of any abnormal situation with the x-ray equipment [P.U.(A)61 Regs.
30,31,43 and 55 and P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(b):
a) SWITCH OFF the machine.

b) ENSURE that everything is at its position until otherwise decided by
the RPO.
c) ASK any person who may have been exposed to remain at the site for
inquiry. Record their names, addresses, and telephone numbers.
48
d) INFORM the person in charge of the site on what has happened.
e) ENSURE that the x-ray machine is not moved in order to establish the
extent of the exposures or if this unavoidable, its position should be
marked to ensure that the conditions at the time of the abnormal
situations can be reproduced.
f) INFORM the RPO about the incident.
Upon arrival at the site, the RPO shall:
a) MAKE a full investigation of the circumstances, taking written

statements from workers involved, including details of where they
were in relation to the x-ray machine, and for how long. Obtain
similar information from members of the public who may have been
exposed to the x-rays.
b) REMOVE workers involved from radiation work, until their doses
have been established.
c) SEND their films badges to the approved laboratory (e.g. Nuclear
Malaysia Agency) for urgent assessment.
d) PREPARE a detailed written report to the Board regarding the
incident which has occurred.
40. Sealed Source
40.1 The following actions shall be taken by the operator/supervisor in case of any
abnormal situations with a sealed source [P.U.(A)61 Regs. 30,31,43 & 55 and
P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(b)]:
a) MEASURE the radiation level with a survey meter and if necessary,

establish a new boundary of the controlled area. If barrier materials
are not available, “sentries” should be posted where the barriers
should be. Notices and flashing lights should be displayed at the
barrier positions.
b) ASK any person who may have been exposed to remain at the site for
inquiry. Record their names, addresses and the telephone numbers.
c) INFORM the person in charge of the site on what has happened.
d) Report the event to the RPO.
e) While waiting arrival of the RPO, the operator/supervisor shall ensure
that nobody enter the control area,
Action shall be taken by the RPO:
a) PLAN course of actions to restore the condition into normal situation

(actions to be taken varies according to condition of the abnormal
situation). Example of actions to be taken in the case of source
disconnected or stuck in the guide tube are as follows:
i). make an attempt to rescue the source and place it into the
shielded container.
ii). if this attempt successful, the RPO shall take similar actions
as in the case of x-ray equipment (paragraph 39.2 (a) – (d)).
Apparatus for gamma radiography involved in this situation
49
shall be sent to the approved service center for evaluation.
iii). if this attempt unsuccessful, immediately contact the Board

for further assistant.
b) IMPLEMENT the planned course of actions in accordance with the

company‟s Radiation Protection Programme.
c) Refer to x-ray equipment upon arrival of RPO. a) till d).
Table 15: Source recovery
Source Activity Dose rate at 1 m Allowable time

(GBq) (mSv/hr) (min)
Ir-192 37 4.8 120
74 9.6 60
185 24.0 25
370 48.0 12
740 96.0 6
1850 240.0 2
3700 480.0 1
Co-60 37 13.2 46
74 26.4 23
185 66.0 9
370 132.0 4 .6
740 264.0 2.3
1850 660.0 0 .9
3700 1320.0 0 .4
Note : The time column is derived from a dose of 10 mSv to the hands at 1 m.
40.2 Further action will depend on whether or not the source has been returned to
its container the following actions shall be taken [P.U.(A)61 Regs. 30,31,43
and 55 and P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(b)]:
a) CHECK the shielding.

b) CHECK the fastenings.
c) PLACE the container in the store.
d) MAKE a full investigation of the circumstances, taking written
statements from the workers involved including details of where they
were in relation to the source, and for how long. Obtain similar
information from any member of the public who may have been
exposed to the radiation.
e) REMOVE all workers involved from radiation work until their doses
have been established.
f) SEND the film badges worn by all workers involved to the approved
laboratory for urgent assessment.
g) SUBMIT a detailed written report to the Board regarding the incident
that had happened.
50
40.2.2 If the source is still outside its container the following actions shall be taken
[P.U.(A)61 Regs. 30,31,43 and 55 and P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(b)]:
a) CHECK that the barriers, warning signals and notices area satisfactory
and they are under control.
b) MAKE a further attempt to return the source to its container. If this
attempts fails, decide whether it is necessary to obtain another
container.
WHEN THE SECOND CONTAINER IS AVAILABLE.
a) PLACE the source in it.

b) DECIDE whether the source can be returned to its container with the
aid of handling facilities at the base or elsewhere, or whether disposal
action is necessary. In the letter case, the Board shall be contacted
immediately.
c) SET in motion the series of all actions in 40.2.1.
41. Pipeline Crawler Machine
In case of any abnormal situations with a pipeline crawler machine, where the
x-ray machine cannot be switched off or the source cannot be retracted, the
procedures under abnormal situations of x-ray equipment (paragraph 39) and
sealed source (paragraph 40) shall also be applied [P.U.(A)61 Regs. 30,31,43
& 55 and P.U.(A)149Reg. 12(b)].
Chapter 13: Procedures Under Abnormal Situations With Radiographic

Equipment While Not In Operation
42. Damage Or Malfunction
Damage and/or malfunction radiographic equipment shall not be used under

any circumstances. In case of damage and/or malfunction equipment
RETURN the equipment to the approved laboratory for inspection, repair and
subsequent certification.
43. Sealed Source Involved in Fire
In the event of fire, sealed source shall be removed from the area, if this can
be done without risks. In other cases, they should be abandoned. AELB shall
be informed immediately about this event. Fire service department shall also
be informed of the presence of sealed source as soon as possible and action as
in paragraph 40 shall be commenced [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 30, 31, 43 & 55 and
P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(b)].
51
44. Theft or Loss Of Radiographic Equipment
The following actions shall be taken upon discovering any theft or loss of any
radiographic equipment [P.U.(A)61 Regs. 30 & 53].
a) BEGIN an immediate search. In case of source loss in transport,

retrace the exact route taken by the vehicle, making both a visual
search for the radiographic equipment and an instrumental search for
the radiation from the source; and
b) INFORM the RPO who will make further attempt to search for the
equipment.
c) If the attempt is unsuccessful, INFORM the Board and police
immediately.
45. Accident While Transporting a Package Containing Sealed Source
The following actions shall be taken immediately by radiation worker

involved in an accident while transporting a package containing sealed source
[P.U.(A)61 Regs. 31 and 53, P.U.(A)149 Reg. 12(6) and P.U.(A)456 Reg.
59].
a) SURVEY the package containing sealed source to ensure that the

sealed source is secured in its shielded position, if the vehicle is not
involved in fire. If fire is involved, survey the area as close as possible
to the package containing sealed source, to determine whether or not it
is leaking.
b) SET up the controlled area around vehicle, if the survey reveals
package is leaking.
c) KEEP the public away from the vehicle.
d) NOTIFY the RPO.
The following actions shall be taken by RPO:
a) NOTIFY the police of such accident.

b) NOTIFY BOMBA, if need to do so.
c) RECORD name, address and telephone number of any person who
may have been exposed or contaminated. If any person has actually
handled or has had any part of his body touched the leaking package
containing sealed source, he shall be sent for decontamination
immediately.
52
Chapter 14 : Over exposure
Whenever any person has reasonable cause to believe that he or any other
person has received an overexposure during abnormal situations, he shall
report the circumstances to the RPO or the supervisor [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 30].
The RPO or the supervisor shall take the following actions, depending on
whether the suspected person are workers or members of the public
[P.U.(A)61Regs. 30 and 31].
46.1 For Workers
a) MAKE a full investigation of the circumstances, taking written

statements, including details of where they were in relation to the
radiographic equipment, and for how long.
b) SEND their film badges to the approved laboratory for urgent
assessment.
c) REMOVE them from work involving ionizing radiation until their
doses have been assessed.
Where the investigation confirms the report or there is another reason to

believe that any person has received a dose in excess of the limits laid down
in Table 1 in paragraph 6.2 the licensee shall immediately send the worker
concerned to go for the special medical examination by an ARMP [P.U.(A)61
Regs. 30 & 31].:
If the exposed workers shows clinically observable injuries as a result or the

overexposure, his duties may have to be modified to ensure that those injuries
are not aggravated by his subsequent employment [P.U.(A)61 Regs. 40 &
42]. Prior approval from the Board shall be obtained before reemployment is
permitted.
When it is recommended by ARMP that a worker who has incurred an

overexposure be permitted to return to radiation work, the detailed reasons for
the recommendation shall be recorded in the medical history of that worker
[P.U.(A)61 Reg. 27].
46.2 For members of the public
a) MAKE full investigation of the circumstances, taking written

statements, including details of where they were in relation to the
radiographic equipment and for how long [P.U.(A)61 Reg. 30].
b) RECORD their names, addresses and telephone numbers so that they
can be contacted if necessary.
c) If the investigation indicates members of the public is suspected to
have been overexpose, send the person for medical investigation.
Inform the Board immediately about this particular action.
53
REFERENCES
1. Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984 (Act 304)

2. Radiation Protection (Licensing) Regulations 1986 [P.U.(A)149]
3. Radiation Protection (Basic Safety Standards) Regulations 1988 [P.U.(A)61]
4. Radiation Protection (Transport) Regulations 1990 [P.U.(A)456]
5. ICRP, Protection Against Ionizing Radiation From External Sources used in
Medicine, Publication 33, Pergamom Press, Oxford and New York (1982)
6 ICRP, Data For Use in Protection Against External Radiation, Publication 51,
Pergamom Press, oxford and New York (1988)
7. IAEA, Radiations Protection Procedure, Safety series No. 38 (1973)
8. IAEA, Safe Handling of Radionuclides Safety Series no. 1 (1973)
9. ISO, Specification for Apparatus for Gamma Radiography Publication ISO 3999
(1977)
10. Training Manual 2, Radiation Hazard Control in Industrial Radiaography,
Minister of National Health & Welfare Canada (1982).
11. Safety in Industrial Radiography A Training Manual, NRL, New Zealand, ISSN
0111-753x (1981)
12. Radiation Safety For Site Radiography, kluwer Publishing Ltd. London
13. Taylor W.R., “Leakage Tests For Type B Package” Proceeding of a Seminar on
Transport Packing For Radioactive Material, Vienna 23-27 August 1976. IAEA-
SR-10/46 (pg 261-267)
14. Approved Code of Practice “The Protection of Persons Against Ionizing

Radiation Arising From Any Work” The Ionizing Radiation Regulations 1985,
London, ISBN 0118838385 (1989)
15. Martin A & Hasbison S.A An Introduction Protection, John Wiley & Sons, New
York 1979
16. British Gas Engineering Standard BGC/PS/SEP2 “Safety Procedures for

Personnel Entering and Working in Gas Transmission Pipelines”
17. Malaysian Standard “Specification for data on Shielding from Ionizing Radiation
Part 1 : Shielding from Gamma Radiation MS 5.9:1974
18. ISO: Radioactive Materials- Packaged- Tests for Leakage and radiation leakage
ISO 2855
19. American National Standard NA32 ; Radiological Safety for the Design and
Construction of Apparatus for Gamma Radiography NBS Handbook 136
20. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre India, Procedures for Radiological Safety in
Open Field Radiography, RPG/IND-3, 1983
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
APPENDIX 1

REKOD PERGERAKAN ISOTOP
A. Nama B. Nombor & Kelas Lesen :
Alamat Agensi Tempoh Sah Lesen :
Tarikh Unsur & Nombor Siri Aktiviti Nombor Siri Model Bekas Jenis & No. Lokasi Lokasi
Nombor Punca (Bq) Bekas Pengangkutan Kenderaan
Jisim Pengangkutan (Darat/Laut/Udara*) Dari Ke
mana mana
C. D.
Nama ………………………………….. Tandatangan…………………………
No. Kad Pengenalan…………………… Tarikh……………………………….
Jawatan………………………………
Jika ruang tidak mencukupi sila gunakan lampiran. Borang ini hendaklah diisi dalan 2 salinan
*Potong yang tidak berkenaan
64
APPENDIX 2

KEBOCORAN SINARAN RADIOGRAFI
Nama & Alamat Pemegang Lesen: Punca:

No. Siri Punca:
Aktiviti:
Model Bekas:
Nombor & Kelas Lesen: No. Siri Bekas:
Kedudukan* Paras Bacaan mR/hr
Diukur oleh:
A1 B1 C1 D1 A2 B2 C2 D2
NOTA : Pengukuran hendaklah dibuat sekurang-kurangnya sekali dalam masa tujuh hari.
* Pandangan alat dedahan radiografi dari atas :
Skil : A1,B1,C1,D1 = 1 cm
A2, B2, C2, D2 = 5 cm
65
APPENDIX 3
LEMBAGA PERLESENAN TENAGA ATOM,
REKOD LENCANA FILEM INDIVIDU
NAMA PEKERJA &

NO.K/P :_______________________ NO.LESEN :___________________
TARIKH LAHIR :_______________________

NAMA & ALAMAT
PEMEGANG LESEN :__________
TARIKH AKHIR PEMERIKSAAN PERUBATAN: ___________________
MULAI:_______________________________________________________
DOS UNTUK 1 TAHUN

NO.LENCANA TARIKH TARIKH KALENDER ULASAN T/TANGAN
FILEM ISU PEMULANGAN SEMASA TERKUMPUL PEKERJA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
PERINGATAN : Pemegang lesen hendaklah memberitahu setiap pekerja secara bertulis

mengenai keterangan pemonitoran kakitangannya status dedahan sinaran
tidak lewat dari 2 minggu selepas tarikh keputusan diperolehi.
66
APPENDIX 4

KEMENTERIAN SAINS, TEKNOLOGI DAN INOVASI
PERMOHONAN KEBENARAN AKTIVITI

PERGERAKAN BAHAN RADIOAKTIF
A. Nama dan Alamat Syarikat/Agensi: B. Nombor Pendaftaran/Lesen LPTA: ………………….
C.Butir-butir bekas pengangkutan:

i. No. Siri : …………………………………...
ii. Model : ……………………………………
iii. Tarikh tamat sijil : …………………………..
D. Butir-butir berkenaan bahan radioaktif (Terkedap/ Tidak terkedap)*
i. Unsur & No. jisim/ Mineral : …………………………………………………………………………

ii. Aktiviti punca/ Mineral : ………………………………………………………………………………
iii. No. siri punca : ……………………………………………………………………………………...
iv. Tarikh tamat sijil : ……………………………………………………………………………………
v. Jumlah/ kuantiti : …………………………………………………………………………………….
E. Tarikh dijangka pergerakan*:
F. Destinasi pergerakan/ dari mana diimport*:
G. Jumlah bahan radioaktif (unsur dan No. jisim) yang sedia ada:
H. Nyatakan pintu masuk/ keluar*:
I. Pengesahan Pegawai Perlindungan Sinaran/ Penyelia/ Orang Bertanggungjawab Terhadap Pendaftaran/Lesen*
i. Nama : ……………………………………………..
ii. No. Kad Pengenalan/ Pasport*: ……………………..
iii. No. telefon/fak/e-mel:…………………………………
Tarikh : ………………………………..
Tandatangan & Cop Syarikat/Agensi
UNTUK KEGUNAAN PEJABAT
1. Lulus/Gagal* Bil: …………………………..

2. Kelulusan sah sehingga : ………………………….
Nama : ……………………………………………. ……………………………………

Tarikh : ………………………… Bahagian Penguatkuasaan
b/p Ketua Pengarah
-Potong (*) pada yang tidak berkenaan..

-Tulis TB pada ruang yang tidak berkaitan.
-Sila gunakan lampiran jika ruang tidak mencukupi.
-Borang yang telah lengkap diisi hendaklah disertakan bersama yuran perkhidmatan RM20.00 sama ada dalam bentuk MALAYSIA
tunai, bank draf, kiriman wang atau wang pos. Bagi bayaran secara bank draf, kiriman wang atau wang pos, ianya
hendaklah dibuat atas nama Ketua Pengarah AELB..
-Permohonan hendaklah dikemukakan tidak kurang 14 hari sebelum tarikh import/eksport hendak dilakukan.
67
APPENDIX 5
KEMENTERIAN SAINS, TEKNOLOGI DAN INOVASI
PERMOHONAN KEBENARAN MENYELENGGARA

RADAS PENYINARAN
A. Nama & Alamat Syariknt : B. No. Lesen :

C. Tempoh Sah Lesen:
D. Butir-butir Berkenaan Radas :
i. Jenis Model :………………………………………………………………….
ii. Jumlah Unit :………………………………………………………………….
iii. Maksimum kVp :…………………………………………………………………
iv. Maksimum mA/MAS :…………………………………………………………………
v. No. Siri Panel : …………………………………………………………………
E. Tarikh Dijangka * pemasangan/ pengujian/ penyenggaraan :

Butir-butir Pengguna :
i. Nama, Alamat dan No. Lesen Pengguna /Klinik No. Lesen :
G. Nama orang yang melakukan pemasangan/ pengujian/ penyenggaraan* :

i. Nama ii. No. Kad Pengenalan iii. Jawatan
……………….. ………………….. ……………….
………………... ………………….. ……………….
H. Nama Pemohon:………………………………
No. Kad Pengenalan : ……………………………..
Tarikh :…………………………………… …... ……………………………….

Tandatangan Pemohon
UNTUK KEGUNAAN PEJABAT
1. Permohonan diluluskan / tidak diluluskan :
Bil :…………………………….
2. Sila kemukakan maklumat seperti dalam lampiran.
Tarikh : ……………………. ( )
b.p. Setiausaha Eksekutif
PERINGATAN* : - Potong yang tidak berkenaan

- Jika ruang tidak mencukupi sila gunakan lampiran
- Borang ini hendaklah diisi dalam tiga (3) salinan
68
APPENDIX 6
SENARAI PEMERIKSAAN PENGANGKUTAN

BUNGKUSAN MENGANDUNGI PUNCA TERKEDAP UNTUK TUJUAN
RADIOGRAFI INDUSTRI
AKTA PERLESENAN TENAGA ATOM 1984 (AKTA 304)
Tandakan (/) di ruangan yang berkaitan
TEMPAT PERMULAAN :……………………… TEMPAT KETIBAAN :…………………………...

…………………………………………………... ……………………………………………………..
NAMA & ALAMAT PEMEGANG LESEN: TARIKH PENGANGKUTAN (DI
………………………………………………….. JANGKA) :……………………………………….
………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………. BIL. PEKERJA YANG TERLIBAT :
PEG. PERLINDUNGAN SINARAN (PPS)/ AHLI RADIOGRAFI :…………………………….
PENYELIA BERTANGGUNGJAWAB : PEM. RADIOGRAFI :……………………………
……………………………………………….. PELATIH :……………………………………….
……………………………………………….
I. PENTADBIRAN YA TIDAK CATITAN

1. PPS/ PENYELIA dilantik secara …………….. ……………. …………………….
bertulis
2. Pekerja diiktiraf secara ……………. ……………. …………………….
bertulis
3. Prosedur pengangkutan tersedia ……………. . …………… …………………….
ada.
4. Panduan operasi/penyelenggaraan ……………. …………….. …………………….
bekas tersedia ada [senaraikan
panduan yang hilang].
5. Alat yang berkaitan dan peralatan
pengendalian bekas dedahan
tersedia ada :
(a) Tali yang cukup panjang ……………. ……………. …………………….
(b) Lambang amaran sinaran/notis ……………. ……………. …………………….
II. PUNCA TERKEDAP

Bilangan diangkut ……………… ……………. ……………. …………………….
Unsur & Sebatian ……………… ……………. ……………. …………………….
Nombor Siri ……………… …………… …………… ……………………
Carta penyusutan
tersedia ada ……………... ……………. ……………. ……………………
III. BEKAS PENGANGKUTAN

Bilangan diangkut ……………. ……………… …………………
Jenis ……………. …………….. ………………….
Nombor Siri …………… …………….. …...…………….
Kadar dos maksimum dipermukaan …………… …………….. …………………..
Lambang Sinaran …………… …………….. …………………..
Tag isotop …………… …………….. ………………….
Palam perkapalan (Shipping plug) …………… ……………. ………………….
Penutup penstoran (Storage Cover) …………… ……………. ………………….
Berkunci …………… ……………. ………………….
69
YA TIDAK CATITAN
Kunci Berfungsi ………………. ………………. …………………

Gelung Pemilih berfungsi ……………… ………………. …………………
(Selector ring function)
Periksa celah GO-NO-GO ……………… ……………… ………………..
(GO-NO-GO slot check)
Skru di keadaan betul ……………... …………….. ……………….
IV. PEMACU PEMUTAR

(WINDOUT GEAR)
Bilangan diangkut …………… …………….. ………………..

Keadaan kabel …………… ……………. ……………….
Rahang & kalung …………… …………….. ……………….
Getah pelindung ………….. ……………. ………………
Operasi kendalian ………….. …………….. ……………….
Fungsi Penutup ………….. …………….. ……………….
Periksa Injap ………….. ……………. ………………
GO-NO-GO …………. …………… ………………
Penyambung mal ………….. ……………. ……………….
(Male connector)
Lubang ………….. ……………. ……………….
Celah ………….. ……………. ……………….
Fungsi pembilang …………. ……………. ……………….
Keadaan ………… . .…………… ……………….
Skru di keadaan betul …………. …………… ……………….
V. TIUB DEPAN DAN PEMANDU

(FRONT AND GUIDE TUBES)
Bilangan diangkut ………….. ……………. ……………….

Tidak bengkok …………. ……………. ……………….
Keadaan am …………. ……………. ……………….
VII. PEMONITORAN KAKITANGAN
Menggunakan lencana filem ………….. …………… ………………..

Menggunakan dosimeter …………. …………… ………………..
Menggunakan “audible alarm monitor”…………. ……………. ………………..
VIII. KENDERAAN
Nombor Pendaftaran ………… …………… ……………….

Pembuat ………… …………… ……………….
Umur ………… …………… ……………….
Keadaan am ………… …………… ……………….
Logo Syarikat ………… …………… ……………….
Pelekat Disediakan ? ………… …………… ……………….
Notis Standard Disediakan? ………… …………… ……………….
Menggunakan Kotak Transit? ………… …………… ……………….
70
nilai diukur
di permukaan di jarak 1 m catatan

A
nilai maksima
Ulasan keseluruhan :
………..Baik Disahkan:……………………………….
Tarikh pengesahan :……………............

………..Tidak Baik
Cop :……………………………............
71
APPENDIX 7
DOKUMEN PENGANGKUTAN BAHAN RADIOAKTIF
MELALUI JALAN / REL
PERATURAN- PERATURAN PERLINDUNGAN SINARAN (PENGANGKUTAN) 1989
Dalam kes kecemasan sila hubungi:

43800 Dengkil,
Tel : 03-89225888
Fax : 03-89223685
1. No. Lesen :……………………………. 2. Nama pemegang lesen : …………………..

Tarikh mula :………………………….. Alamat kemudahan / premis :…………….
Tarikh tamat : ………………………... …………………………………………….
Kelas Lesen :…………………………. Tel : ……………………………………….
3. Nama Pegawai Perlindungan Sinaran : 4. Nama pemandu :…………………………..

……………………………………..... No. K/P @ passport : ……………………….
No. K/P @ pasport :………………… Destinasi:……………………………………
Tel : ………………………………… Dari :…………………. Ke :.………………..
(pengirim) (penerima)
5. No. Kenderaan : …………………………….
BAHAN RADIOAKTIF YANG DIANGKUT

Unsur dan No. Jisim 1 2 3 4 5
A. BENTUK FIZIKAL/KIMIKAL
B. AKTIVITI MAKSIMA
(pada tarikh _/_/_)
C. NO. SIRI PUNCA
D. NO. SIRI BEKAS PENGANGKUTAN
E. MODEL BEKAS PENGANGKUTAN
F. KATEGORI BUNGKUSAN
G. INDEKS PENGANKUTAN
H. DOS PERMUKAAN (MAKSIMA)
PENGAKUAN : * Saya dengan ini mengakui bahaya kandungan bungkusan ini telah diterangkan dengan betul dengan nama
dan telah dibungkus, ditanda dan adalah dalam keadaan yang sesuai bagi pengangkutan selaras dengan Peraturan- peraturan
Perlindungan Sinaran (Pengangkutan) 1989.
______________________
T/tangan Pengirim
______________________
Alamat Pengirim
______________________
No.Telefon Pengirim
72
APPENDIX 8
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR S.I UNITS
Radiological Old unit

Old unit Unit S. I. Relationship between units
quantity
Activity of a The curie
radioactive material 1 Ci= 3.7x1010 dis/S The Becquerel
Exposure 1 Bq= 1 disintegration/s 1 Bq=2.7x10-11Ci 1 uCi=37kBq
103 Bq= 1kilobecqeurel (kBq) 1kBq=2.7x10-8Ci 1mCi=37MBq
106 Bq= 1 megabecquerel (MBq) 1MBq=2.7x10-5Ci 1Ci=37GBq
109 Bq= 1 gegabecquerel (GBq) =2.7 uCi
1012 Bq= 1 terabecquerel (TBq) 1GBq=27mCi 103Ci=37TBq
1016 Bq= 1 petabecquerel (PBq) 1TBq=27kCi 106Ci=37PBq
1018 Bq= 1 exabecquerel (Ebq) 1PBQ=27kCi 109Ci=37EBq
1EBq=27MCi
No special named unit for
Exposure The roentgen exposure. The unit for ionization
1R= the production is C/kg and this can be used to
of ion (of one sign) express the results of ionization
carrying a charge of chamber measurements as an
2.58x104 C/kg of air intermediate step in the
determination of absorbed does.
Absorbed dose The rad The gray

1 uGy=0.1mrad 1mrad = 10pGy
1rad=0.01 J/kg 1 Gy=1 J/ kg
1 mGy=100mrad 1 rad = 10mGy
1 Gy=103 mGy=104 uGy
1 Gy=100rad 100 rad=1Gy
Dose equivalent The rem The sievert 1 uSv = 0.1mrem 1mrem =10uSv
1 Rem = 1 Rad x Q 1 Sv= 1Gy x Q xN 1 mSv=100mrem 1 rem = 10mSv
Q adalah faktor 1 Sv =103 mSv=106 uSv 1 Sv=100rem 100 rem = 1Sv
kualiti N is the product of all other
modifying factors (currently taken
as 1 by ICRP)
Note : 1 rem is equivalent to 1 rad

(for x and gamma rays only)
73
Prosedur Pengendalian Peperiksaan Persijilan PPS
LEM/TEK/44 Sem. 1
(BAHAGIAN E)
11 Mei 2007
Lembaga Perlesenan Tenaga Atom Prosedur Pengendalian No. Dokumen :

(AELB) Peperiksaan Persijilan JKPPPS/5
Pegawai Perlindungan Sinaran
ATOM I C ENERGY
LICENSI NG BOARD
PROSEDUR PENGENDALIAAN
PEPERIKSAAN PERSIJILAN
PEGAWAI PERLINDUNGAN SINARAN

43800 Dengkil,
Selangor
Tel.: 603-89267699 Fax.: 603-89223685

htpp://www.aelb.gov.my
Prosedur Pengendalian Peperiksaan Persijilan Pegawai Perlindungan Sinaran ini telah disemak
semula oleh Jawatankuasa Kebangsaan Persijilan Pegawai Perlindungan Sinaran. Ahli
Jawatankuasa ini terdiri daripada:
i. Prof. Dr. Ismail bin Bahari - Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

(Pengerusi)
ii. Prof. Dr. Hj. Abd. Aziz bin Tajuddin - Universiti Sains Malaysia
iii. Dr. Azmi bin Idris - SIRIM Berhad
iv. Dr. Azali bin Muhammad - Agensi Nuklear Malaysia
v. Tn. Hj. Mohd. Yusof bin Mohd. Ali - Agensi Nuklear Malaysia
vi. En. Mohamed Nor bin Osman - Petronas Nasional Berhad
vii. En. Bazli bin Sapiin - Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia
ix. En. Mohd. Pauzi bin Mohd. Sobari - Lembaga Perlesenan Tenaga Atom
x. Pn. Monalija bt. Kostor - Lembaga Perlesenan Tenaga Atom

(Setiausaha)
Muka surat 2 dari 12

KANDUNGAN Muka Surat
1. Skop 4
2. Singkatan 4
3. Tafsiran 4
4. Organisasi Pengendalian Peperiksaan Persijilan PPS 5-9
5. Arahan Kepada Calon 9 – 11
6. Kecurangan Peperiksaan 11
7. Maklumat Tambahan 11
Borang H - Slip Kehadiran Calon 12

1. SKOP
Standard ini menggariskan prosedur untuk mengendalikan Peperiksaan Persijilan Pegawai

Perlindungan Sinaran.
Standard ini hendaklah digunapakai bersama-sama dengan dokumen LEM/TEK/44

(BAHAGIAN A - C).
2. SINGKATAN
Singkatan perkataan yang digunakan dalam Standard ini mempunyai makna seperti
berikut:
2.1 AELB adalah Atomic Energy Licensing Board yang membawa makna Lembaga
Perlesenan Tenaga Atom;
2.2 JKPPPS adalah Jawatankuasa Kebangsaan Persijilan Pegawai Perlindungan

Sinaran; dan
2.3 PPS adalah Pegawai Perlindungan Sinaran.
3. TAFSIRAN
3.1 Pusat Peperiksaan
Pusat Peperiksaan adalah Pusat Peperiksaan Persijilan PPS iaitu tempat yang telah
diiktiraf oleh AELB bagi menjalankan Peperiksaan Persijilan PPS.
3.2 Agensi Latihan
Agensi Latihan adalah Agensi Latihan PPS iaitu agensi yang telah diiktiraf oleh
AELB bagi mengendalikan latihan kepada calon PPS seperti yang diperjelaskan
dalam LEM/TEK/44 Sem. 1 (BAHAGIAN C).
3.3 Peperiksaan
Peperiksaan bermaksud Peperiksaan Persijilan PPS.
3.3 Ketua Pengawas
Pegawai yang dilantik oleh JKPPPS atas kelulusan AELB untuk mengetuai
pengendalian Peperiksaan Persijilan PPS.
3.4 Pengawas

Pegawai yang dilantik oleh JKPPPS atas kelulusan AELB untuk membantu Ketua
Pengawas dalam pengendalian Peperiksaan Persijilan PPS.
3.5 Jurutunjuk Teknikal
Mana-mana staf sokongan teknikal yang berdaftar daripada Pusat Peperiksaan atau
daripada Agensi Latihan yang diiktiraf oleh AELB untuk membantu Ketua
Pengawas dalam mengendalikan Peperiksaan Amali (Makmal) Peperiksaan
Persijilan PPS.
4. ORGANISASI PENGENDALIAN PEPERIKSAAN
Peperiksaan Persijilan PPS hendaklah dikendalikan oleh Pusat Peperiksaan yang

diiktiraf oleh AELB di bawah standard LEM/TEK/44 Sem. 1 (BAHAGIAN B).
Pengendalian peperiksaan hendaklah dibuat mengikut organisasi berikut:
4.1 Ketua Pengawas
4.1.1 Perlantikan Ketua Pengawas
a) Ketua Pengawas hendaklah dilantik oleh JKPPPS atas

kelulusan AELB.
b) Ketua Pengawas hendaklah mempunyai kelulusan minimum

Ijazah Sarjana Muda berasaskan sains atau kejuruteraan atau
setaraf dengannya yang diiktiraf oleh AELB.
4.1.2 Tugas dan Tanggungjawab Ketua Pengawas
a) Mengetuai Pengawas peperiksaan serta menandakan

kedatangan mereka.
b) Menerima sampul bermeteri yang mengandungi kertas soalan

sekurang-kurangnya 30 minit sebelum peperiksaan dijadualkan
bermula serta memastikan sebelum membuka bahawa meteri
pada sampul itu belum dirosakkan.
c) Menyerahkan kertas soalan kepada Pengawas dan juga

mengarahkan mereka supaya meletakkan kertas soalan, kertas
jawapan dan lain-lain di atas meja calon sekurang-kurangnya 15
minit sebelum peperiksaan dimulakan.

d) Memastikan bahawa calon yang yang datang lebih dari 30 minit

selepas peperiksaan dimulakan tidak dibenarkan menduduki
peperiksaan.
e) Memastikan calon tidak dibenarkan meninggalkan dewan

peperiksaan dalam masa 30 minit selepas peperiksaan bermula.
f) Membenarkan calon masuk ke dewan peperiksaan melalui pintu

yang ditetapkan tidak lebih dari 10 minit sebelum peperiksaan
dimulakan.
g) Mengarahkan calon (apabila calon telah mengambil tempat

masing-masing) supaya:
i. Mengisi borang kehadiran (Borang H);
ii. Meletakkan kad pengenalan/pasport di atas meja;
iii. Membaca dengan teliti dan mematuhi arahan yang

tercetak pada halaman hadapan kertas soalan; dan
iv. Memastikan bahawa calon diberikan kertas soalan yang

betul sebelum mula menjawab.
h) Menentukan kesahihan calon yang tidak membawa kad

pengenalan/ pasport dan mengambil tindakan pengenalpastian
sewajarnya.
i) Memberhentikan peperiksaan dan memungut dengan segera

kertas soalan dan kertas jawapan yang sudah ditulis sekiranya
berlaku kesilapan di dalam pemberian kertas soalan peperiksaan
dan dengan serta-merta melaporkan kepada Pengerusi JKPPPS
untuk tindakan selanjutnya.
j) Melaporkan kepada Pengerusi JKPPPS sekiranya dipercayai

telah berlaku kebocoran soalan peperiksaan serta mengambil
apa-apa tindakan seperti yang diarahkan oleh Pengerusi
JKPPPS.
k) Melaporkan kepada Pengerusi JKPPPS mengikut prosedur

dalam LEM/TEK/44 (BAHAGIAN F), sesuatu kejadian
menyamar, meniru, mengelat atau jika timbul sesuatu keadaan
yang difikirkan boleh menyebabkan peperiksaan itu tidak adil

kepada seseorang calon atau wujud perlanggaran peraturan

peperiksaan.
l) Merekodkan sijil sakit (medical certificate) calon yang sakit

ketika peperiksaan atau memaklumkan calon untuk menghantar
sijil sakit kepada AELB dan mencatatkan nama calon
berkenaan.
m) Menguruskan apa-apa kejadian yang berlaku semasa

peperiksaan sedang berjalan.
n) Memberitahu Pengawas supaya tidak berdiri di belakang calon

atau terlalu kerap berjalan semasa peperiksaan sedang berjalan
kerana perbuatan ini akan mengganggu calon.
o) Mengumumkan kepada calon apabila tinggal 15 minit sahaja

lagi masa peperiksaan sebelum peperiksaan yang berkenaan
berakhir dan calon tidak dibenarkan keluar daripada dewan
peperiksaan.
p) Memberitahu calon apabila tamat masa peperiksaan dan

mengarahkan mereka:
i. Berhenti menulis serta merta;
ii. Mengikat kertas jawapan dengan benang yang

disediakan;
iii. Mengambil balik kad pengenalan/pasport masing-

masing;
iv. Meletakkan serta meninggalkan kertas jawapan di atas

meja calon;
v. Meninggalkan kertas soalan dan kertas jawapan yang

tidak digunakan di atas meja calon; dan
vi. Keluar dari dewan peperiksaan melalui pintu yang

ditetapkan dengan teratur apabila diarah.
q) Meminta Pengawas memungut kertas soalan dan kertas

jawapan calon dan menyemak bilangan kertas soalan dan kertas
jawapan yang diterima agar setara dengan bilangan calon yang

menduduki peperiksaan sebelum calon dibenarkan keluar

daripada dewan peperiksaan.
r) Menjalankan apa-apa tugas lain yang berkaitan yang diarahkan

oleh Pengerusi JKPPPS.
4.2 Pengawas
4.2.1 Perlantikan Pengawas
Pengawas hendaklah dilantik oleh JKPPPS atas kelulusan AELB.
4.2.2 Tugas Pengawas
a) Melaporkan diri kepada Ketua Pengawas selewat-lewatnya 30

minit sebelum peperiksaan dimulakan serta menerima arahan
daripadanya.
b) Menerima kertas soalan serta senarai calon daripada Ketua

Pengawas serta meletakkan kertas soalan (halaman hadapannya
ke bawah) di atas meja setiap calon yang berkenaan.
c) Menyelia staf sokongan teknikal dari Pusat Peperiksaan (jika

berkaitan) untuk melicinkan lagi perjalanan peperiksaan.
d) Mengawal pintu masuk dewan peperiksaan untuk memastikan

calon membawa bersama kad pengenalan/pasport mereka dan
tidak membawa masuk bersama mereka apa-apa buku, kertas,
gambar, telefon bimbit/PDA/komputer dan sebagainya yang
tidak dibenarkan.
e) Menyemak pengenalan setiap calon dengan membandingkan

wajah dengan gambar dalam kad pengenalan/pasport.
f) Memungut borang kehadiran, menandakan kehadiran calon

pada senarai calon dan melaporkan kepada Ketua Pengawas
jika ada calon yang tidak hadir.
g) Mengawasi segala kerja calon dan melayani apa-apa keperluan

peperiksaan yang berkaitan.
h) Mengawasi dengan secukupnya di luar dewan peperiksaan

mana-mana calon yang dibenarkan oleh Ketua Pengawas keluar
untuk sementara waktu dari dewan peperiksaan.

i) Menjaga ketenteraman di dalam dewan peperiksaan.
j) Melaporkan kepada Ketua Pengawas mengikut prosedur dalam

LEM/TEK/44 (BAHAGIAN F), sesuatu kejadian menyamar,
meniru, mengelat atau jika timbul sesuatu keadaan yang
difikirkan boleh menyebabkan peperiksaan itu tidak adil kepada
seseorang calon atau wujud perlanggaran peraturan
peperiksaan.
k) Melaporkan kepada Ketua Pengawas jika terdapat calon yang

sakit ketika peperiksaan.
l) Memungut kertas jawapan calon apabila tamat peperiksaan

seseorang calon.
m) Mengawal pintu keluar dewan peperiksaan untuk memastikam

bahawa calon tidak membawa keluar kertas soalan dan kertas
jawapan (sudah digunakan atau belum) dan lain-lain alat atau
bahan yang disediakan untuk kegunaan calon dalam dewan
peperiksaan.
n) Membantu Ketua Pengawas mengira kertas soalan dan kertas

jawapan yang diterima agar setara dengan bilangan calon yang
menduduki peperiksaan.
o) Menjalankan apa-apa tugas lain yang berkaitan yang diarahkan

oleh Ketua Pengawas dan Pengerusi JKPPPS.
5. ARAHAN KEPADA CALON
5.1 Calon dikehendaki menanti di luar dewan peperiksaan sehingga diberi

kebenaran masuk oleh Pengawas yang bertugas. Apabila kebenaran masuk
telah diberikan, calon hendaklah masuk dengan aman dan teratur melalui pintu
masuk yang ditetapkan.
5.2 Calon dinasihatkan datang untuk peperiksaan tepat pada waktu yang ditetapkan.
Perlanjutan masa tidak akan diberikan kepada calon yang lewat. Calon yang
datang lebih dari 30 minit selepas peperiksaan dimulakan tidak akan dibenarkan
menduduki peperiksaan.
5.3 Semua calon dikehendaki membawa kad pengenalan/pasport masing-masing.

5.4 Calon tidak dibenarkan membawa masuk ke dewan peperiksaan apa-apa buku,
kertas, gambar, telefon bimbit/PDA/komputer dan sebagainya yang tidak
dibenarkan oleh Ketua Pengawas.
5.5 Kertas jawapan dan benang pengikat kertas jawapan akan dibekalkan oleh
AELB. Penggunaan mesin pengira di dalam dewan peperiksaan adalah
dibenarkan sekiranya dipersetujui oleh Ketua Pengawas yang berkenaan.
5.6 Selepas mengambil tempat masing-masing dalam dewan peperiksaan, calon

hendaklah:
a) Mengisi dan menandatangani slip kehadiran calon (Borang H) serta

meletakkannya di sudut kanan atas meja masing-masing.
b) Meletakkan kad pengenalan/pasport di atas slip kehadiran calon yang

telah disempurnakan itu.
c) Membaca dengan teliti dan mematuhi arahan yang tercetak pada

halaman hadapan kertas soalan dan kertas jawapan.
d) Memastikan bahawa mereka telah diberikan kertas soalan yang betul

sebelum mula menjawabnya.
5.7 Sekiranya seseorang calon mendapati beliau diberikan kertas soalan yang salah,
calon hendaklah dengan serta-merta memberitahu Pengawas yang bertugas.
5.8 Calon tidak dibenarkan menulis nama pada kertas jawapan.
5.9 Calon tidak dibenarkan meninggalkan dewan peperiksaan dalam masa 30 minit
selepas peperiksaan bermula dan 15 minit sebelum peperiksaan berakhir.
5.10 Calon tidak dibenarkan merokok dalam dewan peperiksaan.
5.11 Perhubungan sama ada secara lisan atau lainnya di antara seseorang calon
dengan sesiapa juga (kecuali Pengawas) adalah tidak dibenarkan. Seseorang
calon yang hendak berhubung dengan Pengawas hendaklah mengangkat tangan.
5.12 Apabila diberitahu oleh Pengawas bahawa masa peperiksaan tamat, calon
dikehendaki:
a) Berhenti menulis dengan serta-merta.
b) Mengikat bersama kertas jawapan dengan benang yang disediakan.

c) Mengambil semula kad pengenalan/pasport dari atas meja masing-

masing.
d) Meninggalkan di atas meja mereka semua kertas soalan dan kertas

jawapan (sudah atau belum digunakan) dan lain-lain alat atau bahan
yang dibekalkan untuk kegunaan calon.
e) Keluar dari dewan peperiksaan melalui pintu yang ditetapkan dengan

aman dan teratur.
5.13 Seseorang calon yang:
a) Tidak mematuhi arahan di atas; atau
b) Menggangu ketenteraman di dalam atau di sekitar dewan peperiksaan;

atau
c) Tidak mematuhi arahan Ketua Pengawas atau Pengawas;
adalah telah melanggar peraturan peperiksaan dan tindakan sewajarnya boleh

dikenakan.
6. KECURANGAN PEPERIKSAAN
Calon yang didapati meniru, plagiat, mendapatkan kelebihan/kebaikan yang tidak

sepatutnya, membantu dan bersubahat dalam kecurangan peperiksaan dan pemalsuan
rekod dan dokumen rasmi dalam peperiksaan akan diambil tindakan mengikut
LEM/TEK44 (BAHAGIAN F).
7. MAKLUMAT TAMBAHAN
Keperluan Standard ini tertakluk kepada perubahan oleh JKPPPS dan AELB dari
semasa ke semasa.

Borang H / Form H
SLIP KEHADIRAN CALON / CANDIDATE ATTANDANCE SLIP
Nama (huruf besar) :

Name (capital letter)
No. KP (lama / old) :

IC No. (baru / new) :
No. Pasport / Passport No. :
Syarikat / Agensi :
Company / Agency
Tarikh Peperiksaan :
Examination Date
Pusat Peperiksaan :
Examination Centre
Kertas Peperiksaan / Examination Papers :
Umum / General Amali / Practical
Radiografi Industri / Tolokan Nuklear / Nuclear Gauges

Penyelidikan dan Pengajaran / NORM/TENORM

Research and Teaching
Penjualan / Sales Pemprosesan Menggunakan Sinaran /

Radiation Processing
Radioterapi / Radiotherapy Perubatan Nuklear / Nuclear Medicine
Radiografi Perubatan / Kemudahan Nuklear / Nuclear Facility

Medical Radiography
(Tandakan √ pada petak yang berkenaan / Please √ at the appropriate box)
Tandatangan / Signature : …………………………………………
Tarikh / Date : …………………………………………

LEM/TEK/57
02 DISEMBER 2008
CODE OF PRACTICE
ON RADIATION PROTECTION
OF NON MEDICAL GAMMA &
ELECTRON IRRADIATION
FACILITIES

Tel: 03-89284130 / 89267699

Faks: 03-89254578
Laman web: http://www.aelb.gov.my
LEM/TEK/57
02 DISEMBER 2008
CONTENTS
General Introduction
PART I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Irradiators
1.2 Purpose of This Code
1.3 Scope of This Code
1.4 Specialized Meanings for „shall‟ and „should‟
1.5 Protective Measures Required in This Code
PART II
2.1 Authorization of Practice

2.2 Personal Accreditation
2.3 Authorization of Other Practices Related to Irradiation Facilities
2.4 Authorization of Facility Modification
2.5 Radiation Protection Requirements
PART III
RESPONSIBILITIES AND DUTIES
3.1 Requirements for Supplier of Irradiation Facility

3.2 Responsibilities of Users
3.3 The Person Responsible Towards License – “Orang yang
Bertanggungjawab Terhadap Lesen” (OBTL)
3.4 Responsibilities of the Radiation Protection Officer
3.5 Responsibilities of Supervisor
3.6 Responsibilities of Qualified Operators
PART IV
SAFETY OF SOURCES AND FACILITIES
4.1 Design Safety for Gamma Irradiation Facilities

4.1.1 Design of Sealed Sources
- Specific Requirements for Wet Storage Conditions
- Certification and Documentation
4.1.2 Internal Design
- Source Holder and Rack
- Source Guard
- Product Exit Monitor
- Source Exposure Mechanism Disconnect for Servicing
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4.1.3 Wet Storage Irradiators

- Pool Accessories
- Pool Integrity
- Pool Component Material
- Water Level Control – Normal
- Water Level Control – Abnormal (Low)
- Water Conditioning
- Water Cooling
- In-pool Piping
- Pool Guard and Cover
- Water Treatment System Monitor
4.1.4 Fire Protection
4.1.5 Power Failure

- Electrical
- Non-Electrical
4.2 Design Safety for Both Gamma and Electron Accelerators

Facilities
4.2.1 Shielding
4.2.2 Access to the Radiation Source and Interlocked Systems
- Personnel Access Door Interlocks
- Product Entry and Exit Port Interlocks
- Removable Radiation Room Shield Plugs
- Fixed Radiation Monitor with Alarms
- Fully Shielded Facilities
4.2.3 Control Console
- Access Key
- Emergency Stop Device
4.2.4 Radiation Room
- Safety Delay Timer with Alarms
- Emergency Exit or Shielding
- Emergency Stop Device
4.2.5 Geological Site Considerations
- Seismic Detector
- Design Basis Earthquake
4.2.6 Ventilation
4.2.7 Warning Signs and Symbols
- Irradiation Device Warning Signs
- Warning (Source) Status Indicators
- Audible Signals
- Status Indicator Colours
- Labeling
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4.3 Design safety for electron accelerators facilities

- Main Acceleration System Disabling Mechanism
- Built-in Machine Parameter Monitoring
- Built-in Remote Machine Diagnostics
- Shielding
- Operating Parameters
- Commissioning and Testing
4.4 Operational Safety

4.5 Security of Sources
PART V
OCCUPATIONAL RADIATION PROTECTION
5.1 Designation of Controlled and Supervised Area

5.2 Workplace Monitoring
5.3 Individual Monitoring
5.4 Investigation and Follow-up
5.5 Local Rules and Supervision
- Local Rules
- Staff Training
- Medical Surveillance
PART VI
PUBLIC EXPOSURE
6.1 Responsibilities
6.2 Control of Access to Visitors
6.3 Sources that are Not in Active Use
6.4 Decommissioning and Source Disposal
PART VII
SAFETY IN THE TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
7.1 Receipt of Radioactive Materials

7.2 Dispatch of Radioactive Materials
7.3 Loading and Unloading of Sources
PART VIII
EMERGENCY PLANNING, PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE
8.1 Potential Exposure

8.2 Accident Response
8.3 Accident in Transportation
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8.4 Accident Reports

8.5 Special Emergency Procedures for Gamma Irradiators
- Removal of a Damage or Leaking Source
- Remedial Actions under Increased Radiation Levels
- Emergencies Involving High Accidental Personnel Exposures
8.6 Lessons Learned from Accidents in Irradiation Facilities
8.7 Lessons have been Learned from the Findings of Investigations
into Severe Accidents at Gamma and Electron Beam Irradiation
Facilities (refer to Annex VI)
8.8 Major Causes of Accidents
8.9 Prevention and Remedial Actions
PART IX
GLOSSARY
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02 DISEMBER 2008
ANNEXES
Annex I Dose Limits for Operational and Public Exposure
Annex II Qualified Operator Training Program
Annex III Routine Checks to be Carried Out by RPO
Annex IV Bibliography
Annex V Lessons Learned for Accidents in Irradiating Facilities
Annex VI Lessons Learned from the Findings of Investigations
CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW
BODIES FOR THE ENDORSEMENT OF CODE OF PRACTICE
vi
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The radioactive material and electron beam used as irradiators are controlled by the
Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984 (Act 304). The responsible regulatory authority is
the Atomic Energy Licensing Board (AELB).
The radioactive material used in irradiators are generally of a level of activity that
would, if not adequately shielded, constitute a significant health hazard and security
concern.
Under no circumstances should untrained or inappropriately qualified personnel or

unauthorized persons operate, attempt to remove, or in any way interfere with, the
radioactive materials or carry out any maintenance, adjustments or modifications to the
irradiator.
This code has been prepared to supplement the Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984
and its subsidiary legislations. This code is further extended to serve as a basis for
detailed working procedures appropriate to the use of irradiators.
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PART I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Irradiators
Two types of sources are used in industrial irradiators:
1. Sealed sources where the radioactive material, usually cobalt-60 or

caesium-137, is enclosed within two stainless steel metal capsules, one
inside of the other, to give two layers of protection against leakage.
2. Machine sources where electrons are produced by high voltage

accelerators.
Classification of Gamma Irradiation Facilities
For the purpose of the code, four general categories of irradiators are defined 1
according to the design of the facility and particularly the accessibility and
shielding of the radioactive material. The categories are:
Category I: An irradiator in which the sealed source is completely enclosed in a

dry container constructed of solid materials and is shielded at all times, and
where human access to the sealed source and the volume undergoing
irradiation is not physically possible in the designed configuration.
Category II: A controlled human access irradiator in which the sealed source is
enclosed in a dry container constructed of solid materials, is fully shielded when
not in use and is exposed within a radiation volume that is maintained
inaccessible during use by an entry control system.
Category III: An irradiator in which the sealed source is contained in a water

filled storage pool and is shielded at all times and where human access to the
sealed source and the volume undergoing irradiation is physically restricted in
the designed configuration and proper mode of use.
Category IV: A controlled human access irradiator in which the sealed source is
contained in a water filled storage pool, is fully shielded when not in use and is
exposed within a radiation volume that is maintained inaccessible during use by
an entry control system.
1
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Radiation Safety of Gamma and Electron Irradiation Facilities, Safety Series
No. 107, IAEA, Vienna (1992).
2
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CATEGORY I: SELF CONTAINED, DRY SOURCE STORAGE IRRADIATOR
CATEGORY II: PANORAMIC, DRY SOURCE STORAGE IRRADIATOR
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CATEGORY III:
SELF CONTAINED, WET SOURCE
STORAGE IRRADIATOR
Source Rack
Conveyer
Pool Storage
CATEGORY IV: PANORAMIC, WET SOURCE STORAGE IRRADIATOR
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Classification of Electron Beam Facilities
In this code, only electron accelerators of energies less than or equal to 10 MeV are
considered. For these energies there is no induced radioactivity in any part of the
equipment. For electron accelerators of energies above 10 MeV, the effects of induced
radioactivity shall be considered for materials used in construction and for materials in
the product being processed.
Electron irradiation facilities are divided into two categories2. These are:
Category I: An integrally shielded unit with interlocks, where human access during
operation is not physically possible owing to the configuration of the shielding.
Category II: A unit housed in shielded rooms that are maintained inaccessible during
operation by an entry interlock system.
The main differences between the types of accelerator are in the mode of accelerating
the electron beam and in the method of producing the necessary high voltages.
CATEGORY I: ELECTRON BEAM FACILITY
2
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Radiation Safety of Gamma and Electron Irradiation Facilities, Safety Series
No. 107, IAEA, Vienna (1992).
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CATEGORY II ELECTRON BEAM FACILITY
1.2 Purpose of This Code
The purpose of this code is to specify the protective measures that will ensure
that the dose limits specified in the Radiation Protection Standards (see section
1.6 and Annex I) are not exceeded as a result of the use of irradiators. It is
further intended to ensure that radiation exposures are kept as low as
reasonably achievable (ALARA).
This code lays down physical requirements for irradiators, working procedures in
their use, and radiation surveillance requirements. Informed and consistent use
of this code will ensure the safe operation of the irradiator.
1.3 Scope of This Code
This code applies to all types of irradiation facilities (for non-medical activities),
whether operated on a commercial basis or for research and development
purpose. It does not, however, deal with radiography units or irradiators used to
provide medical treatment. It is solely concerned with radiation safety and does
not deal with the use of irradiation facilities and their requirements, nor does it
cover the topics of irradiation of products and their quality assurance.
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1.4 Specialized Meanings for „shall‟ and „should‟
The words „shall‟ and „should‟ where used in this code have specialized
meanings.
„Shall‟ indicates that the particular requirement is to be complied with
„Should‟ indicates that the particular requirement is to be complied, wherever

practicable to further improve the situation or performance.
1.5 Protective Measures Required in This Code
This code lays down detailed requirements for the following protective
measures:
i. Allocation of responsibility for all safety procedures and for the provision and
maintenance of all safety equipment.
ii. Design, construction and testing of radioactive materials used in irradiators.
iii. Design, construction, testing and maintenance of source containers for

irradiators‟ radiation sources.
iv. Siting and installation of irradiation facility and provision of protective

barriers and other safety features.
v. Consistent and informed use of personal monitors to measure and assess

personal doses and of suitable radiation measuring instruments to measure
radiation exposure from irradiators and to assess potential hazards.
vi. Formulation of comprehensive safety procedures, including working rules,

emergency procedures and accounting procedures for radioactive materials.
vii. The initial and continued instruction of all persons involved in use and
maintenance of irradiator.
viii. Provision and display of warning label, notice and marking.
ix. Recording and keeping of all relevant data.
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PART II
2.1 Authorization of Practice
Any person intending to build or operate a non-medical irradiation facility AELB

and shall apply for an authorization by submitting the relevant information
necessary to demonstrate the safety of the practice.
Given the risk involved in the operation of a non-medical irradiation facility,

demonstration of safety requires a detailed safety assessment and therefore the
authorization shall take form of a license.
2.2 Personnel Accreditation
Individuals who hold key positions with the licensee i.e. those with responsibility
for radiation protection or whose actions or decisions could affect safety or lead
to an incident or accidental exposure, shall have documented evidence of
relevant education and training.
With respect to a non-medical irradiation facility, these individuals are:

 Radiation Protection Officer;
 Radiation Protection Supervisor; and
 Radiation Worker (Qualified Operator);
Chart 1: Example of Organization Chart
Licensee
Person Responsible Towards Licence (OBTL)
Radiation Protection Supervisor
Operator
Trainee operator
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Radiation protection officer is a technically competent person appointed by

licensee and accredited by the AELB3.
For a person to be appointed as a radiation protection officer, he or she shall

have the relevant theoretical training, both technical and non-technical, as
approved by the AELB, covering practical radiation protection and regulatory
requirements with respect to the irradiation facility for which they are appointed.
Radiation protection officer shall have the relevant practical experience and
commands sufficient respect from the people doing the work to be able to
exercise the necessary supervision of radiation protection activities and to stop
unsafe practices.
Qualified Operator
A qualified operator shall be at least 18 years old and holds a certificate of

competence having passed an examination following approved training which is
recognized by AELB (see Annex II). The examination shall test knowledge and
show understanding and should cover at least the following:
i. a knowledge of the basic design, operation and preventive maintenance of

the irradiator;
ii. an understanding of area security safeguards such as locks, posting of
signs, warning lights, audible and visible signals, and interlock systems;
iii. the principles and practices of radiation protection; the biological effects of
radiation; the written procedures for routine and emergency irradiator
operation;
iv. a knowledge of the principal requirements of legislation, regulations and
codes of practice as laid down by AELB and relevant to the operation of the
irradiation facility;
v. a knowledge of exposure rates at all areas around the irradiator and the
radiation detection instrumentation which is used and the requirements for
personal dose monitoring as specified by AELB.
Each operator shall demonstrate competence to use the radiation source and its
related components, and to maintain the required operation logs and records.
Operators shall understand the overall organizational structure pertaining to
management of the irradiator, including specific delegations of authority and
responsibility for operation of the irradiator.
3
Radiation Protection Regulations (Basic Safety Standards) 1988.
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2.3 Authorization of Other Practices Related to Irradiation Facility
The AELB requires the licensee to obtain prior approval to any of the following:
i. Import, export, transfer, disposal of radioactive sources and/or electron beam
machines.
ii. Appointment/transfer/resignation/of accredited changes personnel
The AELB requires the licensee to engage licensed companies and/or agencies
recognized by the AELB for any of the services below:
i. Construction.
ii. Installation.
iii. Maintenance.
iv. Source change.
v. Leak test.
vi. Decommissioning.
2.4 Authorization of Facility Modification
The licensee shall notify the AELB (and supplier where appropriate) and obtain
approval from the AELB to any modifications that may have radiological
protection implications. This includes:
i. Modifying operating procedures;

ii. Modifying the safety control system;
iii. Major modification of the irradiator;
iv. Source loading, replenishment, removal or redistribution, or electron beam
orientation, in any way at variance with the agreed approval; and
v. Changes in supervisory personnel or advisers.
The licensee is not required to notify the AELB when performing routine
maintenance procedures, including the changing of components, which will not
cause radiation hazard.
2.5 Radiation Protection Requirements
The radiation protection requirements on justification of the practice, dose

limitation and optimization of protection, and dose constraints (BSS 2.20 to 2.26)
shall be applied to irradiator. The dose limits for occupational and public
exposure is reproduced in Annex I.
The licensee shall establish a comprehensive quality assurance program for

radiation protection and safety to ensure that all necessary procedures are
developed and implemented in order to comply with the regulations for radiation
protection within the terms and conditions of the authorization(s). This is the
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Radiation Protection Program. For guidance on the preparation of Radiation

Protection Program, please refer to LEM/TEK/45 (Section E)
PART III
RESPONSIBILITIES AND DUTIES
3.1 Requirements for Supplier of Irradiation Facility
Designers and Manufacturers
The licensee of an irradiation facility shall ensure that the facility is designed to
meet the purpose given in Section 1 and any other specific safety requirements
of the AELB during siting, operation, maintenance and decommissioning. This
shall be achieved by:
(a) Complying with the requirements of Radiation Protection (Basic Safety

Standards) Regulations 1988 to ensure the safe design of these facilities.
(b) Ensuring adequate information is provided so that the facility can be safely
installed and operated. This information should consist of:
(i) A detailed description of the design and operation of the safety

systems, including control circuit diagrams.
(ii) Detailed operating and maintenance procedures including the type
and frequency of checks for safety control systems, contamination
monitoring and radiation surveys.
(iii) Safety assessments using formal analysis methods as appropriate to
the level of risk associated with the facility. (It should be noted that it is
also the responsibility of the licensee to carry out safety assessment
based on information from the supplier and the organization‟s own
administrative rules).
(iv) Instructions and procedures to be followed in emergency situations as
outlined in Section 8 of this document.
The licensee shall ensure that all documents provided by the manufacturer,
supplier or installer (operating manuals, operating rules and procedures and
emergency procedures) shall be available in the local working language
understandable to the users in order to avoid the risk of misunderstanding.
The licensee shall ensure that any new information discovered about
weaknesses of the facility that relates to safety (for example regarding defects in
materials and equipment and weaknesses in operating procedures) is obtained
from the manufacturers or suppliers as rapidly as possible. Such information
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should include any necessary advice on corrective actions that need to be

taken.
In order to achieve this it will be necessary for the licensee to periodically seek
this information from the manufacturer or supplier rather than to rely upon them
to supply it.
Constructors and Installers
The licensee shall ensure that constructors and installers work does not
compromise the safety aspects of the facility by fully complying with the
requirements of the designer, the manufacturer and the AELB. On completion of
the installation, or at appropriate stages in the construction, the constructor or
installer and the licensee shall thoroughly and critically review the facility or any
component part before it is commissioned to ensure that:
(a) The safety features and warning devices have been properly installed and
correctly operated; and
(b) There is sufficient radiation protection for all persons and the environment.
The licensee shall also ensure that the constructor or installer provides
adequate information about proper operation maintenance and
decommissioning of the facility.
The licensee shall ensure that designers, manufacturers, constructors and

installers provide cooperation in order to provide employees the necessary
theoretical and practical training to enable them to do their work in a safe
manner.
3.2 Responsibilities of Users
Managerial Commitment and Policy Statement
The licensee shall foster and maintain a positive attitude to safety and radiation
protection and seek to discourage complacency which has been shown to
directly contribute to a number of serious, indeed fatal, radiation accidents at
irradiation facilities.
A written safety policy is a crucial element in the promotion and maintenance of

a positive safety culture within an organization, and of high standards of safety
awareness in the minds of both management and workers.
The written safety policy should:
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(a) identify the individual (Member of the Board of Directors or key senior
manager) with overall responsibility for safety and as the person responsible
to the license;
(b) clearly state that safety is one of the principal objectives of the organization
of equal status to all other principal objectives e.g. commercial or research;
(c) clearly state that the organization‟s approach to safety is directed towards
prevention;
(d) identify, below director or key senior manager level, those staff with safety
responsibility;
(e) indicate the primary communication links and organizational structure
between those in (d) above;
(f) indicate the roles, responsibilities and authorities of those individuals with
specialist safety functions e.g. for radiation safety, and their reporting lines
and communication links with other management functions;
(g) provide the framework within which the necessary resources of both time
and money will be made available for the implementation of safety policy;
(h) describe how standards for safety will be established, how prevention
strategies will be chosen, and the procedures and criteria that will be used to
monitor compliance with standards;
(i) explain how the workforce and their representatives will be involved in the
promotion of safety in the organization;
(j) provide the framework for the provision of training in safety throughout the
whole range of employees and others, e.g. contractors, including both
managers and workers; and
(k) provide a mechanism for regular reviews of safety performance and of the
safety policy itself.
There shall be a system for audit and review of the level or performance
achieved in order to maximize learning and to ensure that appropriate action is
taken to improve the control of hazards, which in turn assist with the
development of safety policy.
The safety policy should provide the basis for a positive approach in the
management of safety. Its purpose should be to establish the organization‟s
attitude to safety and the structural framework through which the safety
objectives can be achieved.
In order to be effective the safety policy needs the support and commitment of
all members of staff in the organization. Senior managers should “lead by
example” demonstrate their commitment to safety and provide clear direction.
All individuals with specific safety duties should be aware of those duties and
responsibilities, and they should be provided with appropriate training and
instruction to ensure that they are competent to carry out those duties. All
employees should have a clear job description, know how they will be
supervised and be held accountable for their actions.
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There should be regular and meaningful consultation with staff and their
representatives. Information about the hazards, risks and preventive measures
should be routinely communicated to all staff.
The organization‟s performance should be measured against safety policy

objectives and regulatory and license requirements. This monitoring should be
of two types: active systems, which monitor the achievement of objectives and
the extent of compliance with standards; and reactive systems, which monitor
accidents and incidents and other evidence of deficient safety performance. It
can therefore be seen that an effective safety policy is not a fixed and
unchanging document but an evolving and developing attitude towards a safety
culture.
Organization and Responsibilities
The licensee shall be responsible for the possession and use of irradiator and
shall obtain from the appropriate authority a license for the design, construction,
acquisition, storage and use of the irradiator. The licensee shall be responsible
for the operation of the irradiator in accordance with the conditions of the
license.
The licensee shall notify the appropriate authority of any proposed modifications
to the irradiator. Notification and approval for changes to the key personnel shall
be made in particular the person responsible to the license, the radiation
protection officer, supervisor and qualified operators.
3.3 The Person Responsible towards License - “Orang yang

Bertanggungjawab Terhadap Lesen” (OBTL)
The OBTL is responsible for all matters related to the appropriate authority,
provides the infrastructure (including financial and training) required by the RPO.
Other responsibilities of the OBTL shall include:
a) submit to the appropriate authority an employee who fulfills all conditions
prescribed by AELB to be certified as RPO.
b) Explains to the RPO his or her responsibilities.
c) Ensures that the adopted Radiation Protection Program is in line with
AELB‟s directive and requirement and ensuring that the Radiation
Protection Program is completed and implemented.
d) Ensures that all medical examinations are carried by the approved
Medical Practitioner‟s only.
e) Establish, maintain and keep all records required by the appropriate
authority.
f) Ensures all activities related to ionizing radiation complies with the
Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984 and its subsidiary regulations.
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3.4 Responsibilities of Radiation Protection Officer (RPO)
Licensee shall get approval from the appropriate authority for the appointment of
the RPO. The RPO should report directly to senior management. The RPO shall
have sufficient authority to allow them to exercise close supervision to ensure
that the work is done in accordance with the written administrative procedures.
The RPO should not however have other responsibilities, which could
compromise radiation safety interests.
The Licensee shall carry out the general responsibility of compliance with the
regulations and the conditions of license issued by the appropriate authority.
The duties of the RPO should include the following;
(a) ensuring that all operators, maintenance staff, contractors and other
relevant individuals and organizations are provided with copies of the
operating instructions; that they have read and understood these
instructions and are complying with them;
(b) identification of controlled and supervised areas;
(c) control of access to controlled areas;
(d) restriction of exposure and maintenance of engineering controls and other
equipment provided for such restriction;
(e) deciding whether any special restriction are required with respect to the
exposure of pregnant female employees;
(f) arranging the testing of radiation monitoring instruments;
(g) maintaining source and other relevant records;
(h) routine radiation surveys and environmental monitoring;
(i) supervision of issuance and return of personal dosimeters;
(j) arranging statutory tests for leakage of radioactive material;
(k) undertaking a program of periodic safety checks on safety and warning
systems, general conditions of the facility etc. An example check list for
such checks is in Annex III;
(l) liaison with contractors, designers, maintenance staff, designers and
suppliers with respect to radiation protection matters and significant
changes to physical or operational aspects of the facility;
(m) arranging suitable radiation protection training for operators, maintenance
staff, contractors and others as appropriate;
(n) ensuring the adequacy of safety assessments and contingency plans for
any reasonably foreseeable incident with radiation protection
consequences;
(o) arranging periodic exercise to test the effective implementation of these
contingency plans; and
(p) to initiate investigation of any incident or a near miss involving the facility
RPO play a supervisory role in assisting the licensee to comply with the
requirements of the approval or regulations. In cases where there is a potential
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conflict between operational responsibilities e.g. meeting production targets and

radiation safety, the radiation safety requirements must always take priority. At
least one officer (either the RPO or the Supervisor) has to be available, though
not necessarily present at all time.
3.5 Responsibilities of Supervisor
In order to ensure there will be at least one person on duty or otherwise readily
available for supervision of radiation protection, the licensee shall also appoint a
sufficient number of supervisors whose duties shall be assisting the RPO. The
appointment of supervisors by the licensee shall be approved by the appropriate
authority.
3.6 Responsibilities of Qualified Operators
Only qualified operators shall be authorized to be responsible for the routine

operation of the irradiator and shall ensure that the established safety
procedures are observed.
Qualified operators are those who work most closely with a particular irradiator
and day to day responsibility for safe operation is generally theirs. The operators
training, experience, attitude and competence will establish the degree of safety
associated with operation of the irradiator.
PART IV
SAFETY OF SOURCES AND FACILITIES
4.1 Design Safety for Gamma Irradiation Facilities
4.1.1 Design of Sealed Sources
Sealed sources used in gamma irradiation facilities shall meet the general
requirements of sealed sources given in ISO Standard 29194.
These classification requirements are:
Category I irradiator: Sealed source classification: 43323

Category II irradiator: Sealed source classification: 53424
Category III irradiator: Sealed source classification: 53424
Category IV irradiator: Sealed source classification: 53424
4
International Organization for Standardization, ISO 2919, Radiation Protection – Sealed Radioactive Sources –
General Requirements and Classification (1999).
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If the activity of the source exceeds those stated in Annex I, a specific evaluation
of the use of the sealed source and its design shall be made by the licensee and
be approved by the appropriate authority.
The licensee shall also take into account of the possible effects of fire,
explosion, corrosion and any aspects related to the continuous use of the sealed
source5. Factors to be considered are:
The consequences of failure of source integrity can be influenced by:

(a) The quantity of radioactive material contained in the sealed source;
(b) The radiotoxicity, leachability and solubility of the radioactive material;
(c) The chemical and physical form of the radioactive material; and
(d) The environment, in which the source is stored, moved and used.
Specific Requirements for Wet Storage Conditions
When selecting a source, the licensee shall ensure that the outer capsule
material is such that it does not significantly corrode under the conditions of
storage of the sealed source in the pool. Consideration shall also be taken of the
need to limit thermal fatigue in the selection of the capsule material.
The licensee shall also ensure that the source material is substantially insoluble
in water so that the consequences of a breach in the containment are kept to a
minimum. In this context, cesium chloride is highly soluble in water and shall not
be used.
Certification and Documentation
The licensee shall maintain records relating to the sealed source. The records
shall include the following:
(a) Model number and identification number of the source, the contained
radionuclide, the source activity and the date to which the source activity
relates (LPTA/BM/3 form);
(b) ISO classification certificate;
(c) Leak test certificate;
(d) Contamination test certificate; and
(e) Special form test certificate for transportation purposes6.
5
International Atomic Energy Agency, Safety Assessment Plans for Authorization and Inspection of Radiation
Sources, TECDOC-1113, IAEA, Vienna, 1999.
6
Radiation Protection Regulations (Transport) 1989
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4.1.2 Internal Design
Source Holder and Rack
The sealed source shall be firmly within its holder and rack such that it cannot
be readily dislodged. Means shall be provided to position and retain the sealed
source in the design position. Devices used for the purpose of positioning and
removing sources should be capable of being operated from the outside of the
radiation shields. In the event of failure of the sealed source holder or rack it
shall not be possible for the source to move into a position that might cause
radiation hazard.
Source Guard
The radiation source shall be provided with adequate mechanical protection to

prevent interference and damage by items such as product boxes or carriers.
Product positioning systems shall not be able to come into contact either directly
or indirectly with the radiation source. This may take the form of protective
shroud, guide bars or floor guides on the product positioning system.
Product Exit Monitor
A fixed radiation monitoring system with built-in redundancy and audible alarms
shall be located such that the monitors will detect any radioactive source being
accidentally brought out on a product carrier. These monitors shall be
interlocked with the irradiator controls such that if radiation at the exit port
exceeds a predetermined level, the conveyor which carries products from the
radiation room to the exit port will stop and the source will be automatically fully
shielded.
Source Exposure Mechanism Disconnect for Servicing
The motive power (e.g. electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic) used to expose the
source shall be provided with a disconnecting mechanism so that servicing can
be carried out without the danger of the source being inadvertently exposed.
Means shall also be provided for positively isolating the source control system or
for mechanically locking the moving parts.
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4.1.3 Wet Storage Irradiators
Pool Accessories
An automatic water level control shall be provided to maintain the water above a
pre-set level. Except for float switches, all components of the automatic water
level control that are placed below water level shall be made of material that will
not float, i.e. density greater than 1000 kgm-3. If hollow tubing is used, it shall be
fully vented to allow water to flood the tubing to eliminate the risk of high
radiation beam up the tube.
Pool Integrity
The containment of the pool shall be watertight and designed to retain water
under all foreseeable circumstances. A non-corrosive stainless steel liner shall
be used. The containment shall be designed to support radiation source
transport containers used during source transfer operations without
compromising the integrity of the pool. There shall be no penetration (e.g. pipes
or plugged holes) through the bottom of the pool. There shall be no penetration
through the walls of the pool more than 30 cm below normal water level.
Pool Component Material
All permanent pool components shall be made of corrosion resistant materials

since corrosion products may affect the integrity of the sealed source. Where
practical, stainless steel components (e.g. brackets or pulleys) shall be
passivated, particularly after fabrication.
Water Level Control – Normal
Means shall be provided to automatically replenish water loss from the pool. The
system shall be capable of maintaining pool water at a level sufficient to provide
the radiation shielding necessary. A metering device shall be installed in the
make-up water supply line to indicate major changes in water replenishment
requirements that may be associated with pool leakage. Normal water loss is
principally due to evaporation.
Water Level Control – Abnormal (Low)
Means shall be provided to activate audible and visible signals in the control
area if the pool water falls to a level more that 30 cm below the normal make-up
water level.
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Water Conditioning
To reduce the possibility of source corrosion the pool shall be equipped with a
water conditioning system capable of maintaining the water in a clean condition
and at a level of conductance not exceeding 1000 µS/m(7). Care shall be
exercised to avoid the introduction of contaminants into the water system (e.g.
deionizer regenerates, cleaning materials, corrosive fire extinguishing materials
and spilled product).
Water Cooling
A pool water cooling system shall be provided in wet storage irradiators to

remove heat produced by gamma emitting sources. This is to reduce damage to
electrical equipment and product boxes and the product positioning system
resulting from high humidity levels. Reducing evaporation loss from the pool will
also facilitate maintaining the conductance of the water below 1000 µS/m for a
longer period before regeneration or replacement of deionizer resins is required.
In-pool Piping
Since pipes are used in source storage pools for the water level and water
quality systems, suitable siphon breakers shall be provided to prevent the
possibility of lowering the pool water to more than 30 cm below the normal
make-up water level. All pool water circulation suction pipes shall have intakes
no lower than 30 cm below the normal make-up water level.
Pool Guard and Cover
A physical barrier such as railing and/or metal cover shall be installed to prevent
personnel from accidentally falling into the source storage pool. This physical
barrier may be removed during maintenance or service operation.
Water Treatment System Monitor
A fixed radiation monitor with an audible alarm shall be located on the deionizer
column to detect contamination arising from source leakage. This monitor shall
be interlocked with the irradiation controls, such that if the pre-set alarm level is
reached the source returns to its shielded position and the water circulation
stops.
7
Siemens is the SI unit for conductance which is the reciprocal of resistance, i.e. 1 S is the reciprocal of 1 Ohm and
was formerly called 1 Mho.
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4.1.4 Fire Protection
During extended periods of static irradiation of combustible materials, or when a

malfunction prevents the source from becoming fully shielded, heat build-up can
lead to combustion. Heat and smoke sensing devices with visible and audible
alarms shall be provided to detect combustion in the radiation room. The
triggering of the devices shall cause the source to automatically be fully shielded
and the product positioning and ventilation systems to shut down. The design of
the facility should be such that damage to any component part will not inhibit the
source from returning to the fully shielded position.
A fire extinguishing system shall be provided in the radiation room. When a

water sprinkling system has been installed, provision shall be made to control
any overflow of water that may arise from its use. Chemicals and corrosive
substances that could adversely affect the integrity of the sealed source shall
not be used in fire extinguishing systems.
4.1.5 Power Failure
Electrical
Safety control systems shall not be compromised in the event of a power failure.
Means shall be provided to ensure that if an electrical power failure occurs, the
source will automatically be returned to the fully shielded position and the
irradiator shut down.
Non-Electrical
In the event of failure of non-electrical power (e.g. pneumatic or hydraulic power)

which is used to control or operate any irradiator safety feature or device means
shall be provided to ensure that the source is automatically in the fully shielded
position and the irradiator shut down.
4.2 Design Safety for Both Gamma and Electron Accelerators Facilities
The product positioning system shall be provided with controls that detect any
malfunction of the system, and subsequently shall ensure that the source
automatically becomes fully shielded.
4.2.1 Shielding
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Direct radiation exposure from the operation of irradiation facilities shall be

limited by appropriate shielding. The amount of shielding shall be determined by
reference to any dose rate requirements and shall comply to the requirements
specified by Act 304 and its subsidiary legislations.
Once the design of the shield has been established, no subsequent changes
affecting radiation safety shall be made unless they have been approved by the
Penetrations of the shield will be necessary for personnel and product entry and
exit and for ventilation and other ducting. Measures shall be taken to ensure that
all such significant radiation paths are fully evaluated and protected by design
including, those that arise during the transit of the source from its shield to its
operating position.
All shielding calculations carried out for the purpose of design shall be
undertaken by qualified radiation protection personnel8 and approved by the
Penetration pose particular problems for the shielding designer, who should
ensure that there is no direct radiation leakage path and that the use of maze
entrances and shield plugs is sufficient to reduce the radiation fields at the point
of exit to acceptable levels. Where this is not feasible, access to areas of high
dose will need to be restricted.
The shielding properties of particular materials are well established, but

experience from existing irradiation facilities should be taken into account.
4.2.2 Access to the Radiation Source and Interlocked System
Facilities requiring access shall be designed such that persons cannot access
the radiation room while the source is in the exposed position, or is energized.
Such control relies heavily on the use of interlocked systems.
Sequentially interlocked controls shall be provided for personnel access, locking

of the radiation room and irradiation operations. The controls shall be designed
such that any attempt to override them or apply them out of sequence will
automatically abort the intended operation and require the sequence to be
restarted.
Personnel Access Door Interlocks
Means shall be provided such that the personnel access door to the radiation
room is closed and secured before the irradiation process can begin.
8
Radiation Protection Officer or Supervisor or accredited personnel.
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The door interlocks shall be integrated with the master control system such that
violation of the interlock system or use of the door will cause the radiation to be
automatically terminated. Any failure of the control system shall generate visible
and audible alarm signals.
Opening the access door shall also disable the source hoist control circuit and
cut off the motive power to the source hoist operating mechanism in the case of
gamma facilities, or switch off the high voltage supply for electron beam
facilities. The disabling of the source hoist control circuit and the cut-off of the
motive power to the source hoist operating mechanism shall be accomplished
by independent actions.
The door shall not prevent any person in the radiation room from leaving. In
addition, there should be an independent backup access control to detect the
entry of personnel while the sources are exposed.
Detection of entry while the sources are exposed shall cause the sources to
return to their fully shielded position and shall also activate an alarm to warn the
individual entering the room of the hazard. The alarm shall also alert at least one
other individual on site that entry has occurred. That individual shall have been
trained on how to respond to the alarm and be prepared to promptly render or
summon assistance.
Product Entry and Exit Port Interlocks
Suitable means shall be provided at the product entry and exit ports to prevent
inadvertent entry of personnel into high radiation areas. The ports shall be inter-
locked such that a visible or audible alarm indicates when the entry/exit port
control mechanism has malfunctioned or has been overridden or tampered with.
The irradiation shall be automatically terminated when this occurs and shall
prevent the irradiation from being restarted unless the cause has been
remedied.
Removable Radiation Room Shield Plugs
Removable radiation room shield plugs shall be interlocked with the master
control system to prevent or abort irradiator operations if a plug is removed. To
ensure that the interlock cannot be tampered with, the interlocked control shall
not be accessible outside the radiation shields.
Fixed Radiation Monitor with Alarm
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A monitoring system with built-in redundancy shall be provided to detect

radiation levels in the irradiation room. The monitor shall be integrated with the
personnel access door interlocks to prevent room access when the monitor
detects a radiation level in excess of that specified, or when it malfunctions or is
turned off. The monitor shall generate visible and audible alarm signals if the
radiation level exceeds that specified when the irradiation is indicated to be
terminated. If it is necessary to override interlocks or other safety systems,
written administrative procedures shall be used to provide detailed guidance for
such actions, and shall only be undertaken under the direct control of a radiation
protection officer.
The pre-set alarm must be set sufficiently above the natural background level to
avoid excessive number of false alarms.
Fully Shielded Facilities9
The irradiator shall not be operable until all shielding is in place and all other
safety device are actuated. Movable shielding shall be interlocked so that it
cannot be displace in a manner that results in radiation levels in excess of those
specified in the design. An interlocked radiation monitor shall be provided as a
backup check that the shielding is in place.
4.2.3 Control Console
Each irradiator shall have a master control that shall be used to prevent
unauthorized operation. Means shall be provided to terminate irradiation and
turn the irradiator off at any time. In power operated irradiators this control may
be a key operated switch. In manually operated irradiators a keyed mechanical
lock or simple padlock may be used.
Access Key
Access key control systems shall be designed to ensure that there can be no
more than one access key in use at any given time, e.g. the irradiator controls
may be designed such that a single multipurpose key is used to operate the
irradiator during normal use. This key may be used to operate the control
console, gain access to the radiation room and to actuate the safety delay timer.
In systems employing two or more keys, one key must remain captive (trapped
within the lock) when the other keys are being used.
9
Category I and III gamma irradiation facilities and category I electron beam machine.
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Emergency Stop Device
In addition to any other means normally available at the control console to shut
down the irradiator, a clearly labeled emergency stop device shall be provided at
the control console to prevent, quickly interrupt or abort irradiator operations and
terminate irradiation at any time.
4.2.4 Radiation Room
Safety Delay Timer with Alarms
The radiation room shall be equipped with a safety delay timer that will
automatically generate visible and audible signals to alert persons in the area
that radiation exposure sequence has begun. The timer shall allow sufficient
time for the operator to make a complete search of the area to ensure that no
one else is present and then leave the area. The timer shall be integrated with
the master control system such that irradiation cannot begin unless the start-up
sequence has been properly completed within a pre-set time.
Emergency Exit or Shielding
For the protection of anyone inadvertently shut inside the radiation room one or
more of the following systems shall be provided:
a) a means of exit from the radiation room. This may require a system for
opening the personnel access door from inside the radiation room, thus
activating the normal safety interlocks; and
b) a clearly marked location where radiation dose rates are sufficiently low.
Emergency Stop Device
Means shall be provided within the radiation room to prevent, quickly interrupt or
abort irradiator operation and terminate irradiation at any time. The device shall
be clearly labeled and readily accessible to workers in the radiation room, and
shall cause visible or audible signal to be given outside the room.
4.2.5 Geological Site Considerations
Geological features that could adversely affect the integrity of the radiation
shields shall be evaluated by taking into account the physical properties of
materials underlying the irradiator site or in its environments. Areas of potential
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or actual surface or subsurface subsidence, uplift or collapse shall be taken into

consideration when assessing the suitability of a site. Other factors that are not
necessarily due to natural features (e.g. underground mining) but that could
result in instability shall also be considered.
Seismic Detector
In areas with a significant potential for severe seismic disturbance(10), each of

category II or IV gamma irradiator shall be equipped with a seismic detector that
causes the radiation source to be automatically fully shielded should the
detector be actuated. The seismic detector may be a horizontal omniaxial or a
vertical uniaxial type and shall be set to actuate at acceleration above 0.05 g.
Design Basis Earthquake
In seismic areas, the radiation shields shall be designed to retain their integrity
for the „design basis earthquake‟ (DBE). The DBE is based on an evaluation of
the maximum earthquake potential in which the regional and local geology and
seismology and the specific characteristics of local subsurface materials are
taken into consideration.
4.2.7 Ventilation
Ozone, oxides of nitrogen and other noxious gases (e.g. those from certain
plastics) are produced by radiolysis. Measures shall be taken to protect
personnel against exposure to concentrations of such gases above the
threshold limit values prescribed by the health authority.
Ventilation shall be taken to prevent the migration of the ozone produced in an

irradiator into areas that may be occupied and where the concentration could
potentially build up to exceed the accepted limit. This can be achieve by using a
ventilation system that creates negative pressure in the irradiation room
Where forced air system are utilized, the flow of air shall be continuously
monitored such that failure of the system will automatically terminate irradiation.
4.2.7 Warning Signs and Symbols
Irradiation Device Warning Sign
10
Earthquakes with acceleration of 0.3 g pr greater is generally classified as severe.
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There shall be clearly visible warning sign at the personnel access door to the
radiation room bearing the radiation symbol and warnings as prescribed by the
Regulatory Authority.
Any warning sign positioned inside the radiation room shall be made from
materials that will withstand high doses of radiation with the general
environmental conditions that may exist.
Irradiation (Source) Status Indicators
Clearly visible irradiation status indicators shall be provided at the control

console to indicate:
(a) when irradiation is terminated (source down or de-energized);
(b) when irradiation is in progress (source up or energized); and
(c) when irradiation is in preparation (source in transit position or about to be
energized).
An irradiation status indicator shall be visible at each personnel or product

entry/exit port.
Audible Signals
Each audible signal designed into the irradiator control system shall be distinct
and loud enough to gain immediate attention of persons in the area and should
not be capable of being confused with any other signals in use in the area.
Status indicator Colours
The following colours shall be use when illuminated or colour coded controls are
used:
Condition Colour
Emergency (stop buttons or lights) Red
Warning – hazard International trefoil
Critical information (irradiator malfunction) Red
Caution (not an emergency, but some Yellow or orange
function taking place to be aware of )
Normal (irradiator not in use, or function Green
safe)
Information Blue
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Labeling
Category I gamma irradiators shall have clearly visible labels identifying the
contained radionuclides, their activities and the dates to which the source
activities relate. The irradiator shall bear the radiation symbol and warnings
according to national regulations.
The irradiator shall also bear a label with the following information:
(a) Name and address of manufacturer;

(b) Model and serial number of irradiator;
(c) Approval number if appropriate; and
(d) Maximum source activity of irradiator.
If a separate control panel or console is utilized it shall be easily identifiable as

being part of irradiator. When labels are being secured on fully shielded
irradiators, care shall be taken not to drill through the metal container shell into
the lead shield.
4.3 Design Safety for Electron Accelerators Facilities
The following features shall be considered in industrial accelerator design:
(a) Positive means of disabling the main acceleration system;

(b) Built-in machine parameter monitoring; and
(c) Built-in remote machine diagnostics.
Main Acceleration System Disabling Mechanism
The main acceleration system disabling mechanism must inactive the

acceleration capability without harm to machine components. It shall disable the
acceleration system in such a manner as to allow as many other subsystems as
possible to function for diagnostic purposes. The disabling feature must be
clearly identified and explained by the manufacturer in the documentation
accompanying the machine.
Built-in Machine Parameter Monitoring
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Continuous monitoring of operating parameters shall be used. It offers the

opportunity of event logging of failure sequence information for maintenance
engineers and for planning repairs.
Built-in Remote Machine Diagnostics
Strategic electronic test points shall be located in the control room in order to
allow operators and maintenance crews carry out accelerator diagnostics on the
total system without resorting to disabling the main acceleration system or
bypassing access interlocks.
Shielding
Low atomic number materials should be used as far as possible for structures
that are exposed to electron beams, to minimize the generation of X-radiation,
so long as X-ray conversion is not the purpose of the operation of the electron
accelerator. Shielding calculations shall be performed with the assumption that
all electrons are absorbed by the heaviest element that may be exposed to the
beam. Account shall be taken of the composition of the structural materials and
products that might be irradiated in the facility. The shielding calculations shall
be performed for the maximum energy and maximum current that the electron
accelerator can deliver.
Attention shall also be given to „spurious‟ X-radiation, particularly in accelerators

operating at high voltage levels with accelerator tubes located outside the
radiation room.
There are several causes for spurious X-radiation:

(a) Backscattered electrons can possess sufficient energy to stream back
through the accelerator tube. This effect is particularly pronounced when
high-energy electrons impinge on a high atomic number target for X-ray
conversion.
(b) During conditioning of the electron accelerator and during operation under
relatively poor vacuum conditions, dark currents in the accelerator tube
occur which generate X-rays.
Access ducts shall be shielded with lead or steel shot in order to reduce
radiation to acceptable levels.
Electrons have a finite range in matter, which is a function of their initial energy
and the density of the absorbing material. The maximum range of the electrons
is small compared with that of the X-rays, therefore in the calculations of the
shielding requirements of electron accelerator facilities, only the generated X-
rays need be taken into account.
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Characteristics X-radiation is an important factor to consider only with electron

accelerators up to 300 keV that are self-shielded with heavy element such as
lead or depleted uranium. In most cases Bremsstrahlung is more important for
radiation shielding.
Operating Parameters
The operating parameters of accelerators (voltage and current) shall be

interlocked with the product transport mechanisms.
Commissioning and Testing
Commissioning and testing shall be carried out at maximum operating

parameters (voltage and current) and with product handling equipment under
the beam as close as possible to actual operating condition.
4.4 Operational Safety
Testing and Maintenance of Equipment.
To ensure the continued safe operation of the facility, the Licensee shall ensure
that all safety functions are regularly tested by setting up a formal programme of
maintenance and testing.
Formal testing and maintenance programme shall follow the recommendations

provided by the irradiator manufacturer and source supplier in the operating and
maintenance manuals that they provide. Such manuals must be obtained by the
Licensee and should be translated into local language.
The tests shall include:

(a) Regular testing of safety interlock components for correct operation,
according to the instructions of the equipment manufacturers. These tests
shall be carried out by the RPO, Supervisor or the Operator and shall be
undertaken in the presence of a radiation protection officer, if not done by
him.
(b) Only calibrated and good condition radiation meters shall be used. The
pre-use test should include a test of the instrument‟s overload
performance, i.e. it should operate correctly up to maximum credible dose
rate it may encounter.
(c) Periodic examination of the hoist cable and guide cables shall be made
and the cables shall be replaced as required by existing national
regulations or at intervals recommended by the manufacturers.
Weekly Tests.
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The following tests should be carried out weekly:

(a) A check to ensure that the continuous radiation-monitoring device on the
pool water circulation system is functioning correctly (in the case or category
IV gamma irradiation facilities).
(b) Analysis by a well-regulated national laboratory of samples of pool water
taken from the water circulation system (a less frequent analysis may be
appropriate if water is continuously monitored for radiation, or if experience
shows this to be acceptable).
(c) A check of the water deionizer for correct operation and air filter, water filters
and resins for contamination.
(d) A check to ensure the correct function of the emergency stop button on the
control console, the emergency stop device inside the radiation room, the
door interlock and, in the case of wet storage irradiators, the water level
control, the low pool water interlock and the water treatment system.
Attempts shall also be made to operate the irradiator after deliberately violating
the approved startup procedure, to ensure that the interlocks and sequential
controls are functioning correctly.
Monthly Tests
The following additional tests shall be carried out on a monthly basis:
(a) A test to ensure that the radiation room monitor is functioning properly; this
is done by exposing the monitor probe to a check source until the alarm
sounds.
(b) A check, in accordance with the manufactures instructions, of the safety
control systems that prevent access in the radiation room when there is any
radiation present.
(c) A test to ensure that the product exit monitor is functioning properly; the test
is carried out, with the irradiator operating by exposing the monitor probe to
a check source until the alarm sounds. The product exit conveyor shall stop
and the source shall automatically become fully shielded. In the case of
electron accelerator facilities, the radiation shall be switched off.
(d) A test of the source exposure mechanism, the ventilation system and similar
hardware, which contribute to the safe operation of the irradiator and its
related product positioning mechanism.
(e) A check to ensure that other main items of equipment associated with
source movement and control function properly and show no signs of
potential failure.
(f) A check to ensure that all product containers are not damaged and in good
condition.
If any of the checks indicates a fault or if interlocks do not function properly, the
irradiators shall not be used until repairs have been made.
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6-monthly Test
Semi-annually, an inspection of the source movement and suspension system

shall be carried out. This shall include the entire length of the cable. Any
necessary replacement of the cable shall be carried out.
4.5 Security of Sources
The objective of source security is to ensure continuity in the control and

accountability of each source at all times. Special provisions should be made
for typical situations in which loss of control led to accidents:
(a) storage of sources before installation;

(b) temporary or cease in the use; and
(c) Storage after decommissioning waiting for decision on source return or
disposal.
The Licensee shall develop procedures to ensure the safe receipt and dispatch
of radioactive sources within the organization, and establish controls to prevent
theft, loss, unauthorized withdrawal, or damage to sources, or entrance of
unauthorized personnel to the controlled areas.
The Licensee should check the number of sources on site both when receiving
or dispatching sources and make a physical inventory of all sealed sources to
confirm that they are in their assigned locations and secure.
PART V
OCCUPATIONAL RADIATION PROTECTION
5.1 Designation of Controlled and Supervised Areas
Controlled Area
Any area where specified protective measures or safety provisions are, or could
be, required for controlling normal exposure or preventing or limiting the extent
of potential exposure, shall be designated as a controlled area.
This will consist of these areas for irradiation facilities:
(a) Self-contained gamma irradiators (categories I and lll); the room in which the
irradiator is housed;
(b) Panoramic gamma irradiators (categories ll and lV); the exposure room and
the control room;
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(c) Electron beam irradiator (category l); the room in which the irradiators is
housed; and
(d) Electron beam irradiator (category ll); the exposure room and control room.
The designation of these areas shall be kept regularly under review and may be
changed or extended during initial installation, maintenance and source loading
and unloading operations.
All controlled areas shall be identified by physical barriers, such as doors, where
practicable, or by other means such as marking on the floor. Access points to
controlled areas shall be clearly labeled with signs including the radiation
warning symbol, the statement “Radiation Controlled Area” and “Kawasan
Kawalan Sinaran”.
Access to controlled areas shall be effectively restricted to qualified operators

and other staff authorized, in writing, by the RPO. This access control shall be
ensured by physical barriers and interlocking systems, where practicable, and
by administrative controls such as entry permits issued by the RPO. Such
permits shall specify the persons concerned, the areas to be entered, the reason
for entry, the duration of permit and any special restrictions e.g., monitoring
arrangements and the level of supervision required.
It is recommended that permits are valid only when authorized by both the RPO
and facility manager.
For normal operations a dose rate criterion for a controlled area may be useful
and convenient. Therefore, for example, any area where the dose rates exceed
2.5 Sv/h may be designated as a controlled area.
Supervised Areas
The following areas shall be designated as supervised area unless

circumstances warrant their designation as controlled areas:
(a) Panoramic gamma irradiators (categories ll and lV); product entry and exit
areas and service areas such as source hoist and water treatment plant
rooms.
(b) Electron beam irradiator (category ll); product entry and exit areas, and
service areas.
5.2 Workplace Monitoring
Appropriate radiation monitors shall be provided. Surveys shall be undertaken

at positions around the facility and at intervals as advised by the RPO, and
records of these surveys shall be kept for at least 20 years.
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Electron beam facilities operating above 10 MeV shall also be monitored for
neutrons.
Portable monitoring instruments shall be tested for proper function prior to each
entry into the radiation room by means of a check source. This shall be located
at the entry door.
The monitoring instrument used shall have the following features:
(a) It will have a response appropriate for the type of radiation being
measured;
(b) It will be in good working condition;
(c) It will be capable of measuring dose rates to be encountered under normal
conditions and also under accident condition with no saturation; and
(d) It will have readily obtainable batteries and a built-in battery check feature.
All survey meters used for workplace monitoring shall be calibrated at least once
a year and only at agencies approved by the AELB.
Monitoring is required to confirm the definition of controlled and supervised

areas to identify changes to normal levels, which may indicate a failure in the
control of the radiation source.
Initial access to the radiation room after the termination of irradiation shall be
made by a qualified operator who shall use portable monitor to determine the
ambient radiation levels are normal for that facility.
A second portable monitor shall be available for use to enable one monitor to be
sent for periodic calibration or maintenance.
5.3 Individual Monitoring
For radiation worker who is regularly employed in a supervised area, individual

monitoring shall not be required but the occupational exposure of the worker
shall be assessed. This assessment shall be done on the basis of the results of
monitoring of the workplace or individual monitoring.
Radiation workers in irradiation facilities, including RPO, who are routinely

exposed to radiation in controlled areas, operators, qualified experts and some
maintenance staff, shall have individual dose monitoring.
This individual dose monitoring (e.g., film, thermoluminescent dosimeters

[TLDs]), shall be provided and processed by an agency that has been
authorized by the AELB and is traceable to a Standard Dosimetry Laboratory.
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The results of personal monitoring measurements shall be recorded and

reported as required by the AELB.
Because evaluation of dose is an important part of the radiation protection

programme, it is important that workers return dosimeters on time for
processing.
Licensees should be vigilant in its effort to recover any missing dosimeters.

Delays in the evaluation of a dosimeter can result in the loss of the stored
information.
If an individual„s dosimeter is lost, the licensee should perform and document an

evaluation of the dose the individual received and add it to the worker‟s dose
record. Often, the most reliable method for estimating an individual‟s dose is to
use his/her recent dose history. In cases where the individual performs non-
routine work, it may be better to use doses of co-workers as a basis for the dose
estimate.
5.4 Investigation and Follow-up
The Licensee shall first inform the AELB within 24 hours when it is first known
and then shall conduct formal investigations, whenever:
(a) The individual annual effective dose exceeds investigations levels;

(b) Any of the operational parameters subject to periodic quality control are out
of the normal range established for operational conditions;
(c) Any equipment failure, severe accident or error takes place, which causes,
or has the potential to cause, a dose in excess of regulatory limits (e.g.
radiation source fails to return to the shielded position); and
(d) Any other event or unusual circumstances that causes, or as the potential to
cause a dose in excess of the regulatory limits or the operational restrictions
imposed on the installation (e.g. the significant change in workload of
personnel or operating conditions or irradiation equipment).
If overexposure occured or is suspected, the dosimeters shall be immediately

processed. These and all reported dosimeter overexposures and abnormal
exposures shall be investigated by the Licensee.
The investigation shall be initiated as soon as possible following the event, and
a written report shall be prepared concerning its cause, including the
determination or verification of any doses received, corrective or mitigating
actions, and instructions or recommendations to avoid recurrence.
The report shall be submitted to the AELB within 30 days after the incident. In
addition, a direct reading dosimeter and an audible or alarming rate meter shall
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be carried by each qualified operator. Such devices are not a substitute for
radiation survey meters or the personal dosimeter.
5.5 Local Rules and Supervision
Local Rules
The operational instructions shall be fully understood by qualified operators and

other relevant staff, who maybe occupationally exposed, and should include, as
a minimum, the following:
(a) A reminder of the nature of the hazards posed by the facility and the safety
features used to minimize the risks.
(b) A reference to the existence and location of the written emergency
procedures.
(c) A description of the safety organization, including the functions, duties and
responsibilities of the RPO and Supervisor.
(d) The method of implementing the operating instructions and ensuring that
the facility is being operated safely. This should include:
(i) A description and schedule of the inspections and test procedures for
ensuring that all safety interlock devices and components associated
with the irradiator are functioning properly. Each safety item and the
appropriate test, cheek and inspection for it should be specified.
(ii) The requirement that the operating procedures be available at the
control station and that the emergency procedures be conspicuously
posted in the area.
(e) The method of ensuring that all persons entering the controlled radiation
area wear proper radiation monitoring devices and that the results are
recorded.
(f) The method of ensuring that only qualified operator can use the irradiator or
have access to the area. This can include controlling keys to the door of the
room containing the irradiator control console, controlling operating console
keys, or other positive methods to excluding access.
Written instructions shall also be provided covering action to be taken in the

event of machine malfunction. These shall include a general outline of the
action to be taken by people who are notified of a machine malfunction the
correction of which may involve the source. Remedial action in situations
involving work around the irradiator shall be attempt only by approved radiation
workers.
Entry into the radiation room following remedial actions should never be made
by one person alone.
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The safe operation of a facility will depend on the qualified operators following
the clearly defined procedures laid down by the manufacturer or supplier and
approved by the AELB. In addition to qualified operators, suitably trained and
qualified radiation workers will need to be employed by the Licensee to
undertake a range of duties such as maintenance. The competence of these
persons should be verified and work authorized by the RPO on behalf of the
Licensee.
Staff Training
The Licensee shall ensure that those of its employees who are engaged in work
with ionizing radiation receive such information, instruction and training as will
enable them to conduct that work in accordance with the requirements of the
written safe operational procedures.
All persons who work with ionizing radiation shall be provided with sufficient
information, instruction and training to enable them to understand the
importance of restricting exposure and specific work practices that should be
followed. Examples of the topics in which these personnel are trained include:
(a) The nature of ionising radiation;
(b) The health hazards from exposure to such radiation;
(c) The basic principles and methods of protection (e.g. time, distance and
shielding);
(d) Measurement of radiation fields and the units of measurement;
(e) The warning signs and signals and any actions to be taken; and
(f) Actions to be taken in emergencies.
Training shall be reinforced regularly and updated when necessary. Annual

review of staff training needs shall be undertaken. Arrangements shall be made
to ensure that all new staff receive the required training needs to staff affected
by any internal reorganization are reviewed and effected.
The RPO, assisted by the Supervisor shall provide advice on staff training needs
and on how those needs may best satisfied. In many cases the RPO can
provide much of the training that is required.
The training discussed above is in addition to that which is required to operate

the facility safely and which the Licensee shall ensure is provided with the
cooperation of the manufacturer or supplier. One important outcome of the
training should be to make such persons alert to the simple actions they can
take to minimize the radiation exposure received by themselves and others.
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Employees of outside contractors will also require information (and possibly on-
site training). This information should include copies of relevant procedures for
the facility.
Medical Surveillance
The Licensee shall ensure that medical surveillance for the employees are
carried out as follows:
i. Pre-employment medical examination – to be carried out prior to

employment.
ii. Periodic review of health – to be carried out once in two years or more
frequently if the employee‟s exposure conditions and state of health so
requires.
iii. Medical examination at termination of employment or retirement – to be

carried out at termination of employment or retirement.
iv. Special medical examination – to be carried out whenever the employee

receives dose exceeding the Annual Dose Limits or in case of suspected
overexposure.
PART VI
PUBLIC EXPOSURE
6.1 Responsibilities
The Licensee is responsible for controlling public exposure resulting from

sources used in practice.
Public exposure is controlled, in large part, by ensuring that radiation sources

are properly shielded and secured, e.g. located in a locked area, interlocks are
functional, keys to the control panel are secured to prevent unauthorized access
or use.
6.2 Control of Access to Visitors
The Licensee shall:
- Make arrangements to control access of visitors to the radiation facility,

and provide adequate information and instruction to these persons before
they enter a controlled area to ensure appropriate protection (e.g.
members of public, shall be accompanied).
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- Ensure that adequate control over entry of visitors to a supervised area

be maintained and that appropriate signs be posted in such areas.
6.3 Sources that are Not in Active Use
The Licensee shall:
Notify the AELB and submit a plan for transfer or disposal of the sources, if the
sources are no longer in use.
6.4 Decommissioning and Source Disposal
At the end of the useful life of the irradiation facility, the Licensee shall ensure
that:
(a) Buildings and equipment are free from contamination before disposal or re-
sale;
(b) All radioactive sources are properly accounted for before returning them to
the supplier or disposal;
(c) Any radioactive waste resulting from decontamination is disposed of with the
approval by the AELB;
PART VII
SAFETY IN THE TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE
MATERIALS
The Licensee shall comply with the requirements of the Radiation Protection
(Transport) Regulations 1989 for all activities involving the transport of radioactive
sources.
It may be appropriate for the Radiation Protection Officer to travel with the consignment
whilst it remains the responsibility of the Licensee.
7.1 Receipt of Radioactive Materials
Prior to each shipment of radioactive material to be dispatched to the Licensee

there shall be a detailed exchange of information with the source supplier. This
information shall include the following for each package container:
(a) The nuclide, number and activity of sources.
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(b) A description of the source construction and performance tests, including

leakage tests.
(c) Special form approval certificate (where appropriate).
(d) A description of the container.
(e) Approval certificate for Type B container.
(f) Details of any special arrangements required, including multilateral
approvals, where necessary.
(g) A copy of the transport documents. (To be sent to the Licensee by fax or
e-mail before dispatch if possible).
The Licensee shall not agree to the dispatch of the consignment by the supplier
unless they are satisfied that all the above items are satisfactory.
The supplier and Licensee shall agree on the transport route and responsibility
for each stage of the journey. The supplier will normally be responsible from
dispatch up until the consignment reaches the point of entry to Malaysia. The
Licensee shall then take responsibility for the transport from point of entry to the
irradiation facility. Other arrangements are satisfactory provided they are
agreed in advanced by both parties and are also acceptable to the AELB.
Arrangements shall also be made for the following where necessary:
(a) The need for special handling equipment, e.g. cranes, forklift trucks etc.,
during transfer from one mode of transport to another, or between vehicles.
(b) Checking of radiation dose rates from the package or container.
(c) Checking the correct transport labels are attached to the package or
container, and replacing any that are damaged or illegible.
(d) Ensuring that the package or container is securely attached to the vehicle
and that the vehicle is correctly labeled.
(e) Security of the consignment during transport, particularly during delays or
overnight stops.
7.2 Dispatch of Radioactive Materials
The Licensee shall be required to return packages or containers with radioactive

sources to the source supplier after receipt of a consignment of radioactive
material. These packages or containers may be either returned empty or
containing spent radioactive sources.
Empty Packages
With regard returning empty packages the Licensee shall:

(a) Carry out dose rate and contamination monitoring of both the inside and
outside of the package or container to ensure that there is no residual
radioactive material present and it can therefore be treated as an empty
package or container.
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(b) Remove or cover all transport labels relating to the sources contained in the
package or container when received.
(c) Examine the package or container to ensure that it is in good condition, and
then close it securely, referring to any procedures provided by the source
supplier.
(d) Attach a label on the outside of the package or container stating “UN 2908
RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL EXCEPTED PACKAGE – EMPTY
PACKAGING”.
(e) Complete a transport document.
(f) Contact the source supplier and agree the transport route and responsibility
for each stage of the journey. Inform the source supplier of the proposed
date of dispatch.
Return of Spent Sources
With regards to returning spent sources the Licensee shall provide the following
information to the consignee for each package or container:
(a) The nuclide, number and activity of sources.

(b) A description of the source construction including leakage tests.
(c) Special form approval certificate (where appropriate).
(d) A description of the container.
(e) Approval certificate for Type B container.
(f) Details of any special arrangements required, including multilateral
approvals, where necessary.
(g) A copy of the transport documents (To be sent to the consignee by fax or e-
mail before dispatch if possible).
The licensee shall not dispatch the consignment unless they have received
confirmation from the consignee that they are prepared to accept it.
The Licensee and consignee shall agree the transport route and responsibility
for each stage of the journey. The Licensee will normally be responsible from
dispatch up until the consignment reaches the point of entry to the country of the
consignee, who shall then take responsibility for transport from point of entry to
the consignee‟s premises. Other arrangements are satisfactory provided they
are agreed in advance by both parties and are also acceptable to the regulatory
authorities.
In order to prepare the consignment for dispatch the licensee shall:

(a) Load the sources into the container, verifying the details to be provided to
the consignee, e.g. serial numbers and to be entered on the transport
document.
(b) Close it securely and then examine and test the package or container to
ensure that it is in good condition, referring to any procedures provided by
the source supplier.
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(c) Carry out contamination monitoring of the outside of the package or

container to ensure that there is no residual radioactive material present and
it is therefore suitable for transport.
(d) Carry out dose rate monitoring of the package or container and attach
appropriate transport labels. The transport labels relating to the sources
contained in the package or container when received should not be reused.
(e) Complete a transport document.
Arrangements shall also be made for the following where necessary:
(a) The need for special handling equipment e.g. cranes, forklift trucks etc.
during transfer from one mode of transport to another, or between vehicles.
(b) Ensuring that the package or container is securely attached to the vehicle
and that the vehicle is correctly labeled.
(c) Dealing with border controls.
(d) Security of the consignment during transport, particularly during delays or
overnight stops.
In this situation the roles of Licensee and source supplier are effectively
reversed compared to the earlier section “Receipt of radioactive materials “, but
the requirements are essentially the same.
7.3 Loading and Unloading of Sources
Loading and unloading operations may expose persons to dose rates in excess
of those experienced in normal operations of the facility. The Licensee shall
make an evaluation of source loading and unloading procedures to ensure that
the exposure of persons is kept as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA).
The licensee shall assess all risks associated with the loading and unloading
work to ensure safety. Any necessary contingency plans should be incorporated
into the written instructions for operations of the facility. It is imperative that the
integrity of the safety control systems not be compromised by the source loading
and unloading procedures. The loading and unloading of the radioactive
sources on arrival at the facility or on dispatch from it are potentially hazardous
operations and shall be undertaken under close radiation protection supervision.
Safety in these operations depends on cooperation between those responsible
for radiation protection and the team appointed to load or unload the radioactive
source. In many cases this will be the supplier of the source. Ultimately,
however, responsibility for safety while the radioactive source in on the site
resides with the operating organization.
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PART VIII
EMERGENCY PLANNING, PREPAREDNESS AND
RESPONSE
This section focuses on identification of possible situations of emergency or accidents,

their prevention, preparation for and mitigation of them.
8.1 Potential Exposure
Safety Assessment
The licensee shall prepare a safety assessment applied to the stages of design,
construction, operation, maintenance and decommissioning of the irradiation
facility, and present it to the appropriate authority AELB.
The assessment should be systematic and include information on identification

of reasonable foreseeable events that can lead to accidental exposures.
The safety assessment shall be documented and revised by an independent

expert recognized and approved by the appropriate authority when:
i. Modification of the radiation sources and/or its facilities are made:

ii. Operational experience or information on accidents or errors indicates that
the safety assessment should be reviewed; and
iii. Techniques are modified in such a way that safety may be compromised.
In order to ensure that the safety assessment is comprehensive, consideration

should be given to using Probabilistic Safety Assessment (PSA) techniques (e.g.
ref. ICRP 76).
The licensee shall incorporate:
i. Defense-in-depth measures to cope with identified events, and evaluate the

reliability of the safety system, (including administrative and operational
procedures, and equipment and facility design).
ii. The operational experience and lessons learned from accidents and errors
into the training, maintenance and quality assurance programmes.
Emergency Planning
The licensee shall make an assessment of the consequences of any reasonably

foreseeable accident, occurrence or incident and shall draw up a contingency
plan to restrict, so far as is reasonably achievable, any resulting exposures.
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The contingency plan shall be specific to each situation and should include but
not limited to, as appropriate:
(a) identification of the reasonably foreseeable accidents, incidents or

occurrences and their predicted consequences;
(b) communication procedures, including an emergency call out list;
(c) recommended actions for specified situations; this includes the
identification of persons able to implement and take responsibility for
stated parts of the plan, and positive identification of situations requiring
evacuation together with the procedures for implementation;
(d) a statement regarding immediate life saving actions;
(e) statutory responsibilities and the names of persons able to take actions to
satisfy them;
(f) availability of emergency equipment, including a list of the equipment that
should be available, and its location;
(g) availability of first aid equipment, including a list of the equipment that
should be available its location, and the names of persons trained to use it
(where applicable);
(h) where appropriate, an outline of the post-emergency procedures designed
to restore normal operating conditions.
Emergency procedures shall be concise, easily followed instructions. They shall

describe what will be indicative of a situation requiring emergency actions,
specify the immediate action to be taken to minimize radiation exposure to
persons in the vicinity of the irradiator, and allow for the development of the
written contingency plan for effecting entry to the irradiation room.
The licensee shall inform staff of any contingency plan that might affect their
area of work, and their role if the plans has to be implemented and shall arrange
for staff training and emergency drills, as appropriate to each situation. Training
shall include the review of lessons learned from previous accidents most
relevant to the practice.
The licensee shall review the contingency plan at appropriate intervals, not
exceeding 12 months. The frequency and depth of such reviews shall be
related to the potential consequences of the identified emergency situations.
Plans shall always be reviewed following relevant operational changes and after
an accident in similar facilities and with similar sources.
The licensee shall provide emergency and first aid equipment. They shall be
inventoried regularly and tested for good working order at appropriate intervals
inoperative or outdated items should be removed and repaired or replaced
without delay.
Liaison shall be maintained with relevant off site services or agencies, as

appropriate to each accident situations. This will include ambulance, fire, police,
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hospital services, local and national authorities, etc. In the event of an accident
it is the duty of the Licensee to initiate the emergency procedures and
coordinate the initial response of the emergency services and other bodies and
to inform the appropriate authority and all relevant parties.
The emergency response plan shall include the most likely events leading to
significant radiation exposure and/or contamination and these should include:
(a) a jammed source with the source assembly failing to return to its shielded
positions;
(b) part of the sources assembly detached and left in an unshielded position;
(c) malfunction or deliberate defeat of the safety control system;
(d) leakage of the source; and
(e) fire inside the shielded room.
The plan shall contain names and telephone numbers of the next responsible
officer to be contacted. Notice shall be posted inside the facility; they should
show:
(a) how to contact the RPO or an alternative person who should be notified
immediately of any emergency;
(b) how to call the AELB, fire brigade and medical services; and
(c) the location of emergency equipment.
Emergency equipment shall be kept in a clearly labeled cabinet in a readily

accessible place. A list of the emergency equipment shall be fixed to the
cabinet so that checks can be made periodically and immediately after use to
ensure that all items are present or replaced as necessary.
Practical exercises shall be used to test the effectiveness of emergency

response plans and to ensure that all persons concerned know what action to
take in an emergency. Mock or low-activity source should be used during
training exercise.
8.2 Accident Response
In responding to an accident the Licensee shall:
(a) Limit radiation exposure; both Individual and collective.

(b) Regain control of the situation in order to restore the site to its normal
conditions.
(c) Treat the injured and overexposed.
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For accidents involving gamma sources, the Licensee shall consider the
possibility of contamination. Urgent actions would include:
(a) evacuating the area containing the hazard;

(b) warning persons in the immediate vicinity of the accident;
(c) rendering first aid to any person who may be injured;
(d) notifying the RPO;
(e) evaluate cause and extent of the hazard; and
(f) set up appropriate barriers notices, etc. to secure the area against
unauthorized re-entry.
For accidents caused by loss of shielding or through failure of the source

transport mechanism, the Licensee shall take actions to protect workers and
public. This will include:
(a) constructing temporary shielding ;

(b) evacuate the immediate area ;
(c) erect barriers to restrict access ; and
(d) recovery of the source should be undertaken in accordance with pre-
planned procedures which take into consideration the doses likely to be
incurred.
8.3 Accidents in Transportation
In the event that a consignment of radioactive sources is involved in a transport

accident, it is likely that the consignor and the consignee will be among the first
to be informed, because the documentation accompanying the vehicle will
contain their names and addresses. Both organizations should be fully aware of
the arrangements for dealing with such accidents and shall inform the AELB of
the incident. It should be recognized that the press and the public may require
information about the accident in general, and arrangements should be made for
handling such inquiries.
IAEA Safety Series No. 91 (Emergency Planning and Preparedness for

Accidents Involving Radioactive Materials Used in Medicine, Industry, Research
and Teaching, 1989) gives guidance and recommendations for dealing with
transport accidents and should be used as a guide in the preparation of the
relevant parts of the contingency plan. The most relevant sections for the
purposes of the present publication are as follows: Section 11 summarizes the
Transport Regulations; Section lll outlines the requirements for emergency
plans; Section V describes the actions required in response to a transport
accident and allocates the responsibility for such actions; Section Vlll draws
attention to the need to provide accurate and authoritative information to the
public.
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8.4 Accident Reports
Any accident must be notified to the appropriate authority AELB within 24 hours
of the incident. The licensee shall submit to the AELB a detailed written report of
the incident within 30 days after such incident and the report shall contain:
i) a description of the apparatus, substance or material involved, including

its kind, quantity and its chemical and physical forms, wherever
appropriate;
ii) the possible radiation exposure to individuals, circumstances under which
the exposures could have occurred, the extent of potential hazard to
members of the public;
iii) the actions which have been taken, or will be taken, to recover the
licensed apparatus, substance or material;
iv) the procedures or measures which have been or will be adopted to
prevent a recurrence of the loss or theft of the licensed apparatus,
substance or material;
v) any other information which the licensee deems necessary.
8.5 Special Emergency Procedures for Gamma Irradiators
Removal of Damage or Leaking Source
The appropriate method of removal, transfer, or disposal of a damaged or

leaking source will be dictated by circumstances, but the following procedure is
generally applicable:
If an actual source leak has occurred in Category III or IV gamma irradiator, the
use of the irradiator must be terminated by the licensee and a decision taken as
to the desirability of closing down the water circulation and air ventilation
systems to prevent the spread of contamination and exposure of workers.
The affected area must be isolated and where appropriate, assistance should be
sought to the following as appropriate): the AELB the manufacturer of the device
the supplier and the installer of the source (if different from the manufacturer of
the device), a person authorized to remove the defective source. Special
permission to remove and transport the source should be obtained from the
AELB.
Removal of the defective source should be immediate once the decision is made
and should be performed by, or under the supervision and in the physical
presence of the RPO or the Consultant RPO.
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Remedial Actions under Increased Radiation Levels
During the operation of gamma facilities situations may arise when the source rack
remains fully or partially unshielded due to malfunction of the source movement
system. Causes of such events may be technical failures in the source movement
mechanism itself or the damage of the source rack by product boxes. The remedial
actions in such situations should principally proceed in the following way:
(a) Ensure that access to the irradiation room remains impossible for any person;
(b) Prevent combustion of products due to the excessive heating of the product
boxes (e.g. by increasing the ventilation);
(c) Inform the radiation protection adviser and officers, plant management, AELB
and manufacturer if necessary according to the established reporting procedure
(d) Access the position of the source by examining external indicators and by
measuring dose rates;
(e) Develop a remedial action plan taking into account the specific source
movement system, its components, the design of the facility, the information
gathered so far concerning the possible cause of the incident, the possibilities of
introducing additional portable shielding components, the possibilities of using
special tools to provide for a certain working distance from the source, or
remotely controlled devices and the doses that would be received by radiation
workers.
These actions are intended as guidance. Each incident will need to be dealt with
cautiously and on a case-by-case basis.
Emergencies Involving High Accidental Personnel Exposures
Planning for emergencies involving high accidental exposures should be made in

accordance with the IAEA Safety Series Publications – Emergency Planning and
Preparedness for Transport Accidents Involving Radioactive Material (Safety Series
No. 87, 1988) and Emergency Planning and Preparedness for Accidents Involving
Radioactive Material Used in Medicine, Industry, Research and Teaching (Safety
Series No. 91, 1989).
8.6 Lessons Learned from Accidents in Irradiation Facilities11
Since 1950s, ionizing radiation sources have been used in more than 160 gamma
irradiation facilities and over 600 electron beam facilities in operation all over the
world. Generally, the safety record has been good; however, fatalities and serious
injuries have occurred. If control is lost and protection compromised, the high dose
11
International Atomic Energy Agency, Lessons Learned from Accidents in Industrial Irradiation Facilities, IAEA,
Vienna, 1996
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rates at these facilities can cause lethal exposures within seconds or minutes as
described in Annex V.
8.7 Lessons have been Learned from the Findings of Investigations into
Severe Accidents at Gamma and Electron Beam Irradiation Facilities. (refer
to Annex VI)
8.8 Major Causes of Accidents
Three contributory elements were apparent in each accident.
(a) Flaw in the initial design or the facility or equipment was not maintained to meet
the initial design, or new procedures and modifications created situations not
anticipated in the design.
(b) A complete safety system was not available because of component failure, or
because of actions taken by the operating organization, management or
personnel to disable or bypass the system.
(c) Someone acted inappropriately because of misinformation or lack of knowledge,

or a decision was made to ignore conflicting information.
8.9 Prevention and Remedial Actions
(a) Licensee
The licensee is responsible for the possession and use of the irradiator and, thus,
for its operation in accordance with the AELB regulations and approvals, permits or
authorizations and appropriate international safety standards such as Safety Series
No. 10712.
Therefore, the licensee bears primary responsibility for the safety and safety of the
irradiator. It is the responsibility of “the Person Responsible to the License (OBTL)”
in that organization to recognize the safety significance of its operation. OBTL
needs to exercise leadership in developing and maintaining an attitude or rigor and
thoroughness towards safety, which permeates the entire organization.
The licensee needs:
i. To notify the AELB as soon as possible of the intent to purchase an irradiator

and to apply for license.
12
International Atomic Energy Agency, Radiation Safety of Gamma and Electron Irradiation Facilities, Safety
Series No. 107, IAEA, Vienna (1992).
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ii. To achieve competency with Safety Series No. 107 through appropriate
training, in advance of commissioning the facility; training shall include all
levels of the organization intended to interact with the facility.
iii. To appoint an RPO to give relevant advice, particularly for training.
iv. To seek, if necessary, the advice of the manufacturer for the preparation of
the environmental assessment study and the safety hazard assessment.
v. To prepare, document, implement and audit a preventive maintenance

programme.
vi. To ensure that all operational, maintenance and safety related instructions
are available in the local language.
vii. To prepare, document, implement and audit an emergency plan, including

training, as approved by the AELB.
viii. To establish an audit system whose content is in agreement with supplier

and the AELB recommendations.
ix. To apply an approval from the AELB of any intended user modifications
affecting safety prior to its implementations.
x. To conduct a safety system review at least annually and to document the

results, which should be made available to the AELB for review; if a warning
notice from the supplier or the AELB is received by the licensee, the review
should be held as soon as possible.
xi. To implement additional safety devices consistent with the supplier‟s advice
so that all the equipment is current with the latest regulatory requirements.
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PART IX
GLOSSARY
9.1 Absorbed dose
The absorbed dose, D. The fundamental dosimetric quantity D, defined as:
where dέ is the mean energy imparted by ionizing radiation to matter in a volume element and
dm is the mass of matter in the volume element.
9.2 Activity
The quantity A for an amount of radionuclide in a given energy state at
a given time, defined as:
where dN is the expectation value of the number of spontaneous nuclear

transformations from the given energy state in the time interval dt.
The unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq)

1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second (dps)
This replaces the curie as the unit of activity

10
1 Ci= 3.7 x 10 dps;
-11
1 Bq = 2.7 x 10 Ci
9.3 Becquerel (see 9.2)
9.4 Bremsstrahlung
Ionizing radiation produced by the deceleration of electrons in the vicinity of nuclei.
9.5 Contamination
The presence of radioactive material in or on a material or the human body or other places where
they are undesirable or could be harmful.
9.6 Dose
A measure of the energy deposited by radiation in a target.
9.7 Dose equivalent

The product of the absorbed dose delivered by each type of radiation averaged over a tissue or
organ and the radiation weighting factor for the same type of radiation.
9.7.1 Incident
Any unintended event, including operating errors, equipment failures, initiating events, accident
precursors, near misses or other mishaps, or unauthorized act, malicious or non-malicious, the
consequences or potential consequences of which are not negligible from the point of view of
protection or safety.
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9.8 Radiotoxicity
The potential of radioactive material, when introduced into the body, to cause damage to living
tissue by absorption of energy from the radiation it emits.
9.8.1 Source container

A component that encloses a radioactive source (see 9.14) and provides, by attenuation and by
distance some protection of individuals from the high radiation levels close to the radioactive
source.
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Annex I
DOSE LIMITS FOR OCUPATIONAL AND PUBLIC EXPOSURE
The following is reproduced from the Radiation Protection (Basic Safety Standards)
Regulations 1988.
OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE
Dose limits
1. The occupational exposure of any worker shall be so controlled that the following
limits be not exceeded:
(a) An effective dose of 20 mSv per year averaged over five consecutive years 13;
(b) An effective dose of 50 mSv in any single year;
(c) An equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 150 mSv in a year; and
(d) An equivalent dose to the extremities14 (hand and feet) or the skin of 500 mSv in
a year.
2. For apprentices and for students of 16 to 18 years of age who are training for
employment involving exposure to radiation and for students of 16 to 18 who are
required to use sources in the course of their studies, and the occupational
exposure shall be so controlled to ensure that the following limits be not exceeded:
(a) an effective dose of 6 mSv in a year;

(b) an equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 50 mSv in a year; and
(c) an equivalent dose to the extremities of the skin of 150 mSv in a year.
13
The start of the averaging period shall be coincident with the first day of the relevant annual period after
the date of entry into force of the Standards, with no retroactive averaging.
14
The equivalent dose limits for the skin apply to the average dose over 1 cm2 of the most highly irradiated
area of the skin. Skin dose also contributes to the effective dose, this contribution being the average dose
to the entire skin multiplied by the tissue weighting factor for the skin.
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Special Circumstances
3. Where special circumstances exist which require a temporary change in the dose
limitation requirements of the Radiation Protection (Basic Safety Standards)
Regulations 1988, the Licensee shall apply to the AELB for such a temporary
change where:
(a) the dose averaging period mentioned in para 1(a) may exceptionally be up to 10
consecutive years as specified by the AELB, and the effective dose for any
worker shall not exceed 20 mSv per year averaged over this period and shall
not exceed 50 mSv in any single year, and the circumstances shall be reviewed
when the dose accumulated by any worker since the start of the extended
averaging period reaches 100 mSv; or
(b) the temporary change in the dose limitation shall be as specified by the AELB
but shall not exceed 50 mSv in any year and the period of the temporary change
shall not exceed 5 years.
PUBLIC EXPOSURE
Dose Limits
4. The estimated average dose to the relevant critical groups of members of the public
that are attributed to practice shall not exceed the following limits:
(a) an effective dose of 1 mSv in a year;

(b) in special circumstances, an effective dose of up to 5 mSv in a single year
provided that the average dose over five consecutive years does not exceed 1
mSv per year;
(c) an equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 15 mSv in a year; and
(d) an equivalent dose to the skin of 50 mSv in a year.
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Annex II
QUALIFIED OPERATOR TRAINING PROGRAM
1. Basic Radiation Protection:

(a) Structure of the atom:
Radioactivity.
Half-life.
Ionization.
Radiation and contamination.
(b) Units of radioactivity, dose and dose rate:
SI units and scientific notation.
(c) Protection from external radiation:
Time, Distance, Shielding.
(d) Outline of legislative and license requirement
(e) Use of monitoring instruments and Personal dosimeters
(f) Emergency procedures
(g) Review of incidents and accidents at irradiation facilities
2. Irradiation Facility:
(a) Layout and design of facility.
Source and product movement sequences.
Including tour of all areas.
(b) Facility operational and administrative procedures
Including demonstration of correct procedures for entry to irradiation cell.
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Annex III
ROUTINE CHECKS TO BE CARRIED OUT BY RPO
The frequency with which these checks should be undertaken will depend on the
nature of the facility, its age previous operating experience. Some such as the
checking of certain records are linked to the frequency of the tests to which the records
relate e.g., Leakage test records. Routine checking of the correct operation of warning
and safety systems should take place at regular intervals, usually weekly or monthly.
Checks to ensure that the operators are wearing dosimeters and correctly following
local rules and procedures should be at irregular intervals and not announced in
advance to the operators.
1. Documentation
Training record of new staff
Irradiator log book
Note and follow up items with radiological protection implications
Individual monitoring records
Workplace monitoring record
Radiation monitoring instruments test records
Leakage test records
Check availability of local rules and procedures
2. Monitors
Hand held monitor available, battery o.k.?
Check source present and giving correct reading.
Installed monitors : position 1
: position 2, etc.
3. Safety systems (as fitted)

Interlocks access door
product entry/exit
shield plugs
etc.
Safety delay timer

Emergency stop
Water : level
: conditioning
Collision detector
Ozone
Smoke/fire
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4. Warning signs and signals

Check against list of known locations. All present? Legible? (signs)
Operating correctly? (lights)
Controls console. Checks against list of installed signals. Operating correctly?
5. General observations
Tidiness and general conditions Control room
Radiation room
Maintenance areas
Product carriers
Operators and other staff Personal dosimeters being worn?
Check to ensure correct start-
up/shutdown procedure is followed
Hand held monitor used on entry?
6. Radiation survey record

Carry out radiation survey of the facility according to a pre-determined plan,
record the results and compare with previous and standard results.
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Annex IV
Bibliography
1. Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984 (Act 304).
2. Radiation Protection (Licensing) Regulations 1986 [P.U.(A)149].
3. Radiation Protection (Basic Safety Standards) Regulations 1988 [P.U.(A)61].
4. Radiation Protection (Transport) Regulations 1990 [P.U.(A)456].
5. IAEA, Practice Specific Model Regulations: Radiation Safety of Non-Medical

Irradiation Facilities (Interim report for comment), TECDOC Series No. 1367,
Vienna, 2003.
6. IAEA, Radiation Safety of Gamma and Electron Irradiation Facilities, Safety

Series No. 107, Vienna, 1992.
7. IAEA, Manual in Panoramic Gamma Irradiators (Categories II and IV), IAEA-

PRSM-8, Vienna, 1993.
8. IAEA, Manual in Self Contained Gamma Irradiators (Categories I and III), IAEA-
PRSM-7, Vienna, 1993.
9. IAEA, Lessons Learned from Accidents in Industrial Irradiation Facilities, Vienna,

1996.
10. IAEA, Safety Assessment Plans for Authorization and Inspection of Radiation
Sources, TECDOC-1113, Vienna, 1999.
11. IAEA, Occupational Radiation Protection, Safety Guide RS-G-1.1, Vienna, 1999.
12. International Organization for Standardization, ISO 2919, Radiation Protection –

Sealed Radioactive Sources – General Requirements and Classification (1999)
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Annex V
Lessons Learned from Accidents in Irradiation Facilities:
a. Stimos, Italy: May 1975 (put everything under new Annex V)
An unskilled worker employed to load sacks on to a conveyor entered an irradiation

cell by crawling through and along an access opening used to accommodate the
conveyor. The conveyor was empty, but a high activity Co-60 source was in an
„unshielded‟ position; the irradiator was unattended. The worker received doses in
the range of 8 – 24 Gy to various parts of the body, and died 13 days later.
b. Kjeller, Norway: September 1982
Upon hearing an alarm ringing, a maintenance technician switched it off at the

irradiator control panel, opened the door to the irradiation chamber and entered. A
green light at the control panel indicated that the source was „shielded‟, but the
radiation monitor indicated high radiation levels. The worker remained in the
irradiation chamber for several minutes and was inadvertently irradiated. He died of
radiation injuries 13 days later.
c. San Salvador, El Salvador: February 1989
At 02:200 hours an operator on night shift heard the source transit alarm ringing,
which indicated a fault. This resulted in the source rack being automatically lowered
from the irradiation position into the storage pool. In spite of following the reset
procedure, the alarm continued ringing, which meant that the rack holding the
source has not returned to the „fully-down‟ position. The operator manipulated the
„source-down‟ microswitch to induce a green light on the control panel and to signal
that the source rack was down. He then manipulated the control panel and to
simulated monitor detection of a safe background radiation level, although the
radiation monitor had been removed about 5 years before. After waiting for some
minutes, he entered the irradiation chamber, but did not check the radiation level on
the portable radiation monitor. Unable to free the source rack by himself, the
operator brought in 2 untrained workers from another department to help remove
the boxes and to lower the rack. When the rack was lowered into the storage pool,
the workers saw the blue glow of Cerenkov radiation and hurriedly left the
irradiation chamber. All the workers soon became ill and were taken to hospital. The
most exposed worker, who had initially been exposed about 1 hour earlier that the
other workers, eventually had a leg amputated, but died shortly thereafter. The
second had both legs amputated, but recovery was rapid with good prognosis. The
third had chronic residual effects, but the symptoms were much less severe and the
prognosis for full recovery was good.
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d. Sor-van, Israel: June 1990
When a product transport jam occurred, a gamma radiation alarm sounded, but the
„source down‟ light came on. At the time, the irradiator was unattended, so the duty
operator was informed at home. On arrival at the facility, the operator activated
power to the control console and 3 signals were shown:
i) the product jam warning light.

ii) the „source down‟ signal.
iii) the gamma radiation alarm.
Contrary to the operating procedures, written in English (not the local language), the
operator decided to deal with the matter without calling his supervisor. The operator
decided that the „source down‟ signal was correct, so he disconnected the cable from
the radiation monitor to the alarm circuitry. This silenced the alarm, but he still had to
open the door by performing a radiation monitor test. However, there was an
established trick to simulate this test by manipulating the console controls. Carrying the
console key attached to the portable radiation monitor but did not check it against a
radioactive check source mounted on the door. The portable radiation monitor was not
functioning on the low dose range to which the operator had switched. He saw that a
carton had hammed the source rack. (The facility had not installed the source shroud
recommended by the source supplier.) He did not notice that the source was in the „up‟
position and not in the water of the storage pool. He left the room and returned with a
cart to remove the damaged cartons. The operator took fright when he felt a burning
sensation in his eyes and a pounding sensation in his head. Despite intensive medical
care, he died of radiation effects 36 days after exposure.
e. Nesvizh, Belarus: October 1991
An operator was exposed to Co-60 radiation following a jam in the product transport
system. The precise actions of the operator were not known, but certain facts are
clear. The key to raise the source was in the main operating console after the
accident, and it is likely that entry into irradiation chamber was accomplished
without removing the key. This same key was required to operate a mechanism that
controlled a movable floor that covered a pit at the maze entrance leading to the
irradiation chamber. After the accident, the movable floor section was found in the
open position and it is assumed that the operator was able to cross the pit by
stepping on to the motor used to drive the movable floor section. The operator
apparently took a portable dose rate monitor with him because it was later found at
the point where the maze entrance joins the irradiation chamber. The monitor was
confirmed to be in correct working order. There is a possibility that the source
movement mechanism has jammed, but after the accident the source was found in
the „fully shielded‟ position. The source transfer mechanism was tested and found to
be operating satisfactorily. It seems probable that the source was in the „safe‟
position when the operator entered the irradiation chamber. Since the key was in
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the console, the source could have been raised by accidental depression of the
exposure button, by a component failure, or because of a fault in the logic control
system. The operator reported feeling a headache and pain in his joints and gonads
after about 1 minute inside the irradiation chamber. He then saw the source, ran out
of the irradiation chamber and told his assistant that he had been irradiated. Despite
intensive medical treatment, he died 113 days after exposure. There are many
unknown facts as to the actual circumstances of this accident; however, it is clear
that the specified operating procedures were not followed and that the safety
features were circumvented.
f. Illinois, USA: February 1965
A worker entered a room in which a linear accelerator was operating by crawling

under an interlocked door, the bottom half of which had been removed to permit
installation of a conveyor system. Doses to the right side of the worker‟s body were
very high. His right arm was eventually amputated above the elbow and his right leg
above the knee. Other details of the facility safety systems and safety instructions to
the worker were not given in the documentation.
g. Maryland, USA: December 1991
The radiation source was of a 3 MV potential drop accelerator design for producing
high electron beam currents for processing of materials. During maintenance on the
lower pressure plate, the operator placed his hands, head and feet in the beam.
This was done with the filament voltage of the electron source turned off, but with
the full accelerating potential on the high voltage terminal. The operator‟s body,
especially his extremities and head, was exposed to electron dark current. Three
months after the accident, the four digits of the operator‟s right hand and most of
the four digits of his left hand had to be amputated. Hair thinning on the scalp was
also observed after 2 weeks, with no re-growth after 6 months. Although the initial
facility design included redundant interlocks and systems to prevent entry into the
irradiation chamber when the accelerator was operating, the management and
employees had systematically removed, disabled or circumvented the safety
systems. Also, senior operators appeared to lack understanding of the operation of
the electron source and the existence of a cold or dark current even when the
filament was not powered. While this dark current was orders of magnitude lower
than normal operating procedures, it was sufficient to produce dose rates of 0.4-13
Gy/s to various parts of the operator‟s body.
h. Hanoi, Vietnam: November 1991
A physicist returned to the irradiation chamber of an electron beam linear

accelerator to readjust the position of a sample. Another researcher, believing the
physicist had left the irradiation chamber, told the operators that the experiment was
ready and that the machine could be switched on. The facility was not equipped
with any access interlocks or warning signals, and the physicist continued to
61
LEM/TEK/57
02 DISEMBER 2008
manipulate the sample while the accelerator was operating at an energy of 15 MeV.
The second researcher became concerned and, after shouting the physicist‟s name
and failing to get a reply, he asked the operator to turn off the accelerator. The
physicist had placed his hands within 5 – 30 cm of the tungsten target about three
times during the 2-4 minutes the accelerator had been on. Estimates of the dose to
the physicist‟s hands were difficult to make, since at the time of the accident there
were no calibrated radiation measuring devices at the facility. The physicist
sustained serious radiation injuries to his hands; ultimately, the right hand and two
fingers of the left hand had to be amputated.
62
LEM/TEK/57
02 DISEMBER 2008
Annex VI
Lessons Learned from the Findings of Investigations
(a) Redundant and diverse safety systems could have prevented most accidents. For
example, in all the overexposure, the operator places ultimate reliance on access
barriers and/or interlocks governed by the source rack position, or on condition
signals alone.
(b) Safety is compromised if the facility design is not carefully reviewed to identify
conditions critical to safety. This requires consideration of redundancy, of avoidance
of single mode failures and of human factors. Where these considerations were not
adequately taken into account, unsafe conditions resulted. For example,
disconnecting a critical safety system from the control console resulted in unsafe
conditions when power could still be supplied to operate an accelerator or cause a
gamma source to remain in the „unshielded‟ position.
(c) The management of the operating organization can quickly lose control of the
employees‟ level of knowledge and performance unless systematic audits are
conducted and frequent training is provided. For example, in several facilities, the
personnel involved in accidents had employed tricks to circumvent the safety
systems.
(d) Management practices or attitudes resulted in the degradation of safety systems

and operating procedures. It appears that product and production costs sometimes
took precedence over safety. This was particularly evident when oversight from
regulatory authority was absent or weak. For example, toleration by management of
the removal or defeat of radiation activated interlocks played a major role in some
accidents.
(e) Personnel adequately trained to handle routine operations were not

acknowledgeable enough to deal with situations where an electron beam was not
shut off or where gamma sources were not returned to a safe condition. For
example, personnel involved in accidents routinely failed to appreciate the
necessity of making a radiation survey with a demonstrably operational radiation
monitor.
63
LEM/TEK/57
02 DISEMBER 2008
Dr. Muhamad Lebai Juri Malaysian Nuclear Agency
En. Mohd. Sidek bin Othman Malaysian Nuclear Agency
Tn. Hj. Yaziz bin Yunus Sterilgamma (M) Sdn. Bhd.
Tn. Hj. Anuar bin Mokhtar Department of Safety and Health
Dr. Mohd. Samudi bin Yasir Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Dr. Faraizah bt. Abd. Karim National Blood Centre
Pn. Monalija bt. Kostor Atomic Energy Licensing Board
Pn. Marina bt. Mishar Atomic Energy Licensing Board
En. Nik Mohd Faiz bin Khairuddin Atomic Energy Licensing Board
64
LEM/TEK/57
02 DISEMBER 2008
BODIES FOR THE

ENDORSEMENT OF CODE OF PRACTICE
Standing Safety Committee, Atomic Energy Licensing Board
Orang Besar Daerah Sepang: YDM Prof. Madya Dato’ Dr. Tengku Jamaluddin Tengku Mahmud
Shah Al-Haj; Malaysian Nuclear Agency: Dato’ Dr. Rehir Bin Dahalan; Penang General
Hospital: Dato’ Dr. Mohamed Ali Bin Abdul Kader; Atomic Energy Licensing Board: YM Raja
Dato’ Abdul Aziz Raja Adnan; Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia: Prof. Dr. Ismail Bahari;
Universti Sains Malaysia: Prof. Dr. Abdul Aziz Bin Tajuddin; MOSTI Legal Advisor: Tuan
Hasbullah Adam; SIRIM Bhd.: Dr. Khazali Bin Haji Mohd. Zin; Ministry of Health: En. Lee
Peter; Malaysian Nuclear Agency: En. Mohd Yusof Bin Mohd Ali; Department of Safety and
Health: Tuan Haji Anuar Bin Mohd Mokhtar; Atomic Energy Licensing Board: En. Mohd Pauzi
Bin Mohd Sobari; Atomic Energy Licensing Board: En. Mohd Yasin Sudin; Atomic Energy
Licensing Board: En. Hamrah Mohd Ali; Atomic Energy Licensing Board: En. Hasmadi Hassan;
Atomic Energy Licensing Board: Pn. Azlina Mohammad Jais
65
\ LEM/SPP/12
LEM/TEK/65Sem.1
02 SEPTEMBER
20 Januari2009
2015
PANDUAN PENGELASAN KAWASAN KERJA

MENURUT PERATURAN-PERATURAN
PERLESENAN TENAGA ATOM
(PERLINDUNGAN SINARAN KESELAMATAN
ASAS) 2010 [P.U (A) 46]

43800 Dengkil
Tel: 03-8922 5888

Faks: 03-89254578
KANDUNGAN
Mukasurat
___________________________________________________________________
1. Skop Panduan
2. Latar Belakang
3. Takrifan
4. Kelas-kelas Kawasan Kerja
5. Kaedah Pengelasan Kawasan
6. Tatacara Pentadbiran di Kawasan Seliaan dan Kawasan Kawalan
7. Tatacara Keselamatan Kawasan Seliaan
8. Tatacara Keselamatan Kawasan Kawalan
9. Pengelasan Semula Kawasan Kerja
10. Senarai Semak Pengelasan Semula Kawasan Kerja
9. Penutup
10. Rujukan
REKOD DOKUMEN
Tarikh Status Penyedia

Terimapakai Semakan
5 Januari 2012 0 Jawatankuasa Kerja Keselamatan Sinaran di bawah
Jawatankuasa Kecil Keselamatan (JKK) yang telah dibentuk
secara tetap pada Mesyuarat Lembaga Ke-62 (Bil. 03/2008)
yang dianggotai oleh:
a) Pn. Monalija Kostor (Pengerusi)
b) Pn. Nuriati Nurdin
c) En. Faeizal Ali (Pendraf)
d) Cik Gan Pek Yen
e) En. Mohd. Firdaus Md. Shah
f) En. Azman Bin Jaafar
g) Pn. Suhana Jalil
h) Pn. Noraini Razali
i) Cik Nurul Syakireen Zainal (Pelajar Praktikal UKM)
20 Januari 2015 1 Bahagian Dasar dan Hubungan luar

1. SKOP
Panduan pengelasan kawasan kerja ini disediakan untuk:

a) menjelaskan mengenai kelas-kelas kawasan kerja yang wujud apabila berurusan
dengan sinaran mengion. Kelas-kelas tersebut adalah kawasan kawalan, kawasan
seliaan dan kawasan bersih;
b) menetapkan kaedah pengelasan kawasan kerja tersebut berdasarkan risiko dan
magnitud dedahan yang diterima ketika berurusan dengan sinaran mengion; dan
c) menetapkan kaedah pengelasan semula kawasan kerja bagi pemegang lesen
yang berhasrat untuk mengelaskan semula kelas kawasan kerja mereka.
2. LATAR BELAKANG
Peraturan-peraturan Perlesenan Tenaga Atom (Perlindungan Sinaran Keselamatan Asas) 2010

[P.U. (A) 46] telah dikuatkuasakan pada 15 Februari 2010 bertujuan untuk melindungi orang
awam, pekerja dan alam sekitar daripada bahaya sinaran mengion. Keperluan perundangan
berkaitan keselamatan sinaran di bawah Akta Perlesenan Tenaga Atom 1984 (Akta 304)
diperjelaskan melalui Peraturan ini yang merangkumi semua aspek perlindungan sinaran
daripada bahaya sinaran kepada orang awam, pekerja dan alam sekitar.
Salah satu aspek perlindungan yang dijelaskan dalam P.U. (A) 46 ialah mengenai pengelasan
kawasan kerja. Mengikut P.U. (A) 46, Bahagian 3, Peraturan 17, pemegang lesen hendaklah
mengelaskan kawasan kerja kepada kawasan bersih, kawasan seliaan dan kawasan kawalan.
Pengelasan kawasan kerja perlu dilakukan supaya keperluan langkah perlindungan dan
peruntukan keselamatan berpatutan bagi setiap kawasan tersebut dapat dipenuhi.
3. TAKRIFAN
Dalam panduan ini, melainkan jika konteksnya mengkehendaki makna yang lain-
"majikan" ertinya mana-mana orang yang telah membuat sesuatu kontrak perkhidmatan
dengan seseorang pekerja dan termasuklah—
a) seorang pengurus, ejen atau orang yang bertanggungjawab bagi pembayaran
gaji atau upah kepada seorang pekerja;
b) penghuni atau pemunya suatu tempat kerja;
c) wakil undang-undang bagi penghuni atau pemunya suatu tempat kerja yang
mati; dan
d) mana-mana badan berkanun;
“Kawasan bersih” ertinya kawasan di mana dos tahunan yang diterima oleh seseorang pekerja
tidak mungkin melebihi had dos orang awam iaitu 1mSv;
“Kawasan seliaan” ertinya sesuatu kawasan di mana keadaan dedahan pekerjaan dikaji semula
walaupun langkah perlindungan yang khusus dan peruntukan keselamatan biasanya tidak
diperlukan;
“Kawasan kawalan” ertinya mana-mana kawasan di mana langkah perlindungan yang khusus
dan peruntukan keselamatan dikehendaki untuk mengawal dedahan yang biasa atau mencegah
penyebaran kontaminasi semasa keadaan kerja yang biasa, dan mencegah atau mengehadkan
takat dedahan yang berpotensi;
“Peralatan sinaran” termasuk sumber sinaran (radas atau bahan yang berupaya mengeluarkan
sinaran mengion) dan perkakasan lain yang perlu untuk melengkapkan peralatan tersebut;
"Pekerja" ertinya mana-mana orang yang bekerja di bawah arahan pemegang lesen, sama ada
atau tidak dia diambil kerja oleh pemegang lesen itu, dalam pengendalian atau penggunaan,
atau yang akan bersentuhan dengan mana-mana bahan radioaktif, bahan nuklear, benda yang
ditetapkan atau radas penyinaran; dan
“Pemegang lesen” ertinya pemegang suatu lesen yang dikeluarkan di bawah Akta Perlesenan
Tenaga Atom 1984 (Akta 304).
4. KELAS-KELAS KAWASAN KERJA
Peraturan 17(1) P.U. (A) 46, menetapkan bahawa pemegang lesen hendaklah mengelaskan
kawasan kerja kepada kawasan bersih, kawasan seliaan dan kawasan kawalan. Bagi tujuan
pengelasan kawasan ini, pemegang lesen boleh menentukan sempadan bagi kawasan tersebut
dengan mengambil kira:
a) kemungkinan dan magnitud dedahan yang berpotensi; dan
b) sifat dan takat tatacara perlindungan dan keselamatan yang dikehendaki.
5. KAEDAH PENGELASAN KAWASAN
Sempadan kawasan kawalan, seliaan dan bersih boleh ditunjukkan melalui Rajah 1. Bagi
menentukan sama ada sesuatu kawasan kerja adalah kawasan kawalan, seliaan atau bersih
boleh ditentukan melalui dua kaedah iaitu:
a) pengukuran secara langsung menggunakan meter tinjau (kaedah yang sering
digunakan di kalangan aktiviti/industri menggunakan sinaran mengion); atau
b) pengukuran menggunakan formula Hukum Ganda Dua Songsang (rujuk panduan
Jawatankuasa Kebangsaan Persijilan Pegawai Perlindungan Sinaran (JKPPPS) dan
AELB bertajuk Managing Radiation Safety: Guide for Radiation Protection
Officers).
5.1 Pengukuran Secara Langsung Menggunakan Meter Tinjau
Penentuan kawasan kerja menggunakan meter tinjau boleh dilakukan dengan mengukur
bacaan kadar dos secara langsung daripada sumber sinaran dan bergerak menjauhi
sumber sinaran sehingga nilai-nilai dos bagi kawasan seliaan dan kawasan kawalan
diperolehi.
Sebagai contoh, sekiranya pemegang lesen berhasrat menentukan kawasan kawalan

berdasarkan had dos tahunan pekerja 20 mSv/tahun, maka bacaan kadar dos yang perlu
diperolehi ialah 3.0 µSv/jam berdasarkan kepada nilai 3/10 daripada had dos tahunan
seperti ditetapkan dalam P.U. (A) 46. Bacaan perlu diperolehi di kawasan tersebut bagi
memastikan had dos tahunan untuk pekerja sinaran tidak melebihi 6 mSv. Kaedah
pengiraan adalah seperti berikut:
Dedahan Dos Bagi Pekerja

= (Had Dos Kawasan Kawalan x Had Dos Tahunan) / (Masa Bekerja Setahun)*
= (3/10 x 20 mSv/tahun) / 2000 jam = 3.0 µSv/jam

= 2000 jam
Kaedah ini sesuai diaplikasikan untuk semua aktiviti menggunakan sinaranm mengion
kecuali aktiviti radiografi industri. Keadah ini juga sesuai diaplikasikan untuk
menentukan kadar dedahan sinaran terhadap orang awam. Kaedah pengiraan adalah
seperti berikut:
Dedahan Dos Bagi Orang Awam

= (Had Dos Tahunan) / (Masa Bekerja Setahun)*
= (1 mSv/tahun) / 2000 jam = 0.5 µSv/jam

= 2000 jam
5.2 Pengukuran Menggunakan Formula Hukum Ganda Dua Songsang
Kaedah melakukan pengelasan kawasan kerja dengan mengunakan formula Hukum

Ganda Dua Songsang adalah seperti berikut:
X1 d1 2 = X2 d22
di mana, d = jarak daripada sumber sinaran
X = kadar dos
Dengan menggunakan formula di atas, jarak selamat bagi seseorang pekerja yang
bekerja dalam sesebuah kawasan kawalan atau seliaan boleh ditentukan. Walau
bagaimanapun, pemegang lesen hendaklah mendapatkan terlebih dahulu maklumat
mengenai kadar dos pada jarak yang telah ditetapkan sepertimana yang telah
dibekalkan oleh pihak pengeluar peralatan sinaran.
Kawasan Bersih
Kawasan Kawalan ( <1 mSv )
(> 3/10 HDT)
Kawasan Seliaan
(1 mSv < Dos < 3/10 HDT)
Sumber
sinaran
Rajah 1: Sempadan kawasan kawalan, kawasan seliaan dan kawasan bersih

Apabila sesuatu kawasan kerja ditentukan, pemegang lesen juga hendaklah
menandakan kawasan kawalan melalui cara fizikal atau mana-mana cara lain yang
sesuai. Setelah mengambil kira ciri-ciri dan tahap kebahayaan sesuatu sinaran mengion
di dalam kawasan seliaan dan kawalan, penandaan kawasan tersebut bolehlah
dilakukan melalui cara yang sesuai serta sempadannya diletakkan notis dan tanda
amaran yang mudah dibaca berserta maklumat mengenai peralatan sinaran seperti
berikut:
AWAS
SINARAN
1. KETERANGAN BAHAN RADIOAKTIF/RADAS PENYINARAN
(i) UNSUR DAN NO. JISIM ___________ / JENIS DAN MODEL ___________
(ii) AKTIVITI MAKSIMUM ___________ / MAKS kVp, mA ___________
2. PARAS SINARAN LUAR PADA PERMUKAAN ________mSv/j
3. PARAS SINARAN LUAR PADA JARAK 1 METER ______mSv/j
4. ORANG YANG BOLEH DIHUBUNGI APABILA BERLAKU KECEMASAN
(i)_____________________ NO. TELEFON:____________
(ii)_____________________ NO. TELEFON:____________
6. TATACARA PENTADBIRAN DI KAWASAN SELIAAN DAN KAWASAN KAWALAN
Pemegang lesen hendaklah menghadkan akses ke kawasan kawalan melalui tatacara pentadbiran
seperti penggunaan permit kerja yang dikeluarkan secara pentadbiran dan sawar fizikal seperti
penggunaan kunci atau saling kunci pada sesebuah kawasan kawalan. Tahap-tahap sekatan ke
kawasan kawalan hendaklah mengambilkira magnitud dan kemungkinan pended ahan yang
dijangka seperti mengendalikan punca sinaran yang beraktiviti tinggi. Hanya pekerja yang
dibenarkan oleh pemegang lesen atau ditugaskan ke kawasan tersebut boleh memasuki suatu
kawasan kawalan. Ini bagi memastikan hanya pekerja yang layak sahaja dan telah menerima
latihan yang mencukupi boleh berada dalam suatu kawasan kawalan.
Pekerja yang telah diberi akses ke kawasan kawalan itu hendaklah mematuhi arahan yang sedang
berkuat kuasa yang dikeluarkan oleh atau di bawah kuasa pemegang lesen dari semasa ke semasa.
Langkah-langkah perlindungan, peruntukan keselamatan dan sempadan kawasan seliaan dan
kawasan kawalan hendaklah dikaji semula secara berkala dari semasa ke semasa untuk
menentukan kemungkinan keperluan untuk menyemak semula.
Bagi kes wanita hamil, pemegang lesen hendaklah memastikan pematuhan kepada
subperaturan 8(5) sekiranya berlaku kes di bawah subperaturan 40(9).
7. TATACARA KESELAMATAN KAWASAN SELIAAN
Bagi kawasan seliaan, keadaan dedahan pekerjaan hendaklah sentiasa dikaji oleh pemegang
lesen dan langkah perlindungan yang khusus serta peruntukan keselamatan tidak diperlukan.
Pemegang lesen hendaklah mengambil kira ciri-ciri dan tahap kebahayaan sesuatu sinaran di
dalam kawasan tersebut dan memastikan sempadan kawasan tersebut mempunyai notis serta
tanda amaran yang mudah dibaca. Pemantauan pekerja juga tidak diperlukan di kawasan ini
dan pemegang lesen perlu memastikan kawalan yang mencukupi terhadap kemasukan pelawat
di kawasan ini.
8. TATACARA KESELAMATAN KAWASAN KAWALAN
Bagi kawasan kawalan, dos dedahan pekerja berkemungkinan akan melebihi 6 mSv dalam satu
tahun kalendar. Arahan pengendalian perlu diletakkan dan akses untuk kawasan tersebut perlu
dihadkan supaya seseorang yang dibenarkan sahaja boleh memasuki kawasan tersebut.
Apabila seorang pekerja perempuan yang bekerja di dalam suatu kawasan kawalan telah
mengesahkan kehamilannya, majikannya atau pemegang lesen hendaklah, jika perlu,
menyesuaikan keadaan kerja bagi pekerja itu supaya mematuhi subperaturan 8(5).
Seseorang yang berumur 16 tahun ke atas tetapi masih dibawah umur 18 tahun pula
dibenarkan bekerja di kawasan ini tetapi mesti diselia oleh seorang pekerja yang
berpengalaman dalam bidang perlindungan sinaran bagi tujuan latihan sahaja.
Pelawat yang ingin memasuki kawasan ini juga perlu diiringi oleh seseorang yang mahir
mengenai kawasan tersebut. Sebelum memasuki kawasan kawalan, pelawat tersebut perlu
diberikan maklumat dan arahan yang mencukupi dan pemegang lesen hendaklah memastikan
perlindungan yang sesuai diberikan kepada pelawat sebelum memasuki sesuatu kawasan
kawalan.
9. PENGELASAN SEMULA KAWASAN KERJA
AELB telah menetapkan bahawa lokasi bagi semua peralatan baru yang dimiliki oleh pemegang
lesen hendaklah dikelaskan sebagai kawasan kawalan. Walaubagaimanapun, pengelasan
semula kawasan kerja boleh diperolehi dari semasa ke semasa oleh pemegang lesen jika
memenuhi syarat-syarat yang telah ditetapkan oleh AELB. Bagi memperolehi kebenaran
pengelasan semula kawasan kerja dari kawasan kawalan kepada kawasan seliaan, syarat
berikut perlu dipatuhi:
9.1 Menepati kehendak kawasan seliaan sebagaimana ditakrifkan di bawah

Peraturan 3 P.U. (A) 46;
9.2 Melakukan pemonitoran personal dan kawasan selama 12 bulan kalendar di
mana jumlah dos yang diterima oleh seseorang pekerja dan rekod permonitoran
kawasan kawalan dalam 12 bulan kalendar hendaklah tidak mungkin melebihi
3/10 daripada had dos tahunan;
9.3 Aktiviti yang dijalankan oleh pemegang lessen tidak melibatkan:
(a) punca terkedap keaktifan tinggi (punca radioaktif Kategori 1, 2 dan 3
berdasarkan IAEA1 Code of Conduct on the Safety and Security of
Radioactive Sources);
(b) punca tidak terkedap;
(c) aktiviti NORM/ TENORM2; dan
(d) kerja penjualan, penyenggaraan radas penyinaran dan ujian kebocoran
peralatan sinaran
9.4 Pemonitoran kawasan masih perlu diteruskan walaupun sesebuah kawasan itu
telah ditukarkan pengelasannya daripada kawasan kawalan kepada kawasan
seliaan.
Peralatan sinaran jenis mudah alih adalah dibenarkan untuk pengelasan semula kawasan
kecuali bagi aktiviti radiografi industri.
10. SENARAI SEMAK PENGELASAN SEMULA KAWASAN KERJA
BIL. SYARAT PENGELASAN SEMULA KAWASAN YA/TIDAK

a) Menepati kehendak kawasan seliaan sebagaimana ditakrifkan di bawah
Peraturan 3 P.U. (A) 46
b) Melakukan pemonitoran personal dan kawasan selama 12 bulan
kalendar di mana jumlah dos yang diterima oleh seseorang pekerja dan
rekod permonitoran kawasan kawalan dalam 12 bulan kalendar
hendaklah tidak mungkin melebihi 3/10 daripada had dos tahunan
c) Menyediakan maklumat mengenai peralatan sinaran yang hendak
dibuat pengelasan semula kawasan
d) Peralatan sinaran yang dimiliki telah direkodkan dalam penyata
pemilikan
e) Aktiviti yang dijalankan oleh pemegang lesen tidak melibatkan punca
1
IAEA - International Atomic Energy Agency (Agensi Tenaga Atom Antarabangsa)
2
NORM/TENORM - naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM)/ technological occurring radioactive
material (TENORM)
BIL. SYARAT PENGELASAN SEMULA KAWASAN YA/TIDAK
terkedap keaktifan tinggi (punca radioaktif Kategori 1, 2 dan 3
berdasarkan IAEA3 Code of Conduct on the Safety and Security of
Radioactive Sources)
f) Aktiviti yang dijalankan oleh pemegang lesen tidak melibatkan punca
tidak terkedap
g) Aktiviti yang dijalankan oleh pemegang lesen tidak melibatkan aktiviti
NORM/ TENORM
h) Aktiviti yang dijalankan oleh pemegang lesen tidak melibatkan kerja
penjualan, penyenggaraan radas penyinaran dan ujian kebocoran
peralatan sinaran
i) Peralatan sinaran jenis mudah alih dibenarkan untuk pengelasan
semula kawasan kecuali bagi aktiviti radiografi industri
11. PENUTUP
Sekiranya terdapat sebarang pertanyaan mengenai panduan ini, pemegang lesen boleh
berhubung dengan AELB menggunakan alamat di bawah:
Pengarah
Bahagian Dasar dan Hubungan Luar
No. Tel. : +603-89225888
No. Faks : +603-89223685
E-mel : pbs@aelb.gov.my
Laman web : www.aelb.gov.my
3
IAEA - International Atomic Energy Agency (Agensi Tenaga Atom Antarabangsa)
12. RUJUKAN
a) Akta Perlesenan Tenaga Atom 1984 (Akta 304).

b) IAEA Code of Conduct on the Safety and Security of Radioactive Sources, 2003
c) Peraturan Perlindungan Sinaran (Perlesenan) 1986 [P.U. (A) 149]
d) Peraturan-peraturan Perlesenan Tenaga Atom (Perlindungan Sinaran
Keselamatan Asas) 2010 [P.U. (A) 46]
e) Perintah Perlesenan Tenaga Atom (Pengecualian) (Bahan Radioaktif Keaktifan
Rendah) 2002 [P.U. (A) 182]
REGULATORY CONTROL OF NORM:
MALAYSIA
TENG IYU LIN
POLICY, CODE AND STANDARD DIVISION
Atomic Energy Licensing Board
Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI)
MALAYSIA
Ensuring Safety, Security & Safeguarding Peaceful Nuclear Activities

CONTENT
 AELB, ACT & REGULATIONS
 TENORM IN MALAYSIA
 REGULATORY CONTROL – ACT 304
 LICENSING, 1986
 BASIC SAFETY RADIATION PROTECTION, 2010
 RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT, 2011
 EXEMPTION – LOW LEVEL RADIOACTIVE
MATERAIL & SMALL AMANG FACTORY
 COP, OIL & GAS
http://www.aelb.gov.my
2
AELB, ACT & REGULATIONS
• To provide for the

regulation and
control of atomic
energy; Minister of Science, Ministry of Science,
• For the Technology & Innovation Technology & Innovation
establishment of (General Secretary)
Atomic Energy standards on liability
Licensing Act 1984
(Act 304)
for nuclear damage;
The Board
and
(5 Members)
• For matters
connected therewith
or related thereto. Executive Director General
Secretary AELB Department
• Atomic Energy Nuclear Policy, Code &

Licensing Board Sub- Installation Standard
(AELB) was establish Standing Division Division
standing
under Section 3 of the Safety
Safety
Act. 304 Committee
Committee Technical Licensing
Regulatory Body: • Ensuring safety, Support Division Division
security and
safeguarding peaceful
Nuclear Activities Administrative Enforcement
Services Division
Division
3
Hierarchy of Legal System
Atomic Energy Licensing Act (1984 ) • Act: provides the basic law
(ACT 304) concerning the development and
utilization of atomic energy and
safety regulations.
• Regulations: provides more detailed

Regulations provisions entrusted by the Act.
Section 68 Act 304
• Provides additional requirement which

Orders and Conditions not stated in the regulations or special
matters related to provisions entrusted
of License by the Act
Orders: Sec 69 Act 304

Licence conditions: Section 17 Act 304
Guidelines, Codes • Provides guides, codes and standards
and Standards to comply with and achieve goal
impose in regulations
4
Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984
Scope of the Act 304

To control any :
radioactive materials,
nuclear materials,
prescribed substances, or
irradiating apparatus in
medical and non-medical
application.
TENORM IN MALAYSIA
NORM vs TENORM:
- Milling of minerals containing naturally occurring
radionuclides:
RAW MATERIAL – PROCESS  PRODUCT + BY PRODUCT

(NORM) (TENORM)
6
TENORM
GYPSUM
IRON OXIDE
OIL SLUDGE/
SCALE
AMANG
TIN SLAG http://www.aelb.gov.my

REGULATIONS (LICENSING) 1986
 Explain the procedure and information needed to

obtain, renew and amend the license from the Board.
REG 3:CLASSIFICATION OF LICENCE
CLASS A CLASS B CLASS C CLASS D CLASS E CLASS F CLASS G CLASS H

RADIOACTIVE DISPOSAL/STORAGE
NUCLEAR IRRADIATING TRANSPORTATION IMPORT & NUCLEAR OTHERS
MATERIAL RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
MATERIAL APPARATUS EXPORT INSTALLATION
BEFORE DISPOSE
ACTIVITY ACTIVITY ACTIVITY ACTIVITY ACTIVITY ACTIVITY ACTIVITY ACTIVITY

-Manufacture -Same as -Purchase -Transport -Import -Same as -Dispose -Maintenance
-Trade in Class A -Sell -Export Class A -Store -Leak test
-Produce -Trade in
-Process -Transfer
-Purchase -Import
-Own -Export
-Possess -Possess
-Transfer -Own
-Handle -Use
-Sell -Store
-Store -Handle
-Import
-Export
REGULATIONS (LICENSING) 1986
REGULATORY CONTROL:
 LICENSE (CLASS A- milling, G- store/dispose, H-D&D

consultant)
 ENFORCEMENT (inspection, environmental monitoring,
sampling, etc)
 RELEASE FROM REGULATORY CONTROL - EXEMPTION
- RADIOACTIVE WASTE:
- OIL SLUDGE: TAC < 3.0 Bq/g
Atomic Energy Licensing (Basic safety
Radiation Protection) Regulations 2010
Introduction
Atomic Energy Licensing (Basic Safety Radiation Protection)
Regulations 2010 [P.U.(A) 46] replaced the
[Radiation Protection (Basic Safety Standards) Regulations, 1988]
 Come into operation on 15th February 2010; and
 Describe the principles of radiation protection and safety such as,

system of dose limitation (justification, optimization), medical
exposure, operational radiation protection and role of licensee and
radiation worker.
11
Atomic Energy Licensing (Basic safety
Radiation Protection) Regulations 2010
Dose limit for workers

8. (1) The limit on the effective dose for a worker shall be 20
millisieverts (mSv) in a calendar year, where the maximum
effective dose on the worker averaged over a period of five
consecutive years shall not exceed 20 mSv commencing from
the time as specified by the appropriate authority.
Dose limit for members of the public

9. (1) The limit on effective dose for a member of the public
shall be 1 mSv in a calendar year
12
ATOMIC ENERGY LICENSING
(RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT) REGULATIONS, 2011
1. COMMENCEMENT:
REGULATIONS COME INTO OPERATION ON 16 AUGUST 2011
2. APPLICATION:
SHALL APPLY TO ALL ASPECTS OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE AND WASTE

MANAGEMENT ARISING FROM MEDICAL, INDUSTRY, RESEARCH &
ANY OTHER APPLICATION WHICH MAY BE SPECIFIED BY THE BOARD.
3. INTERPRETATION:
CLEARANCE LEVEL – THE VALUES ESTABLISHED BY THE BOARD

AND EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF ACTIVITY CONCENTRATION OR
TOTAL ACTIVITY, AT OR BELOW WHICH THE SOURCE OF RADIATION
MAY BE RELEASED FROM CONTROL (2nd SCHEDULE)
EXEMPTION
1. ATOMIC ENERGY LICENSING (EXEMPTION) (LOW LEVEL
RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL) 2002 - CALIBRATION SOURCE,
CHECK SOURCE,
2. ATOMIC ENERGY LICENSING (EXEMPTION) (SMALL

AMANG FACTORY) 1994.
Small Amang Factory” means any factory processing amang

which may cause exposure of ionizing radiation to the whole
body of a worker not exceeding 50 milisieverts (mSv) per
annum.
CODE OF PRACTICE ON RADIATION PROTECTION RELATING TO
TECHNICALLY ENHANCED NATURALLY OCCURRING
RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL (TENORM) IN OIL AND GAS FACILITIES
CONTROL LIMIT:
External dose rate 0.5 uSv/h
Contaminated materials:
External dose rate at 5 cm from surface 0.5 uSv/h
Waste categorization based on TAC:

Total Activity Concentration (TAC) 3.0 Bq/g (inclusive b/ground)
Waste disposal:
- Dose to critical group 0.3 mSv/y
15
CODE OF PRACTICE ON RADIATION PROTECTION RELATING TO
TECHNICALLY ENHANCED NATURALLY OCCURRING
RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL (TENORM) IN OIL AND GAS FACILITIES
APPENDIX 4:
WASTE MANAGEMENT DECISION PROCES
16
IAEA: GSR PART 3
3.4 EXPOSURE DUE TO NATURAL SOURCES IS IN GENERAL
CONSIDERED AN EXISTING EXPOSURE SITUATION AND IS SUBJECT TO
THE REQUIREMENTS STATED IN SECTION 5.
TABLE 1-3 LEVEL FOR CLEARANCE OF MATERIAL: ACTIVITY

CONCENTRATIONS OF RADIONUCLIDES OF NAUTRAL ORIGIN
Radionuclide Activity Concentration (Bq/g)

K-40 10
Each radionuclides in the uranium 1
and thorium decay chains
17
Thank you
(ATOMIC ENERGY LICENSING BOARD)
KEMENTERIAN SAINS, TEKNOLOGI & INOVASI
(MINISTRY OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & INNOVATION) ATOMICENERGY
BATU 24, JALAN DENGKIL LICENSINGBOARD
43800 DENGKIL.
SELANGOR
08 SEPTEMBER 2008
NOTIS PEMBERITAHUAN AELB

Bil. 04/2008
KEPERLUAN MENGGUNAKAN OVERPACK (OP & OPL) SEMASA

MENGANGKUT BAHAN RADIOAKTIF DENGAN BUNGKUSAN TYPE B(U)
TUJUAN
Tujuan notis pemberitahuan ini adalah untuk memaklumkan kepada semua pemegang lesen
yang mengangkut bahan radioaktif dengan mengunakan pembungkus Type B(U) untuk
tujuan radiografi industri berhubung keperluan menggunakan overpek (OP & OPL).
LATAR BELAKANG
1. Penggunaan Overpack (OP & OPL) dapat mengurangkan paras sinaran luar kepada
pekerja semasa mengangkut projektor gamma di samping memenuhi kehendak pengangkutan
Type B(U) yang dikeluarkan oleh pihak berkuasa kompeten di negara pengeluar. Selain itu
penggunaan OPL dan OP juga melindungi Tiub-S (S-Tube) di dalam projektor gamma
daripada kerosakan di samping melindungi sistem kekunci keselamatan projektor gamma
daripada mengalamai kerosakan semasa projektor gamma diangkut.
2. Over pack adalah kotak pengangkut yang diperbuat daripada keluli berdimensi 465
mm x 208 mm x 365 mm dan seberat 40 kg termasuk kepingan plumbum sebagai perisai
tambahan di bawahnya untuk mengurangkan paras sinaran luar semasa pengangkutan
projektor gamma dijalankan. Biasanya, OP terbahagi kepada 2 iaitu OP dan OPL (Overpack
with lead)
3. Secara dasarnya, AELB bersetuju dan menerimapakai sijil pengangkutan yang

dikeluarkan oleh pihak berkuasa kompeten di negara pengeluar di mana semua keperluan
pengangkutan telah dipenuhi menurut kehendak peraturan 10 CFR Part 71 di samping bekas
1
pengangkutan tersebut melepasi ujian-ujian Type B(U) yang ditetapkan seperti dinyatakan
dalam Peraturan-Peraturan Perlindungan Sinaran (Pengangkutan) 1989.
4. Bagi projektor gamma yang tidak melepasi ujian-ujian Type B(U), pihak berkuasa
kompeten di negara pengeluar berkehendakkan pengangkutan projector gamma diwajibkan
menggunakan OP/OPL sebelum sijil pengangkutan projektor dikeluarkan.
5. Sebagai contoh, kotak pengangkut (transport box) OP-660 dan OPL-660 hendaklah
digunakan bersama dengan projektor gamma Model 660 series untuk memenuhi keperluan
pengangkutan Type B(U). Projektor gamma Model 660 series boleh diangkut sebagai
pengangkutan Type A jika tidak disertakan dengan bekas pengangkut OP-660 atau OPL-660
dengan nilai aktiviti bagi aktiviti pengangkutan Type B(U) ditentukan seperti berikut
mengikut bahan radioaktif masing-masing seperti berikut:
Radionuklid Julat Tenaga Setengah A1 (TBq)1 A2 (TBq)2 Nilai

Gamma Hayat t 1/2 Aktiviti
Type B
(TBq)
Ytterbium-169 8-308 keV 32 hari 3 3 > 2.9970
Selenium-75 66-401 keV 120 hari 3 3 > 2.9970
Iridium-192 206-612 keV 74 hari 1 0.5 > 0.9990
Cesium-137 662 keV 30.2 tahun 2 0.5 > 1.9980
Cobalt-60 1.17-1.33 Mev 5.27 tahun 0.4 0.4 > 0.3996
1
A1 ertinya keaktifan maksimum sesuatu bahan radioaktif bentuk khas yang dibenarkan di dalam bungkusan
Jenis A
2
A2 ertinya keaktifan maksimum bahan radioaktif, bahan nuclear atau benda ditetapkan selain daripada bahan
radioaktif bentuk khas yang dibenarkan di dalam bungkusan Jenis A
2
ARAHAN AELB
6. Dengan ini semua pemegang lesen yang mengangkut bahan radioaktif menggunakan
pembungkus Type B(U) untuk tujuan radiografi industri perlu mematuhi kehendak
pengangkutan yang telah ditetapkan seperti berikut.
Bil. Jenis & Model Pengangkutan No Sijil Kelulusan Tarikh Sah Sijil
Menggunakan Pihak Berkuasa Pengangkutan
OP/OPL Kompeten3
1. TECH OPS 660 Perlu OPL (OPL-660) USA/9283/B(U)-96 Rev3 30/06/2013
2. TECH OPS 660A Perlu OPL (OPL-660) USA/9283/B(U)-96 Rev3 30/06/2013
3. AMERTEST 660B Perlu OPL (OPL-660) USA/9283/B(U)-96 Rev3 30/06/2013
4. SENTINEL 880 Tidak Perlu OPL USA/9296/B(U)-96 Rev4 31/03/2011

DELTA
SIGMA
ELITE
7. IR 100 Tidak Perlu OPL USA/9157/B(U)-85 Rev6 30/09/2009
8. TEN 741 Perlu OP (741-OP) USA/9027/B(U)-96 Rev9 31/08/2011
9. TENB 741 Perlu OP (741-OP) USA/9027/B(U)-96 Rev19 31/08/2011
10. SENTINEL 680B Perlu OP (680-OP) USA/9035/B(U)-96 Rev16 30/04/2009
11. SENTINEL 650L Tidak Perlu OP USA/9269/B(U)-96 Rev5 30/11/2010
12. 3746B Perlu OP USA/0670/B(U)-96 Rev 4 28/02/2013
13. AEA 976 SERIES Perlu OP USA/9314/B(U)-96 Rev1 30/06/2010
14. IR 50 Perlu OP (OP-100) USA/9185/B(U)-96 Rev6 31/12/2008
3
Pihak berkuasa kompeten ertinya pihak berkuasa yang kedudukannya dan diiktiraf dalam negara asing yang
menjalankan bidang kuasa dalam negara itu berkenaan dengan pengangkutan bahan radioaktif, bahan nuklear
atau benda ditetapkan.
3
PENUTUP
Jika terdapat sebarang pertanyaan berhubung dengan notis pemberitahuan ini, sila berhubung
melalui alamat di bawah:
Pengarah
Bahagian Dasar, Kod & Standard
Kementerian Sains, Teknologi & Inovasi
43800 Dengkil, Selangor Darul Ehsan
No. Telefon: 03-89267699
No. Faks : 03-89284134
Emel: pbs@aelb.gov.my
4
ICRP 2011 Symposium
Bethesda/USA, 24 – 26 October 2011
Revision of the
International Basic Safety Standards
- Building on ICRP‟s Philosophy -
Renate Czarwinski
Head, Radiation Safety and Monitoring Section
Department for Nuclear Safety and Security
IAEA
International Atomic Energy Agency
Topics
• Historical view
• Current revision
• General requirements for governments, Infrastructure
• Planned exposure situation
 Justification
 Medical exposure
 Non-medical exposure
• Occupational exposure
 dose limits for the lens of the eyes
• Emergency exposure situation
 Workers
• Existing exposure situation
 Radon
• Conclusions on further development of standards
IAEA
Historical view
• The IAEA Board of Governors approved the Agency’s Health and Safety
Measures on 31 March 1960.
• Footnote 1 to the Agency’s Health and Safety Measures (INFCIRC/18)

stated that the Agency’s Basic Safety Standards will be drawn up in
accordance with the provisions of Article III.A.6 of the Statute and will be
based, to the extent possible, on the recommendations of the ICRP.
• This statement about being based on the recommendations of the ICRP is

made in the introduction to the 1962, 1967, 1977 edition of the BSS, and in
the preface to the 1996 edition.
• ICRP recommendations were taken up in the successive editions.
IAEA
Historical view
ICRP recommendations IAEA Basic Safety Standards

• 1954
• 1958 (“Publication 1”) • 1962
• 1966 (Publication 9) • 1967
• 1977 (Publication 26) • 1982
• 1990 (Publication 60) • 1996
• 2007 (Publication 103) • 2011
Requirements for
Radiation Safety
(Basic Safety Standards)
Safety Requirements
No. GSR Part 3
IAEA
Involvement of interested parties and cosponsors
• BSS Secretariat
• Coordinated the review and revision of the BSS
• EC, FAO, ILO, NEA/OECD, PAHO, UNEP, WHO
• Technical Meetings
• 2007 – structure of BSS, content
adoption of the three exposure situations, decision to structure the BSS along
the same lines as the ICRP (but different from the EU BSS)
• 2009 – radon (following ICRP statement on radon)

• Involvement of Member States and international organizations
IAEA
Technical Meeting on Radon
“Newest Recommendations on Health Effects from Radon - The Impact on

Regulatory Requirements” - 15-16 December 2009
• Radon exposure in workplaces may be planned or existing exposure situation,

depending on nature of exposure (consistent with ICRP approach)
• Reference level for dwellings also applies to buildings with high public
occupancy
• Reference levels based on measured radon concentration rather than dose

(practical application)
• Allow flexibility in setting higher reference level provided 10 mSv annual dose is
not exceeded (exceptional circumstances only)
• Radiation protection requirements set on the basis of a nominal risk co-efficient

for a population of all ages that includes smokers, ex-smokers and non-
smokers.
IAEA
Basic Safety Standards
Three exposure situations

• Planned exposure situations
• Existing exposure situations
Requirements for
Radiation Safety • Emergency exposure situations
(Basic Safety Standards)
Safety Requirements
No. GSR Part 3
Three categories of exposure

• Occupational exposure
Protection and Safety
requirements of the BSS • Medical exposure
apply to all facilities and • Public exposure
activities
IAEA
Structured responsibility in BSS
Government To establish and maintain a legal, regulatory

and organizational framework
Regulatory body To establish or adopt

regulations and guides
Principal parties To keep the prime

responsibility for protection and safety
Other parties Specified

responsibility for protection and safety
IAEA Principal parties e.g. registrants and licensees, employers

Other parties e.g. suppliers, experts, workers
Requirements on Government, Infrastructure
ICRP Publication 103

The infrastructure for radiological protection and safety (Section 6.6.1)
• Infrastructure includes at least
• Legal framework
• Must provide for regulation …
• Regulatory authority
• Must be responsible for regulatory control and
enforcement of regulations
• Operating management
• Prime responsibility
• Employees
ICRP consistent with GSR Part 1 & revised BSS

IAEA
Planned Exposure Situations
Fundamental principles of radiation protection

• Justification
• Net benefit exceeds radiation detriment
• Only justified practices to be authorized
• Non-medical exposure
• Responsibility for justification decision
• Input to the decision of justification
• RP is one part of broader decision process
• Optimization
• Constraints for risk and dose
• Responsibility for setting dose constraints
• Dose limitation
• Equivalent dose for the lens of the eye
IAEA
Justification of medical exposures
Evolution of ICRP recommendations
1990 – ICRP 60 Should be dealt with in the same way as justification of any
other practice
But adds that each procedure is subject to a separate
decision, so that there is an opportunity to apply a further,
case-by-case, justification for each procedure. Especially for
complex investigations and for therapy.
1996 – BSS 115 ICRP 60 approach was used
1996 – ICRP 73 A more complex approach introduced - 3 levels

•Justification of a practice
•Generic justification of a defined procedure
•Justification of a procedure for an individual patient
2007 – ICRP 103 ICRP 73 approach is maintained – medical exposure of

patients calls for a different and more detailed approach
– ICRP 105
to the process of justification
2011 – New BSS
IAEA
in BSS 2011
• Follows ICRP 73 (103,105) recommendations
• But in addition
• More clearly assigns responsibilities
• Level 2
• Health Authority
• Professional bodies
• Level 3
• Referring medical practitioner
• Radiological medical practitioner
IAEA
Asymptomatic individuals
Target: Intended early detection of disease
• Not really addressed by ICRP

• Not part of a health screening programme
• “Cutting-edge” research versus “entrepreneurial” medicine
• Self-presenting patients
• BSS 2011- justification

• Referring medical practitioner/Radiological medical practitioner
• Professional body guidelines
• Informed re benefits, risks and limitations
IAEA
Non-medical imaging
ICRP
1969 Publication 15
Generally deprecated - e.g. “anti-crime” fluoroscopy & customs exams
If permitted, then under the supervision of a radiologist
1971 Statement
As above plus: Hijackings – Security-screening of airline passengers may be
justified
1977 Publication 26
In addition to the above:
• Examinations for occupational, medico-legal or insurance purposes included
as medical procedures
• Advantages for various parties needed to be considered in the justification
1990 Publication 60
• Nothing specific
• Occupational, medico-legal or insurance purposes no longer included in
medical exposure
IAEA 1996 – BSS 115

Non-medical imaging
ICRP
1996 Publication 73
• Medical exposure now included the exposure of individuals for screening and
medico-legal purposes
• Justification for these needs special consideration
2007 Publication 103

• Medical exposure no longer includes medico-legal
• Certain exposures deemed to be unjustified:
Occupational, health insurance, or legal purposes undertaken without
reference to clinical indications
But caveats:
Unless the examination is expected to provide useful information on the
health of the individual examined, or in support of important criminal
investigations.
And noting that:
Clinical evaluation of the images would be expected
IAEA 2011 – New BSS

Non-medical imaging
Conclusions
• ICRP recommendations were not comprehensive and

were lacking consistency
• Nothing on security screening
• There was a need to “size” the problem
• 2 categories
• There was a need to develop a consistent and
comprehensive approach, using the ICRP RP principles
• Justification
• Optimization
• Limitation
IAEA
Non-medical imaging
BSS 2011
Category 1 – human imaging that:

• Takes place in a medical radiation facility
• Using medical radiological equipment
• Performed by radiology personnel
• With the image reported by a radiologist/doctor
for:
• Obtaining legal evidence
• Insurance purposes
• Employment purposes
• Immigration purposes
• Age determination
• Assessing physiological suitability/status
• Detection of drugs within a person
IAEA
Non-medical imaging
BSS 2011
Category 2 – human imaging that:
• Takes place in a non-medical facility, often in a public place

• Using specialised inspection imaging equipment
• Performed by non-radiology personnel
• With the image viewed by a non-medical person
for:
• Detection of concealed weapons:
• Airline passengers; persons crossing a national border; visitors to
prisons, court houses, public buildings, etc; prisoners within a
prison
• Theft detection
• Screening cargo containers and vehicles
IAEA
Emergency exposure situations
Changes to make consistent with ICRP

• Publication 103: 2007 Recommendations of the ICRP
• Publication 109: Application of the Commission's
Recommendations for the Protection of People in Emergency
Exposure Situations
• Adopt ICRP reference levels
• Generic criteria /
• Emergency workers
• Transition to an existing exposure situation
IAEA
Emergency exposure situation
Exposure of workers
Emergency workers = Workers (ILO)

20 mSv/a averaged over 5 years, max 50 mSv/a
Caveats:
• Life saving activities (<500 mSv/a)
• Prevent severe deterministic effects (<500 mSv/a)
• Avert large collective dose (<100 mSv/a)
> 50 mSv/a voluntarily !!! (ILO)
IAEA
Existing exposure situations
Radon
• Adoption of ICRP maximum reference levels, emphasis on

public health aspects through building codes for new
construction, criteria for limiting doses from building
materials (controlling radon exposure through controlling
Ra-226 in building materials);
• Lack of agreement (different approaches?) on how to deal

with workplaces where concentrations cannot be reduced,
some TG81 concepts incorporated in Safety Guide (DS421)
IAEA
Radon
The concept of a 1000 Bq/m3 „entry point‟ for applying occupational

protection requirements is NOT accepted
- Only point of disagreement with ICRP Statement on Radon

- Consistent with application of reference levels (ICRP 103)
- Strong support from Member States for wording in BSS
- Same approach adopted in safety guide “Protection of the Public to Indoor Exposure to
Natural Sources of Radiation” (DS421)
DS421
To be sent to RASSC in December 2011
To be sent to Member States in early 2012 (?)
IAEA
Radon
Requirement 50: Public exposure due to radon indoors

The government shall provide information on levels of radon indoors and the associated
health risks and, if appropriate, shall establish and implement an action plan for controlling
public exposure due to radon indoors.
Key components
- Information requirements apply regardless of national situation

- Measurement program is required (not specifically a national radon
survey)
- Action plan is required if high concentrations are identified/present
IAEA
Dose limitation
Equivalent dose limits for the lens of the eyes
Proposed and published by ICRP Main Commission in April 2011
Occupational exposure 150 mSv/a 20 mSv/a (100 mSv in 5a)

(50 mSv in a single year)
50 mSv/a 20 mSv/a
(apprentices and students)
Public exposure 15 mSv/a 15 mSv/a
Challenges/opportunities:
• Ensuring an appropriate implementation into
regulatory control
• Identifying proper dosimetric approaches to
control the exposure of the lens of the eyes
• Evaluating the limits for the members of the
public
IAEA
Frame of future cooperation
ICRP
Protection philosophy,
effects principles and units
risks
ILO convention 115:

occupational
radiation protection
recommendations
levels FAO/WHO
Codex Alimentarius Commission
trends
(food contamination guides)
UNSCEAR
Scientific basis
UN transport regulations for
radioactive material
IAEA, WHO, ILO, FAO etc.

-Safety standards
-Protection programmes implemented by
IAEA Member States 10/11/2011 25
Basic Safety Standards 2011
IAEA Board of Governors September 2011 During the Board's consideration of

measures to strengthen nuclear safety and
security, the body approved the revised
IAEA Safety Standards on the Safety of
Nuclear Power Plants: Design (Safety
Standards Series No. NS-R-1), as well as a
revision of IAEA Safety Series No. 115, or
Draft Safety Requirements: Radiation
Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources:
International Basic Safety Standards.
Acknowledgement
The approval of the high level Safety Standards ‘BSS 2011’ was only possible
with the active engagement of the technical officers in the IAEA secretariat
and the excellent cooperation with all representatives of cosponsoring
organizations, experts from Member States and other stakeholders.
I would like to thank all.
IAEA
Thank you for your attention
r.czarwinski@iaea.org
IAEA 10/11/2011 27
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FUNDAMENTAL
SAFETY PRINCIPLES
Safety standards survey

The IAEA welcomes your response. Please see:
http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/feedback.htm
IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS SERIES No. SF-1
FUNDAMENTAL
SAFETY PRINCIPLES
SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS
JOINTLY SPONSORED BY:

EUROPEAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMUNITY,
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION
OF THE UNITED NATIONS,
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY,
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION,
INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION,
OECD NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY,
PAN AMERICAN HEALTH ORGANIZATION,
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME,
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

VIENNA, 2006
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STI/PUB/1273
IAEA Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Fundamental safety principles : safety fundamentals. – Vienna : Inter-

national Atomic Energy Agency, 2006.
p. ; 24 cm. – (IAEA safety standards series, ISSN 1020-525X ;
No. SF-1)
STI/PUB/1273
ISBN 92–0–110706–4
1. Radiation — Safety measures. 2. Emergency management.

3. Nuclear accidents — Management. I. International Atomic Energy
Agency. II. Series.
IAEAL 06–00461
FOREWORD
by Mohamed ElBaradei
Director General
The IAEA’s Statute authorizes the Agency to establish safety standards

to protect health and minimize danger to life and property — standards which
the IAEA must use in its own operations, and which a State can apply by means
of its regulatory provisions for nuclear and radiation safety. A comprehensive
body of safety standards under regular review, together with the IAEA’s
assistance in their application, has become a key element in a global safety
regime.
In the mid-1990s, a major overhaul of the IAEA’s safety standards
programme was initiated, with a revised oversight committee structure and a
systematic approach to updating the entire corpus of standards. The new
standards that have resulted are of a high calibre and reflect best practices in
Member States. With the assistance of the Commission on Safety Standards,
the IAEA is working to promote the global acceptance and use of its safety
standards.
Safety standards are only effective, however, if they are properly applied
in practice. The IAEA’s safety services — which range in scope from
engineering safety, operational safety, and radiation, transport and waste safety
to regulatory matters and safety culture in organizations — assist Member
States in applying the standards and appraise their effectiveness. These safety
services enable valuable insights to be shared and I continue to urge all
Member States to make use of them.
Regulating nuclear and radiation safety is a national responsibility, and
many Member States have decided to adopt the IAEA’s safety standards for
use in their national regulations. For the Contracting Parties to the various
international safety conventions, IAEA standards provide a consistent, reliable
means of ensuring the effective fulfilment of obligations under the conventions.
The standards are also applied by designers, manufacturers and operators
around the world to enhance nuclear and radiation safety in power generation,
medicine, industry, agriculture, research and education.
The IAEA takes seriously the enduring challenge for users and regulators
everywhere: that of ensuring a high level of safety in the use of nuclear
materials and radiation sources around the world. Their continuing utilization
for the benefit of humankind must be managed in a safe manner, and the
IAEA safety standards are designed to facilitate the achievement of that goal.
PREFACE BY THE JOINT
SPONSORING ORGANIZATIONS
The Board of Governors approved the publication of IAEA safety

standards in the Safety Fundamentals category on the safety of nuclear
installations in June 19931, on the safety of radioactive waste management in
March 19952 and on radiation protection and the safety of radiation sources in
June 19953.
In 1995, the Board requested the IAEA Secretariat to consider, at an
appropriate time, the revision of the three Safety Fundamentals texts with the
aim of combining them in a unified set of principles representing a common
safety philosophy across all areas of application of the IAEA safety standards.
The distinction traditionally made between nuclear safety and radiation
protection is hardly justifiable at the conceptual level. The principles for
nuclear safety and radiation protection in the three Safety Fundamentals
publications were technically compatible, but had been expressed differently.
In 2000, the Secretariat commenced the process of holding drafting
meetings to prepare a text on a unified set of principles. The draft Safety
Fundamentals text was developed by seeking a broad international consensus
of opinion to provide assurance that the Fundamental Safety Principles are
held by all IAEA Member States.
The Fundamental Safety Principles are jointly sponsored with the
European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the International Labour
Organization (ILO), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the
OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD/NEA), the Pan American Health
Organization (PAHO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
and the World Health Organization (WHO) (the sponsoring organizations).
Application of the Fundamental Safety Principles will facilitate the
application of international safety standards and will make for greater
1
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, The Safety of Nuclear
Installations, Safety Series No. 110, IAEA, Vienna (1993).
2
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, The Principles of
Radioactive Waste Management, Safety Series No. 111-F, IAEA, Vienna (1995).
3
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED
NATIONS, INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, INTERNATIONAL
LABOUR ORGANISATION, OECD NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY, PAN
AMERICAN HEALTH ORGANIZATION, WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION,
Radiation Protection and the Safety of Radiation Sources, Safety Series No. 120, IAEA,
Vienna (1996).
consistency between the arrangements of different States. It is therefore
desirable that all States adhere to and advocate these principles. The principles
will be binding on the IAEA in relation to its operations and on States in
relation to operations assisted by the IAEA. States or sponsoring organizations
may adopt the principles, at their own discretion, for application to their own
activities.
In the preparation of the present text of the Fundamental Safety
Principles, all the safety principles established in the earlier Safety
Fundamentals publications for the three different areas were considered and
consolidated into a coherent and consistent set of ten new principles. Some of
the earlier safety principles that were found to be more appropriately
expressed as requirements have been established as such in Safety
Requirements publications.
The ten new Fundamental Safety Principles constitute the basis on which
to establish safety requirements for protection against exposure to ionizing
radiation under the IAEA’s safety standards programme and provide the
rationale for its wider safety related programme.
The totality of safety measures taken to ensure the protection of human
life and health and the environment against exposure to radiation is detailed
and technically complex. To the extent possible, however, the Fundamental
Safety Principles have been drafted in language that is understandable to the
non-specialist reader. The intention is to convey the basis and rationale for the
safety standards for those at senior levels in government and regulatory bodies
and those who, while responsible for making decisions concerning the uses of
nuclear energy and radiation sources, may not be specialists in nuclear or
radiation science and technology or in radiation protection and safety matters.
Unless otherwise stated, the usage of safety related words and terms in
the text is to be interpreted as defined and explained in the IAEA Safety
Glossary (http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/safety-glossary.htm), in which
usage in the different subject areas has been harmonized and where possible
made consistent. Some generalized safety related words and terms have been
used for the purpose of simplifying the text, and in these cases the meaning has
been explained in footnotes. For the purpose of formulating safety
requirements in specific areas, it may be necessary to clarify and elaborate on
the meaning of terms — whose general meaning may be clear — in their
context in specific standards to avoid ambiguity. Such clarifications and
elaborations are left to the particular safety standards concerned.
The text was approved for promulgation as a Safety Fundamentals
publication by the IAEA’s Board of Governors in September 2006, and this
Safety Fundamentals publication thus becomes the primary publication in the
IAEA Safety Standards Series, superseding the previous Safety Fundamentals
publications issued in the former Safety Series.
The IAEA wishes to express its appreciation to all those who assisted in
the drafting and review of this text and in the process of reaching a consensus.
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Background (1.1–1.7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Objective of this publication (1.8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Scope (1.9–10). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Structure (1.11). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2. SAFETY OBJECTIVE (2.1–2.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3. SAFETY PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Introduction (3.1–3.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Principle 1: Responsibility for safety (3.3–3.7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Principle 2: Role of government (3.8–3.11). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Principle 3: Leadership and management for safety (3.12–3.17) . . . . 8
Principle 4: Justification of facilities and activities (3.18–3.20). . . . . . 10
Principle 5: Optimization of protection (3.21–3.24). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Principle 6: Limitation of risks to individuals (3.25–3.26) . . . . . . . . . . 11
Principle 7: Protection of present and future generations
(3.27–3.29) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Principle 8: Prevention of accidents (3.30–3.33). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Principle 9: Emergency preparedness and response (3.34–3.38) . . . . 14
Principle 10: Protective actions to reduce existing or
unregulated radiation risks (3.39–3.40) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

BODIES FOR THE ENDORSEMENT OF
IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1. INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
1.1. Radioactivity is a natural phenomenon and natural sources of radiation

are features of the environment. Radiation1 and radioactive substances have
many beneficial applications, ranging from power generation to uses in
medicine, industry and agriculture. The radiation risks2 to workers and the
public and to the environment that may arise from these applications have to
be assessed and, if necessary, controlled. Activities such as the medical uses of
radiation, the operation of nuclear installations, the production, transport and
use of radioactive material, and the management of radioactive waste must
therefore be subject to standards of safety.
1.2. The IAEA is required by its Statute to promote international

cooperation. Regulating safety is a national responsibility. However, radiation
risks may transcend national borders, and international cooperation serves to
promote and enhance safety globally by exchanging experience and by
improving capabilities to control hazards, to prevent accidents, to respond to
emergencies and to mitigate any harmful consequences. International
cooperation is facilitated by international safety related conventions, codes of
conduct and safety standards.
1
‘Radiation’ as used here means ionizing radiation.
2
The term ‘radiation risks’ is used here in a general sense to refer to:
— Detrimental health effects of radiation exposure (including the likelihood of such
effects occurring).
— Any other safety related risks (including those to ecosystems in the environment)
that might arise as a direct consequence of:
• Exposure to radiation;
• The presence of radioactive material (including radioactive waste) or its release
to the environment;
• A loss of control over a nuclear reactor core, nuclear chain reaction, radioactive
source or any other source of radiation.
For the purposes of the IAEA safety standards, it is assumed that there is no
threshold level of radiation dose below which there are no associated radiation risks.
Safety Requirements and Safety Guides specify the radiation exposures and other risks
to which they refer.
1
1.3. States have an obligation of diligence and duty of care and are expected
to fulfil their national and international undertakings and obligations.
International safety standards provide support for States in meeting their
obligations under general principles of international law, such as those relating
to environmental protection. International safety standards also promote and
assure confidence in safety and facilitate international commerce and trade.
1.4. States also subscribe to international conventions relating to nuclear and

radiation related activities conducted within their jurisdiction. The Convention
on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident and the Convention on Assistance
in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency, the Convention
on Nuclear Safety, and the Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel
Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management all place
specific obligations on the Contracting Parties. The IAEA safety standards
constitute a useful tool for Contracting Parties to assess their performance
under these international conventions. The safety standards also support the
application of the Code of Conduct on the Safety and Security of Radioactive
Sources and the Code of Conduct on the Safety of Research Reactors.
1.5. The IAEA safety standards, comprising Safety Fundamentals, Safety

Requirements and Safety Guides, are applied by the IAEA and joint
sponsoring organizations to their own operations, and are recommended for
use by States and national authorities and by other international organizations
in relation to their own activities. International conventions and the IAEA
safety standards, appropriately supplemented by industry standards and
detailed national requirements, establish a consistent and comprehensive basis
for the proper protection of people and the environment against radiation
risks. In its operations, the IAEA will pursue the fundamental safety objective
stated in Section 2 in accordance with the safety principles as set out here, and
it will encourage its Member States to do likewise.
1.6. The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic

Radiation (UNSCEAR) compiles, assesses and disseminates information on
the health effects of radiation and on levels of exposure to radiation from
different sources. Its findings and the recommendations of international expert
bodies, notably the International Commission on Radiological Protection
(ICRP), are taken into account in developing the IAEA safety standards.
1.7. The scientific considerations underlying the IAEA safety standards

provide an objective basis for decisions concerning safety; however, decision
makers must also make informed judgements and determine how best to
2
balance the benefits of an action or an activity against the associated radiation
risks and other risks and any other detrimental impacts to which it gives rise.
OBJECTIVE OF THIS PUBLICATION
1.8. The objective of this publication is to establish the fundamental safety

objective, safety principles and concepts that provide the bases for the IAEA’s
safety standards and its safety related programme. Related requirements are
established in the Safety Requirements publications. Guidance on meeting
these requirements is provided in the related Safety Guides.
SCOPE
1.9. This publication states the fundamental safety objective and ten
associated safety principles, and briefly describes their intent and purpose. The
fundamental safety objective applies to all circumstances that give rise to
radiation risks. The safety principles are applicable, as relevant, throughout the
entire lifetime of all facilities and activities — existing and new — utilized for
peaceful purposes3, and to protective actions to reduce existing radiation risks.
They provide the basis for requirements and measures for the protection of
people and the environment against radiation risks and for the safety of
facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks, including, in particular,
nuclear installations and uses of radiation and radioactive sources, the
transport of radioactive material and the management of radioactive waste.
3
The term ‘facilities and activities — existing and new — utilized for peaceful
purposes’ is hereafter abbreviated for convenience to ‘facilities and activities’ as a
general term encompassing any human activity that may cause people to be exposed to
radiation risks arising from naturally occurring or artificial sources. ‘Facilities’ includes:
nuclear facilities; irradiation installations; some mining and raw material processing
facilities such as uranium mines; radioactive waste management facilities; and any other
places where radioactive materials are produced, processed, used, handled, stored or
disposed of — or where radiation generators are installed — on such a scale that
consideration of protection and safety is required. ‘Activities’ includes: the production,
use, import and export of radiation sources for industrial, research and medical
purposes; the transport of radioactive material; the decommissioning of facilities;
radioactive waste management activities such as the discharge of effluents; and some
aspects of the remediation of sites affected by residues from past activities.
3
1.10. Safety measures and security measures have in common the aim of
protecting human life and health and the environment. The safety principles
concern the security of facilities and activities to the extent that they apply to
measures that contribute to both safety and security, such as:
— Appropriate provisions in the design and construction of nuclear

installations and other facilities;
— Controls on access to nuclear installations and other facilities to prevent
the loss of, and the unauthorized removal, possession, transfer and use of,
radioactive material;
— Arrangements for mitigating the consequences of accidents and failures,
which also facilitate measures for dealing with breaches in security that
give rise to radiation risks;
— Measures for the security of the management of radioactive sources and
radioactive material.
Safety measures and security measures must be designed and implemented in

an integrated manner so that security measures do not compromise safety and
safety measures do not compromise security.
STRUCTURE
1.11. Section 2 states the fundamental safety objective. Section 3 presents the
ten principles to be applied in order to achieve this objective and describes the
intent and application of each principle.
2. SAFETY OBJECTIVE
The fundamental safety objective is to protect people and the environment

from harmful effects of ionizing radiation.
2.1. This fundamental safety objective of protecting people — individually

and collectively — and the environment has to be achieved without unduly
limiting the operation of facilities or the conduct of activities that give rise to
radiation risks. To ensure that facilities are operated and activities conducted so
as to achieve the highest standards of safety that can reasonably be achieved,
measures have to be taken:
4
(a) To control the radiation exposure of people and the release of radioactive
material to the environment;
(b) To restrict the likelihood of events that might lead to a loss of control over
a nuclear reactor core, nuclear chain reaction, radioactive source or any
other source of radiation;
(c) To mitigate the consequences of such events if they were to occur.
2.2. The fundamental safety objective applies for all facilities and activities,
and for all stages over the lifetime of a facility or radiation source, including
planning, siting, design, manufacturing, construction, commissioning and
operation, as well as decommissioning and closure. This includes the associated
transport of radioactive material and management of radioactive waste.
2.3. Ten safety principles have been formulated, on the basis of which safety
requirements are developed and safety measures are to be implemented in
order to achieve the fundamental safety objective. The safety principles form a
set that is applicable in its entirety; although in practice different principles may
be more or less important in relation to particular circumstances, the
appropriate application of all relevant principles is required.
3. SAFETY PRINCIPLES
INTRODUCTION
3.1. For the purposes of this publication, ‘safety’ means the protection of
people and the environment against radiation risks, and the safety of facilities
and activities that give rise to radiation risks. ‘Safety’ as used here and in the
IAEA safety standards includes the safety of nuclear installations, radiation
safety, the safety of radioactive waste management and safety in the transport
of radioactive material; it does not include non-radiation-related aspects of
safety.
3.2. Safety is concerned with both radiation risks under normal circumstances
and radiation risks as a consequence of incidents4, as well as with other possible
4
‘Incidents’ includes initiating events, accident precursors, near misses, accidents
and unauthorized acts (including malicious and non-malicious acts).
5
direct consequences of a loss of control over a nuclear reactor core, nuclear
chain reaction, radioactive source or any other source of radiation. Safety
measures include actions to prevent incidents and arrangements put in place to
mitigate their consequences if they were to occur.
Principle 1: Responsibility for safety
The prime responsibility for safety must rest with the person or organization
responsible for facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks.
3.3. The person or organization responsible for any facility or activity that
gives rise to radiation risks or for carrying out a programme of actions to
reduce radiation exposure has the prime responsibility for safety5.
3.4. Authorization to operate a facility or conduct an activity may be granted

to an operating organization or to an individual, known as the licensee6.
3.5. The licensee retains the prime responsibility for safety throughout the
lifetime of facilities and activities, and this responsibility cannot be delegated.
Other groups, such as designers, manufacturers and constructors, employers,
contractors, and consignors and carriers, also have legal, professional or
functional responsibilities with regard to safety.
3.6. The licensee is responsible for:
— Establishing and maintaining the necessary competences;

— Providing adequate training and information;
— Establishing procedures and arrangements to maintain safety under all
conditions;
— Verifying appropriate design and the adequate quality of facilities and
activities and of their associated equipment;
— Ensuring the safe control of all radioactive material that is used,
produced, stored or transported;
— Ensuring the safe control of all radioactive waste that is generated.
5
Not having an authorization would not exonerate the person or organization
responsible for the facility or activity from the responsibility for safety.
6
For the purposes of this publication, the term ‘licensee’ is used; other forms of
authorization such as registration may apply. Under some circumstances, the government
or an employer may assume responsibility for the safety of facilities and activities.
6
These responsibilities are to be fulfilled in accordance with applicable safety
objectives and requirements as established or approved by the regulatory body,
and their fulfilment is to be ensured through the implementation of the
management system.
3.7. Since radioactive waste management can span many human generations,
consideration must be given to the fulfilment of the licensee’s (and regulator’s)
responsibilities in relation to present and likely future operations. Provision
must also be made for the continuity of responsibilities and the fulfilment of
funding requirements in the long term.
Principle 2: Role of government
An effective legal and governmental framework for safety, including an

independent regulatory body, must be established and sustained.
3.8. A properly established legal and governmental framework provides for

the regulation of facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks and for
the clear assignment of responsibilities. The government is responsible for the
adoption within its national legal system of such legislation, regulations, and
other standards and measures as may be necessary to fulfil all its national
responsibilities and international obligations effectively, and for the
establishment of an independent regulatory body.
3.9. Government authorities have to ensure that arrangements are made for
preparing programmes of actions to reduce radiation risks, including actions in
emergencies, for monitoring releases of radioactive substances to the
environment and for disposing of radioactive waste. Government authorities
have to provide for control over sources of radiation for which no other
organization has responsibility, such as some natural sources, ‘orphan sources’7
and radioactive residues from some past facilities and activities.
3.10. The regulatory body must:
— Have adequate legal authority, technical and managerial competence,

and human and financial resources to fulfil its responsibilities;
7
An ‘orphan source’ is a radioactive source that is not under regulatory control,
either because it has never been under regulatory control, or because it has been
abandoned, lost, misplaced, stolen or otherwise transferred without proper authorization.
7
— Be effectively independent of the licensee and of any other body, so that
it is free from any undue pressure from interested parties;
— Set up appropriate means of informing parties in the vicinity, the public
and other interested parties, and the information media about the safety
aspects (including health and environmental aspects) of facilities and
activities and about regulatory processes;
— Consult parties in the vicinity, the public and other interested parties, as
appropriate, in an open and inclusive process.
Governments and regulatory bodies thus have an important responsibility in

establishing standards and establishing the regulatory framework for
protecting people and the environment against radiation risks. However, the
prime responsibility for safety rests with the licensee.
3.11. In the event that the licensee is a branch of government, this branch must
be clearly identified as distinct from and effectively independent of the
branches of government with responsibilities for regulatory functions.
Principle 3: Leadership and management for safety
Effective leadership and management for safety must be established and

sustained in organizations concerned with, and facilities and activities
that give rise to, radiation risks.
3.12. Leadership in safety matters has to be demonstrated at the highest levels

in an organization. Safety has to be achieved and maintained by means of an
effective management system. This system has to integrate all elements of
management so that requirements for safety are established and applied
coherently with other requirements, including those for human performance,
quality and security, and so that safety is not compromised by other
requirements or demands. The management system also has to ensure the
promotion of a safety culture, the regular assessment of safety performance
and the application of lessons learned from experience.
3.13. A safety culture that governs the attitudes and behaviour in relation to
safety of all organizations and individuals concerned must be integrated in the
management system. Safety culture includes:
— Individual and collective commitment to safety on the part of the

leadership, the management and personnel at all levels;
— Accountability of organizations and of individuals at all levels for safety;
8
— Measures to encourage a questioning and learning attitude and to
discourage complacency with regard to safety.
3.14. An important factor in a management system is the recognition of the

entire range of interactions of individuals at all levels with technology and with
organizations. To prevent human and organizational failures, human factors
have to be taken into account and good performance and good practices have
to be supported.
3.15. Safety has to be assessed for all facilities and activities, consistent with a
graded approach. Safety assessment involves the systematic analysis of normal
operation and its effects, of the ways in which failures might occur and of the
consequences of such failures. Safety assessments cover the safety measures
necessary to control the hazard, and the design and engineered safety features
are assessed to demonstrate that they fulfil the safety functions required of
them. Where control measures or operator actions are called on to maintain
safety, an initial safety assessment has to be carried out to demonstrate that the
arrangements made are robust and that they can be relied on. A facility may
only be constructed and commissioned or an activity may only be commenced
once it has been demonstrated to the satisfaction of the regulatory body that
the proposed safety measures are adequate.
3.16. The process of safety assessment for facilities and activities is repeated in
whole or in part as necessary later in the conduct of operations in order to take
into account changed circumstances (such as the application of new standards
or scientific and technological developments), the feedback of operating
experience, modifications and the effects of ageing. For operations that
continue over long periods of time, assessments are reviewed and repeated as
necessary. Continuation of such operations is subject to these reassessments
demonstrating to the satisfaction of the regulatory body that the safety
measures remain adequate.
3.17. Despite all measures taken, accidents may occur. The precursors to
accidents have to be identified and analysed, and measures have to be taken to
prevent the recurrence of accidents. The feedback of operating experience
from facilities and activities — and, where relevant, from elsewhere — is a key
means of enhancing safety. Processes must be put in place for the feedback and
analysis of operating experience, including initiating events, accident
precursors, near misses, accidents and unauthorized acts, so that lessons may be
learned, shared and acted upon.
9
Principle 4: Justification of facilities and activities
Facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks

must yield an overall benefit.
3.18. For facilities and activities to be considered justified, the benefits that
they yield must outweigh the radiation risks to which they give rise. For the
purposes of assessing benefit and risk, all significant consequences of the
operation of facilities and the conduct of activities have to be taken into
account.
3.19. In many cases, decisions relating to benefit and risk are taken at the
highest levels of government, such as a decision by a State to embark on a
nuclear power programme. In other cases, the regulatory body may determine
whether proposed facilities and activities are justified.
3.20. Medical radiation exposure of patients — whether for diagnosis or

treatment — is a special case, in that the benefit is primarily to the patient. The
justification for such exposure is therefore considered first with regard to the
specific procedure to be used and then on a patient by patient basis. The
justification relies on clinical judgement as to whether a diagnostic or
therapeutic procedure would be beneficial. Such clinical judgement is mainly a
matter for medical practitioners. For this reason, medical practitioners must be
properly trained in radiation protection.
Principle 5: Optimization of protection
Protection must be optimized to provide the highest level of safety

that can reasonably be achieved.
3.21. The safety measures that are applied to facilities and activities that give
rise to radiation risks are considered optimized if they provide the highest level
of safety that can reasonably be achieved throughout the lifetime of the facility
or activity, without unduly limiting its utilization.
3.22. To determine whether radiation risks are as low as reasonably achievable,

all such risks, whether arising from normal operations or from abnormal or
accident conditions, must be assessed (using a graded approach) a priori and
periodically reassessed throughout the lifetime of facilities and activities.
Where there are interdependences between related actions or between their
associated risks (e.g. for different stages of the lifetime of facilities and
10
activities, for risks to different groups or for different steps in radioactive waste
management), these must also be considered. Account also has to be taken of
uncertainties in knowledge.
3.23. The optimization of protection requires judgements to be made about the

relative significance of various factors, including:
— The number of people (workers and the public) who may be exposed to
radiation;
— The likelihood of their incurring exposures;
— The magnitude and distribution of radiation doses received;
— Radiation risks arising from foreseeable events;
— Economic, social and environmental factors.
The optimization of protection also means using good practices and common
sense to avoid radiation risks as far as is practical in day to day activities.
3.24. The resources devoted to safety by the licensee, and the scope and
stringency of regulations and their application, have to be commensurate with
the magnitude of the radiation risks and their amenability to control.
Regulatory control may not be needed where this is not warranted by the
magnitude of the radiation risks.
Principle 6: Limitation of risks to individuals
Measures for controlling radiation risks must ensure that no individual

bears an unacceptable risk of harm.
3.25. Justification and optimization of protection do not in themselves

guarantee that no individual bears an unacceptable risk of harm. Consequently,
doses and radiation risks must be controlled within specified limits.
3.26. Conversely, because dose limits and risk limits represent a legal upper
bound of acceptability, they are insufficient in themselves to ensure the best
achievable protection under the circumstances, and they therefore have to be
supplemented by the optimization of protection. Thus both the optimization of
protection and the limitation of doses and risks to individuals are necessary to
achieve the desired level of safety.
11
People and the environment, present and future, must be protected

against radiation risks.
3.27. Radiation risks may transcend national borders and may persist for long
periods of time. The possible consequences, now and in the future, of current
actions have to be taken into account in judging the adequacy of measures to
control radiation risks. In particular:
— Safety standards apply not only to local populations but also to

populations remote from facilities and activities.
— Where effects could span generations, subsequent generations have to be
adequately protected without any need for them to take significant
protective actions.
3.28. Whereas the effects of radiation exposure on human health are relatively
well understood, albeit with uncertainties8, the effects of radiation on the
environment have been less thoroughly investigated. The present system of
radiation protection generally provides appropriate protection of ecosystems
in the human environment against harmful effects of radiation exposure. The
general intent of the measures taken for the purposes of environmental
protection has been to protect ecosystems against radiation exposure that
would have adverse consequences for populations of a species (as distinct from
individual organisms).
3.29. Radioactive waste must be managed in such a way as to avoid imposing

an undue burden on future generations; that is, the generations that produce
the waste have to seek and apply safe, practicable and environmentally
acceptable solutions for its long term management. The generation of
radioactive waste must be kept to the minimum practicable level by means of
appropriate design measures and procedures, such as the recycling and reuse of
material.
8
In particular, assumptions have to be made owing to uncertainties concerning
the health effects of radiation exposure at low doses and low dose rates.
12
Principle 8: Prevention of accidents
All practical efforts must be made to prevent and mitigate

nuclear or radiation accidents.
3.30. The most harmful consequences arising from facilities and activities have
come from the loss of control over a nuclear reactor core, nuclear chain
reaction, radioactive source or other source of radiation. Consequently, to
ensure that the likelihood of an accident having harmful consequences is
extremely low, measures have to be taken:
— To prevent the occurrence of failures or abnormal conditions (including

breaches of security) that could lead to such a loss of control;
— To prevent the escalation of any such failures or abnormal conditions that
do occur;
— To prevent the loss of, or the loss of control over, a radioactive source or
other source of radiation.
3.31. The primary means of preventing and mitigating the consequences of

accidents is ‘defence in depth’. Defence in depth is implemented primarily
through the combination of a number of consecutive and independent levels of
protection that would have to fail before harmful effects could be caused to
people or to the environment. If one level of protection or barrier were to fail,
the subsequent level or barrier would be available. When properly
implemented, defence in depth ensures that no single technical, human or
organizational failure could lead to harmful effects, and that the combinations
of failures that could give rise to significant harmful effects are of very low
probability. The independent effectiveness of the different levels of defence is a
necessary element of defence in depth.
3.32. Defence in depth is provided by an appropriate combination of:
— An effective management system with a strong management commitment

to safety and a strong safety culture.
— Adequate site selection and the incorporation of good design and
engineering features providing safety margins, diversity and redundancy,
mainly by the use of:
• Design, technology and materials of high quality and reliability;
• Control, limiting and protection systems and surveillance features;
• An appropriate combination of inherent and engineered safety
features.
13
— Comprehensive operational procedures and practices as well as accident
management procedures.
3.33. Accident management procedures must be developed in advance to

provide the means for regaining control over a nuclear reactor core, nuclear
chain reaction or other source of radiation in the event of a loss of control and
for mitigating any harmful consequences.
Principle 9: Emergency preparedness and response
Arrangements must be made for emergency preparedness and response

for nuclear or radiation incidents.
3.34. The primary goals of preparedness and response for a nuclear or

radiation emergency are:
— To ensure that arrangements are in place for an effective response at the

scene and, as appropriate, at the local, regional, national and
international levels, to a nuclear or radiation emergency;
— To ensure that, for reasonably foreseeable incidents, radiation risks would
be minor;
— For any incidents that do occur, to take practical measures to mitigate any
consequences for human life and health and the environment.
3.35. The licensee, the employer, the regulatory body and appropriate
branches of government have to establish, in advance, arrangements for
preparedness and response for a nuclear or radiation emergency at the scene,
at local, regional and national levels and, where so agreed between States, at
the international level.
3.36. The scope and extent of arrangements for emergency preparedness and
response have to reflect:
— The likelihood and the possible consequences of a nuclear or radiation

emergency;
— The characteristics of the radiation risks;
— The nature and location of the facilities and activities.
14
Such arrangements include:
— Criteria set in advance for use in determining when to take different

protective actions;
— The capability to take actions to protect and inform personnel at the
scene, and if necessary the public, during an emergency.
3.37. In developing the emergency response arrangements, consideration has

to be given to all reasonably foreseeable events. Emergency plans have to be
exercised periodically to ensure the preparedness of the organizations having
responsibilities in emergency response.
3.38. When urgent protective actions must be taken promptly in an emergency,

it may be acceptable for emergency workers to receive, on the basis of
informed consent, doses that exceed the occupational dose limits normally
applied — but only up to a predetermined level.
Principle 10: Protective actions to reduce existing or unregulated

radiation risks
Protective actions to reduce existing or unregulated radiation risks

must be justified and optimized.
3.39. Radiation risks may arise in situations other than in facilities and
activities that are in compliance with regulatory control. In such situations, if
the radiation risks are relatively high, consideration has to be given to whether
protective actions can reasonably be taken to reduce radiation exposures and
to remediate adverse conditions.
— One type of situation concerns radiation of essentially natural origin.

Such situations include exposure to radon gas in dwellings and
workplaces, for example, for which remedial actions can be taken if
necessary. However, in many situations there is little that can practicably
be done to reduce exposure to natural sources of radiation.
— A second type of situation concerns exposure that arises from human
activities conducted in the past that were never subject to regulatory
control, or that were subject to an earlier, less rigorous regime of control.
An example is situations in which radioactive residues remain from
former mining operations.
15
— A third type of situation concerns protective actions, such as remediation
measures, taken following an uncontrolled release of radionuclides to the
environment.
3.40. In all of these cases, the protective actions considered each have some
foreseeable economic, social and, possibly, environmental costs and may entail
some radiation risks (e.g. to workers carrying out such actions). The protective
actions are considered justified only if they yield sufficient benefit to outweigh
the radiation risks and other detriments associated with taking them.
Furthermore, protective actions must be optimized to produce the greatest
benefit that is reasonably achievable in relation to the costs.
16
Baekelandt, L. Federal Agency for Nuclear Control, Belgium
Barraclough, I. Enviros Consulting Ltd, United Kingdom
Brigaud, O. Direction générale de la sûreté nucléaire et de la

radioprotection, France
Delves, D. International Atomic Energy Agency
Duffy, J. Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland,

Ireland
Easton, E.P. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, United States of

America
Holm, L.-E. Swedish Radiation Protection Authority, Sweden
Karbassioun, A. International Atomic Energy Agency
Lacoste, A.-C. Direction générale de la sûreté nucléaire et de la

radioprotection, France
Lederman, L. International Atomic Energy Agency
Magnusson, S.M. Icelandic Radiation Protection Institute, Iceland
Mason, G.C. International Atomic Energy Agency
Oliveira, A. Nuclear Regulatory Authority, Argentina
Pape, R.P. HM Nuclear Installations Inspectorate, United

Kingdom
Pather, T. National Nuclear Regulator, South Africa
Pereira, J.K. Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission, Canada
Reiman, L. Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (STUK),

Finland
17
Robinson, I. HM Nuclear Installations Inspectorate, United
Kingdom
Stern, E. Israel Atomic Energy Commission, Israel
Taniguchi, T. International Atomic Energy Agency
Vaughan, G. HM Nuclear Installations Inspectorate, United

Kingdom
Williams, L.G. HM Nuclear Installations Inspectorate, United

Kingdom
Young, C. Department of Transport, United Kingdom
18
BODIES FOR THE ENDORSEMENT
OF IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS
An asterisk denotes a corresponding member. Corresponding members receive

drafts for comment and other documentation but they do not generally
participate in meetings.
Commission on Safety Standards
Argentina: Oliveira, A.; Australia: Loy, J.; Brazil: Souza de Assis, A.; Canada:
Pereira, J.K.; China: Li, G.; Czech Republic: Drábová, D.; Denmark: Ulbak, K.;
Egypt: Abdel-Hamid, S.B.; France: Lacoste, A.-C. (Chairperson); Germany:
Majer, D.; India: Sharma, S.K.; Israel: Levanon, I.; Japan: Abe, K.; Korea,
Republic of: Eun, Y.-S.; Pakistan: Hashmi, J.; Russian Federation:
Malyshev, A.B.; South Africa: Magugumela, M.T.; Spain: Azuara, J.A.; Sweden:
Holm, L.-E.; Switzerland: Schmocker, U.; United Kingdom: Weightman, M.;
United States of America: Virgilio, M.; European Commission: Waeterloos, C.;
IAEA: Karbassioun, A. (Coordinator); International Commission on
Radiological Protection: Holm, L.-E.; OECD Nuclear Energy Agency:
Tanaka, T.
Nuclear Safety Standards Committee
Argentina: Sajaroff, P.; Australia: MacNab, D.; Austria: Sholly, S.; Belgium:
Govaerts, P.; Brazil: de Queiroz Bogado Leite, S.; *Bulgaria: Gantchev, Y.;
Canada: Newland, D.; China: Wang, J.; Croatia: Valcic, I.; *Cyprus:
Demetriades, P.; Czech Republic: Böhm, K.; Egypt: Aly, A.I.M.; Finland:
Reiman, L. (Chairperson); France: Saint Raymond, P.; Germany: Herttrich, M.;
*Greece: Camarinopoulos, L.; Hungary: Vöröss, L.; India: Kushwaha, H.S.;
Iran, Islamic Republic of: Alidousti, A.; *Iraq: Khalil Al-Kamil, A.-M.; Ireland:
Hone, C.; Israel: Hirshfeld, H.; Italy: Bava, G.; Japan: Nakamura, K.; Korea,
Republic of: Kim, H.-K.; Lithuania: Demcenko, M.; Mexico: González
Mercado, V.; Netherlands: Jansen, R.; Pakistan: Habib, M.A.; Paraguay: Troche
Figueredo, G.D.; *Peru: Ramírez Quijada, R.; Portugal: Marques, J.J.G.;
Romania: Biro, L.; Russian Federation: Shvetsov, Y.E.; Slovakia: Uhrik, P.;
Slovenia: Levstek, M.F.; South Africa: Bester, P.J.; Spain: Zarzuela, J.; Sweden:
Hallman, A.; Switzerland: Aeberli, W.; *Thailand: Tanipanichskul, P.; Turkey:
Bezdegumeli, U.; Ukraine: Bezsalyi, V.; United Kingdom: Vaughan, G.J.; United
States of America: Mayfield, M.E.; European Commission: Vigne, S.; IAEA:
19
Feige, G. (Coordinator); International Organization for Standardization:
Nigon, J.L.; OECD Nuclear Energy Agency: Reig, J.; *World Nuclear
Association: Saint-Pierre, S.
Radiation Safety Standards Committee
Argentina: Rojkind, R.H.A.; Australia: Melbourne, A.; *Belarus: Rydlevski, L.;

Belgium: Smeesters, P.; Brazil: Rodriguez Rochedo, E.R.; *Bulgaria:
Katzarska, L.; Canada: Clement, C.; China: Yang, H.; Costa Rica: Pacheco
Jimenez, R.; Cuba: Betancourt Hernandez, L.; *Cyprus: Demetriades, P.; Czech
Republic: Petrova, K.; Denmark: Ohlenschlager, M.; *Egypt: Hassib, G.M;
Finland: Markkanen, M.; France: Godet, J.; Germany: Landfermann, H.;
*Greece: Kamenopoulou, V.; Hungary: Koblinger, L.; Iceland: Magnusson, S.
(Chairperson); India: Sharma, D.N.; Indonesia: Akhadi, M.; Iran, Islamic
Republic of: Rastkhah, N.; *Iraq: Khalil Al-Kamil, A.-M.; Ireland: Colgan, T.;
Israel: Laichter, Y.; Italy: Bologna, L.; Japan: Yoda, N.; Korea, Republic of:
Lee, B.; Latvia: Salmins, A.; Malaysia: Rehir, D.; Mexico: Maldonado
Mercado, H.; Morocco: Tazi, S.; Netherlands: Zuur, C.; Norway: Saxebol, G.;
Pakistan: Mehboob, A.E.; Paraguay: Idoyago Navarro, M.; Philippines:
Valdezco, E.; Portugal: Dias de Oliviera, A.; Romania: Rodna, A.; Russian
Federation: Savkin, M.; Slovakia: Jurina, V.; Slovenia: Sutej, T.; South Africa:
Olivier, J.H.I.; Spain: Amor, I.; Sweden: Hofvander, P.; Switzerland:
Pfeiffer, H.J.; *Thailand: Wanitsuksombut, W.; Turkey: Okyar, H.; Ukraine:
Holubiev, V.; United Kingdom: Robinson, I.; United States of America:
Miller, C.; European Commission: Janssens, A.; Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations: Byron, D.; IAEA: Boal, T. (Coordinator);
International Commission on Radiological Protection: Valentin, J.; International
Labour Office: Niu, S.; International Organization for Standardization:
Perrin, M.; OECD Nuclear Energy Agency: Lazo, T.; Pan American Health
Organization: Jimenez, P.; United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of
Atomic Radiation: Crick, M.; World Health Organization: Carr, Z.; World
Nuclear Association: Saint-Pierre, S.
Transport Safety Standards Committee
Argentina: López Vietri, J.; Australia: Sarkar, S.; Austria: Kirchnawy, F.;
Belgium: Cottens, E.; Brazil: Mezrahi, A.; Bulgaria: Bakalova, A.; Canada:
Faille, S.; China: Qu, Z.; Croatia: Kubelka, D.; Cuba: Quevedo Garcia, J.R.;
*Cyprus: Demetriades, P.; Czech Republic: Ducháček, V.; Denmark:
Breddan, K.; *Egypt: El-Shinawy, R.M.K.; Finland: Tikkinen, J.; France:
20
Aguilar, J.; Germany: Rein, H.; *Greece: Vogiatzi, S.; Hungary: Sáfár, J.; India:
Agarwal, S.P.; Iran, Islamic Republic of: Kardan, M.R.; *Iraq: Khalil
Al-Kamil, A.-M.; Ireland: Duffy, J. (Chairperson); Israel: Koch, J.; Italy:
Trivelloni, S.; Japan: Amano, M.; Korea, Republic of: Kim, Y.-J.; Malaysia:
Sobari, M.P.M.; Netherlands: Van Halem, H.; New Zealand: Ardouin, C.;
Norway: Hornkjøl, S.; Pakistan: Rashid, M.; Paraguay: More Torres, L.E.;
Philippines: Kinilitan-Parami, V.; Portugal: Buxo da Trindade, R.; Romania:
Vieru, G.; Russian Federation: Ershov, V.N.; South Africa: Jutle, K.; Spain:
Zamora Martin, F.; Sweden: Dahlin, G.; Switzerland: Knecht, B.; *Thailand:
Wanitsuksombut, W.; Turkey: Ertürk, K.; Ukraine: Sakalo, V.; United Kingdom:
Young, C.N.; United States of America: Brach, W.E.; Boyle, R.; European
Commission: Venchiarutti, J.-C.; International Air Transport Association:
Abouchaar, J.; IAEA: Wangler, M.E. (Coordinator); International Civil
Aviation Organization: Rooney, K.; International Federation of Air Line Pilots’
Associations: Tisdall, A.; International Maritime Organization: Rahim, I.;
International Organization for Standardization: Malesys, P.; United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe: Kervella, O.; Universal Postal Union:
Giroux, P.; World Nuclear Transport Institute: Green, L.
Waste Safety Standards Committee
Argentina: Siraky, G.; Australia: Williams, G.; Austria: Hohenberg, J.; Belgium:
Baekelandt, L.; Brazil: Heilbron, P.; *Bulgaria: Simeonov, G.; Canada: Lojk, R.;
China: Fan, Z.; Croatia: Subasic, D.; Cuba: Salgado Mojena, M.; *Cyprus:
Demetriades, P.; *Czech Republic: Lieteva, P.; Denmark: Nielsen, C.; *Egypt:
El-Adham, K.E.A.; Finland: Ruokola, E.; France: Cailleton, R.; Hungary:
Czoch, I.; India: Raj, K.; Indonesia: Yatim, S.; Iran, Islamic Republic of:
Ettehadian, M.; *Iraq: Abass, H.; Israel: Dody, A.; Italy: Dionisi, M.; Japan:
Ito, Y.; Korea, Republic of: Park, W.; *Latvia: Salmins, A.; Lithuania:
Paulikas, V.; Mexico: Aguirre Gómez, J.; Morocco: Soufi, I.; Netherlands:
Selling, H.; *Norway: Sorlie, A.; Pakistan: Rehman, R.; Paraguay: Facetti
Fernandez, J.; Portugal: Flausino de Paiva, M.; Romania: Tuturici, I.; Russian
Federation: Poluektov, P.P.; Slovakia: Konečný, L.; Slovenia: Mele, I.; South
Africa: Pather, T. (Chairperson); Spain: Sanz, M.; Sweden: Wingefors, S.;
Switzerland: Zurkinden, A.; Turkey: Özdemir, T.; Ukraine: Iievlev, S.; United
Kingdom: Wilson, C.; United States of America: Camper, L.; European
Commission: Hilden, W.; IAEA: Hioki, K. (Coordinator); International
Organization for Standardization: Hutson, G.; OECD Nuclear Energy Agency:
Riotte, H.; World Nuclear Association: Saint-Pierre, S.
21
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This publication has been superseded by GSR Part 3
IAEA Safety Standards

for protecting people and the environment
Radiation Protection and

Safety of Radiation Sources:
International Basic
Safety Standards
INTERIM EDITION
General Safety Requirements Part 3

No. GSR Part 3 (Interim)
IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS AND RELATED PUBLICATIONS
IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS

Under the terms of Article III of its Statute, the IAEA is authorized to establish or adopt
standards of safety for protection of health and minimization of danger to life and property, and
to provide for the application of these standards.
The publications by means of which the IAEA establishes standards are issued in the
IAEA Safety Standards Series. This series covers nuclear safety, radiation safety, transport
safety and waste safety. The publication categories in the series are Safety Fundamentals,
Safety Requirements and Safety Guides.
Information on the IAEA’s safety standards programme is available at the IAEA Internet
site
http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/
The site provides the texts in English of published and draft safety standards. The texts
of safety standards issued in Arabic, Chinese, French, Russian and Spanish, the IAEA Safety
Glossary and a status report for safety standards under development are also available. For
further information, please contact the IAEA at PO Box 100, 1400 Vienna, Austria.
All users of IAEA safety standards are invited to inform the IAEA of experience in their
use (e.g. as a basis for national regulations, for safety reviews and for training courses) for the
purpose of ensuring that they continue to meet users’ needs. Information may be provided via
the IAEA Internet site or by post, as above, or by email to Ofﬁcial.Mail@iaea.org.
RELATED PUBLICATIONS
The IAEA provides for the application of the standards and, under the terms of Articles III
and VIII.C of its Statute, makes available and fosters the exchange of information relating
to peaceful nuclear activities and serves as an intermediary among its Member States for this
purpose.
Reports on safety and protection in nuclear activities are issued as Safety Reports,
which provide practical examples and detailed methods that can be used in support of the
safety standards.
Other safety related IAEA publications are issued as Radiological Assessment
Reports, the International Nuclear Safety Group’s INSAG Reports, Technical Reports and
TECDOCs. The IAEA also issues reports on radiological accidents, training manuals and
practical manuals, and other special safety related publications.
Security related publications are issued in the IAEA Nuclear Security Series.
The IAEA Nuclear Energy Series comprises informational publications to encourage
and assist research on, and the development and practical application of, nuclear energy for
peaceful purposes. It includes reports and guides on the status of and advances in technology,
and on experience, good practices and practical examples in the areas of nuclear power, the
nuclear fuel cycle, radioactive waste management and decommissioning.
RADIATION PROTECTION AND

SAFETY OF RADIATION SOURCES:
INTERNATIONAL BASIC SAFETY STANDARDS
INTERIM EDITION
The following States are Members of the International Atomic Energy Agency:
AFGHANISTAN GHANA NORWAY

ALBANIA GREECE OMAN
ALGERIA GUATEMALA PAKISTAN
ANGOLA HAITI PALAU
ARGENTINA HOLY SEE PANAMA
ARMENIA HONDURAS PARAGUAY
AUSTRALIA HUNGARY PERU
AUSTRIA ICELAND PHILIPPINES
AZERBAIJAN INDIA POLAND
BAHRAIN INDONESIA
PORTUGAL
BANGLADESH IRAN, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF
QATAR
BELARUS IRAQ
REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA
BELGIUM IRELAND
ROMANIA
BELIZE ISRAEL
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
BENIN ITALY
BOLIVIA SAUDI ARABIA
JAMAICA
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA JAPAN SENEGAL
BOTSWANA JORDAN SERBIA
BRAZIL KAZAKHSTAN SEYCHELLES
BULGARIA KENYA SIERRA LEONE
BURKINA FASO KOREA, REPUBLIC OF SINGAPORE
BURUNDI KUWAIT SLOVAKIA
CAMBODIA KYRGYZSTAN SLOVENIA
CAMEROON LATVIA SOUTH AFRICA
CANADA LEBANON SPAIN
CENTRAL AFRICAN LESOTHO SRI LANKA
REPUBLIC LIBERIA SUDAN
CHAD LIBYA SWEDEN
CHILE LIECHTENSTEIN SWITZERLAND
CHINA LITHUANIA SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC
COLOMBIA LUXEMBOURG TAJIKISTAN
CONGO MADAGASCAR THAILAND
COSTA RICA MALAWI THE FORMER YUGOSLAV 
CÔTE D’IVOIRE MALAYSIA REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA
CROATIA MALI
TUNISIA
CUBA MALTA
TURKEY
CYPRUS MARSHALL ISLANDS
UGANDA
CZECH REPUBLIC MAURITANIA
UKRAINE
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC MAURITIUS
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
OF THE CONGO MEXICO
DENMARK UNITED KINGDOM OF 
MONACO
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC GREAT BRITAIN AND 
MONGOLIA
ECUADOR NORTHERN IRELAND
MONTENEGRO
EGYPT MOROCCO UNITED REPUBLIC
EL SALVADOR MOZAMBIQUE OF TANZANIA
ERITREA MYANMAR UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
ESTONIA NAMIBIA URUGUAY
ETHIOPIA NEPAL UZBEKISTAN
FINLAND NETHERLANDS VENEZUELA
FRANCE NEW ZEALAND VIETNAM
GABON NICARAGUA YEMEN
GEORGIA NIGER ZAMBIA
GERMANY NIGERIA ZIMBABWE
The Agency’s Statute was approved on 23 October 1956 by the Conference on the Statute of the IAEA held at
United Nations Headquarters, New York; it entered into force on 29 July 1957. The Headquarters of the Agency are
situated in Vienna. Its principal objective is “to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace,
health and prosperity throughout the world’’.
IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS SERIES No. GSR Part 3 (Interim)
RADIATION PROTECTION AND

SAFETY OF RADIATION SOURCES:
INTERIM EDITION
GENERAL SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
This publication includes a CD-ROM containing the IAEA Safety Glossary:
2007 Edition (2007), the Fundamental Safety Principles (2006)
and Radiation Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources:
International Basic Safety Standards: Interim Edition (2011),
each in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish versions.

VIENNA, 2011
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© IAEA, 2011
November 2011
STI/PUB/1531
Radiation protection and safety of radiation sources : international basic safety

standards : general safety requirements. – Interim edition. – Vienna :
International Atomic Energy Agency, 2011.
p. ; 29 cm. – (IAEA safety standards series, ISSN 1020-525X ;
no. GRS Part 3 (Interim))
STI/PUB/1531
ISBN 978–92–0–120910–8
Includes bibliographical references.
1. Nuclear facilities — Safety measures. 2. Radiation — Safety measures.

3. Radiation protection. 4. Safety standards. I. International Atomic Energy
Agency. II. Series.
IAEAL 11–00705
FOREWORD
by Yukiya Amano
Director General
The IAEA’s Statute authorizes the Agency to “establish or adopt… standards of safety for protection of health
and minimization of danger to life and property” — standards that the IAEA must use in its own operations, and
which States can apply by means of their regulatory provisions for nuclear and radiation safety. The IAEA does this
in consultation with the competent organs of the United Nations and with the specialized agencies concerned. A
comprehensive set of high quality standards under regular review is a key element of a stable and sustainable global
safety regime, as is the IAEA’s assistance in their application.
The IAEA commenced its safety standards programme in 1958. The emphasis placed on quality, fitness for
purpose and continuous improvement has led to the widespread use of the IAEA standards throughout the world.
The Safety Standards Series now includes unified Fundamental Safety Principles, which represent an international
consensus on what must constitute a high level of protection and safety. With the strong support of the Commission
on Safety Standards, the IAEA is working to promote the global acceptance and use of its standards.
Standards are only effective if they are properly applied in practice. The IAEA’s safety services encompass
design, siting and engineering safety, operational safety, radiation safety, safe transport of radioactive material and
safe management of radioactive waste, as well as governmental organization, regulatory matters and safety culture
in organizations. These safety services assist Member States in the application of the standards and enable valuable
experience and insights to be shared.
Regulating safety is a national responsibility, and many States have decided to adopt the IAEA’s standards for
use in their national regulations. For parties to the various international safety conventions, IAEA standards provide
a consistent, reliable means of ensuring the effective fulfilment of obligations under the conventions. The standards
are also applied by regulatory bodies and operators around the world to enhance safety in nuclear power generation
and in nuclear applications in medicine, industry, agriculture and research.
Safety is not an end in itself but a prerequisite for the purpose of the protection of people in all States and of
the environment — now and in the future. The risks associated with ionizing radiation must be assessed and
controlled without unduly limiting the contribution of nuclear energy to equitable and sustainable development.
Governments, regulatory bodies and operators everywhere must ensure that nuclear material and radiation sources
are used beneficially, safely and ethically. The IAEA safety standards are designed to facilitate this, and I encourage
all Member States to make use of them.
NOTE BY THE SECRETARIAT
The IAEA safety standards reflect an international consensus on what constitutes a high level of safety for
protecting people and the environment from harmful effects of ionizing radiation. The process of developing,
reviewing and establishing the IAEA standards involves the IAEA Secretariat and all Member States, many of
which are represented on the four IAEA safety standards committees and the IAEA Commission on Safety
Standards.
The IAEA standards, as a key element of the global safety regime, are kept under regular review by the
Secretariat, the safety standards committees and the Commission on Safety Standards. The Secretariat gathers
information on experience in the application of the IAEA standards and information gained from the follow-up of
events for the purpose of ensuring that the standards continue to meet users’ needs. The present publication reflects
feedback and experience accumulated until 2010 and it has been subject to the rigorous review process for
standards.
Lessons that may be learned from studying the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant in
Japan following the disastrous earthquake and tsunami of 11 March 2011 will be reflected in this IAEA Safety
Requirements publication as revised and issued in the future.
PREFACE TO THE INTERIM EDITION
The Board of Governors of the IAEA, at its meeting on 12 September 2011, established as an IAEA safety
standard — in accordance with Article III.A.6 of the Statute — this Safety Requirements publication, and
authorized the Director General to promulgate these Safety Requirements and to issue them as a Safety
Requirements publication in the IAEA Safety Standards Series.
The Board of Governors of the IAEA first approved basic safety standards in June 1962, which were
published by the IAEA as Safety Series No. 9. A revised version was published in 1967. A third revision was
published by the IAEA as the 1982 Edition of Safety Series No. 9; this edition was jointly sponsored by the IAEA,
International Labour Organization (ILO), OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD/NEA) and World Health
Organization (WHO). The next version was the International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing
Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources (the BSS), published by the IAEA in February 1996 as Safety
Series No. 115 and jointly sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO),
IAEA, ILO, OECD/NEA, Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and WHO.
In September 2005, the General Conference of the IAEA, by resolution GC(49)/RES/9, requested the IAEA
Secretariat to undertake a review of the BSS. The IAEA invited representatives of United Nations and other
intergovernmental organizations to participate in the review and revision of the BSS through the establishment of a
BSS Secretariat made up of designated representatives of the potential sponsoring organizations: the European
Commission (EC/Euratom), FAO, ILO, OECD/NEA, PAHO, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
and WHO. The BSS Secretariat was supported by the IAEA Secretariat.
In September 2006, the IAEA General Conference, by way of resolution GC(50)/RES/10, noted the review of
the BSS carried out in response to para. 10 of resolution GC(49)/RES/9, and noted that the revision was to be
coordinated by the BSS Secretariat.
The revision of the BSS commenced in early 2007 with a series of drafting meetings on the basis of thematic
areas, hosted by the IAEA, ILO, WHO, OECD/NEA and PAHO. The draft text developed at these meetings
provided the basis for discussions at a technical meeting held in July 2007, with the participation of representatives
of the potential sponsoring organizations.
The draft text takes account of the findings of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of
Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) and the recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological
Protection (ICRP).
The technical meeting recommended that the revised BSS be structured on the basis of ‘planned exposure
situations’, ‘emergency exposure situations’ and ‘existing exposure situations’, with each main section of the text
having the same layout covering occupational exposure, public exposure and (for planned exposure situations only)
medical exposure, following the ICRP recommendations. There was also to be a main section dealing with generic
requirements that are applicable in all exposure situations. The technical meeting also recommended that the
revised BSS cover protection of the environment, to be consistent with the Fundamental Safety Principles,
published in 2006 as IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SF-1.
Further drafting and review meetings with the potential sponsoring organizations were held from late 2007 to
2009. The IAEA Safety Standards Committees and groups of experts from potential sponsoring organizations
provided feedback on drafts of the revised BSS in 2008 and 2009. A further technical meeting with the participation
of representatives of the potential sponsoring organizations was held in December 2009 to discuss a statement on
radon that was issued by the ICRP in November 2009 and to assess its implication for the revised BSS. The
technical meeting also made recommendations on the text of the revised BSS in relation to exposure to radon
indoors and to occupational exposure to radon.
In January 2010, the draft text was submitted to IAEA Member States for comment. On the basis of the
comments received, a revised draft text was prepared. The revised draft text was subsequently approved by the
Nuclear Safety Standards Committee and the Transport Safety Standards Committee in November 2010, and by the
Radiation Safety Standards Committee and the Waste Safety Standards Committee in December 2010, and was
endorsed by the Commission on Safety Standards (CSS) in May 2011.
On 21 April 2011, the ICRP issued a statement on tissue reactions which recommended a reduction in the
dose limit (in terms of equivalent dose) for the lens of the eye. The CSS concluded in May 2011 that it intends to
incorporate the revised dose limit to the lens of the eye into Schedule III of the revised BSS, after consultation of
Member States. Member States were invited to provide comment on the revised Schedule III by 7 July 2011.
Following a recommendation from the outgoing and incoming Chairs of the Radiation Safety Standards
Committee, the Chair of the CSS approved the revised Schedule III on 12 July 2011.
The objective of this Safety Requirements publication is to establish, on the basis of the safety objective and
principles established in the Fundamental Safety Principles, requirements for the protection of people and the
environment from harmful effects of ionizing radiation and for the safety of radiation sources.
This publication is intended for use by governmental authorities including regulatory bodies responsible for
licensing facilities and activities; by organizations operating nuclear facilities, some mining and raw material
processing facilities such as uranium mines, radioactive waste management facilities, and any other facilities
producing or using radiation sources for industrial, research or medical purposes; by organizations transporting
radioactive material; by organizations decommissioning facilities; and by staff and technical and scientific support
organizations supporting such organizations and authorities.
The references included in this publication are to editions that are current as of the time of publication of these
Standards. Editions that supersede these references may be adopted under national legislation. In the event that the
publications referenced here are superseded, please refer to the most recent editions. See also: http://www-
ns.iaea.org/standards/.
This publication also includes a list of definitions which apply for the purposes of these Standards. The list of
definitions includes: definitions of new terms that are not included in the IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology Used
in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection (2007 Edition); revised definitions of terms that are defined in the IAEA
Safety Glossary; and existing definitions from the IAEA Safety Glossary, included here for ease of reference. The
revised definitions included here of terms with definitions in the IAEA Safety Glossary will be included in the next
revision of the IAEA Safety Glossary and will thus supersede those existing definitions. Further relevant definitions
are provided in the IAEA Safety Glossary. See also: http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/safety-glossary.
Also included is a CD-ROM containing the IAEA Safety Glossary: 2007 Edition (2007), the Fundamental
Safety Principles (2006) and the present Safety Requirements publication, Radiation Protection and Safety of
Radiation Sources: International Basic Safety Standards: Interim Edition (2011) (including tables in Schedule III
that are not included in the printed book), each in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish versions.
The revised BSS are hereby published as General Safety Requirements Part 3 (Interim) in the IAEA Safety
Standards Series in an Interim Edition. This Interim Edition has been submitted to the other potential sponsoring
organizations for their approval. Following their decisions on its approval, it will be issued as a jointly sponsored
standard.
This Interim Edition is reproduced directly from Board of Governors document GOV/2011/42 and has not
been edited or typeset by the IAEA. Please notify any apparent errors, omissions or mistranslations by email to
Rad.prot.unit@iaea.org and Safety.Standards@iaea.org, or via the IAEA safety standards web site, http://www-
ns.iaea.org/standards/, so that any necessary corrections can be made in the final edition.
The IAEA wishes to express its great appreciation to all those who assisted in the drafting, review, revision
and translation of this text and in the process of reaching a consensus.
THE IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS
BACKGROUND
Radioactivity is a natural phenomenon and natural sources of radiation are features of the environment.
Radiation and radioactive substances have many beneficial applications, ranging from power generation to uses in
medicine, industry and agriculture. The radiation risks to workers and the public and to the environment that may
arise from these applications have to be assessed and, if necessary, controlled.
Activities such as the medical uses of radiation, the operation of nuclear installations, the production,
transport and use of radioactive material, and the management of radioactive waste must therefore be subject to
standards of safety.
Regulating safety is a national responsibility. However, radiation risks may transcend national borders, and
international cooperation serves to promote and enhance safety globally by exchanging experience and by
improving capabilities to control hazards, to prevent accidents, to respond to emergencies and to mitigate any
harmful consequences.
States have an obligation of diligence and duty of care, and are expected to fulfil their national and
international undertakings and obligations.
International safety standards provide support for States in meeting their obligations under general principles
of international law, such as those relating to environmental protection. International safety standards also promote
and assure confidence in safety and facilitate international commerce and trade.
A global nuclear safety regime is in place and is being continuously improved. IAEA safety standards, which
support the implementation of binding international instruments and national safety infrastructures, are a
cornerstone of this global regime. The IAEA safety standards constitute a useful tool for contracting parties to
assess their performance under these international conventions.
The status of the IAEA safety standards derives from the IAEA’s Statute, which authorizes the IAEA to
establish or adopt, in consultation and, where appropriate, in collaboration with the competent organs of the United
Nations and with the specialized agencies concerned, standards of safety for protection of health and minimization
of danger to life and property, and to provide for their application.
With a view to ensuring the protection of people and the environment from harmful effects of ionizing
radiation, the IAEA safety standards establish fundamental safety principles, requirements and measures to control
the radiation exposure of people and the release of radioactive material to the environment, to restrict the likelihood
of events that might lead to a loss of control over a nuclear reactor core, nuclear chain reaction, radioactive source
or any other source of radiation, and to mitigate the consequences of such events if they were to occur. The
standards apply to facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks, including nuclear installations, the use of
radiation and radioactive sources, the transport of radioactive material and the management of radioactive waste.
Safety measures and security measures1 have in common the aim of protecting human life and health and the
environment. Safety measures and security measures must be designed and implemented in an integrated manner so
that security measures do not compromise safety and safety measures do not compromise security.
The IAEA safety standards reflect an international consensus on what constitutes a high level of safety for
protecting people and the environment from harmful effects of ionizing radiation. They are issued in the IAEA
Safety Standards Series, which has three categories (see Fig. 1).
1
See also publications issued in the IAEA Nuclear Security Series.
Safety Fundamentals
Fundamental Safety Principles
General Safety Requirements Specific Safety Requirements
Part 1. Governmental, Legal and 1. Site Evaluation for

Regulatory Framework for Safety Nuclear Installations
Part 2. Leadership and Management

2. Safety of Nuclear Power Plants
for Safety
2/1 Design
Part 3. Radiation Protection and 2/2 Commissioning and Operation
Safety of Radiation Sources
Part 4. Safety Assessment for 3. Safety of Research Reactors

Facilities and Activities
Part 5. Predisposal Management 4. Safety of Nuclear Fuel

of Radioactive Waste Cycle Facilities
Part 6. Decommissioning and 5. Safety of Radioactive Waste

Termination of Activities Disposal Facilities
Part 7. Emergency Preparedness 6. Safe Transport of

and Response Radioactive Material
Collection of Safety Guides
FIG. 1. The long term structure of the IAEA Safety Standards Series.
Safety Fundamentals
Safety Fundamentals present the fundamental safety objective and principles of protection and safety, and
provide the basis for the safety requirements.
Safety Requirements
An integrated and consistent set of Safety Requirements establishes the requirements that must be met to
ensure the protection of people and the environment, both now and in the future. The requirements are governed by
the objective and principles of the Safety Fundamentals. If the requirements are not met, measures must be taken to
reach or restore the required level of safety. The format and style of the requirements facilitate their use for the
establishment, in a harmonized manner, of a national regulatory framework. Requirements, including numbered
‘overarching’ requirements, are expressed as ‘shall’ statements. Many requirements are not addressed to a specific
party, the implication being that the appropriate parties are responsible for fulfilling them.
Safety Guides
Safety Guides provide recommendations and guidance on how to comply with the safety requirements,
indicating an international consensus that it is necessary to take the measures recommended (or equivalent
alternative measures). The Safety Guides present international good practices, and increasingly they reflect best
practices, to help users striving to achieve high levels of safety. The recommendations provided in Safety Guides
are expressed as ‘should’ statements.
APPLICATION OF THE IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS
The principal users of safety standards in IAEA Member States are regulatory bodies and other relevant
national authorities. The IAEA safety standards are also used by co-sponsoring organizations and by many
organizations that design, construct and operate nuclear facilities, as well as organizations involved in the use of
radiation and radioactive sources.
The IAEA safety standards are applicable, as relevant, throughout the entire lifetime of all facilities and
activities — existing and new — utilized for peaceful purposes and to protective actions to reduce existing radiation
risks. They can be used by States as a reference for their national regulations in respect of facilities and activities.
The IAEA’s Statute makes the safety standards binding on the IAEA in relation to its own operations and also
on States in relation to IAEA assisted operations.
The IAEA safety standards also form the basis for the IAEA’s safety review services, and they are used by the
IAEA in support of competence building, including the development of educational curricula and training courses.
International conventions contain requirements similar to those in the IAEA safety standards and make them
binding on contracting parties. The IAEA safety standards, supplemented by international conventions, industry
standards and detailed national requirements, establish a consistent basis for protecting people and the environment.
There will also be some special aspects of safety that need to be assessed at the national level. For example, many
of the IAEA safety standards, in particular those addressing aspects of safety in planning or design, are intended to
apply primarily to new facilities and activities. The requirements established in the IAEA safety standards might
not be fully met at some existing facilities that were built to earlier standards. The way in which IAEA safety
standards are to be applied to such facilities is a decision for individual States.
The scientific considerations underlying the IAEA safety standards provide an objective basis for decisions
concerning safety; however, decision makers must also make informed judgements and must determine how best to
balance the benefits of an action or an activity against the associated radiation risks and any other detrimental
impacts to which it gives rise.
DEVELOPMENT PROCESS FOR THE IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS
The preparation and review of the safety standards involves the IAEA Secretariat and four safety standards
committees, for nuclear safety (NUSSC), radiation safety (RASSC), the safety of radioactive waste (WASSC) and
the safe transport of radioactive material (TRANSSC), and a Commission on Safety Standards (CSS) which
oversees the IAEA safety standards programme (see Fig. 2).
All IAEA Member States may nominate experts for the safety standards committees and may provide
comments on draft standards. The membership of the Commission on Safety Standards is appointed by the Director
General and includes senior governmental officials having responsibility for establishing national standards.
Outline and work plan

prepared by the Secretariat;
review by the safety standards
committees and the CSS
Secretariat and
consultants:
drafting of new or revision
of existing safety standard
Draft
Review by Draft
safety standards Member States
committee(s)
Comments
Final draft
Endorsement
by the CSS
FIG. 2. The process for developing a new safety standard or revising an existing standard.
A management system has been established for the processes of planning, developing, reviewing, revising
and establishing the IAEA safety standards. It articulates the mandate of the IAEA, the vision for the future
application of the safety standards, policies and strategies, and corresponding functions and responsibilities.
INTERACTION WITH OTHER INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
The findings of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR)
and the recommendations of international expert bodies, notably the International Commission on Radiological
Protection (ICRP), are taken into account in developing the IAEA safety standards. Some safety standards are
developed in cooperation with other bodies in the United Nations system or other specialized agencies, including
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the United Nations Environment Programme, the
International Labour Organization, the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency, the Pan American Health Organization and
the World Health Organization.
INTERPRETATION OF THE TEXT
Safety related terms are to be understood as defined in the IAEA Safety Glossary (see http://www-
ns.iaea.org/standards/safety-glossary.htm). Otherwise, words are used with the spellings and meanings assigned to
them in the latest edition of The Concise Oxford Dictionary. For Safety Guides, the English version of the text is the
authoritative version.
The background and context of each standard in the IAEA Safety Standards Series and its objective, scope
and structure are explained in Section 1, Introduction, of each publication.
Material for which there is no appropriate place in the body text (e.g. material that is subsidiary to or separate
from the body text, is included in support of statements in the body text, or describes methods of calculation,
procedures or limits and conditions) may be presented in appendices or annexes.
An appendix, if included, is considered to form an integral part of the safety standard. Material in an appendix
has the same status as the body text, and the IAEA assumes authorship of it. Annexes and footnotes to the main text,
if included, are used to provide practical examples or additional information or explanation. Annexes and footnotes
are not integral parts of the main text. Annex material published by the IAEA is not necessarily issued under its
authorship; material under other authorship may be presented in annexes to the safety standards. Extraneous
material presented in annexes is excerpted and adapted as necessary to be generally useful.
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Background (1.1–1.37). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Objective (1.38) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Scope (1.39–1.46) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Structure (1.47–1.55) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR PROTECTION AND SAFETY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Definitions (2.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Interpretation (2.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Resolution of conflicts (2.3–2.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Entry into force (2.6–2.7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Application of the principles of radiation protection (2.8–2.12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Responsibilities of the government (2.13–2.28) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Responsibilities of the regulatory body (2.29–2.38) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Responsibilities for protection and safety (2.39–2.46) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Management requirements (2.47–2.52) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3. PLANNED EXPOSURE SITUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Scope (3.1–3.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Generic requirements (3.5–3.67) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Occupational exposure (3.68–3.116) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Public exposure (3.117–3.143) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Medical exposure (3.144–3.184) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4. EMERGENCY EXPOSURE SITUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Scope (4.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Generic requirements (4.2–4.6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Public exposure (4.7–4.11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Exposure of emergency workers (4.12–4.19) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Transition from an emergency exposure situation to an existing exposure situation (4.20–4.21). . . . . . . 60
5. EXISTING EXPOSURE SITUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Scope (5.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Generic requirements (5.2–5.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Public exposure (5.6–5.23) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Occupational exposure (5.24–5.33) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
SCHEDULE I: EXEMPTION AND CLEARANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
SCHEDULE II: CATEGORIES FOR SEALED SOURCES USED IN COMMON PRACTICES . . . . . . . . . . 88
SCHEDULE III: DOSE LIMITS FOR PLANNED EXPOSURE SITUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
SCHEDULE IV: CRITERIA FOR USE IN EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE. . . . . . . . . 92
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
ANNEX: GENERIC CRITERIA FOR PROTECTIVE ACTIONS AND OTHER RESPONSE 

ACTIONS IN EMERGENCY EXPOSURE SITUATIONS TO REDUCE THE RISK 
OF STOCHASTIC EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

SCHEDULE III: TABLES III-1 AND III-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
BODIES FOR THE ENDORSEMENT OF IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
1
1. INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
1.1. This General Safety Requirements publication, IAEA Safety Standards Series No. GSR Part
3, Radiation Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources: International Basic Safety Standards
(hereinafter referred to as ‘these Standards’), is part of the IAEA Safety Standard Series, supersedes
the International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of
Radiation Sources (the BSS) issued in 19961. Section 1 does not constitute a part of the requirements,
but explains the context, concepts and principles for the requirements, which are established from
Section 2 to Section 5, and in the Schedules.
1.2. Radioactivity is a natural phenomenon and natural sources of radiation are features of the
environment. Radiation2 and radioactive material may also be of artificial origin and have many
beneficial applications, including uses in medicine, industry, agriculture and research as well as for
nuclear power generation. The radiation risks to people and the environment that may arise from the
use of radiation and radioactive material must be assessed and controlled through the application of
standards of safety3.
1.3. Exposure of tissues or organs to ionizing radiation can induce the death of cells on a scale
that can be extensive enough to impair the function of the exposed tissue or organ. Effects of this type,
which are called ‘deterministic effects’, are clinically observable in an individual only if the radiation
dose exceeds a certain threshold. Above this threshold dose, a deterministic effect is more severe for a
higher dose.
1.4. Exposure to radiation can also induce the non-lethal transformation of cells, which may still
retain their capacity for cell division. The human body’s immune system is very effective in detecting
and destroying abnormal cells. However, there is a possibility that the non-lethal transformation of a
cell could lead, after a latency period, to cancer in the individual exposed, if it is a somatic cell; or may
lead to hereditary effects, if it is a germ cell. Such effects are called ‘stochastic’ effects. For the
purposes of these Standards, it is assumed that the probability of the eventual occurrence of a
stochastic effect is proportional to the dose received, with no threshold. The ‘detriment-adjusted
nominal risk coefficient of dose’, which includes the risks of all cancers and hereditary effects, is 5%
per sievert (Sv) [1]. This risk coefficient may need to be adjusted as new scientific knowledge
becomes available.
1.5. The requirements established in these Standards are governed by the objectives, concepts
and principles of the Fundamental Safety Principles [2]. These Standards draw upon information
derived from the experience of States in applying the requirements of the previous International Basic
Safety Standards1, and from experience in many States in the use of radiation and nuclear techniques.
These Standards draw upon extensive research and development work by national and international
scientific and engineering organizations on the health effects of radiation exposure and on measures
and techniques for the safe design and use of radiation sources. These Standards also take account of
1
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS, INTERNATIONAL
ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION, OECD NUCLEAR
ENERGY AGENCY, PAN AMERICAN HEALTH ORGANIZATION, WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION,
International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation
Sources, Safety Series No. 115, IAEA, Vienna (1996).
2
The term ‘radiation’ in this context means ionizing radiation.
3
Obligations expressed as ‘must’ statements in Section 1 are quoted from the Fundamental Safety Principles [2].
2
the findings of the United Nations Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) [4]
and the Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) [1]. As
scientific considerations are only part of the basis for making decisions on protection and safety, these
Standards also address the use of value judgements relating to the management of risks.
The system of protection and safety
1.6. As stated in the Fundamental Safety Principles [2], “The fundamental safety objective is to
protect people and the environment from harmful effects of ionizing radiation”. This objective must be
achieved without unduly limiting the operation of facilities or the conduct of activities that give rise to
radiation risks4. Therefore, the system of protection and safety aims to assess, manage and control
exposure to radiation so that radiation risks, including risks of health effects and risks to the
environment, are reduced to the extent reasonably achievable.
1.7. These Standards are based on the following safety principles stated in the Fundamental
Safety Principles [2]:
Principle 1: Responsibility for safety
The prime responsibility for safety must rest with the person or organization responsible for
facilities and activities5 that give rise to radiation risks.
Principle 2: Role of government
An effective legal and governmental framework for safety, including an independent
regulatory body, must be established and sustained.
Principle 3: Leadership and management for safety
Effective leadership and management for safety must be established and sustained in
organizations concerned with, and facilities and activities that give rise to, radiation risks.
Principle 4: Justification of facilities and activities
Facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks must yield an overall benefit.
Principle 5: Optimization of protection
Protection must be optimized to provide the highest level of safety that can reasonably be
achieved.
4
The term ‘radiation risks’ is used in a general sense to refer to:
− Detrimental health effects of radiation exposure (including the likelihood of such effects
occurring).
− Any other safety related risks (including those to the environment) that might arise as a direct
consequence of:
• The presence of radioactive material (including radioactive waste) or its release to the
environment;
• A loss of control over a nuclear reactor core, nuclear chain reaction, radioactive source or
any other source of radiation.
5
The term ‘facilities and activities’ is a general term encompassing any human activity that may cause people to
be exposed to radiation risks arising from naturally occurring or artificial sources. The term ‘facilities’ includes:
nuclear facilities; irradiation installations; some mining and raw material processing facilities such as uranium
mines; radioactive waste management facilities; and any other places where radioactive material is produced,
processed, used, handled, stored or disposed of — or where radiation generators are installed — on such a scale
that consideration of protection and safety is required. The term ‘activities’ includes: the production, use, import
and export of radiation sources for industrial, research and medical purposes; the transport of radioactive
material; the decommissioning of facilities; radioactive waste management activities such as the discharge of
effluents; and some aspects of the remediation of sites affected by residues from past activities.
3
Principle 6: Limitation of risks to individuals

Measures for controlling radiation risks must ensure that no individual bears an unacceptable
risk of harm.
People and the environment, present and future, must be protected against radiation risks.
Principle 8: Prevention of accidents
All practical efforts must be made to prevent and mitigate nuclear or radiation accidents.
Principle 9: Emergency preparedness and response
Arrangements must be made for emergency preparedness and response for nuclear or radiation
incidents.
Principle 10: Protective actions to reduce existing or unregulated radiation risks
Protective actions to reduce existing or unregulated radiation risks must be justified and
optimized.
The three general principles of radiation protection, which concern justification, optimization of
protection and application of dose limits, are expressed in Safety Principles 4, 5, 6 and 10.
1.8. The prime responsibility for safety must rest with the person or organization responsible for
facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks [2]. Other parties also bear certain
responsibilities. For instance, suppliers of radiation generators and radioactive sources have
responsibilities in relation to the design and manufacture and operating instructions for their safe use.
In the case of medical exposures, because of the medical setting in which such exposures occur,
primary responsibility for protection and safety for patients lies with the health professional
responsible for administration of the radiation dose, who is referred to in these Standards as the
‘radiological medical practitioner’. Other types of health professionals may be involved in the
preparation for, and the conduct of, radiological procedures, and each type has specific
responsibilities, as established in these Standards.
1.9. A properly established governmental, legal and regulatory framework for safety provides for
the regulation of facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks. There is a hierarchy of
responsibilities within this framework, from governments to regulatory bodies to the organizations
responsible for and the persons engaged in activities involving radiation exposure. The government is
responsible for the adoption within its national legal system of such legislation, regulations, and
standards and measures as may be necessary to fulfil all its national and international obligations
effectively, and for the establishment of an independent regulatory body. In some cases, more than one
governmental organization may have the functions of a regulatory body for activities within their
jurisdictions relating to the control of radiation and radioactive material.
1.10. Both the government and the regulatory body have important responsibilities in establishing
the regulatory framework for protecting people and the environment from harmful effects of radiation,
including establishing standards. These Standards require the government to ensure that there is
coordination of government departments and agencies that have responsibilities for protection and
safety, including the regulatory body, and departments and agencies concerned with public health, the
environment, labour, mining, science and technology, agriculture and education. Standards have to be
developed through consultation with those who are or could be required to apply them.
1.11. The government is also responsible for ensuring, as necessary, that provision is made for
support services such as education and training, and technical services. If these services are not
available within the State, other mechanisms to provide them may have to be considered. The
4
regulatory body is responsible for carrying out its required regulatory functions, such as the
establishment of requirements and guidelines, the authorization and inspection of facilities and
activities, and the enforcement of legislative and regulatory provisions.
1.12. Leadership in safety matters has to be demonstrated at the highest levels in an organization,
and safety has to be achieved and maintained by means of an effective management system. This
system has to integrate all elements of management so that requirements for protection and safety are
established and applied coherently with other requirements, including those for health, human
performance, quality, protection of the environment and security, together with economic
considerations. The application of the management system also has to ensure the promotion of a safety
culture, the regular assessment of safety performance and the application of lessons learned from
experience. Safety culture includes individual and collective commitment to safety on the part of the
leadership, the management and personnel at all levels. The term ‘management system’ reflects and
includes the concept of ‘quality control’ (controlling the quality of products) and its evolution through
‘quality assurance’ (the system for ensuring the quality of products) and ‘quality management system’
(the system for managing quality).
1.13. The operation of facilities or the conduct of activities that introduce a new source of
radiation, that change exposures or that change the likelihood of exposures has to be justified in the
sense that the detriments that may be caused are outweighed by the individual and societal benefits
that are expected. The comparison of detriments and benefits often goes beyond the consideration of
protection and safety and also involves the consideration of economic, societal and environmental
factors.
1.14. The application of the justification principle to medical exposures requires a special
approach. As an overarching justification of medical exposures, it is accepted that the use of radiation
in medicine does more good than harm. However, at the next level, there is a need for generic
justification, to be carried out by the health authority in conjunction with appropriate professional
bodies, of a given radiological procedure. This applies to the justification of new technologies and
techniques as they evolve. For the final level of justification, the application of the radiological
procedure to a given individual has to be considered. The specific objectives of the exposure, the
clinical circumstances and the characteristics of the individual involved have to be taken into account
through referral criteria developed by professional bodies and the health authority.
1.15. The optimization of protection and safety, when applied to the exposure of workers and of
members of the public, and of ‘carers and comforters’ of patients undergoing radiological procedures,
is a process for ensuring that the magnitude and likelihood of exposures and the number of individuals
exposed are as low as reasonably achievable, with economic, societal and environmental factors taken
into account. This means that the level of protection would be the best possible under the prevailing
circumstances. Optimization is a prospective and iterative process that requires both qualitative and
quantitative judgements to be made.
1.16. As is the case with justification, the application of the optimization principle to the medical
exposure of patients and to that of volunteers as part of a programme of biomedical research requires a
special approach. Too low a radiation dose could be as bad as too high a radiation dose, in that the
consequence could be that a cancer is not cured or the images taken are not of suitable diagnostic
quality. It is of paramount importance that the medical exposure leads to the required outcome.
1.17. For planned exposure situations, exposures and risks are subject to control to ensure that the
specified dose limits for occupational exposure and those for public exposure are not exceeded, and
optimization is applied to attain the desired level of protection and safety.
1.18. All practical efforts must be made to prevent and mitigate nuclear or radiation accidents. The
most harmful consequences arising from facilities and activities have come from the loss of control
5
over a nuclear reactor core, nuclear chain reaction, radioactive source or other source of radiation.
Consequently, to ensure that the likelihood of an accident having harmful consequences is extremely
low, measures have to be taken:
− To prevent the occurrence of failures or abnormal conditions (including breaches of

security) that could lead to such a loss of control;
− To prevent the escalation of any such failures or abnormal conditions that do occur;
− To prevent the loss of, or the loss of control over, a radioactive source or other source of
radiation.
1.19. Arrangements must be made for emergency preparedness and response for nuclear or
radiation incidents. The primary goals of preparedness and response for a nuclear or radiation
emergency are:
− To ensure that arrangements are in place for an effective response at the scene and, as
appropriate, at the local, regional, national and international level;
− To ensure that, for reasonably foreseeable incidents, radiation risks would be minor;
− To take practical measures to mitigate any consequences for human life and health and
the environment, for any incidents that do occur.
Types of exposure situation
1.20. For the purpose of establishing practical requirements for protection and safety, these
Standards distinguish between three different types of exposure situation: planned exposure situations,
emergency exposure situations and existing exposure situations [1]. Together, these three types of
exposure situation cover all situations of exposure to which these Standards apply.
(i) A planned exposure situation is a situation of exposure that arises from the planned operation of
a source or from a planned activity that results in an exposure from a source. Since provision for
protection and safety can be made before embarking on the activity concerned, the associated
exposures and their likelihood of occurrence can be restricted from the outset. The primary
means of controlling exposure in planned exposure situations are by good design of facilities,
equipment and operating procedures and by training. In planned exposure situations, exposure
at some level can be expected to occur. If exposure is not expected to occur with certainty, but
could result from an accident or from an event or a sequence of events that may occur but is not
certain to occur, this is referred to as ‘potential exposure’.
(ii) An emergency exposure situation is a situation of exposure that arises as a result of an accident,
a malicious act, or any other unexpected event, and requires prompt action in order to avoid or
to reduce adverse consequences. Preventive actions and mitigatory actions have to be
considered before an emergency exposure situation arises. However, once an emergency
exposure situation actually occurs, exposures can be reduced only by implementing protective
actions.
(iii) An existing exposure situation is a situation of exposure which already exists when a decision
on the need for control needs to be taken. Existing exposure situations include situations of
exposure to natural background radiation. They also include situations of exposure due to
residual radioactive material that derives from past practices that were not subject to regulatory
control or that remains after an emergency exposure situation.
6
If an event or a sequence of events that has been considered in the assessment of potential exposure
does actually occur, it may be treated either as a planned exposure situation or, if an emergency is
declared, as an emergency exposure situation.
1.21. The descriptions that are given in para. 1.20 of the three types of exposure situation are not
always sufficient to determine unequivocally which type of exposure situation applies for particular
circumstances. For instance, the transition from an emergency exposure situation to an existing
exposure situation may occur progressively over time; and some exposures due to natural sources may
have some characteristics of both planned exposure situations and existing exposure situations. In
these Standards, the most appropriate type of exposure situation for particular circumstances has been
determined by taking practical considerations into account. For the purposes of these Standards, the
exposure of aircrew to cosmic radiation is considered under existing exposure situations in Section 5.
The exposure of space crew to cosmic radiation presents exceptional circumstances and these are
addressed separately in Section 5.
Dose constraints and reference levels
1.22. Dose constraints and reference levels are used for optimization of protection and safety, the
intended outcome of which is that all exposures are controlled to levels that are as low as reasonably
achievable, economic, societal and environmental factors being taken into account. Dose constraints
are applied to occupational exposure and to public exposure in planned exposure situations. Dose
constraints are set separately for each source under control and they serve as boundary conditions in
defining the range of options for the purposes of optimization. Dose constraints are not dose limits;
exceeding a dose constraint does not represent non-compliance with regulatory requirements, but it
could result in follow-up actions.
1.23. While the objectives of the use of dose constraints for controlling occupational exposure and
public exposure are similar, the dose constraints are applied in different ways. For occupational
exposure, the dose constraint is a tool to be established and used in the optimization of protection and
safety by the person or organization responsible for a facility or activity. For public exposure in
planned exposure situations, the government or the regulatory body ensures the establishment or
approval of dose constraints, taking into account the characteristics of the site and of the facility or
activity, the scenarios for exposure and the views of interested parties. After exposures have occurred,
the dose constraint may be used as a benchmark for assessing the suitability of the optimized strategy
for protection and safety (referred to as the protection strategy) that has been implemented and for
making adjustments as necessary. The setting of the dose constraint needs to be considered in
conjunction with other health and safety provisions and the technology available.
1.24. Reference levels are used for optimization of protection and safety in emergency exposure
situations and in existing exposure situations. They are established or approved by the government, the
regulatory body or another relevant authority. For occupational exposure and public exposure in
emergency exposure situations and in existing exposure situations, a reference level serves as a
boundary condition in defining the range of options for the purposes of optimization in implementing
protective actions. The reference level represents the level of dose or the level of risk above which it is
judged to be inappropriate to plan to allow exposures to occur, and below which the optimization of
protection and safety is implemented. The value chosen for the reference level will depend upon the
prevailing circumstances for the exposures under consideration. The optimized protection strategies
are intended to keep doses below the reference level. When an emergency exposure situation has
arisen or an existing exposure situation has been identified, actual exposures could be above or below
the reference level. The reference level would be used as a benchmark for judging whether further
protective measures are necessary and, if so, in prioritizing their application. Optimization is to be
applied in emergency exposure situations and in existing exposure situations, even if the doses initially
received are below the reference level.
7
1.25. The ICRP recommends a range of dose spanning two orders of magnitude within which the
value of a dose constraint or reference level would usually be chosen [1]. At the lower end of this
range, the dose constraint or reference level represents an increase, of up to about 1 mSv, over the
dose received in a year from exposure due to naturally occurring radiation sources6. It would be used
when persons are exposed to radiation from a source that yields little or no benefit for them, but which
may benefit society in general. This would be the case, for instance, in establishing dose constraints
for public exposure in planned exposure situations.
1.26. Dose constraints or reference levels of 1–20 mSv would be used when the exposure
situation, but not necessarily the exposure itself, usually benefits individuals. This would be the case,
for instance, when establishing dose constraints for occupational exposure in planned exposure
situations or reference levels for exposure of a member of the public in existing exposure situations.
1.27. Reference levels of 20–100 mSv would be used where individuals are exposed to radiation
from sources that are not under control or where actions to reduce doses would be disproportionately
disruptive. This would be the case, for instance, in establishing reference levels for the residual dose
after a nuclear or radiation emergency. Any situation that resulted in a dose of greater than 100 mSv
being incurred acutely or in one year would be considered unacceptable, except under the
circumstances relating to exposure of emergency workers that are addressed specifically in these
Standards.
1.28. The selection of the value for the dose constraint or the reference level would be based on
the characteristics of the exposure situation, including:
(i) The nature of the exposure and the practicability of reducing or preventing the exposure;
(ii) The expected benefits of the exposure for individuals and society, or the benefits of avoiding
preventive actions or protective actions that would be detrimental to living conditions, as well
as other societal criteria relating to the management of the exposure situation;
(iii) National or regional factors, together with a consideration of international guidance and good
practice elsewhere.
1.29. The system of protection and safety required by these Standards includes criteria for
protection against exposure due to radon which are based on the average level of risk to a population
with typical but various smoking habits. Because of the synergistic effects of smoking and exposure
due to radon, the absolute risk of lung cancer resulting from unit dose due to radon for people who are
smokers is substantially greater than for those who have never smoked [4, 5, 6]. Information provided
to people on the risks associated with exposure due to radon needs to highlight this increased risk for
smokers.
1.30. Dose constraints are used in optimization of protection and safety for ‘carers and comforters’
and for volunteers subject to exposure as part of a programme of biomedical research. Dose
constraints are not applicable to the exposure of patients in radiological procedures for the purposes of
medical diagnosis or treatment.
1.31. In X ray medical imaging, image guided interventional procedures and diagnostic nuclear
medicine, a diagnostic reference level is used to indicate the need for an investigation. Periodic
6
According to the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) [3],
the worldwide average annual radiation dose from exposure due to naturally occurring radiation sources,
including radon, is 2.4 mSv. In any large population, about 65% would be expected to have annual doses of
between 1 and 3 mSv. About 25% of the population would be expected to have annual doses of less than 1 mSv,
and about 10% would be expected to have annual doses greater than 3 mSv.
8
assessments are performed of typical doses or activity of the radiopharmaceuticals administered in a

medical facility. If comparison with established diagnostic reference levels shows that the typical
doses or activity of the radiopharmaceuticals administered are either too high or unusually low, a local
review is to be initiated to ascertain whether protection and safety has been optimized and whether any
corrective action is required.
Protection of the environment
1.32. In a global and long term perspective, protection of people and the environment against
radiation risks associated with the operation of facilities and the conduct of activities — and in
particular, protection against such risks that may transcend national borders and may persist for long
periods of time — is important to achieving equitable and sustainable development.
1.33. The system of protection and safety required by these Standards generally provides for
appropriate protection of the environment from harmful effects of radiation. Nevertheless,
international trends in this field show an increasing awareness of the vulnerability of the environment.
Trends also indicate the need to be able to demonstrate (rather than to assume) that the environment is
protected against effects of industrial pollutants, including radionuclides, in a wider range of
environmental situations, irrespective of any human connection. This is usually accomplished by
means of an environmental assessment that identifies the target(s), defines the appropriate criteria for
protection, assesses the impacts and compares the expected results of the available protection options.
Methods and criteria for such assessments are being developed and will continue to evolve.
1.34. Radiological impacts in a particular environment constitute only one type of impact and, in
most cases, may not be the dominant impact of a particular facility or activity. Furthermore, the
assessment of impacts on the environment needs to be viewed in an integrated manner with other
features of the system of protection and safety to establish the requirements applicable to a particular
source. Since there are complex interrelations, the approach to the protection of people and the
environment is not limited to the prevention of radiological effects on humans and on other species.
When establishing regulations, an integrated perspective has to be adopted to ensure the sustainability,
now and in the future, of agriculture, forestry, fisheries and tourism, and of the use of natural
resources. Such an integrated perspective also has to take into account the need to prevent
unauthorized acts with potential consequences for and via the environment, including, for example,
illicit dumping of radioactive material and the abandonment of radiation sources. Consideration also
needs to be given to the potential for buildup and accumulation of long lived radionuclides released to
the environment.
1.35. These Standards are designed to identify the protection of the environment as an issue
necessitating assessment, while allowing for flexibility in incorporating into decision making
processes the results of environmental assessments that are commensurate with the radiation risks.
Interfaces between safety and security
1.36. Safety measures and security measures have in common the aim of protecting human life
and health and the environment. In addition, safety measures and security measures must be designed
and implemented in an integrated manner so that security measures do not compromise safety and
safety measures do not compromise security.
1.37. Security infrastructure and safety infrastructure need to be developed, as far as possible, in a
well coordinated manner. All organizations involved need to be made aware of the commonalities and
the differences between safety and security so as to be able to factor both into development plans. The
synergies between safety and security have to be developed so that safety and security complement
and enhance one another.
9
OBJECTIVE
1.38. These Standards establish requirements for the protection of people and the environment
from harmful effects of ionizing radiation and for the safety of radiation sources.
SCOPE
1.39. These Standards apply for protection against ionizing radiation only, which includes gamma
rays, X rays and particles such as beta particles, neutrons, protons, alpha particles and heavier ions.
While these Standards do not specifically address the control of non-radiological aspects of health,
safety and the environment, these aspects also need to be considered. Protection from harmful effects
of non-ionizing radiation is outside the scope of these Standards.
1.40. These Standards are intended primarily for use by governments and regulatory bodies.
Requirements also apply to principal parties and other parties as specified in Section 2, health
authorities, professional bodies and service providers such as technical support organizations.
1.41. These Standards do not deal with security measures. The IAEA issues recommendations on
nuclear security in the IAEA Nuclear Security Series.
1.42. These Standards apply to all situations involving radiation exposure that is amenable to
control. Exposures deemed to be unamenable to control are excluded from the scope of these
Standards7.
1.43. These Standards establish requirements to be fulfilled in all facilities and activities giving
rise to radiation risks. For certain facilities and activities, such as nuclear installations, radioactive
waste management facilities and the transport of radioactive material, other safety requirements,
complementary to these Standards, also apply. The IAEA issues Safety Guides to assist in the
application of these Standards.
1.44. These Standards apply to the three categories of exposure: occupational exposure, public
exposure and medical exposure.
1.45. These Standards apply to human activities involving radiation exposure that are:
(i) Carried out in a State which chooses to adopt these Standards or which requests any of the
Sponsoring Organizations to provide for the application of these Standards;
(ii) Undertaken by States with the assistance of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, the International Atomic Energy Agency, the International Labour
Organization, the Pan American Health Organization, the United Nations Environment
Programme or the World Health Organization, in the light of relevant national rules and
regulations;
(iii) Carried out by the IAEA or involving the use of materials, services, equipment, facilities and
non-published information made available by the IAEA or at its request or under its control or
supervision; or
(iv) Carried out under any bilateral or multilateral arrangement whereby the parties request the
IAEA to provide for the application of these Standards.
1.46. Quantities and units used in these Standards are in accordance with the recommendations of
the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU) [7].
7
It is generally accepted, for example, that it is not feasible to control 40K in the body or cosmic radiation at the
surface of the Earth.
10
STRUCTURE
1.47. The requirements of these Standards are grouped into requirements applicable for all
exposure situations and separate requirements for planned exposure situations, emergency exposure
situations and existing exposure situations. For each of the three types of exposure situation, the
requirements are further grouped into requirements for occupational exposure, public exposure and
(for planned exposure situations) medical exposure.
1.48. The requirements established by these Standards, both numbered ‘overarching’ requirements
in bold with titles and other requirements, are expressed as ‘shall’ statements. Each individual
overarching requirement is followed by associated requirements.
1.49. Section 2 sets out the requirements that apply generally for all exposure situations and for all
three categories of exposure (occupational exposure, public exposure and medical exposure). These
requirements include the assignment of responsibilities to the government, the regulatory body, and
principal parties and other parties with respect to the implementation of a protection and safety
programme and a management system, the promotion of a safety culture and the consideration of
human factors.
1.50. Section 3 sets out the requirements — in addition to those of Section 2 — for planned
exposure situations. Section 3 includes requirements applicable to all three categories of exposure,
requirements for the safety of sources, and separate requirements in respect of occupational exposure,
public exposure and medical exposure.
1.51. Section 4 sets out the requirements — in addition to those of Section 2 — for emergency
exposure situations. Section 4 includes requirements in respect of public exposure and occupational
exposure (exposure of emergency workers) in emergency exposure situations. It also includes
requirements on the transition from an emergency exposure situation to an existing exposure situation.
1.52. Section 5 sets out the requirements — in addition to those of Section 2 — for existing
exposure situations. Section 5 includes requirements in respect of public exposure and occupational
exposure in existing exposure situations. It includes requirements in respect of remediation of sites and
habitation in areas with residual radioactive material, radon in homes and in workplaces, radionuclides
in commodities, and exposure of aircrew and space crew.
1.53. The organization of the requirements in these Standards for the relevant categories of
exposure in each type of exposure situation is as shown in Table 1. General requirements for all
exposure situations are given in Section 2, and requirements for different exposure situations are given
in Sections 3, 4 and 5. Thus, for any particular facility or activity, more than one section of these
Standards will be relevant, as illustrated by the following examples:
(i) The requirements for the regulatory body given in Section 2 are applicable for all exposure
situations and all categories of exposure. They provide the regulatory framework within which
persons or organizations responsible for facilities and activities have to comply with the
requirements placed on them. These requirements thus establish the general regulatory
responsibilities of the regulatory body. Any further requirements on the regulatory body that
apply for one type of exposure situation are given in Sections 3, 4 and 5. These requirements
are in addition to the requirements given in Section 2.
(ii) Persons or organizations responsible for a medical facility in which radiation generators or
radioactive sources are used are subject to the requirements given in Section 2 for all exposure
situations and all categories of exposure, and also to those requirements given in Section 3 that
are common to all planned exposure situations (paras 3.5–3.67). In addition, they are subject to
the separate requirements given in Section 3 for occupational exposure (such as exposure of
11
medical staff operating medical devices that emit radiation) (paras 3.68–3.116), public
exposure (such as exposure in rooms adjacent to rooms containing equipment that generates
radiation) (paras 3.117–3.143) and medical exposure (such as exposure of patients) (paras
3.144–3.184).
TABLE 1. ORGANIZATION OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THESE STANDARDS
Occupational exposure Public exposure Medical exposure

Planned exposure Section 2; Section 2; Section 2;
situations Section 3: paras 3.5– Section 3: paras Section 3: paras
3.67 and paras 3.68– 3.5–3.67 and paras 3.5–3.67 and paras
3.116 3.117–3.143 3.144–3.184
Emergency Section 2; Section 2; Not applicable
exposure situations Section 4 Section 4
Existing exposure Section 2; Section 2; Not applicable
situations Section 5 Section 5
1.54. Four schedules provide numerical values in support of the requirements, covering exemption
and clearance, categorization of sealed sources, dose limits for planned exposure situations and criteria
for use in emergency preparedness and response.
1.55. Definitions of terms used are included in these Standards.

12
2. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR PROTECTION AND SAFETY
DEFINITIONS
2.1. Terms used have the meanings given under Definitions.
INTERPRETATION
2.2. Except as specifically authorized by the statutory governing body of a relevant sponsoring
organization, no interpretation of these Standards by any officer or employee of the sponsoring
organization other than a written interpretation by the Director General of the sponsoring organization
will be binding on the sponsoring organization.
RESOLUTION OF CONFLICTS
2.3. The requirements of these Standards are in addition to and not in place of other applicable
requirements, such as those of relevant binding conventions and national regulations.
2.4. In cases of conflict between the requirements of these Standards and other applicable
requirements, the government or the regulatory body, as appropriate, shall determine which
requirements are to be enforced.
2.5. Nothing in these Standards shall be construed as restricting any actions that may otherwise
be necessary for protection and safety or as relieving the parties referred to in paras 2.40 and 2.41 from
complying with applicable laws and regulations.
ENTRY INTO FORCE

2.6. These Standards shall enter into force one year after the date of their adoption or
acknowledgement, as appropriate, by the relevant Sponsoring Organization.
2.7. If a State decides to adopt these Standards, these Standards shall come into force at the time
indicated in the formal adoption by that State.
APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF RADIATION PROTECTION

Requirement 1: Application of the principles of radiation protection
Parties with responsibilities for protection and safety shall ensure that the principles of radiation
protection are applied for all exposure situations.
2.8. For planned exposure situations, each party with responsibilities for protection and safety
shall ensure, when relevant requirements apply to that party, that no practice is undertaken unless it is
justified.
2.9. For emergency exposure situations and existing exposure situations, each party with
responsibilities for protection and safety shall ensure, when relevant requirements apply to that party,
13
that protective actions or remedial actions are justified and are undertaken in such a way as to achieve
the objectives set out in a protection strategy.
2.10. For all exposure situations, each party with responsibilities for protection and safety shall
ensure, when relevant requirements apply to that party, that protection and safety is optimized.8
2.11. For planned exposure situations other than for medical exposure, each party with
responsibilities for protection and safety shall ensure that, when relevant requirements apply to that
party, specified dose limits are not exceeded.
2.12. The application of the requirements for the system of protection and safety shall be
commensurate with the radiation risks associated with the exposure situation.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE GOVERNMENT9

Requirement 2: Establishment of a legal and regulatory framework
The government shall establish and maintain a legal and regulatory framework for protection
and safety and shall establish an effectively independent regulatory body with specified
responsibilities and functions.
2.13. The government shall establish and maintain an appropriate and effective legal and
regulatory framework for protection and safety in all exposure situations10. This framework shall
encompass both the assignment and the discharge of governmental responsibilities, and the regulatory
control of facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks. The framework shall allow for the
fulfilment of international obligations.
2.14. The government shall ensure that adequate arrangements are in place for the protection of
people and the environment, both now and in the future, against harmful effects of ionizing radiation,
without unduly limiting the operation of facilities or the conduct of activities that give rise to radiation
risks. This shall include arrangements for the protection of people of present and future generations
and populations remote from present facilities and activities.
2.15. The government shall establish legislation that, among other things:
(a) Provides the statutory basis for requirements for protection and safety for all exposure
situations;
(b) Specifies that the prime responsibility for protection and safety rests with the person or
organization responsible for facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks;
(c) Specifies the scope of its applicability;
(d) Establishes and provides for maintaining an independent regulatory body with clearly
specified functions and responsibilities for the regulation of protection and safety;
(e) Provides for coordination between authorities with responsibilities relevant to protection and
safety for all exposure situations.
8
‘Protection and safety is optimized’ means that optimization of protection and safety has been applied and the
result of that process has been implemented.
9
States have different legal structures, and therefore the term ‘government’ as used in the IAEA safety standards
is to be understood in a broad sense, and is accordingly interchangeable here with the term ‘State’.
10
Requirements on the governmental, legal and regulatory framework for safety of facilities and activities are
established in Ref. [8].
14
2.16. The government shall ensure that the regulatory body is effectively independent, in making
decisions relating to protection and safety, of persons and organizations using or promoting the use of
radiation and radioactive material, so that it is free from any undue influence by interested parties and
from any conflicts of interest, and that it has functional separation from entities having responsibilities
or interests that could unduly influence its decision making.
2.17. The government shall ensure that the regulatory body has the legal authority, competence
and resources necessary to fulfil its statutory functions and responsibilities.
2.18. The government shall ensure that a graded approach is taken to the regulatory control of
radiation exposure, so that the application of regulatory requirements is commensurate with the
radiation risks associated with the exposure situation.
2.19. The government shall establish mechanisms to ensure that:
(a) The activities of the regulatory body are coordinated with those of other governmental
authorities, in accordance with para. 2.15(e), and with national and international organizations
that have related responsibilities;
(b) Interested parties are involved as appropriate in regulatory decision making processes or
regulatory decision aiding processes.
2.20. The government shall ensure that arrangements are in place at the national level for making
decisions relating to protection and safety that fall outside the authority of the regulatory body.
2.21. The government shall ensure that requirements are established for:
(a) education, training, qualification and competence in protection and safety of all persons
engaged in activities relevant to protection and safety;
(b) the formal recognition11 of qualified experts;
(c) the competence of organizations that have responsibilities relating to protection and safety.
2.22. The government shall ensure that arrangements are in place for the provision of the
education and training services required for building and maintaining the competence of persons and
organizations that have responsibilities relating to protection and safety.
2.23. The government shall ensure that arrangements are in place for the provision of technical
services relating to protection and safety, such as services for personal dosimetry, environmental
monitoring and the calibration of monitoring and measuring equipment.
2.24. The government shall ensure that arrangements are in place for the safe decommissioning of
facilities [9], the safe management of radioactive waste [10, 11] and the safe management of spent
fuel.
2.25. The government shall ensure that the transport of radioactive material is in accordance with
the IAEA Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material [12] and with any applicable
international conventions, taking into consideration other internationally endorsed standards and
recommendations derived from these IAEA Regulations.12
11
‘Formal recognition’ means documented acknowledgment by the relevant authority that a person has the
qualifications and expertise required for the responsibilities that he or she will bear in the conduct of the
authorized activity.
12
Additional measures are taken for security in the transport of radioactive material. The IAEA issues guidance
on security in the transport of radioactive material in the IAEA Nuclear Security Series of publications.
15
2.26. The government shall ensure that arrangements are in place for regaining control over
radioactive sources that have been abandoned, lost, misplaced, stolen or otherwise transferred without
proper authorization.
2.27. The government shall ensure that infrastructural arrangements are in place for the interfaces
between safety and the security of radioactive sources.
2.28. In establishing the legal and regulatory framework for protection and safety, the government:
(a) shall fulfil its respective international obligations;

(b) shall allow for participation in relevant international arrangements, including international peer
reviews;
(c) shall promote international cooperation to enhance safety globally.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE REGULATORY BODY

Requirement 3: Responsibilities of the regulatory body
The regulatory body shall establish or adopt regulations and guides for protection and safety
and shall establish a system to ensure their implementation.
2.29. The regulatory body shall establish requirements for the application of the principles of
radiation protection specified in paras 2.8–2.12 for all exposure situations and shall establish or adopt
regulations and guides for protection and safety.
2.30. The regulatory body shall establish a regulatory system for protection and safety that
includes [8]:
(a) Notification and authorization;

(b) Review and assessment of facilities and activities;
(c) Inspection of facilities and activities;
(d) Enforcement of regulatory requirements;
(e) The regulatory functions relevant to emergency exposure situations and existing exposure
situations;
(f) Provision of information to, and consultation with, parties affected by its decisions and, as
appropriate, the public and other interested parties.
2.31. The regulatory body shall adopt a graded approach to the implementation of the system of
protection and safety, such that the application of regulatory requirements is commensurate with the
radiation risks associated with the exposure situation.
2.32. The regulatory body shall ensure the application of the requirements for education, training,
qualification and competence in protection and safety of all persons engaged in activities relevant to
protection and safety.
2.33. The regulatory body shall ensure that mechanisms are in place for the timely dissemination
of information to relevant parties, such as suppliers and users of sources, on lessons learned for
protection and safety from regulatory experience and operating experience, and from incidents and
accidents and the related findings. The mechanisms established shall, as appropriate, be used to
provide relevant information to other relevant organizations at the national and international level.
2.34. The regulatory body, in conjunction with other competent authorities, shall adopt specific
acceptance criteria and performance criteria, through regulation or by the application of published
16
standards, for any manufactured or constructed source, device, equipment or facility that, in use, has
implications for protection and safety.
2.35. The regulatory body shall make provision for establishing, maintaining and retrieving
adequate records relating to facilities and activities. These records shall include:
− Registers of sealed sources and radiation generators13;
− Records of doses from occupational exposure;
− Records relating to the safety of facilities and activities;
− Records that might be necessary for the shutdown and decommissioning or closure of
facilities;
− Records of events, including non-routine releases of radioactive material to the

environment;
− Inventories of radioactive waste and of spent fuel.
2.36. The regulatory body shall establish mechanisms for communication and discussion that
involve professional and constructive interactions with relevant parties for all protection and safety
related issues.
2.37. The regulatory body, in consultation with the health authority, shall ensure that provisions
are in place for ensuring protection and safety in the handling of deceased persons or human remains
that are known to contain sealed or unsealed radioactive sources, either as a result of radiological
procedures for medical treatment of patients or as a consequence of an emergency.
2.38. The regulatory body shall establish, implement, assess and strive to continually improve a
management system that is aligned with the goals of the regulatory body and that contributes to the
achievement of those goals.
RESPONSIBILITIES FOR PROTECTION AND SAFETY

Requirement 4: Responsibilities for protection and safety
The person or organization responsible for facilities and activities that give rise to radiation
risks shall have the prime responsibility for protection and safety. Other parties shall have
specified responsibilities for protection and safety.
2.39. The person or organization responsible for any facility or activity that gives rise to radiation
risks shall have the prime responsibility for protection and safety, which cannot be delegated.
2.40. The principal parties responsible for protection and safety are:
(a) Registrants or licensees, or the person or organization responsible for facilities and activities
for which notification only is required;
(b) Employers, in relation to occupational exposure;
(c) Radiological medical practitioners, in relation to medical exposure;
13
The regulatory body specifies which sources are to be included in the registers and inventories, with due
consideration given to the associated risks.
17
(d) Those persons or organizations designated to deal with emergency exposure situations or
existing exposure situations.
2.41. Other parties shall have specified responsibilities in relation to protection and safety. These
other parties include:
(a) Suppliers of sources, providers of equipment and software, and providers of consumer
products;
(b) Radiation protection officers;
(c) Referring medical practitioners;
(d) Medical physicists;
(e) Medical radiation technologists;
(f) Qualified experts or any other party to whom a principal party has assigned specific
responsibilities;
(g) Workers other than workers listed in (a)–(f);
(h) Ethics committees.
2.42. The relevant principal parties shall establish and implement a protection and safety
programme that is appropriate for the exposure situation. The protection and safety programme:
(a) Shall adopt objectives for protection and safety in accordance with the requirements of these
Standards;
(b) Shall apply measures for protection and safety that are commensurate with the radiation risks
associated with the exposure situation and that are adequate to ensure compliance with the
requirements of these Standards.
2.43. The relevant principal parties shall ensure that, in the implementation of the protection and
safety programme:
(a) The measures and resources necessary for achieving the objectives for protection and safety
have been determined and are duly provided;
(b) The programme is periodically reviewed to assess its effectiveness and its continued fitness for
purpose;
(c) Any failures or shortcomings in protection and safety are identified and corrected, and steps
are taken to prevent their recurrence;
(d) Arrangements are made to consult with relevant interested parties;
(e) Appropriate records are maintained.
2.44. The relevant principal parties and other parties having specified responsibilities in relation to
protection and safety shall ensure that all personnel engaged in activities relevant to protection and
safety have appropriate education, training and qualification so that they understand their
responsibilities and can perform their duties competently, with appropriate judgement and in
accordance with procedures.
2.45. The relevant principal parties shall permit access by authorized representatives of the
regulatory body to carry out inspections of their facilities and activities and of their protection and
safety records, and shall cooperate in the conduct of inspections.
2.46. The relevant principal parties shall ensure that qualified experts are identified and consulted
as necessary on the proper observance of these Standards.
18
MANAGEMENT REQUIREMENTS
Requirement 5: Management for protection and safety
The principal parties shall ensure that protection and safety is effectively integrated into the
overall management system of the organizations for which they are responsible.
Protection and safety elements of the management system
2.47. The principal parties shall demonstrate commitment to protection and safety at the highest
levels within the organizations for which they are responsible.
2.48. The principal parties shall ensure that the management system14 is designed and implemented
to enhance protection and safety by:
(a) Applying the requirements for protection and safety coherently with other requirements,
including requirements for operational performance, and coherently with guidelines for
security;
(b) Describing the planned and systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that
the requirements for protection and safety are fulfilled;
(c) Ensuring that protection and safety is not compromised by other requirements;
(d) Providing for the regular assessment of performance for protection and safety and the
application of lessons learned from experience;
(e) Promoting safety culture.
2.49. The principal parties shall ensure that protection and safety elements of the management
system are commensurate with the complexity of and the radiation risks associated with the activity.
2.50. The principal parties shall be able to demonstrate the effective fulfilment of the requirements
for the protection and safety in the management system.
Safety culture
2.51. The principal parties shall promote and maintain a safety culture by:
(a) Promoting individual and collective commitment to protection and safety at all levels of the
organization;
(b) Ensuring a common understanding of the key aspects of safety culture within the organization;
(c) Providing the means by which the organization supports individuals and teams in carrying out
their tasks safely and successfully, with account taken of the interactions between individuals,
technology and the organization;
(d) Encouraging the participation of workers and their representatives and other relevant persons
in the development and implementation of policies, rules and procedures dealing with
protection and safety;
(e) Ensuring accountability of the organization and of individuals at all levels for protection and
safety;
(f) Encouraging open communication with regard to protection and safety within the organization
and with relevant parties, as appropriate;
(g) Encouraging a questioning and learning attitude and discouraging complacency with regard to
(h) Providing means by which the organization continually seeks to develop and strengthen its
safety culture.
14
Requirements on the management systems for facilities and activities are established in Ref. [13].
19
Human factors
2.52. The principal parties and other parties having specified responsibilities in relation to
protection and safety, as appropriate, shall take into account human factors and shall support good
performance and good practices to prevent human and organizational failures, by ensuring among
other things that:
(a) Sound ergonomic principles are followed in the design of equipment and the development of
operating procedures, so as to facilitate the safe operation and use of equipment, to minimize the
possibility that operator errors will lead to accidents, and to reduce the possibility that
indications of normal conditions and abnormal conditions will be misinterpreted;
(b) Appropriate equipment, safety systems and procedural requirements are provided and other
necessary provisions are made:
(i) To reduce, as far as practicable, the possibility that human error or inadvertent action
could give rise to accidents or other incidents leading to the exposure of any person;
(ii) To provide means for detecting human errors and for correcting them or compensating
for them;
(iii) To facilitate protective actions and corrective actions in the event of failures of safety
systems or failures of protective measures.
20
3. PLANNED EXPOSURE SITUATIONS
SCOPE
3.1. The requirements for planned exposure situations apply to the following practices:
(a) The production, supply and transport of radioactive material and of devices that contain
radioactive material, including sealed sources and unsealed sources, and of consumer products;
(b) The production and supply of devices that generate radiation, including linear accelerators,
cyclotrons, and fixed and mobile radiography equipment;
(c) The generation of nuclear power, including any activities within the nuclear fuel cycle that
involve or that could involve exposure to radiation or exposure due to radioactive material;
(d) The use of radiation or radioactive material for medical, industrial, veterinary, agricultural, legal
or security purposes, including the use of associated equipment, software or devices where such
use could affect exposure to radiation;
(e) The use of radiation or radioactive material for education, training or research, including any
activities relating to such use that involve or could involve exposure to radiation or exposure due
to radioactive material;
(f) The mining and processing of raw materials that involve exposure due to radioactive material;
(g) Any other practice as specified by the regulatory body.
3.2. The requirements for planned exposure situations apply to exposure due to sources within
practices15, as follows:
(a) Facilities that contain radioactive material and facilities that contain radiation generators,
including nuclear installations, medical radiation facilities, veterinary radiation facilities,
facilities for the management of radioactive waste, installations for the processing of radioactive
material, irradiation facilities, and mineral extraction and mineral processing facilities that
involve or could involve exposure to radiation or exposure due to radioactive material;
(b) Individual sources of radiation, including sources within the types of facility mentioned in para.
3.2(a), as appropriate, in accordance with the requirements of the regulatory body.
3.3. The requirements for planned exposure situations apply for any occupational exposure,
medical exposure or public exposure due to any practice or due to a source within a practice as
specified in paras 3.1 and 3.2.
3.4. Exposure due to natural sources is in general considered an existing exposure situation and is
subject to the requirements stated in Section 5. However, the relevant requirements in Section 3 for
planned exposure situations apply to:
(a) Exposure due to material16 in any practice specified in para. 3.1 where the activity concentration
in the material of any radionuclide in the uranium or thorium decay chains is greater than 1 Bq/g
or the activity concentration of 40K is greater than 10 Bq/g;
15
For example, a sterilization gamma irradiation unit is a source for the practice of radiation preservation of
food; an X ray unit may be a source for the practice of radiodiagnosis; a nuclear power plant is part of the
practice of generating electricity by nuclear fission, and may be regarded as a single source (e.g. with respect to
discharges) or as a collection of sources (e.g. for occupational radiation protection purposes). A complex or
multiple installation situated at one location or site may, as appropriate, be considered a single source for the
purposes of application of these Standards.
21
(b) Public exposure delivered by discharges or in the management of radioactive waste arising from
a practice involving material as specified in para. 3.4(a);
(c) Exposure due to 222Rn and its progeny and 220Rn and its progeny in workplaces in which
occupational exposure due to other radionuclides in the uranium or thorium decay chains is
controlled as a planned exposure situation;
(d) Exposure due to 222Rn and 222Rn progeny where the annual average activity concentration of
222
Rn in air in the workplace remains above the reference level established in accordance with
para. 5.27 after the fulfilment of the requirement stated in para. 5.28.
GENERIC REQUIREMENTS
3.5. No person or organization shall adopt, introduce, conduct, discontinue or cease a practice, or
shall, as applicable, mine, extract, process, design, manufacture, construct, assemble, install, acquire,
import, export, distribute, loan, hire, receive, site, locate, commission, possess, use, operate, maintain,
repair, transfer, decommission, disassemble, transport, store or dispose of a source within a practice
other than in accordance with the requirements of these Standards.
Requirement 6: Graded approach

The application of the requirements of these Standards in planned exposure situations shall be
commensurate with the characteristics of the practice or the source within a practice, and with
the magnitude and likelihood of the exposures.
3.6. The application of the requirements of these Standards shall conform to any requirements
specified by the regulatory body, in accordance with a graded approach; however, not all the
requirements of these Standards are relevant for every practice or source, nor for all the actions
specified in para. 3.5.
Requirement 7: Notification and authorization

Any person or organization intending to operate a facility or to conduct an activity shall submit
to the regulatory body, as appropriate, a notification or an application for authorization.
Notification
3.7. Any person or organization intending to carry out any of the actions specified in para. 3.5
shall submit a notification to the regulatory body of such an intention17. Notification alone is sufficient
provided that the exposures expected to be associated with the practice or action are unlikely to exceed
a small fraction, as specified by the regulatory body, of the relevant limits, and that the likelihood and
magnitude of potential exposures and any other potential detrimental consequences are negligible.
Notification is required for consumer products only with respect to manufacture, assembly,
maintenance, import, distribution and, in some cases, disposal.
16
A situation of exposure due to radionuclides of natural origin in food, feed, drinking water, agricultural
fertilizer and soil amendments, construction material and existing residues in the environment is treated as an
existing exposure situation regardless of the activity concentrations of the radionuclides concerned.
17
With regard to material being transported in accordance with the IAEA Regulations for the Safe Transport of
Radioactive Material [12], the requirements of these Standards for notification and authorization are fulfilled by
means of compliance with the Regulations.
22
Authorization: registration or licensing
3.8. Any person or organization intending to carry out any of the actions specified in para. 3.5
shall, unless notification alone is sufficient, apply to the regulatory body for authorization17, which
shall take the form of either registration18 or licensing.
3.9. Any person or organization applying for authorization:
(a) Shall submit to the regulatory body the relevant information necessary to support the
application;
(b) Shall refrain from carrying out any of the actions specified in para. 3.5 until the registration or
licence has been granted;
(c) Shall assess the nature, likelihood and magnitude of the expected exposures due to the source
and shall take all necessary measures for protection and safety;
(d) Shall, if there is a possibility for an exposure to be greater than a level as specified by the
regulatory body, have a safety assessment made and submitted to the regulatory body as part
of the application;
(e) Shall, as required by the regulatory body, have an appropriate prospective assessment made for
radiological environmental impacts, commensurate with the radiation risks associated with the
facility or activity.
Requirement 8: Exemption and clearance

The government or the regulatory body shall determine which practices or sources within
practices are to be exempted from some or all of the requirements of these Standards. The
regulatory body shall approve which sources, including materials and objects, within notified
practices or authorized practices may be cleared from regulatory control.
Exemption
3.10. The government or the regulatory body shall determine which practices or sources within
practices are to be exempted from some or all of the requirements of these Standards, including the
requirements for notification, registration or licensing, using as the basis for this determination the
criteria for exemption specified in Schedule I or any exemption levels specified by the regulatory body
on the basis of these criteria.
3.11. Exemption shall not be granted for practices deemed to be not justified.
Clearance
3.12. The regulatory body shall approve which sources, including materials and objects, within
notified or authorized practices may be cleared from further regulatory control, using as the basis for
such approval the criteria for clearance specified in Schedule I or any clearance levels specified by the
regulatory body on the basis of such criteria. By means of this approval the regulatory body shall
ensure that sources that have been cleared do not again become subject to the requirements for
notification, registration or licensing unless it so specifies.
18
Typical practices that are amenable to registration are those for which: (a) safety can largely be ensured by the
design of the facilities and equipment; (b) the operating procedures are simple to follow; (c) the safety training
requirements are minimal; and (d) there is a history of few problems with safety in operations. Registration is
best suited to those practices for which operations do not vary significantly.
23
Requirement 9: Responsibilities of registrants and licensees in planned exposure situations
Registrants and licensees shall be responsible for protection and safety in planned exposure
situations.
3.13. Registrants and licensees shall bear the responsibility for setting up and implementing the
technical and organizational measures that are necessary for protection and safety for the practices and
sources for which they are authorized. Registrants and licensees may designate suitably qualified
persons to carry out tasks relating to these responsibilities, but they shall retain the prime
responsibility for protection and safety. Registrants and licensees shall document the names and
responsibilities of persons designated to ensure compliance with the requirements of these Standards.
3.14. Registrants and licensees shall notify the regulatory body of any intention to introduce
modifications to any practice or source for which they are authorized, whenever the modifications
could have significant implications for protection and safety, and they shall not carry out any such
modification unless it is specifically authorized by the regulatory body.
3.15. Registrants and licensees:

(a) Shall establish clear lines of responsibility and accountability for protection and safety for the
sources for which they are authorized, and shall establish organizational arrangements for
(b) Shall ensure that any delegation of responsibilities by any other principal party is documented;
(c) Shall, for the sources for which they are authorized and for which a specific safety assessment
is required in para. 3.9(d), carry out such an assessment and keep it up to date in accordance
with para. 3.35;
(d) Shall, for the sources for which they are authorized and for which the regulatory body requires
an assessment to be made of the potential radiological environmental impacts, carry out such
an assessment and keep it up to date;
(e) Shall assess the likelihood and magnitude of potential exposures, their likely consequences and
the number of persons who may be affected by them;
(f) Shall have in place operating procedures and arrangements for protection and safety that are
subject to periodic review and updating under a management system;
(g) Shall establish procedures for reporting on and learning from accidents and other incidents;
(h) Shall establish arrangements for the periodic review of the overall effectiveness of the
measures for protection and safety;
(i) Shall ensure that adequate maintenance, testing and servicing are carried out as necessary so
that sources remain capable of meeting their design requirements for protection and safety
throughout their lifetime;
(j) Shall ensure safe management of and control over all radioactive waste that is generated, and
shall dispose of such waste in accordance with the regulatory requirements.
Requirement 10: Justification of practices
The government or the regulatory body shall ensure that only justified practices are authorized.
3.16. The government or the regulatory body, as appropriate, shall ensure that provision19 is made
for the justification of any type of practice20 and for review of the justification, as necessary, and shall
ensure that only justified practices are authorized.
19
Such provision may involve several government entities not necessarily having direct responsibility for
protection and safety, such as ministries of health, justice, immigration and security.
20
This provision for the justification of any type of practice includes practices for which notification alone is
24
3.17. The following practices are deemed to be not justified:
(a) Practices, except for justified practices involving medical exposure21, that result in an increase
in activity, by the deliberate addition of radioactive substances or by activation22, in food,
feed, beverages, cosmetics or any other commodity or product intended for ingestion,
inhalation or percutaneous intake by, or application to, a person;
(b) Practices involving the frivolous use of radiation or radioactive substances in commodities or
in products such as toys and personal jewellery or adornments, which result in an increase in
activity, by the deliberate addition of radioactive substances or by activation23;
(c) Human imaging using radiation used as a form of art or for publicity purposes.
3.18. Human imaging using radiation that is performed for occupational, legal or health insurance
purposes, and is undertaken without reference to clinical indication, shall normally be deemed to be
not justified. If, in exceptional circumstances, the government or the regulatory body decides that the
justification of such human imaging for specific practices is to be considered, the requirements of
paras 3.61–3.64 and 3.66 shall apply.
3.19. Human imaging using radiation for theft detection purposes shall be deemed to be not
justified.
3.20. Human imaging using radiation for the detection of concealed objects for anti-smuggling
purposes shall normally be deemed to be not justified. If, in exceptional circumstances, the
government or the regulatory body decides that the justification of such human imaging is to be
considered, the requirements of paras 3.61–3.67 shall apply.
3.21. Human imaging using radiation for the detection of concealed objects that can be used for
criminal acts that pose a national security threat shall be justified only by the government. If the
government decides that the justification of such human imaging is to be considered, the requirements
of paras. 3.61–3.67 shall apply.
Requirement 11: Optimization of protection and safety
The government or regulatory body shall establish and enforce requirements for the
optimization of protection and safety, and registrants and licensees shall ensure that protection
and safety is optimized.
3.22. The government or regulatory body:
(a) shall establish and enforce requirements for the optimization of protection and safety;
(b) shall require documentation addressing the optimization of protection and safety;
sufficient.
21
Particular requirements for the justification of medical exposure are specified in paras 3.154–3.160.
22
This requirement is not intended to prohibit those practices that may involve the short term activation of
commodities or products, for which there is no increase in radioactivity in the commodity or product as supplied.
23
This requirement is not intended to prohibit those practices that may involve the short term activation of
commodities or products, for which there is no increase in radioactivity in the commodity or product as supplied.
25
(c) shall establish or approve constraints24 on dose and on risk, as appropriate, or shall establish
or approve a process for establishing such constraints, to be used in the optimization of
3.23. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that protection and safety is optimized.
3.24. For occupational exposure and public exposure25, registrants and licensees shall ensure that
all relevant factors are taken into account in a coherent way in the optimization of protection and
safety to contribute to achieving the following objectives:
(a) To determine measures for protection and safety that are optimized for the prevailing
circumstances, with account taken of the available options for protection and safety as well as
the nature, likelihood and magnitude of exposures;
(b) To establish criteria, on the basis of the results of the optimization, for the restriction of the
likelihood and magnitudes of exposures by means of measures for preventing accidents and
for mitigating the consequences of those that do occur.
3.25. For occupational exposure and public exposure, registrants and licensees shall ensure, as
appropriate, that relevant constraints are used in the optimization of protection and safety for any
particular source within a practice.24
Requirement 12: Dose limits

The government or the regulatory body shall establish dose limits for occupational exposure and
public exposure, and registrants and licensees shall apply these limits.
3.26. The government or the regulatory body shall establish and the regulatory body shall enforce
compliance with the dose limits specified in Schedule III for occupational exposures and public
exposures in planned exposure situations.
3.27. The government or the regulatory body shall determine what additional restrictions, if any,
are required to be complied with by registrants and licensees to ensure that the dose limits specified in
Schedule III are not exceeded owing to possible combinations of doses from exposures due to
different authorized practices.
3.28. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that the exposures of individuals due to the practices
for which the registrants and licensees are authorized are restricted so that neither the effective dose
nor the equivalent dose to tissues or organs exceeds any relevant dose limit specified in Schedule III.26
Requirement 13: Safety assessment

The regulatory body shall establish and enforce requirements for safety assessment, and the
person or organization responsible for a facility or activity that gives rise to radiation risks shall
conduct an appropriate safety assessment of this facility or activity.
24
For occupational exposure, the relevant dose constraint is on individual doses to workers, established and used
by registrants and licensees to set the range of options in optimizing protection and safety for the source. For
public exposure, the relevant dose constraint is a source related value established or approved by the government
or the regulatory body, with account taken of the doses from planned operations of all sources under control. The
dose constraint for each particular source is intended, among other things, to ensure that the sum of doses from
planned operations for all sources under control remains within the dose limit.
25
Requirements for the optimization of medical exposure are specified in paras 3.161–3.176.
26
Dose limits do not apply to medical exposures.
26
3.29. The regulatory body shall establish requirements for persons or organizations responsible for
facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks to conduct an appropriate safety assessment27.
Prior to the granting of an authorization, the responsible person or organization shall be required to
submit a safety assessment, which shall be reviewed and assessed by the regulatory body.
3.30. The person or organization, as required under para. 3.9(d), or registrants and licensees, as
appropriate, shall conduct a safety assessment that is either generic or specific to the practice or source
for which they are responsible28.
3.31. Safety assessments shall be conducted at different stages, including the stages of siting,
design, manufacture, construction, assembly, commissioning, operation, maintenance and
decommissioning (or closure) of facilities or parts thereof, as appropriate, so as:
(a) To identify the ways in which exposures could be incurred, account being taken of the effects
of external events as well as of events directly involving the sources and associated
equipment;
(b) To determine the expected magnitudes and likelihood of exposures in normal operation and, to
the extent reasonable and practicable, make an assessment of potential exposures;
(c) To assess the adequacy of the provisions for protection and safety.
3.32. The safety assessment shall include, as appropriate, a systematic critical review of:
(a) The operational limits and conditions for the operation of a facility;
(b) The ways in which structures, systems and components, including software, and procedures
relating to protection and safety might fail, singly or in combination, or might otherwise give
rise to exposures, and the consequences of such events;
(c) The ways in which external factors could affect protection and safety;
(d) The ways in which operating procedures relating to protection and safety might be erroneous,
and the consequences of such errors;
(e) The implications for protection and safety of any modifications;
(f) The implications for protection and safety of security measures or of any modifications to
security measures;
(g) Any uncertainties or assumptions and their implications for protection and safety.
3.33. The registrant or licensee shall take into account in the safety assessment:
(a) Factors that could precipitate a substantial release of radioactive material, the measures
available to prevent or to control such a release, and the maximum activity of radioactive
material that, in the event of a major failure of the containment, could be released to the
environment;
(b) Factors that could precipitate a smaller but continuing release of radioactive material, and the
measures available to detect and to prevent or to control such a release;
(c) Factors that could give rise to unintended operation of any radiation generator or a loss of
shielding, and the measures available to detect and to prevent or control such occurrences;
(d) The extent to which the use of redundant and diverse safety features, which are independent of
each other so that failure of one does not result in failure of any other, is appropriate to restrict
the likelihood and the magnitude of potential exposure.
27
Requirements on safety assessment for facilities and activities are established in Ref. [14].
28
A generic safety assessment is usually sufficient for types of source with a high degree of uniformity in
design. A specific safety assessment is usually required in other cases; however, the specific safety assessment
need not include those aspects covered by a generic safety assessment, if a generic safety assessment has been
conducted for the source.
27
3.34. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that the safety assessment is documented and, where
appropriate, that it is independently reviewed under the relevant management system.
3.35. Registrants and licensees shall perform additional reviews of the safety assessment as
necessary to ensure that the technical specifications or conditions of use continue to be met when:
(a) Significant modifications are envisaged to the facility or to its operating procedures or
maintenance procedures;
(b) Significant changes occur on the site that could affect the safety of the facility or of activities
on the site;
(c) Information on operating experience, or information about accidents and other incidents that
could result in exposures, indicates that the current assessment might be invalid;
(d) Any significant changes in activities are envisaged;
(e) Any relevant changes in guidelines or standards are envisaged or have been made.
3.36. If as a result of a safety assessment, or for any other reason, opportunities to improve
protection and safety appear to be available and improvement seems desirable, any consequential
modifications shall be made cautiously and only after favourable assessment of all the implications for
protection and safety. The implementation of all improvements shall be prioritized so as to optimize
Requirement 14: Monitoring for verification of compliance

Registrants and licensees and employers shall conduct monitoring to verify compliance with the
requirements for protection and safety.
3.37. The regulatory body shall establish requirements that monitoring and measurements be
performed to verify compliance with the requirements for protection and safety. The regulatory body
shall be responsible for the review and approval of monitoring and measurement programmes of
registrants and licensees.
3.38. Registrants and licensees and employers shall ensure that:
(a) Monitoring and measurements of parameters are performed as necessary for verification of
compliance with the requirements of these Standards;
(b) Suitable equipment is provided and verification procedures are implemented;
(c) Equipment is properly maintained, tested and calibrated at appropriate intervals with reference
to standards traceable to national or international standards;
(d) Records are maintained of the results of monitoring and verification of compliance, as required
by the regulatory body, including records of the tests and calibrations carried out in accordance
with these Standards;
(e) The results of monitoring and verification of compliance are shared with the regulatory body
as required.
Requirement 15: Prevention and mitigation of accidents

Registrants and licensees shall apply good engineering practice and shall take all practicable
measures to prevent accidents and to mitigate the consequences of those accidents that do occur.
Good engineering practice
3.39. The registrant or licensee, in cooperation with other responsible parties, shall ensure that the
siting, location, design, construction, assembly, commissioning, operation, maintenance and
decommissioning (or closure) of facilities or parts thereof are based on good engineering practice
which shall, as appropriate:
28
(a) Take account of international and national standards;

(b) Be supported by managerial and organizational features, with the purpose of ensuring
protection and safety throughout the lifetime of the facility;
(c) Include adequate safety margins in the design and construction of the facility, and in
operations involving the facility, so as to ensure reliable performance in normal operation, and
take account of the necessary quality, redundancy and capability for inspection, with emphasis
on preventing accidents, mitigating the consequences of those accidents that do occur and
restricting any possible future exposures;
(d) Take account of relevant developments concerning technical criteria, as well as the results of
any relevant research on protection and safety and feedback of information on lessons learned
from experience.
Defence in depth
3.40. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that a multilevel (defence in depth) system of
sequential, independent provisions for protection and safety that is commensurate with the likelihood
and the magnitude of the potential exposures is applied to sources for which the registrants and
licensees are authorized. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that if one level of protection were to
fail, the subsequent independent level of protection would be available. Such defence in depth shall be
applied for the purposes of:
(a) Preventing accidents;

(b) Mitigating the consequences of any accidents that do occur;
(c) Restoring the sources to safe conditions after any such accidents.
Accident prevention
3.41. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that structures, systems and components, including
software, that are related to protection and safety for facilities and activities are designed, constructed,
commissioned, operated and maintained so as to prevent accidents as far as reasonably practicable.
3.42. The registrant or licensee for any facility or activity shall make suitable arrangements:
(a) To prevent reasonably foreseeable accidents in the facility or the activity;

(b) To mitigate the consequences of those accidents that do occur;
(c) To provide workers with the information, instruction, training and equipment necessary to
restrict potential exposures;
(d) To ensure that there are adequate procedures for the control of the facility and for the
management of any reasonably foreseeable accidents;
(e) To ensure that safety significant structures, systems and components, including software, and
other equipment can be inspected and tested regularly for any degradation that could lead to
abnormal conditions or inadequate performance;
(f) To ensure that maintenance, inspection and testing appropriate to the preservation of the
provisions for protection and safety can be carried out without undue occupational exposure;
(g) To provide, wherever appropriate, automatic systems for safely shutting off or reducing the
release of radiation from facilities in the event that operating conditions exceed the operating
ranges;
(h) To ensure that abnormal operating conditions that could significantly affect protection and
safety are detected by systems that respond quickly enough to allow for corrective action to be
taken in a timely manner;
(i) To ensure that all relevant safety documentation is available in the appropriate languages.
29
Emergency preparedness and response
3.43. If the safety assessment indicates that there is a reasonable likelihood of an emergency
affecting either workers or members of the public, the registrant or licensee shall prepare an
emergency plan for the protection of people and the environment. As part of this emergency plan, the
registrant or licensee shall include arrangements for the prompt identification of an emergency, and for
determining the appropriate level of the emergency response [15]. In relation to the arrangements for
the emergency response at the scene by the registrant or licensee, the emergency plan shall include, in
particular:
(a) Provision for individual monitoring and area monitoring and arrangements for medical
treatment;
(b) Arrangements for assessing and mitigating any consequences of an emergency.
3.44. Registrants and licensees shall be responsible for the implementation of their emergency
plans and shall be prepared to take any necessary action for effective response. To prevent the
occurrence of conditions that could lead to a loss of control over a source or to the escalation of such
conditions, registrants and licensees shall, as appropriate:
(a) Develop, maintain and implement procedures to provide the means for preventing loss of
control over the source and for regaining control over the source as necessary;
(b) Make available equipment, instrumentation and diagnostic aids that may be needed;
(c) Train and periodically retrain personnel in the procedures to be followed and exercise the
procedures.
Requirement 16: Investigations and feedback of information on operating experience

Registrants and licensees shall conduct formal investigations of abnormal conditions arising in
the operation of facilities or the conduct of activities, and shall disseminate information that is
significant for protection and safety.
3.45. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that information on both normal operations and
abnormal conditions that are significant for protection and safety is disseminated or made available, as
appropriate, to the regulatory body and relevant parties, as specified by the regulatory body. This
information would include, for example, details of doses associated with given activities, data on
maintenance, descriptions of events and information on corrective actions, and information on
operating experience from other relevant facilities and activities.
3.46. Registrants and licensees shall conduct an investigation as specified by the regulatory body
in the event that:
(a) A quantity or operating parameter relating to protection and safety exceeds an investigation
level or is outside the stipulated range of operating conditions; or
(b) Any equipment failure, accident, error, mishap or other unusual event or condition occurs that
has the potential for causing a quantity to exceed any relevant limit or operating restriction.
3.47. The registrant or licensee shall conduct an investigation as soon as possible after an event
and shall prepare a written record of its causes, or suspected causes, including a verification or
determination of any doses received or committed and recommendations for preventing the recurrence
of the event and the occurrence of similar events.
3.48. The registrant or licensee shall communicate to the regulatory body and to any other relevant
parties, as appropriate, a written report of any formal investigation relating to events prescribed by the
regulatory body, including exposures greater than a dose limit. The registrant or licensee also shall
immediately report any event in which a dose limit is exceeded.
30
Requirement 17: Radiation generators and radioactive sources
Registrants and licensees shall ensure the safety of radiation generators and radioactive sources.
3.49. Registrants and licensees who are manufacturers or other suppliers of radiation generators or
radiation sources shall ensure that the following responsibilities are discharged, as applicable:
(a) Supplying a well designed, well manufactured and well constructed radiation generator or
radioactive source and device in which the radiation generator or radioactive source is used
that:
(i) Provides for protection and safety in accordance with the requirements of these
Standards;
(ii) Meets engineering, performance and functional specifications;
(iii) Meets quality standards commensurate with the significance for protection and safety of
systems and components, including software;
(iv) Provides clear displays, gauges and instructions on operating consoles in the
appropriate language.
(b) Ensuring that radiation generators and radioactive sources are tested to demonstrate
compliance with the relevant specifications;
(c) Making information available, in the appropriate language, on the proper installation and use
of the radiation generator or radioactive source and its associated radiation risks, including
performance specifications, instructions for operating and maintenance, and instructions for
(d) Ensuring that the protection provided by shielding and other protective devices is optimized.
3.50. Where applicable, registrants and licensees shall make suitable arrangements with suppliers
of radiation generators and radioactive sources, the regulatory body and relevant parties for the
purposes of:
(a) obtaining information on conditions of use and operating experience that may be important for
(b) providing feedback and information that may have implications for protection and safety for
other users, or that may have implications for the possibility for improvements in protection
and safety for radiation generators and radioactive sources.
3.51. When choosing a location to use or to store a radiation generator or radioactive source,
registrants and licensees shall take into account:
(a) Factors that could affect the safe management of and control over the radiation generator or
radioactive source;
(b) Factors that could affect occupational exposure and public exposure due to the radiation
generator or radioactive source;
(c) The feasibility of taking the foregoing factors into account in engineering design.
3.52. In selecting a site for a facility that will contain a large amount of radioactive material and
will have the potential for the release of significant amounts of radioactive material, registrants and
licensees shall take into account features that might affect protection and safety, features that might
affect the integrity or functioning of the facility, and the feasibility of carrying out off-site protective
actions if they become necessary.
3.53. Registrants and licensees shall keep radiation generators and radioactive sources under
control so as to prevent loss or damage and to prevent any unauthorized person from carrying out any
of the activities specified in para. 3.5, by ensuring that:
31
(a) Control over a radiation generator or radioactive source is relinquished only in compliance
with all relevant requirements specified in the registration or licence;
(b) The regulatory body is promptly notified of information regarding a radiation generator or
radioactive source that is lost, missing or not under control;
(c) A radiation generator or radioactive source is transferred only if the receiver possesses the
necessary authorization;
(d) An inventory, as required in para. 3.54, of radiation generators or radioactive sources is
conducted periodically to confirm that they are in their assigned locations and are under
control.
3.54. Registrants and licensees shall maintain an inventory that includes records of:
(a) The location and description of each radiation generator or radioactive source for which they
are responsible;
(b) The activity and form of each radioactive source for which they are responsible.
3.55. Registrants and licensees shall provide the regulatory body as required with appropriate
information from their inventory records of radiation generators and radioactive sources.
3.56. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that sealed sources are categorized in accordance with
the categorization scheme set out in Schedule II, and in accordance with the requirements of the
regulatory body.
3.57. The manufacturer of a radioactive source or a device containing a radioactive source shall
ensure that, where practicable, the source itself and its container are marked with the symbol
recommended by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) [16]29.
3.58. Registrants and licensees, in cooperation with manufacturers, shall ensure that, where
practicable, sealed sources are identifiable and traceable.
3.59. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that when radioactive sources are not in use they are
stored in an appropriate manner for protection and safety.
3.60. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that arrangements are made promptly for the safe
management of and control over radiation generators and radioactive sources, including appropriate
financial provision, once it has been decided to take them out of use.
Requirement 18: Human imaging using radiation for purposes other than medical diagnosis,
medical treatment or biomedical research
The government shall ensure that the use of ionizing radiation for human imaging for purposes
other than medical diagnosis, medical treatment or biomedical research is subject to the system
of protection and safety.
3.61. The government, if so decided in accordance with paras 3.18, 3.20 and 3.21, shall ensure that
the requirements of para. 3.16 for the justification of practices are applied to any type of human
imaging procedure in which radiation is used for purposes other than for medical diagnosis or medical
29
For Category 1, 2 and 3 sealed sources as defined in Schedule II, the manufacturer may consider the placement
near the source, preferably on the shield or near the point of access to the source, of the supplementary symbol
specified in Ref. [17]. The supplementary symbol is not placed on the external surfaces of transport packages,
freight containers or conveyances or on building access doors.
32
treatment or as part of a programme of biomedical research. The justification process shall include the
consideration of:
(a) The benefits and detriments of implementing the type of human imaging procedure;
(b) The benefits and detriments of not implementing the type of human imaging procedure;
(c) Any legal or ethical issues associated with the introduction of the type of human imaging
procedure;
(d) The effectiveness and suitability of the type of human imaging procedure, including the
appropriateness of the radiation equipment for the intended use;
(e) The availability of sufficient resources to conduct the human imaging procedure safely
throughout the intended period of the practice.
3.62. If it has been determined through the process specified in para. 3.61 that a particular practice
of human imaging using radiation is justified, then, such a practice shall be subject to regulatory
control.
3.63. The regulatory body, in cooperation with other relevant authorities, agencies and
professional bodies, as appropriate, shall establish the requirements for regulatory control of the
practice, and for review of the justification.
3.64. For human imaging using radiation conducted by medical personnel using medical
radiological equipment, which exposes humans to radiation for employment related, legal or health
insurance30 purposes without reference to clinical indications:
(a) The government shall ensure, on the basis of consultation between relevant authorities,
professional bodies and the regulatory body, that dose constraints are established for such
human imaging;
(b) The registrant or licensee shall ensure that the appropriate optimization requirements for
medical exposure in paras 3.161–3.176 are applied, with dose constraints as required in (a)
above used instead of diagnostic reference levels.
3.65. Procedures with inspection imaging devices in which radiation is used to expose persons for
the purpose of detection of concealed weapons, contraband or other objects on or within the body shall
be considered to give rise to public exposure. Registrants and licensees shall apply the requirements
for public exposure in planned exposure situations. In particular, registrants and licensees shall ensure
that optimization of protection and safety is subject to any dose constraints for public exposure set by
the government or the regulatory body.
3.66. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that all persons who are to undergo procedures with
inspection imaging devices in which ionizing radiation is used are informed of the possibility of
requesting the use of an alternative inspection technique that does not use ionizing radiation, where
available.
3.67. The registrant or licensee shall ensure that any inspection imaging device used for the
detection of concealed objects on or within the body, whether it is manufactured in or imported into
the State in which it is used, conforms to applicable standards of the International Electrotechnical
Commission or the International Organization for Standardization or to equivalent national standards.
30
Such purposes include assessment of fitness for employment (prior to employment or periodically during
employment), assessment of physiological suitability for a career or a sport, assessment of athletes before a
selection or transfer, determination of age for legal purposes, obtaining of evidence for legal purposes, detection
of drugs concealed within the body, immigration or emigration requirements, pre-insurance checks and obtaining
evidence for the purposes of a compensation claim.
33
Scope
3.68. The requirements in respect of occupational exposure in planned exposure situations (paras
3.69–3.116) apply to occupational exposure due to a practice or a source within a practice, as stated in
paras 3.1–3.3; and to occupational exposure as required in Section 4 for emergency exposure
situations and as required in Section 5 for existing exposure situations. For exposure due to natural
sources, these requirements for occupational exposure in planned exposure situations apply, as
appropriate, only to the exposure situations specified in para. 3.4 (a), (c) and (d).
Requirement 19: Responsibilities of the regulatory body specific to occupational exposure

The government or regulatory body shall establish and enforce requirements to ensure that
protection and safety is optimized, and the regulatory body shall enforce compliance with dose
limits for occupational exposure.
3.69. The government or regulatory body shall establish the responsibilities of employers,
registrants and licensees with regard to application of the requirements for occupational exposure in
planned exposure situations.
3.70. The government or regulatory body shall establish and enforce requirements to ensure that
protection and safety is optimized for occupational exposure.
3.71. The government or regulatory body shall establish and the regulatory body shall enforce
compliance with the dose limits specified in Schedule III for occupational exposure.
3.72. Before authorization of a new or modified practice, the regulatory body shall require, as
appropriate, and review supporting documents from the responsible parties that state:
(a) design criteria and design features relating to the exposure and potential exposure of workers
in all operational states and accident conditions;
(b) design criteria and design features of the appropriate systems and programmes for monitoring
of workers for occupational exposure in all operational states and accident conditions.
Requirement 20: Requirements for monitoring and recording of occupational exposure
The regulatory body shall establish and enforce requirements for the monitoring and recording
of occupational exposures in planned exposure situations.
3.73. The regulatory body shall be responsible, as appropriate, for:
(a) Establishment and enforcement of requirements for the monitoring, recording and control of
occupational exposures in planned exposure situations in accordance with the requirements of
these Standards;
(b) Review of monitoring programmes of registrants and licensees, which shall be adequate to
ensure that the requirements with regard to occupational exposure in planned exposure
situations are met;
(c) Authorization or approval of service providers for individual monitoring and calibration
services;
(d) Review of periodic reports on occupational exposure (including results of monitoring
programmes and dose assessments) submitted by employers, registrants and licensees;
(e) Provision for maintaining exposure records and results of the assessment of doses from
occupational exposure;
34
(f) Verification of compliance of an authorized practice with the requirements on the control of
occupational exposure.
Requirement 21: Responsibilities of employers, registrants and licensees for the protection of
workers
Employers, registrants and licensees shall be responsible for the protection of workers against
occupational exposure. Employers, registrants and licensees shall ensure that protection and
safety is optimized and that the dose limits for occupational exposure are not exceeded.
3.74. For workers who are engaged in activities in which they are or could be subject to
occupational exposure in planned exposure situations, employers, registrants and licensees shall be
responsible for:
(a) Protection of workers against occupational exposure;
(b) Compliance with other relevant requirements of these Standards.
3.75. Employers who are also registrants or licensees shall have the responsibilities of both
employers and registrants or licensees.
3.76. Employers, registrants and licensees shall ensure, for all workers engaged in activities in
which they are or could be subject to occupational exposure, that:
(a) Occupational exposure is controlled so that the relevant dose limits for occupational exposure
specified in Schedule III are not exceeded;
(b) Protection and safety is optimized in accordance with the requirements of these Standards;
(c) Decisions with regard to measures for protection and safety are recorded and made available to
relevant parties, through their representatives where appropriate, as specified by the regulatory
body;
(d) Policies, procedures and organizational arrangements for protection and safety are established
for implementing the relevant requirements of these Standards, with priority given to design
measures and technical measures for controlling occupational exposure;
(e) Suitable and adequate facilities, equipment and services for protection and safety are provided,
the type and extent of which are commensurate with the expected likelihood and magnitude of
the occupational exposure;
(f) Necessary health surveillance and health services for workers are provided;
(g) Appropriate monitoring equipment and personal protective equipment are provided and
arrangements are made for its proper use, calibration, testing and maintenance;
(h) Suitable and adequate human resources and appropriate training in protection and safety are
provided, as well as periodic retraining as required to ensure the necessary level of
competence;
(i) Adequate records are maintained in accordance with the requirements of these Standards;
(j) Arrangements are made to facilitate consultation of and cooperation with workers, through
their representatives where appropriate, with regard to protection and safety on all measures
necessary to achieve the effective application of these Standards;
(k) Necessary conditions for promoting a safety culture are provided.
3.77. Employers, registrants and licensees shall:
(a) Involve workers, through their representatives where appropriate, in optimization of protection
and safety;
(b) Establish and use, as appropriate, constraints as part of optimization of protection and safety.
3.78. Employers, registrants and licensees shall ensure that workers exposed to radiation from
sources within a practice that are not required by or directly related to their work have the same level
of protection against such exposure as members of the public.
35
3.79. Employers, registrants and licensees shall take such administrative actions as are necessary
to ensure that workers are informed that ensuring protection and safety is an integral part of a general
occupational health and safety programme in which they have specific obligations and responsibilities
for their own protection and the protection of others against radiation exposure and for the safety of
sources.
3.80. Employers, registrants and licensees shall record any report received from a worker that
identifies circumstances that could affect compliance with the requirements of these Standards, and
shall take appropriate action.
3.81. Nothing in these Standards shall be construed as relieving employers from complying with
applicable national and local laws and regulations governing hazards in the workplace.
3.82. Employers, registrants and licensees shall facilitate compliance by workers with the
requirements of these Standards.
Requirement 22: Compliance by workers

Workers shall fulfil their obligations and carry out their duties for protection and safety.
3.83. Workers:
(a) Shall follow any applicable rules and procedures for protection and safety as specified by the
employer, registrant or licensee;
(b) Shall use properly the monitoring equipment and personal protective equipment provided;
(c) Shall cooperate with the employer, registrant or licensee with regard to protection and safety,
and programmes for workers’ health surveillance and programmes for dose assessment;
(d) Shall provide to the employer, registrant or licensee such information on their past and present
work that is relevant for ensuring effective and comprehensive protection and safety for
themselves and others;
(e) Shall abstain from any wilful action that could put themselves or others in situations that
would not be in accordance with the requirements of these Standards;
(f) Shall accept such information, instruction and training in protection and safety as will enable
them to conduct their work in accordance with the requirements of these Standards.
3.84. A worker who identifies circumstances that could adversely affect protection and safety shall
report such circumstances to the employer, registrant or licensee as soon as possible.
Requirement 23: Cooperation between employers and registrants and licensees

Employers and registrants and licensees shall cooperate to the extent necessary for compliance
by all responsible parties with the requirements for protection and safety.
3.85. If workers are engaged in work that involves or that could involve a source that is not under
the control of their employer, the registrant or licensee responsible for the source and the employer
shall cooperate to the extent necessary for compliance by both parties with the requirements of these
Standards.
3.86. Cooperation between the employer and the registrant or licensee shall include, where
appropriate:
(a) The development and use of specific restrictions on exposure and other means of ensuring that
the measures for protection and safety for workers who are engaged in work that involves or
could involve a source that is not under the control of their employer are at least as good as
those for employees of the registrant or licensee;
36
(b) Specific assessments of the doses received by workers as specified in (a);

(c) A clear allocation and documentation of the responsibilities of the employer and those of the
registrant or licensee for protection and safety.
3.87. As part of the cooperation between parties, the registrant or licensee responsible for the
source or for the exposure shall, as appropriate:
(a) Obtain from the employers, including self-employed individuals, the previous occupational
exposure history of workers as specified in para 3.86, and any other necessary information;
(b) Provide appropriate information to the employer, including any available information relevant
for compliance with the requirements of these Standards that the employer requests;
(c) Provide both the worker and the employer with the relevant exposure records.
Requirement 24: Arrangements under the radiation protection programme

Employers, registrants and licensees shall establish and maintain organizational, procedural and
technical arrangements for the designation of controlled areas and supervised areas, for local
rules and for monitoring of the workplace, in a radiation protection programme for
Classification of areas: controlled areas
3.88. Registrants and licensees shall designate as a controlled area any area31 in which specific
measures for protection and safety are or could be required for:
(a) Controlling exposures or preventing the spread of contamination in normal operation;

(b) Preventing or limiting the likelihood and magnitude of exposures in anticipated operational
occurrences and accident conditions.
3.89. In defining the boundaries of any controlled area, registrants and licensees shall take account
of the magnitudes of the exposures expected in normal operation, the likelihood and magnitude of
exposures in anticipated operational occurrences and in accident conditions, and the type and extent of
the procedures required for protection and safety.
3.90. Registrants and licensees:
(a) Shall delineate controlled areas by physical means or, where this is not reasonably practicable,
by some other suitable means;
(b) Shall, where a source is only intermittently brought into operation or energized, or is moved
from place to place, delineate an appropriate controlled area by means that are appropriate under
the prevailing circumstances and shall specify exposure times;
(c) Shall display the symbol recommended by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) [16] and shall display instructions at access points to and at appropriate locations within
controlled areas;
(d) Shall establish measures for protection and safety, including, as appropriate, physical measures
to control the spread of contamination and local rules and procedures for controlled areas;
(e) Shall restrict access to controlled areas by means of administrative procedures such as the use of
work permits, and by physical barriers, which could include locks or interlocks, the degree of
restriction being commensurate with the likelihood and magnitude of exposures;
(f) Shall provide, as appropriate, at entrances to controlled areas:
(i) Personal protective equipment;
31
The transport of radioactive material is regulated in accordance with the IAEA Regulations for the Safe
Transport of Radioactive Material [12].
37
(ii) Equipment for individual monitoring and workplace monitoring;

(iii) Suitable storage for personal clothing;
(g) Shall provide, as appropriate, at exits from controlled areas:
(i) Equipment for monitoring for contamination of skin and clothing;
(ii) Equipment for monitoring for contamination of any objects or material being removed
from the area;
(iii) Washing or showering facilities and other personal decontamination facilities;
(iv) Suitable storage for contaminated personal protective equipment;
(h) Shall periodically review conditions to assess whether there is any need to modify the measures
for protection and safety or the boundaries of controlled areas;
(i) Shall provide appropriate information, instruction and training for persons working in controlled
areas.
Classification of areas: supervised areas
3.91. Registrants and licensees shall designate as a supervised area any area not already designated
as a controlled area but for which occupational exposure conditions need to be kept under review,
even though specific measures for protection and safety are not normally needed.
3.92. Registrants and licensees, taking into account the nature, likelihood and magnitude of
exposures or contamination in the supervised areas:
(a) Shall delineate the supervised areas by appropriate means;

(b) Shall display approved signs, as appropriate, at access points to supervised areas;
(c) Shall periodically review conditions to assess whether there is any need for further measures for
protection and safety or any need for changes to the boundaries of supervised areas.
Local rules and procedures and personal protective equipment
3.93. Employers, registrants and licensees shall minimize the need to rely on administrative
controls and personal protective equipment for protection and safety by providing well engineered
controls and satisfactory working conditions, in accordance with the following hierarchy of preventive
measures:
(1) Engineered controls;

(2) Administrative controls;
(3) Personal protective equipment.
3.94. Employers, registrants and licensees, in consultation with workers or through their
representatives:
(a) Shall establish in writing local rules and procedures that are necessary for protection and safety
for workers and other persons;
(b) Shall include in the local rules and procedures any relevant investigation level or authorized
level, and the procedures to be followed in the event that any such level is exceeded;
(c) Shall make the local rules and procedures and the measures for protection and safety known to
those workers to whom they apply and to other persons who may be affected by them;
(d) Shall ensure that any work in which workers are or could be subject to occupational exposure is
adequately supervised and shall take all reasonable steps to ensure that the rules, procedures,
and measures for protection and safety are observed;
(e) Shall designate, as appropriate, a radiation protection officer in accordance with criteria
established by the regulatory body.
3.95. Employers, registrants and licensees shall ensure that:

38
(a) Workers are provided with suitable and adequate personal protective equipment that meets
relevant standards or specifications, including as appropriate:
(i) Protective clothing;
(ii) Respiratory protective equipment the characteristics of which are made known to the
users;
(iii) Protective aprons, protective gloves and organ shields;
(b) Where appropriate, workers receive adequate instruction in the proper use of respiratory
protective equipment, including testing for good fit;
(c) Tasks requiring the use of certain personal protective equipment are assigned only to workers
who on the basis of medical advice are capable of safely sustaining the extra effort necessary;
(d) All personal protective equipment, including equipment for use in an emergency, is maintained
in proper condition and, if appropriate, is tested at regular intervals;
(e) If the use of personal protective equipment is considered for any given task, account is taken of
any additional exposure that could result owing to the additional time taken or the
inconvenience, and of any non-radiological risks that might be associated with using personal
protective equipment while performing the task.
Monitoring of the workplace
3.96. Registrants and licensees, in cooperation with employers where appropriate, shall establish,
maintain and keep under review a programme for workplace monitoring under the supervision of a
radiation protection officer or qualified expert.
3.97. The type and frequency of workplace monitoring shall:
(a) Be sufficient to enable:

(i) Evaluation of the radiological conditions in all workplaces;
(ii) Assessment of exposures in controlled areas and supervised areas;
(iii) Review of the classification of controlled areas and supervised areas;
(b) Be based on dose rate, activity concentration in air and surface contamination, and their
expected fluctuations, and on the likelihood and magnitude of exposures in anticipated
operational occurrences and accident conditions.
3.98. Registrants and licensees, in cooperation with employers where appropriate, shall maintain
records of the findings of the workplace monitoring programme. The findings of the workplace
monitoring programme shall be made available to workers, where appropriate through their
representatives.
Requirement 25: Assessment of occupational exposure and workers’ health surveillance

Employers, registrants and licensees shall be responsible for making arrangements for
assessment and recording of the occupational exposure and for workers’ health surveillance.
Occupational exposure assessment
3.99. Employers, as well as self-employed persons, and registrants and licensees shall be
responsible for making arrangements for assessment of the occupational exposure of workers, on the
basis of individual monitoring where appropriate, and shall ensure that arrangements are made with
authorized or approved dosimetry service providers that operate under a quality management system.
3.100. For any worker who usually works in a controlled area, or who occasionally works in a
controlled area and may receive a significant dose from occupational exposure, individual monitoring
shall be undertaken where appropriate, adequate and feasible. In cases where individual monitoring of
the worker is inappropriate, inadequate or not feasible, the occupational exposure shall be assessed on
39
the basis of the results of workplace monitoring and information on the locations and durations of
exposure of the worker32.
3.101. For any worker who regularly works in a supervised area or who enters a controlled area
only occasionally, the occupational exposure shall be assessed on the basis of the results of workplace
monitoring or individual monitoring, as appropriate.
3.102. Employers shall ensure that workers who could be subject to exposure due to contamination
are identified, including workers who use respiratory protective equipment. Employers shall arrange
for appropriate monitoring to the extent necessary to demonstrate the effectiveness of the measures for
protection and safety and to assess intakes of radionuclides and the committed effective doses.
Records of occupational exposure
3.103. Employers, registrants and licensees shall maintain records of occupational exposure33 for
every worker for whom assessment of occupational exposure is required in paras 3.99–3.102.
3.104. Records of occupational exposure for each worker shall be maintained during and after the
worker’s working life, at least until the former worker attains or would have attained the age of 75
years, and for not less than 30 years after cessation of the work in which the worker was subject to
3.105. Records of occupational exposure shall include:
(a) Information on the general nature of the work in which the worker was subject to occupational
exposure;
(b) Information on dose assessments, exposures and intakes at or above the relevant recording
levels and the data upon which the dose assessments were based;
(c) When a worker is or has been exposed while in the employ of more than one employer,
information on the dates of employment with each employer and on the doses, exposures and
intakes in each such employment;
(d) Records of any assessments of doses, exposures and intakes due to actions taken in an
emergency or due to accidents or other incidents, which shall be distinguished from assessments
of doses, exposures and intakes due to normal conditions of work and which shall include
references to reports of any relevant investigations.
3.106. Employers, registrants and licensees:
(a) Shall provide workers with access to records of their own occupational exposure;
(b) Shall provide the supervisor of the programme for workers’ health surveillance, the regulatory
body and the relevant employer with access to workers’ records of occupational exposure;
(c) Shall facilitate the provision of copies of workers’ exposure records to new employers when
workers change employment;
(d) Shall make arrangements for the retention of exposure records for former workers by the
employer, registrant or licensee, as appropriate;
(e) Shall, in complying with (a)–(d) above, give due care and attention to maintaining the
confidentiality of records.
3.107. If employers, registrants and licensees cease to conduct activities in which workers are
subject to occupational exposure, they shall make arrangements for the retention of workers’ records
32
The distinction between types of workers in paras 3.100 and 3.101 for the purposes of monitoring has
similarities to the distinction between Category A and Category B workers in European Union legislation [18].
33
Records of occupational exposure are also referred to as ‘exposure records’ or ‘dose records’.
40
of occupational exposure by the regulatory body or a State registry, or by a relevant employer,

registrant or licensee, as appropriate.
Workers’ health surveillance
3.108. Programmes for workers’ health surveillance as required in para. 3.76(f):
(a) Shall be based on the general principles of occupational health [19];

(b) Shall be designed to assess the initial fitness and continuing fitness of workers for their
intended tasks.
3.109. If one or more workers are to be engaged in work in which they are or could be exposed to
radiation from a source that is not under the control of their employer, the registrant or licensee
responsible for the source shall, as a precondition for the engagement of such workers, make any
special arrangements for workers’ health surveillance with the employer that are needed to comply
with the rules established by the regulatory body or other relevant authority.
Requirement 26: Information, instruction and training

Employers, registrants and licensees shall provide workers with adequate information,
instruction and training for protection and safety.
3.110. Employers, in cooperation with registrants and licensees:
(a) Shall provide all workers with adequate information on health risks due to their occupational
exposure in normal operation, anticipated operational occurrences and accident conditions,
adequate instruction and training and periodic retraining in protection and safety, and adequate
information on the significance of their actions for protection and safety;
(b) Shall provide those workers who could be involved in or affected by the response to an
emergency with appropriate information, and adequate instruction and training and periodic
retraining, for protection and safety;
(c) Shall maintain records of the training provided to individual workers.
Requirement 27: Conditions of service

Employers, registrants and licensees shall not offer benefits as substitutes for measures for
3.111. The conditions of service of workers shall be independent of whether they are or could be
subject to occupational exposure. Special compensatory arrangements, or preferential consideration
with respect to salary, special insurance coverage, working hours, length of vacation, additional
holidays or retirement benefits, shall neither be granted nor be used as substitutes for measures for
protection and safety in accordance with the requirements of these Standards.
3.112. Employers shall make all reasonable efforts to provide workers with suitable alternative
employment in circumstances for which it has been determined, either by the regulatory body or in the
framework of the programme for workers’ health surveillance in accordance with the requirements of
these Standards, that workers, for health reasons, may no longer continue in employment in which
they are or could be subject to occupational exposure.
Requirement 28: Special arrangements

Employers, registrants and licensees shall make special arrangements for female workers, as
necessary, for protection of the embryo or fetus and of breast-fed infants. Employers, registrants
and licensees shall make special arrangements for protection and safety for persons under 18
years of age who are undergoing training.
41
3.113. Employers, in cooperation with registrants and licensees, shall provide female workers who
are liable to enter controlled areas or supervised areas or who may undertake emergency duties with
appropriate information on:
(a) The risk to the embryo or fetus due to exposure of a pregnant woman;
(b) The importance for a female worker of notifying her employer as soon as possible if she
suspects that she is pregnant34 or if she is breast-feeding;
(c) The risk of health effects for a breast-fed infant due to ingestion of radioactive substances.
3.114. Notification of the employer by a female worker if she suspects that she is pregnant or if she
is breast-feeding shall not be considered a reason to exclude a female worker from work. The
employer of a female worker, who has been notified of her suspected pregnancy or that she is breast-
feeding, shall adapt the working conditions in respect of occupational exposure so as to ensure that the
embryo or fetus or the infant is afforded the same broad level of protection as is required for members
of the public.
3.115. Employers, registrants and licensees shall ensure that no person under the age of 16 years is
or could be subject to occupational exposure.
3.116. Employers, registrants and licensees shall ensure that persons under the age of 18 years are
allowed access to a controlled area only under supervision and only for the purpose of training for
employment in which they are or could be subject to occupational exposure or for the purpose of
studies in which sources are used.
PUBLIC EXPOSURE
Scope
3.117. The requirements in respect of public exposure in planned exposure situations (paras 3.117–
3.143) apply to public exposure due to a practice or a source within a practice, as referred to in paras
3.1–3.3. For exposure due to natural sources, such requirements apply only to the types of public
exposure specified in para. 3.4 (a) and (b).
Requirement 29: Responsibilities of the government and the regulatory body specific to public
exposure
The government or the regulatory body shall establish the responsibilities of relevant parties
that are specific to public exposure, shall establish and enforce requirements for optimization,
and shall establish, and the regulatory body shall enforce compliance with, dose limits for public
exposure.
3.118. The government or the regulatory body shall establish the responsibilities of registrants,
licensees, suppliers, and providers of consumer products35 in relation to the application of
requirements for public exposure in planned exposure situations.
34
Notification of an employer of a suspected pregnancy or of breast-feeding cannot be a requirement on a female
worker in these Standards. However, it is important that all female workers understand the importance of making
such notifications so that their working conditions may be modified accordingly.
35
‘Providers of consumer products’ include the designers, manufacturers, producers, constructors, assemblers,
installers, distributors, sellers and importers of consumer products.
42
3.119. The government or the regulatory body shall establish and enforce requirements for the
optimization of protection and safety for situations in which individuals are or could be subject to
public exposure.
3.120. The government or the regulatory body shall establish or approve constraints on dose and on
risk to be used in the optimization of protection and safety for members of the public. When
establishing or approving constraints in respect of a source within a practice, the government or the
regulatory body shall take into account, as appropriate:
(a) The characteristics of the source and of the practice that are of relevance for public exposure;
(b) Good practice in the operation of similar sources;
(c) Dose contributions from other authorized practices or from possible future authorized
practices36, estimated at the design and planning stage, so that the total dose to members of the
public is not expected to exceed the dose limit at any time after the start of operation of the
source;
(d) The views of interested parties.
3.121. The government or the regulatory body shall establish, and the regulatory body shall enforce
compliance with, the dose limits specified in Schedule III for public exposure.
3.122. Before authorization of a new or modified practice, the regulatory body shall require the
submission of, and shall review, the safety assessments (paras 3.29–3.36) and other design related
documents from the responsible parties that address the optimization of protection and safety, the
design criteria and the design features relating to the assessment of exposure and potential exposure of
members of the public.
3.123. The regulatory body shall establish or approve operational limits and conditions relating to
public exposure, including authorized limits for discharges. These operational limits and conditions:
(a) Shall be used by registrants and licensees as the criteria for demonstration of compliance after
the commencement of operation of a source;
(b) Shall correspond to doses below the dose limits with account taken of the results of
optimization of protection and safety;
(c) Shall reflect good practice in the operation of similar facilities or activities;
(d) Shall allow for operational flexibility;
(e) Shall take into account the results of the assessment of the potential radiological
environmental impacts undertaken in accordance with national requirements.
3.124. When a source within a practice could cause public exposure outside the territory or other
area under the jurisdiction or control of the State in which the source is located, the government or the
regulatory body:
(a) Shall ensure that the assessment of the radiological impacts includes those impacts outside the
territory or other area under the jurisdiction or control of the State;
(b) Shall, to the extent possible, establish requirements for the control of discharges;
(c) Shall arrange with the affected State the means for the exchange of information and
consultations, as appropriate.
36
Dose contributions from possible future authorized practices have to be anticipated in an assessment made on
the basis of realistic assumptions.
43
Requirement 30: Responsibilities of relevant parties specific to public exposure

Relevant parties shall apply the system of protection and safety to protect members of the public
against exposure.
General considerations
3.125. Registrants and licensees in cooperation with suppliers and with providers of consumer
products shall apply the requirements of these Standards and shall verify and demonstrate compliance
with them, as specified by the regulatory body, in relation to any public exposure delivered by a
source for which they have responsibility.
3.126. Registrants and licensees in cooperation with suppliers, in applying the principle of
optimization of protection and safety in the design, planning, operation and decommissioning of a
source (or for closure and the post-closure period for waste disposal facilities), shall take into account:
(a) Possible changes in any conditions that could affect exposure of members of the public, such
as changes in the characteristics and use of the source, changes in environmental dispersion
conditions, changes in exposure pathways or changes in values of parameters used for the
determination of the representative person;
(b) Good practice in the operation of similar sources or the conduct of similar practices;
(c) Possible buildup and accumulation in the environment of radioactive substances from
discharges during the lifetime of the source;
(d) Uncertainties in the assessment of doses, especially uncertainties in contributions to doses if
the source and the representative person are separated in space or in time.
3.127. Registrants and licensees, for sources under their responsibility, shall establish, implement
and maintain:
(a) Policies, procedures and organizational arrangements for protection and safety in relation to
public exposure, in accordance with the requirements of these Standards;
(b) Measures for ensuring:
(i) optimization of protection and safety;
(ii) limitation of exposure of members of the public from such sources, in accordance
with the authorization;
(c) Measures for ensuring the safety of such sources;
(d) Provision for suitable and adequate resources (including facilities, equipment and services) for
the protection and safety of members of the public, commensurate with the magnitude and
likelihood of exposures;
(e) Programmes for appropriate training of personnel having functions relevant to protection and
safety of members of the public, as well as periodic retraining as required, to ensure the
necessary level of competence;
(f) Provision for appropriate monitoring equipment, surveillance programmes and methods for
assessing public exposure;
(g) Adequate records of surveillance and monitoring;
(h) Emergency plans, emergency procedures and emergency response arrangements, in
accordance with the nature and magnitude of the radiation risks associated with the sources.
Visitors
3.128. Registrants and licensees, in cooperation with employers where appropriate:
(a) Shall apply the relevant requirements of these Standards in respect of public exposure for
visitors to a controlled area or a supervised area;
44
(b) Shall ensure that visitors are accompanied in any controlled area by a person who knows the
measures for protection and safety for the controlled area;
(c) Shall provide adequate information and instructions to visitors before they enter a controlled
area or a supervised area so as to provide for protection and safety for visitors and other
individuals who could be affected by their actions;
(d) Shall ensure that adequate control is maintained over the entry of visitors to a controlled area
or a supervised area, including the use of signs for such areas.
External exposure and contamination in areas accessible to members of the public
3.129. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that if a source can give rise to external exposure of
members of the public:
(a) The floor plans and arrangements of equipment for all new installations utilizing such sources,
as well as all significant modifications to existing installations, are subject, as appropriate, to
review and approval by the regulatory body prior to commissioning;
(b) Shielding and other protective measures, including access control, are provided as appropriate
for restricting public exposure, in particular at open sites such as for some applications of
industrial radiography.
3.130. Registrants and licensees shall ensure, as appropriate, that:
(a) Specific provisions for confinement are established for the design and operation of a source
that could cause the spread of contamination in areas that are accessible to members of the
public;
(b) Protective measures are implemented for restricting public exposure due to contamination in
areas within a facility that are accessible to members of the public.
Requirement 31: Radioactive waste and discharges

Relevant parties shall ensure that radioactive waste and discharges of radioactive material to the
environment are managed in accordance with the authorization.
Radioactive waste
3.131. Registrants and licensees, in cooperation with suppliers, as appropriate:
(a) Shall ensure that any radioactive waste generated is kept to the minimum practicable in terms
of both activity and volume;
(b) Shall ensure that radioactive waste is managed in accordance with the requirements of these
Standards and the requirements of other applicable IAEA standards, and in accordance with
the relevant authorization;
(c) Shall ensure that there is separate processing of radioactive waste of different types, where
warranted by differences in factors such as radionuclide content, half-life, activity
concentration, volume, and physical and chemical properties, taking into account the available
options for waste storage and disposal, without precluding the mixing of waste for purposes of
(d) Shall ensure that activities for the predisposal management of and for the disposal of
radioactive waste are conducted in accordance with the requirements of applicable IAEA
standards37, and in accordance with the authorization;
(e) Shall maintain an inventory of all radioactive waste that is generated, stored, transferred or
disposed of;
37
Requirements on the predisposal management of radioactive waste are established in Ref. [10] and for the
disposal of radioactive waste are established in Ref. [11].
45
(f) Shall develop and implement a strategy for radioactive waste management and shall include
appropriate evidence that protection and safety is optimized.
Discharges
3.132. Registrants and licensees, in cooperation with suppliers, in applying for an authorization for
discharges, as appropriate:
(a) Shall determine the characteristics and activity of the material to be discharged, and the
possible points and methods of discharge;
(b) Shall determine by an appropriate pre-operational study all significant exposure pathways by
which discharged radionuclides could give rise to exposure of members of the public;
(c) Shall assess the doses to the representative person due to the planned discharges;
(d) Shall consider the radiological environmental impacts in an integrated manner with features of
the system of protection and safety, as required by the regulatory body;
(e) Shall submit to the regulatory body the findings of (a) to (d) above as an input to the
establishment by the regulatory body, in accordance with para. 3.123, of authorized limits on
discharges and conditions for their implementation.
3.133. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that operational limits and conditions relating to public
exposure are met in accordance with paras 3.123 and 3.124.
3.134. Registrants and licensees shall review and modify their discharge control measures, as
appropriate and in agreement with the regulatory body, taking into account:
(a) Operating experience;

(b) Any changes in exposure pathways or in the characteristics of the representative person that
could affect the assessment of doses due to the discharges.
Requirement 32: Monitoring and reporting

The regulatory body and relevant parties shall ensure that programmes for source monitoring
and environmental monitoring are in place and that the results from the monitoring are
recorded and are made available.
3.135. The regulatory body shall be responsible, as appropriate, for:
(a) Review and approval of monitoring programmes of registrants and licensees, which shall be
sufficient for:
(i) Verifying compliance with the requirements of these Standards in respect of public
exposure in planned exposure situations;
(ii) Assessing doses from public exposure;
(b) Review of periodic reports on public exposure (including results of monitoring programmes
and dose assessments) submitted by registrants and licensees;
(c) Making provision for an independent monitoring programme;
(d) Assessment of the total public exposure from authorized sources and practices in the State on
the basis of monitoring data provided by registrants and licensees and with the use of data
from independent monitoring and assessments;
(e) Making provision for maintaining records of discharges, results of monitoring programmes
and results of assessments of public exposure;
(f) Verification of compliance of an authorized practice with the requirements of these Standards
for the control of public exposure.
46
3.136. The regulatory body shall publish or shall make available on request, as appropriate, results
from source monitoring and environmental monitoring programmes and assessments of doses from
public exposure.
3.137. Registrants and licensees shall, as appropriate:
(a) Establish and implement monitoring programmes to ensure that public exposure due to
sources under their responsibility is adequately assessed and that the assessment is sufficient
to verify and demonstrate compliance with the authorization. These programmes shall include
monitoring of the following, as appropriate:
− external exposure from such sources;
− discharges;
− radioactivity in the environment;
− other parameters important for the assessment of public exposure.
(b) Maintain appropriate records of the results of the monitoring programmes and estimated doses
to members of the public;
(c) Report or make available the results of the monitoring programme to the regulatory body at
approved intervals, including, as applicable, the levels and composition of discharges, dose
rates at the site boundary and in premises open to members of the public, results of
environmental monitoring and retrospective assessments of doses to the representative person;
(d) Report promptly to the regulatory body any levels exceeding the operational limits and
conditions relating to public exposure, including authorized limits on discharges, in
accordance with reporting criteria established by the regulatory body;
(e) Report promptly to the regulatory body any significant increase in dose rate or concentrations
of radionuclides in the environment that could be attributed to the authorized practice, in
accordance with reporting criteria established by the regulatory body;
(f) Establish and maintain a capability to carry out monitoring in an emergency, in the event of
unexpected increases in radiation levels or concentrations of radionuclides in the environment
due to accidents or other unusual events attributed to the authorized source or facility;
(g) Verify the adequacy of the assumptions made for the assessment of public exposure and
radiological environmental impacts;
(h) Publish or make available on request, as appropriate, results from source monitoring and
environmental monitoring programmes and assessments of doses from public exposure.
Requirement 33: Consumer products

Providers of consumer products shall ensure that such products are not made available to the
public unless their use by members of the public has been justified, and either their use has been
exempted or their provision to the public has been authorized.
3.138. Providers of consumer products shall ensure that such products are not made available to the
public unless the justification of their use by members of the public has been approved by the
government or regulatory body, and either their use has been exempted on the basis of the criteria
specified in Schedule I or their provision to the public has been authorized.
3.139. Upon receipt of a request for authorization to provide to the public consumer products, the
regulatory body:
(a) Shall require the provider of the consumer product to provide documents to demonstrate
compliance with the requirements in paras 3.138–3.143;
(b) Shall verify the assessments and the selection of parameters presented in the request for
authorization;
(c) Shall determine whether the end use of the product can be exempted;
47
(d) Shall authorize the provision to the public of the consumer product, where appropriate, subject
to specific conditions of authorization.
3.140. Providers of consumer products shall comply with the conditions of the authorization to
provide such products to the public, shall ensure that such products comply with the requirements of
these Standards, and shall plan for appropriate arrangements for the servicing, maintenance, recycling
or disposal of such products. The design and manufacture of such products, with regard to features that
could affect exposure during normal handling, transport and use, as well as in the event of
mishandling, misuse, accident or disposal, shall be subject to optimization of protection and safety. In
this regard, designers, manufacturers and other providers of consumer products shall take into account
the following:
(a) The various radionuclides that could be used and their radiation types, energies, activities and
half-lives;
(b) The chemical and physical forms of the radionuclides that could be used and their significance
for protection and safety in normal conditions and abnormal conditions;
(c) The containment and shielding of radioactive substances in consumer products and access to
these radioactive substances in normal conditions and abnormal conditions;
(d) The need for servicing or repair and ways in which this could be done;
(e) Relevant experience with similar consumer products.
3.141. Providers of consumer products shall ensure that:
(a) Where practicable, a legible label is firmly affixed to a visible surface of each such consumer
product that:
(i) States that the product contains radioactive substances and identifying the radionuclides
and their activities;
(ii) States that the provision of the product to the public has been authorized by the
regulatory body;
(iii) Provides information about required or recommended options for recycling or disposal;
(b) The information specified in (a) above is also printed legibly on the retail packaging of the
consumer product.
3.142. Providers of consumer products shall provide clear and appropriate information and
instructions with each such consumer product on:
(a) Correct installation, use and maintenance of the product;

(b) Servicing and repair;
(c) The radionuclides and their activities at a specified date;
(d) Dose rates in normal operation and during servicing and repair;
(e) Required or recommended options for recycling or disposal.
3.143. Providers of consumer products shall provide the product retailers with appropriate
information on safety and instructions on transport and storage.
48
MEDICAL EXPOSURE
Scope
3.144. The requirements in respect of medical exposure in planned exposure situations (paras
3.144–3.184) apply to all medical exposures38, including intended, unintended and accidental
exposures.
3.145. Dose limits do not apply to medical exposures.
Requirement 34: Responsibilities of the government specific to medical exposure

The government shall ensure that relevant parties are authorized to assume their roles and
responsibilities and that diagnostic reference levels, dose constraints, and criteria and guidelines
for the release of patients are established.
3.146. The government, in accordance with paras 2.13–2.28, shall ensure with regard to medical
exposures that, as a result of consultation between the health authority, relevant professional bodies
and the regulatory body, the relevant parties identified in paras 2.40 and 2.41 are authorized to assume
their roles and responsibilities, and shall ensure that they are notified of their duties in relation to
protection and safety for individuals undergoing medical exposures.
3.147. The government shall ensure, as part of the responsibilities specified in para. 2.15, that as a
result of consultation between the health authority, relevant professional bodies and the regulatory
body, a set of diagnostic reference levels is established for medical exposures incurred in medical
imaging, including image guided interventional procedures. In setting such diagnostic reference levels,
account shall be taken of the need for adequate image quality, to enable the requirements of para.
3.168 to be fulfilled. Such diagnostic reference levels shall be based, as far as possible, on wide scale
surveys or on published values that are appropriate for the local circumstances.
3.148. The government shall ensure that, as a result of consultation between the health authority,
relevant professional bodies and the regulatory body, the following are established:
(a) Dose constraints, to enable the requirements of paras 3.172 and 3.173 respectively to be
fulfilled for:
(i) Exposures of carers and comforters39;
(ii) Exposures due to diagnostic investigations of volunteers participating in a programme
of biomedical research;
(b) Criteria and guidelines for the release of patients who have undergone therapeutic procedures
using unsealed sources or patients who still retain implanted sealed sources.
Requirement 35: Responsibilities of the regulatory body specific to medical exposure

The regulatory body shall require that health professionals with responsibilities for medical
exposure are specialized in the appropriate area and that they meet the requirements for
education, training and competence in the relevant specialty.
3.149. The regulatory body shall ensure that the authorization for medical exposures to be
performed at a particular medical radiation facility allows personnel (radiological medical
practitioners, medical physicists, medical radiation technologists and any other health professionals
38
Requirements on human imaging for purposes other than medical diagnosis or treatment (and hence not within
the scope of medical exposure) are stated in paras 3.61–3.67.
39
The selection of constraints for carers and comforters is a complex process in which a number of factors have
to be taken into account, such as the age of the individual and for a woman the possibility of her being pregnant.
49
with specific duties in relation to the radiation protection of patients) to take on the responsibilities
specified in these Standards only if they:
(a) are specialized40 in the appropriate area41;

(b) meet the respective requirements for education, training and competence in radiation
protection, in accordance with para. 2.32;
(c) are named in a list maintained up to date by the registrant or licensee.
Requirement 36: Responsibilities of registrants and licensees specific to medical exposure

Registrants and licensees shall ensure that no person incurs a medical exposure unless there has
been an appropriate referral, responsibility has been assumed for ensuring protection and
safety, and the person subject to exposure has been informed as appropriate of the expected
benefits and risks.
3.150. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that no patient, whether symptomatic or asymptomatic,
undergoes a medical exposure unless:
(a) The radiological procedure has been requested by a referring medical practitioner and
information on the clinical context has been provided, or it is part of an approved health
screening programme;
(b) The medical exposure has been justified through consultation between the radiological medical
practitioner and the referring medical practitioner, as appropriate, or it is part of an approved
health screening programme;
(c) A radiological medical practitioner has assumed responsibility for protection and safety in the
planning and delivery of the medical exposure as specified in para. 3.153(a);
(d) The patient or the patient’s legal authorized representative has been informed, as appropriate,
of the expected diagnostic or therapeutic benefits of the radiological procedure as well as the
radiation risks.
3.151. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that no individual incurs a medical exposure as part of
a programme of biomedical research unless the exposure has been approved by an ethics committee
(or other institutional body that has been assigned similar functions by the relevant authority) as
required in para. 3.160 and a radiological medical practitioner has assumed responsibility as specified
in para. 3.153(a). Registrants and licensees shall ensure that the requirements specified in para. 3.173
are met for the optimization of protection and safety for persons subject to exposure as part of a
programme of biomedical research.
3.152. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that no individual incurs a medical exposure as a carer
or comforter unless he or she has received, and has indicated an understanding of, relevant information
on radiation protection and information on the radiation risks prior to providing care and comfort to an
individual undergoing a radiological procedure. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that the
requirements specified in para. 3.172 are met for the optimization of protection and safety for any
procedure in which an individual acts as a carer or comforter.
3.153. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that:
40
‘Specialized’ mean as acknowledged by the relevant professional body, health authority or appropriate
organization.
41
‘The appropriate area’ means, in the first instance, diagnostic radiology, image guided interventional
procedures, or radiotherapy or nuclear medicine (diagnostic, therapeutic or both). Often, the area of
specialization is likely to be narrower, however, in particular with regard to the radiological medical practitioner.
Examples are dental, chiropractic, or podiatric specialists in the case of diagnostic radiology, and cardiologists,
urologists or neurologists in the case of image guided interventional procedures.
50
(a) The radiological medical practitioner performing or overseeing the radiological procedure has
assumed responsibility for ensuring overall protection and safety for patients during the
planning and delivery of the medical exposure, including the justification of the procedure as
required in paras 3.154–3.160 and the optimization of protection and safety, in cooperation
with the medical physicist and the medical radiation technologist as required in paras 3.161–
3.176;
(b) Radiological medical practitioners, medical physicists, medical radiation technologists and
other health professionals with specific duties in relation to protection and safety for patients in
a given radiological procedure have the appropriate specialization;
(c) Sufficient medical personnel and paramedical personnel are available as specified by the
health authority;
(d) For therapeutic uses of radiation, the requirements of these Standards for calibration,
dosimetry and quality assurance, including the acceptance and commissioning of medical
radiological equipment, as specified in paras 3.166, 3.167(c), 3.169 and 3.170, are fulfilled by
or under the supervision of a medical physicist;
(e) For diagnostic radiological procedures and image guided interventional procedures, the
requirements of these Standards for medical imaging, calibration, dosimetry and quality
assurance, including the acceptance and commissioning of medical radiological equipment, as
specified in paras 3.166, 3.167(a), 3.167(b), 3.168, 3.169 and 3.170, are fulfilled by or under
the oversight of or with the documented advice of a medical physicist, whose degree of
involvement is determined by the complexity of the radiological procedures and the associated
radiation risks;
(f) Any delegation of responsibilities by a principal party is documented.
Requirement 37: Justification of medical exposures

Relevant parties shall ensure that medical exposures are justified.
3.154. Medical exposures shall be justified by weighing the expected diagnostic or therapeutic
benefits42 that they yield against the radiation detriment that they might cause, with account taken of
the benefits and the risks of available alternative techniques that do not involve medical exposure.
3.155. Generic justification of a radiological procedure shall be carried out by the health authority
in conjunction with appropriate professional bodies, and shall be reviewed from time to time, with
account taken of advances in knowledge and technological developments.
3.156. The justification of medical exposure for an individual patient shall be carried out through
consultation between the radiological medical practitioner and the referring medical practitioner, as
appropriate, with account taken, in particular for patients who are pregnant or breast-feeding or
paediatric, of:
(a) The appropriateness of the request;

(b) The urgency of the procedure;
(c) The characteristics of the medical exposure;
(d) The characteristics of the individual patient;
(e) Relevant information from the patient’s previous radiological procedures.
3.157. Relevant national or international referral guidelines shall be taken into account for the
justification of the medical exposure of an individual patient in a radiological procedure.
42
The benefit may not necessarily be to the person exposed. Clearly for patients this is the case, but for
exposures in biomedical research the benefit is expected to be for biomedical sciences and for future health care.
Similarly, the benefit for carers and comforters might be, for example, the successful performance of a
diagnostic procedure on a child.
51
3.158. Justification for radiological procedures to be performed as part of a health screening

programme for asymptomatic populations shall be carried out by the health authority in conjunction
with appropriate professional bodies.
3.159. Any radiological procedure on an asymptomatic individual that is intended to be performed

for the early detection of disease, but not as part of an approved health screening programme, shall
require specific justification for that individual by the radiological medical practitioner and the
referring medical practitioner, in accordance with the guidelines of relevant professional bodies or the
health authority. As part of this process, the individual shall be informed in advance of the expected
benefits, risks and limitations of the procedure.
3.160. The medical exposure of volunteers as part of a programme of biomedical research is

deemed to be not justified unless:
(a) It is in accordance with the provisions of the Helsinki Declaration [20] and takes into account
the guidelines published by the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences
[21], together with the recommendations of the ICRP [22];
(b) It is subject to approval by an ethics committee (or other institutional body that has been
assigned similar functions by the relevant authority), subject to any dose constraints that may
be specified (as required in paras 3.148(a)(ii) and 3.173), and subject to applicable national
regulations and local regulations.
Requirement 38: Optimization of protection and safety

Registrants and licensees and radiological medical practitioners shall ensure that protection and
safety is optimized for each medical exposure.
Design considerations
3.161. In addition to ensuring that the responsibilities stated in para. 3.49 are discharged, as
applicable, registrants and licensees, in cooperation with suppliers, shall ensure that medical
radiological equipment, and software that could influence the delivery of medical exposure is used
only if it conforms to the applicable standards of the International Electrotechnical Commission and
the International Organization for Standardization or to national standards adopted by the regulatory
body.
Operational considerations
3.162. For diagnostic radiological procedures and image guided interventional procedures, the
radiological medical practitioner, in cooperation with the medical radiation technologist and the
medical physicist, and if appropriate with the radiopharmacist or radiochemist , shall ensure that the
following are used:
(a) Appropriate medical radiological equipment and software and also, for nuclear medicine,
appropriate radiopharmaceuticals;
(b) Appropriate techniques and parameters to deliver a medical exposure of the patient that is the
minimum necessary to fulfil the clinical purpose of the procedure, with account taken of
relevant norms of acceptable image quality established by relevant professional bodies and
relevant diagnostic reference levels established in accordance with paras 3.147 and 3.168.
3.163. For therapeutic radiological procedures, the radiological medical practitioner, in cooperation
with the medical physicist and the medical radiation technologist, shall ensure that for each patient the
exposure of volumes other than the planning target volume is kept as low as reasonably achievable
consistent with delivery of the prescribed dose to the planning target volume within the required
tolerances.
52
3.164. For therapeutic radiological procedures in which radiopharmaceuticals are administered, the
radiological medical practitioner, in cooperation with the medical physicist and the medical radiation
technologist, and if appropriate with the radiopharmacist or radiochemist, shall ensure that for each
patient the appropriate radiopharmaceutical with the appropriate activity is selected and administered
so that the radioactivity is primarily localized in the organ(s) of interest, while the radioactivity in the
rest of the body is kept as low as reasonably achievable.
3.165. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that the particular aspects of medical exposures are
considered in the optimization process for:
(a) Paediatric patients subject to medical exposure;

(b) Individuals subject to medical exposure as part of a health screening programme;
(c) Volunteers subject to medical exposure as part of a programme of biomedical research;
(d) Relatively high doses43 to the patient;
(e) Exposure of the embryo or fetus, in particular for radiological procedures in which the
abdomen or pelvis of the pregnant woman is exposed to the useful radiation beam or could
otherwise receive a significant dose;
(f) Exposure of a breast-fed infant as a result of a female patient undergoing a radiological
procedure with radiopharmaceuticals.
Calibration
3.166. In accordance with para. 3.153(d) and (e), the medical physicist shall ensure that:
(a) All sources giving rise to medical exposure are calibrated in terms of appropriate quantities
using internationally accepted or nationally accepted protocols;
(b) Calibrations are carried out at the time of commissioning a unit prior to clinical use, after any
maintenance procedure that could affect the dosimetry and at intervals approved by the
regulatory body;
(c) Calibrations of radiotherapy units are subject to independent verification44 prior to clinical use;
(d) Calibration of all dosimeters used for dosimetry of patients and for the calibration of sources is
traceable to a standards dosimetry laboratory.
Dosimetry of patients
3.167. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that dosimetry of patients is performed and
documented by or under the supervision of a medical physicist, using calibrated dosimeters and
following internationally accepted or nationally accepted protocols, including dosimetry to determine
the following:
(a) For diagnostic medical exposures, typical doses to patients for common radiological
procedures;
(b) For image guided interventional procedures, typical doses to patients;
43
The term ‘relatively high dose’ is intended to apply in a given context. Clearly doses from therapeutic
exposures are included in ‘relatively high doses’, as are image guided interventional procedures. In diagnostic
medical imaging, ‘relatively high doses’ would include doses from exposures in computerized tomography and
the procedures with higher doses in nuclear medicine.
44
‘Independent verification’ ideally means verification by a different, independent medical physicist using
different dosimetry equipment. However, other options, such as verification by a second medical physicist or
only verification using a second set of equipment, or even using a form of verification by postal
thermoluminescence dosimetry could be acceptable. In checking for compliance, the regulatory body needs to be
aware of the limitations on local resources.
53
(c) For therapeutic medical exposures, absorbed doses to the tissues or organs for individual
patients, as determined to be relevant by the radiological medical practitioner.
Diagnostic reference levels
3.168. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that:
(a) Local assessments, on the basis of the measurements required in para. 3.167, are made at
approved intervals for those radiological procedures for which diagnostic reference levels have
been established (para. 3.147);
(b) A review is conducted to determine whether the optimization of protection and safety for
patients is adequate, or whether corrective action is required if, for a given radiological
procedure:
(i) typical doses or activities exceed the relevant diagnostic reference level; or
(ii) typical doses or activities fall substantially below the relevant diagnostic reference level
and the exposures do not provide useful diagnostic information or do not yield the
expected medical benefit to the patient.
Quality assurance for medical exposures
3.169. Registrants and licensees, in applying the requirements of these Standards in respect of
management systems, shall establish a comprehensive programme of quality assurance for medical
exposures with the active participation of medical physicists, radiological medical practitioners,
medical radiation technologists and, for complex nuclear medicine facilities, radiopharmacists and
radiochemists, and in conjunction with other health professionals as appropriate. Principles established
by the World Health Organization, the Pan American Health Organization and relevant professional
bodies shall be taken into account.
3.170. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that programmes of quality assurance for medical
exposure include, as appropriate to the medical radiation facility:
(a) Measurements of the physical parameters of medical radiological equipment made by, or
under the supervision of, a medical physicist:
(i) At the time of acceptance and commissioning of the equipment prior to its clinical use
on patients;
(ii) Periodically thereafter;
(iii) After any major maintenance procedure that could affect protection and safety of
patients;
(iv) After any installation of new software or modification of existing software that could
affect protection and safety of patients;
(b) Implementation of corrective actions if measured values of the physical parameters mentioned
in (a) are outside established tolerance limits;
(c) Verification of the appropriate physical and clinical factors used in radiological procedures;
(d) Maintaining records of relevant procedures and results;
(e) Periodic checks of the calibration and conditions of operation of dosimetry equipment and
monitoring equipment.
3.171. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that regular and independent audits are made of the
programme of quality assurance for medical exposures, and that their frequency is in accordance with
the complexity of the radiological procedures being performed and the associated risks.
54
Dose constraints
3.172. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that relevant dose constraints (para. 3.148(a)(i)) are
used in the optimization of protection and safety in any procedure in which an individual acts as a
carer or comforter.
3.173. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that dose constraints specified or approved by the
ethics committee, or by another institutional body that has been assigned similar functions by the
relevant authority, on a case by case basis as part of a proposal for biomedical research (para. 3.160)
are used in the optimization of protection and safety for persons subject to exposure as part of a
programme of biomedical research.
Requirement 39: Pregnant women and breast-feeding women

Registrants and licensees shall ensure that there are arrangements in place for appropriate
radiation protection in cases where a woman is or might be pregnant or is breast-feeding.
3.174. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that signs in appropriate languages are placed in public
places, waiting rooms for patients, cubicles and other appropriate places, and that other means of
communication are also used as appropriate45, to request female patients who are to undergo a
radiological procedure to notify the radiological medical practitioner, medical radiation technologist or
other personnel in the event that:
(a) She is or she might be pregnant;

(b) She is breast-feeding and the scheduled radiological procedure includes the administration of a
radiopharmaceutical.
3.175. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that there are procedures in place for ascertaining the
pregnancy status of a female patient of reproductive capacity before the performance of any
radiological procedure that could result in a significant dose to the embryo or fetus, so that this
information can be considered in the justification for the radiological procedure (paras. 3.154 and
3.156) and in the optimization of protection and safety (para. 3.165).
3.176. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that there are arrangements in place for establishing
that a female patient is not breast-feeding before the performance of any radiological procedure
involving the administration of a radiopharmaceutical that could result in a significant dose to an
infant being breast-fed, so that this information can be considered in the justification for the
radiological procedure (paras 3.154 and 3.156) and in the optimization of protection and safety (para.
3.165).
Requirement 40: Release of patients after radionuclide therapy

Registrants and licensees shall ensure that there are arrangements in place to ensure
appropriate radiation protection for members of the public and for family members before a
patient is released following radionuclide therapy.
3.177. The radiological medical practitioner shall ensure that no patient who has undergone a
therapeutic procedure with sealed sources or unsealed sources is discharged from a medical radiation
facility until it has been established by either a medical physicist or the facility’s radiation protection
officer that:
45
This includes explicitly asking female patients whether they are or might be pregnant or are breast-feeding.
55
(a) The activity of radionuclides in the patient is such that doses that could be received by
members of the public and family members would be in compliance with the requirements set
by the relevant authorities (para. 3.148(b)); and
(b) The patient or legal guardian of the patient is provided with:
(i) Written instructions for keeping doses to persons in contact with or in the vicinity of the
patient as low as reasonably achievable and for avoiding the spread of contamination;
(ii) Information on the radiation risks.
Requirement 41: Unintended and accidental medical exposures

Registrants and licensees shall ensure that all practicable measures are taken to minimize the
likelihood of unintended or accidental medical exposures. Registrants and licensees shall
promptly investigate any such exposure and, if appropriate, shall implement corrective actions.
3.178. Registrants and licensees, in accordance with the relevant requirements of paras 2.51, 3.41–
3.44 and 3.50, shall ensure that all practicable measures are taken to minimize the likelihood of
unintended or accidental medical exposures arising from flaws in design and operational failures of
medical radiological equipment, from failures of and errors in software, or as a result of human error.
Investigation of unintended and accidental medical exposures
3.179. Registrants and licensees shall promptly investigate any of the following unintended or
accidental medical exposures:
(a) Any medical treatment delivered to the wrong individual or to the wrong tissue of the patient,
or using the wrong radiopharmaceutical, or with an activity, a dose or dose fractionation
differing substantially from (over or under) the values prescribed by the radiological medical
practitioner, or that could lead to unduly severe secondary effects;
(b) Any diagnostic radiological procedure or image guided interventional procedure in which the
wrong individual or the wrong tissue of the patient is subject to exposure;
(c) Any exposure for diagnostic purposes that is substantially greater than was intended;
(d) Any exposure arising from an image guided interventional procedure that is substantially
greater than was intended;
(e) Any inadvertent exposure of the embryo or fetus in the course of performing a radiological
procedure;
(f) Any failure of medical radiological equipment, software failure or system failure, or accident,
error, mishap or other unusual occurrence with the potential for subjecting the patient to a
medical exposure that is substantially different from what was intended.
3.180. Registrants and licensees shall, with regard to any unintended or accidental medical
exposures investigated as required in para. 3.179:
(a) Calculate or estimate the doses received and the dose distribution within the patient;
(b) Indicate the corrective actions required to prevent the recurrence of such an unintended or
accidental medical exposure;
(c) Implement all the corrective actions that are under their own responsibility;
(d) Produce and keep, as soon as possible after the investigation or as otherwise required by the
regulatory body, a written record that states the cause of the unintended or accidental medical
exposure and includes the information specified in (a) to (c) above, as relevant, and any other
information as required by the regulatory body; and for significant unintended or accidental
medical exposures or as otherwise required by the regulatory body, submit this written record,
as soon as possible, to the regulatory body, and to the relevant health authority if appropriate;
(e) Ensure that the appropriate radiological medical practitioner informs the referring medical
practitioner and the patient or the patient’s legal authorized representative of the unintended or
accidental medical exposure.
56
Requirement 42: Reviews and records

Registrants and licensees shall ensure that radiological reviews are performed periodically at
medical radiation facilities and that records are maintained.
Radiological reviews
3.181. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that radiological reviews are performed periodically by
the radiological medical practitioners at the medical radiation facility, in cooperation with the medical
radiation technologists and the medical physicists. The radiological review shall include an
investigation and critical review of the current practical application of the radiation protection
principles of justification and optimization for the radiological procedures that are performed in the
medical radiation facility.
Records
3.182. Registrants and licensees shall maintain for a period as specified by the regulatory body and
shall make available, as required, the following personnel records:
(a) Records of any delegation of responsibilities by principal parties (as required in para.
3.153(f));
(b) Records of training of personnel in radiation protection (as required in para. 3.149(b)).
shall make available, as required, the following records of calibration, dosimetry and quality
assurance:
(a) Records of the results of the calibrations and periodic checks of the relevant physical and
clinical parameters selected during treatment of patients;
(b) Records of dosimetry of patients, as required in para. 3.167;
(c) Records of local assessments and reviews made with regard to diagnostic reference levels, as
required in para. 3.168;
(d) Records associated with the quality assurance programme, as required in para. 3.170(d).
shall make available, as required, the following records for medical exposure:
(a) For diagnostic radiology, information necessary for retrospective assessment of doses,
including the number of exposures and the duration of fluoroscopic radiological procedures;
(b) For image guided interventional procedures, information necessary for retrospective
assessment of doses, including the duration of the fluoroscopic component and the number of
images acquired;
(c) For nuclear medicine, the types of radiopharmaceutical administered and their activity;
(d) For radiation therapy, a description of the planning target volume, the dose to the centre of the
planning target volume, and the maximum and minimum doses delivered to the planning target
volume, or equivalent alternative information on doses to the planning target volume, the
doses to relevant organs as selected by the radiological medical practitioner, the dose
fractionation, and the overall treatment time;
(e) Exposure records for volunteers subject to medical exposure as part of a programme of
biomedical research;
(f) Reports on investigations of unintended and accidental medical exposures (as required in para.
3.180(d)).
57
4. EMERGENCY EXPOSURE SITUATIONS
SCOPE
4.1. The requirements for emergency exposure situations established in Section 4 apply to
activities undertaken in preparedness for and in response to a nuclear or radiation emergency.
Requirement 43: Emergency management system
The government shall ensure that an integrated and coordinated emergency management
system is established and maintained.
4.2. The government shall ensure that an emergency management system is established and
maintained on the territories and within the jurisdiction of the State for the purposes of emergency
response to protect human life, health and the environment in the event of a nuclear or radiation
emergency.
4.3. The emergency management system shall be designed to be commensurate with the results
of a hazard assessment [15] and to enable an effective emergency response to reasonably foreseeable
events (including very low probability events) in connection with facilities or activities.
4.4. The emergency management system shall be integrated, to the extent practicable, into an all-
hazards emergency management system.
4.5. The emergency management system shall provide for essential elements at the scene, and at
the local, national and international level, as appropriate, including the following [15]:
(a) Hazard assessment;

(b) Development and exercising of emergency plans and emergency procedures;
(c) Clear allocation of responsibilities of persons and organizations having roles in the
arrangements for emergency preparedness and response;
(d) Arrangements for efficient and effective cooperation and coordination among organizations;
(e) Reliable communication, including public information;
(f) Optimized protection strategies for the implementation and the termination of measures for the
protection of members of the public who could be subject to exposure in an emergency,
including relevant considerations for protection of the environment;
(g) Arrangements for the protection of emergency workers;
(h) Education and training, including training in radiation protection, of all persons involved in
emergency response and exercising of emergency plans and emergency procedures;
(i) Preparations for the transition from an emergency exposure situation to an existing exposure
situation;
(j) Arrangements for the medical response and the public health response in an emergency;
(k) Provision for individual monitoring and environmental monitoring and for dose assessment;
(l) Involvement of relevant parties and interested parties.
4.6. The government shall ensure the coordination of its emergency arrangements and
capabilities with international emergency arrangements.
58
PUBLIC EXPOSURE
Requirement 44: Preparedness and response to an emergency
The government shall ensure that protection strategies are developed, justified and optimized at
the planning stage, and that emergency response is undertaken through their timely
implementation.
4.7. The government shall ensure that protection strategies are developed, justified, and
optimized at the planning stage, by using scenarios based on the hazard assessment, for avoiding
deterministic effects and reducing the likelihood of stochastic effects due to public exposure.
4.8. Development of a protection strategy shall include, but shall not be limited to, the following
three successive steps:
(1) A reference level expressed in terms of residual dose shall be set, typically an effective dose in
the range 20–100 mSv, that includes dose contributions via all exposure pathways. The
protection strategy shall include planning for residual doses to be as low as reasonably
achievable below the reference level, and the strategy shall be optimized.
(2) On the basis of the outcome of the optimization of the protection strategy, using the reference
level, generic criteria for particular protective actions and other actions, expressed in terms of
projected dose or dose that has been received, shall be developed. If the numerical values of
the generic criteria46 are exceeded, those protective actions and other actions, either
individually or in combination, shall be implemented.
(3) Once the protection strategy has been optimized and a set of generic criteria has been
developed, pre-established default triggers for initiating the different parts of an emergency
plan, primarily for the initial phase, shall be derived from the generic criteria. Default triggers,
such as on-scene conditions, operational intervention levels and emergency action levels, shall
be expressed in terms of parameters or observable conditions. Arrangements shall be
established in advance to revise these triggers, as appropriate, in an emergency exposure
situation, with account taken of the prevailing conditions as these evolve.
4.9. Each protective action shall be justified in the context of the protection strategy.
4.10. The government shall ensure that in making arrangements for emergency preparedness and
response it is taken into consideration that emergencies are dynamic, that decisions taken early in the
response may have an impact on subsequent actions, and that different geographical areas may have
different prevailing conditions and different requirements for the response.
4.11. The government shall ensure that the response in an emergency exposure situation is
undertaken through the timely implementation of arrangements for emergency response, including but
not limited to:
(a) Promptly implementing protective actions to avoid severe deterministic effects on the basis of
observed conditions and, if possible, before any exposure occurs. Dose levels required to be
used as generic criteria for preventing severe deterministic effects are given in Schedule IV,
Table IV-1;
(b) Assessing the effectiveness of the actions implemented and modifying them as appropriate;
(c) Comparing residual doses with the applicable reference level, giving priority to those groups
for whom residual doses exceed the reference level;
46
Table A-1 in the Annex provides a set of generic criteria for use in the protection strategy that are compatible
with reference levels within a range of 20–100 mSv, and further details for specific actions in different time
frames.
59
(d) Implementing further protection strategies as necessary, on the basis of prevailing conditions
and available information.
EXPOSURE OF EMERGENCY WORKERS

Requirement 45: Arrangements for controlling the exposure of emergency workers
The government shall establish a programme for managing, controlling and recording the doses
received in an emergency by emergency workers.
4.12. The government shall establish a programme for managing, controlling and recording the
doses received in an emergency by emergency workers, which shall be implemented by response
organizations and employers.
4.13. The response organization and employers responsible for ensuring compliance with the
requirements in paras 4.14–4.19 shall be specified in the emergency plan.
4.14. In an emergency exposure situation, the relevant requirements for occupational exposure in
planned exposure situations (paras 3.68–3.116) shall be applied for emergency workers, in accordance
with a graded approach, except as required in para. 4.15.
4.15. Response organizations and employers shall ensure that no emergency worker is subject to
an exposure in an emergency in excess of 50 mSv other than:
(a) For the purposes of saving life or preventing serious injury;

(b) When undertaking actions to prevent severe deterministic effects and actions to prevent the
development of catastrophic conditions that could significantly affect people and the
environment; or
(c) When undertaking actions to avert a large collective dose.
4.16. In the exceptional circumstances of para. 4.15, response organizations and employers shall
make all reasonable efforts to keep doses to emergency workers below the values set out in Schedule
IV, Table IV-2. In addition, emergency workers undertaking actions due to which their doses could
approach or exceed the values set out in Schedule IV, Table IV-2 shall do so only when the expected
benefits to others would clearly outweigh the risks to the emergency workers.
4.17. Response organizations and employers shall ensure that emergency workers who undertake
actions in which the doses received might exceed 50 mSv do so voluntarily47; that they have been
clearly and comprehensively informed in advance of the associated health risks, as well as of available
protective measures; and that they are, to the extent possible, trained in the actions that they may be
required to take.
4.18. Response organizations and employers shall take all reasonable steps to assess and record the
doses received in an emergency by emergency workers. Information of the doses received and
information concerning the associated health risks shall be communicated to the workers involved.
4.19. Workers who receive doses in an emergency exposure situation shall not normally be
precluded from incurring further occupational exposure. However, qualified medical advice shall be
obtained before any further occupational exposure if a worker has received a dose exceeding 200 mSv
or at the request of the worker.
47
The voluntary basis for response actions by emergency workers is usually covered in the emergency response
arrangements.
60
TRANSITION FROM AN EMERGENCY EXPOSURE SITUATION TO AN EXISTING

EXPOSURE SITUATION
Requirement 46: Arrangements for the transition from an emergency exposure situation to an
existing exposure situation
The government shall ensure that arrangements are in place and are implemented as
appropriate for the transition from an emergency exposure situation to an existing exposure
situation.
4.20. The government shall ensure that, as part of its overall emergency preparedness,
arrangements are in place for the transition from an emergency exposure situation to an existing
exposure situation. The arrangements shall take into account that different geographic areas may
undergo the transition at different times. The responsible authority shall take the decision to make the
transition to an existing exposure situation. The transition shall be made in a coordinated and orderly
manner, by making any necessary transfer of responsibilities between organizations, with the
involvement of relevant authorities and interested parties.
4.21. Workers undertaking work such as repairs to plant and buildings or activities for radioactive
waste management or remedial work for the decontamination of the site and surrounding areas, shall
be subject to the relevant requirements for occupational exposure in planned exposure situations stated
in Section 3.
61
5. EXISTING EXPOSURE SITUATIONS
SCOPE
5.1. The requirements for existing exposure situations in Section 5 apply to:
(a) Exposure due to contamination of areas by residual radioactive material arising from:
(i) Past activities that were never subject to regulatory control or that were subject to
regulatory control but not in accordance with the requirements of these Standards;
(ii) A nuclear or radiation emergency, after an emergency exposure situation has been
declared ended (as required in para. 4.20);
(b) Exposure due to commodities, including food, feed, drinking water and construction materials,
that incorporate radionuclides arising from residual radioactive material as stated in para.
5.1(a);
(c) Exposure due to natural sources, including:
222
(i) Rn, 220Rn and their progeny, in workplaces other than those for which exposure due
to other radionuclides in the uranium or thorium decay chains is controlled as a
planned exposure situation, in dwellings and in other buildings with high occupancy
factors for members of the public;
(ii) Radionuclides of natural origin, regardless of activity concentration, in commodities,
including food, feed, drinking water, agricultural fertilizer and soil amendments, and
construction material, and existing residues in the environment;
(iii) Materials, other than those stated in para. 5.1(c)(ii), in which the activity
concentration of no radionuclide in either the uranium or thorium decay chains
exceeds 1 Bq/g or the activity concentration of 40K does not exceed 10 Bq/g;
(iv) Exposure of aircrew and space crew to cosmic radiation.
Requirement 47: Responsibilities of the government specific to existing exposure situations
The government shall ensure that existing exposure situations that have been identified are
evaluated to determine which occupational exposures and public exposures are of concern from
the point of view of radiation protection.
5.2. The government shall ensure that, when an existing exposure situation is identified,
responsibilities for protection and safety are assigned and appropriate reference levels are established.
5.3. The government shall include in the legal and regulatory framework for protection and safety
(see Section 2) provision for the management of existing exposure situations. The government, in the
legal and regulatory framework, as appropriate:
(a) Shall specify the exposure situation that are included in the scope of existing exposure
situations;48
48
In the case of exposure due to radon, the types of situation that are included in the scope of existing exposure
situations will include exposure in workplaces for which the exposure due to radon is not required by or directly
related to the work and for which annual average activity concentrations due to 222Rn might be expected to
exceed the reference level established in accordance with para. 5.27.
62
(b) Shall specify the general principles underlying the protection strategies developed to reduce
exposure when remedial actions and protective actions have been determined to be justified;49
(c) Shall assign responsibilities for the establishment and implementation of protection strategies
to the regulatory body and to other relevant authorities50 and, as appropriate, to registrants,
licensees and other parties involved in the implementation of remedial and protective actions;
(d) Shall provide for the involvement of interested parties in decisions regarding the development
and implementation of protection strategies, as appropriate.
5.4. The regulatory body or other relevant authority assigned to establish a protection strategy for
an existing exposure situation shall ensure that it defines:
(a) The objectives to be achieved by means of the protection strategy;
(b) Appropriate reference levels.
5.5. The regulatory body or other relevant authority shall implement the protection strategy,
including:
(a) Arranging for evaluation of the available remedial actions and protective actions for achieving
the objectives, and for evaluation of the efficiency of the actions planned and implemented;
(b) Ensuring that information is available to individuals subject to exposure on potential health
risks and on the means available for reducing their exposures and the associated risks.
PUBLIC EXPOSURE
Scope
5.6. The requirements in respect of public exposure in existing exposure situations (paras 5.7–5.23)
apply to any public exposure arising from the situations specified in para. 5.1.
Requirement 48: Justification for protective actions and optimization of protection and safety
The government and the regulatory body or other relevant authority shall ensure that remedial
actions and protective actions are justified and that the protection and safety is optimized.
5.7. The government and the regulatory body or other relevant authority shall ensure that the
protection strategy for the management of existing exposure situations, established in accordance with
paras 5.2 and 5.4, is commensurate with the radiation risks associated with the existing exposure
situation; and that remedial actions or protective actions are expected to yield sufficient benefits to
outweigh the detriments associated with taking them, including detriments in the form of radiation
risks.51
5.8. The regulatory body or other relevant authority and other parties responsible for remedial
actions or protective actions shall ensure that the form, scale and duration of such actions are
49
Such actions include remedial actions such as the removal or reduction of the source giving rise to the
exposure, as well as other longer term protective actions such as restriction of the use of construction materials,
restriction of the consumption of foodstuffs and restriction of land use or of access to land or buildings.
50
In existing exposure situations that do not fall under the jurisdiction of the regulatory body, another relevant
authority, such as a health authority, may have the authority for implementing measures for protection and
safety.
51
The implementation of remedial actions (remediation) does not imply the elimination of all radioactivity or all
traces of radioactive material. The optimization process may lead to extensive remediation but not necessarily to
the restoration of previous conditions.
63
optimized. While this optimization process is intended to provide optimized protection for all
individuals subject to exposure, priority shall be given to those groups for whom residual dose exceeds
the reference level. All reasonable steps shall be taken to prevent doses remaining above the reference
levels. Reference levels shall typically be expressed as an annual effective dose to the representative
person in the range 1–20 mSv or other equivalent quantity, the actual value depending on the
feasibility of controlling the situation and experience in managing similar situations in the past.
5.9. The regulatory body or other relevant authority shall periodically review the reference levels
to ensure that they remain appropriate in the light of the prevailing circumstances.
Requirement 49: Responsibilities for remediation of areas with residual radioactive material
The government shall ensure that provision is made for identifying those persons or
organizations responsible for areas with residual radioactive material, for establishing and
implementing remediation programmes and post-remediation control measures, if appropriate,
and for putting in place an appropriate strategy for radioactive waste management.
5.10. For the remediation of areas with residual radioactive material from past activities or from a
nuclear or radiation emergency (para. 5.1(a)), the government shall ensure that provision is made in
the framework for protection and safety for:
(a) The identification of those persons or organizations responsible for the contamination of areas
and those responsible for financing the remediation programme, and the determination of
appropriate arrangements for alternative sources of funding if such persons or organizations
are no longer present or are unable to meet their liabilities;
(b) The designation of persons or organizations responsible for planning, implementing and
verifying the results of remedial actions;
(c) The establishment of any restrictions on the use of or access to the areas concerned before,
during and, if necessary, after remediation;
(d) An appropriate system for maintaining, retrieval and amendment of records that cover the
nature and the extent of contamination; the decisions made before, during and after
remediation; and information on verification of the results of remedial actions, including the
results of all monitoring and surveillance programmes after completion of the remedial
actions.
5.11. The government shall ensure that a strategy for radioactive waste management is put in place
to deal with any waste arising from the remedial actions and that provision for such a strategy is made
in the framework for protection and safety.
5.12. The persons or organizations responsible for the planning, implementation and verification of
remedial actions shall, as appropriate, ensure that:
(a) A remedial action plan, supported by a safety assessment, is prepared and is submitted to the
regulatory body or other relevant authority for approval;
(b) The remedial action plan is aimed at the timely and progressive reduction of the radiation risks
and eventually, if possible, the removal of restrictions on use of or access to the area;
(c) Any additional dose received by members of the public as a result of the remedial actions is
justified on the basis of the resulting net benefit, including consideration of the consequent
reduction of the annual dose;
(d) In the choice of the optimized remediation option:
(i) The radiological impacts on people and the environment are considered together with
non-radiological impacts on people and the environment, and technical, societal and
economic factors;
64
(ii) The costs of the transport and management of radioactive waste, the radiation
exposure of and health risks to the workers managing the waste, and any subsequent
public exposure associated with its disposal are all taken into account;
(e) A mechanism for public information is in place and the interested parties affected by the
existing exposure situation are involved in the planning, implementation and verification of
the remedial actions, including any monitoring and surveillance following remediation;
(f) A monitoring programme is established and implemented;
(g) A system for maintaining adequate records relating to the existing exposure situation and
actions taken for protection and safety is in place;
(h) Procedures are in place for reporting to the regulatory body on any abnormal conditions
relevant to protection and safety.
5.13. The regulatory body or other relevant authority, in accordance with para. 2.29, shall take
responsibility in particular for:
(a) Review of the safety assessment submitted by the responsible person or organization, approval
of the remedial action plan and of any subsequent changes to the remedial action plan, and
granting of any necessary authorization;
(b) Establishment of criteria and methods for assessing safety;
(c) Review of work procedures, monitoring programmes and records;
(d) Review and approval of significant changes to procedures or equipment that may have
radiological environmental impacts or that may alter the exposure conditions for workers
taking remedial actions or members of the public;
(e) Where necessary, establishment of regulatory requirements for control measures following
remediation.
5.14. The person or organization responsible for carrying out the remedial actions:
(a) Shall ensure that the work, including management of the radioactive waste arising, is
conducted in accordance with the remedial action plan;
(b) Shall take responsibility for all aspects of protection and safety, including the performance of
a safety assessment;
(c) Shall monitor and perform a radiological survey of the area regularly during the remediation
work so as to verify levels of contamination, to verify compliance with the requirements for
waste management, and to enable any unexpected levels of radiation to be detected and the
remedial action plan to be modified accordingly, subject to approval by the regulatory body or
other relevant authority;
(d) Shall perform a radiological survey after completion of remedial actions to demonstrate that
the end point conditions, as established in the remedial action plan, have been met;
(e) Shall prepare and retain a final remediation report and shall submit a copy to the regulatory
body or other relevant authority.
5.15. After the remedial actions have been completed, the regulatory body or other relevant
authority:
(a) Shall review, amend as necessary and formalize the type, extent and duration of any post-
remediation control measures already identified in the remedial action plan, with due
consideration of the residual radiation risks;
(b) Shall identify the person or organization responsible for any post-remediation control
measures;
(c) Shall where necessary impose specific restrictions for the remediated area to control:
(i) Access by unauthorized persons;
(ii) Removal of radioactive material or use of such material, including its use in
commodities;
65
(iii) Future use of the area, including the use of water resources and use for the production
of food or feed, and the consumption of food from the area;
(d) Shall periodically review conditions in the remediated area and, if appropriate, shall amend or
remove any restrictions.
5.16. The person or organization responsible for post-remediation control measures shall establish
and maintain for as long as required by the regulatory body or other relevant authority an appropriate
programme, including any necessary provisions for monitoring and surveillance, to verify the long
term effectiveness of the completed remedial actions for areas in which controls are required after
remediation has been completed.
5.17. For those areas with long lasting residual radioactive material in which the government has
decided to allow habitation and the resumption of social and economic activities, the government, in
consultation with interested parties, shall ensure that arrangements are in place, as necessary, for the
ongoing control of exposure with the aim of establishing conditions for sustainable living, including:
(a) Establishment of reference levels for protection and safety consistent with day to day life;
(b) Establishment of an infrastructure to support continuing ‘self-help protective actions’ in the
affected areas, such as by the provision of information and advice and by monitoring.
5.18. The conditions prevailing after the completion of remedial actions, if the regulatory body or
other relevant authority has imposed no restrictions or controls, shall be considered to constitute the
background conditions for any new facilities and activities or for habitation of the land.
Requirement 50: Public exposure due to radon indoors

The government shall provide information on levels of radon indoors and the associated health
risks and, if appropriate, shall establish and implement an action plan for controlling public
exposure due to radon indoors.
5.19. As part of its responsibilities as required in para. 5.3, the government shall ensure that:
(a) Information is gathered on activity concentrations of radon in dwellings and other buildings
with high occupancy factors for members of the public52 through appropriate means such as
representative radon surveys;
(b) Relevant information on exposure due to radon and the associated health risks, including the
increased risks relating to smoking, is provided to members of the public and other interested
parties.
5.20. Where activity concentrations of radon that are of concern for public health are identified on
the basis of the information gathered as required in para. 5.19(a), the government shall ensure that an
action plan is established comprising coordinated actions to reduce radon levels for existing buildings
and for future buildings, which includes53:
(a) Establishing an appropriate reference level for 222Rn for dwellings and other buildings with high
occupancy factors for members of the public with account taken of the prevailing social and
economic circumstances that in general will not exceed an annual average activity concentration
due to 222Rn of 300 Bq/m3 54;
(b) Reducing activity concentrations of 222Rn and consequent exposures to a level at which
protection is optimized;
52
Buildings with high occupancy factors for members of the public include kindergartens, schools and hospitals.
53
Guidance on the preparation of an action plan for radon is provided, for example, in Ref. [6].
54
On the assumption of an equilibrium factor for 222Rn of 0.4 and an annual occupancy rate of 7000 hours, the
value of activity concentration of 300 Bq/m3 corresponds to an annual effective dose of the order of 10 mSv.
66
(c) Giving priority to reducing activity concentrations of 222Rn in those situations for which such
action is likely to be most effective55;
(d) Including appropriate prevention and mitigation measures for 222Rn exposure in building codes
to prevent the ingress of radon and to facilitate possible remedial actions wherever necessary.
5.21. The government shall assign responsibility for:

222
(a) Establishing and implementing the action plan for controlling public exposure due to Rn
indoors;
(b) Determining the circumstances under which remedial action is to be mandatory or is to be

voluntary, with account taken of legal requirements and of the prevailing social and economic
circumstances.
Requirement 51: Exposure due to radionuclides in commodities

The regulatory body or other relevant authority shall establish reference levels for radionuclides
in commodities.
5.22. The regulatory body or other relevant authority shall establish specific reference levels for
exposure due to radionuclides in commodities such as construction material, food, feed and drinking
water, each of which shall typically be expressed as, or based on, an annual effective dose to the
representative person generally that does not exceed a value of about 1 mSv.
5.23. The regulatory body or other relevant authority shall consider the guideline levels for
radionuclides contained in food traded internationally that could contain radioactive substances as a
result of a nuclear or radiation emergency, as published by the Joint FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius
Commission [23]. The regulatory body or other relevant authority shall consider the guideline levels
for radionuclides contained in drinking water that have been published by the WHO [24].
Scope
5.24. The requirements in respect of occupational exposure in existing exposure situations (paras
5.25–5.33) apply to any occupational exposure arising from the situations specified in para. 5.1.
Requirement 52: Exposure in workplaces

The regulatory body shall establish and enforce requirements for the protection of workers in
existing exposure situations.
5.25. The requirements in respect of public exposure stated in paras 5.7–5.9 shall be applied for
protection and safety for workers in existing exposure situations, other than in those specific situations
identified in paras 5.26–5.33.
55
Examples of giving priority to reducing activity concentrations of 222Rn in those situations for which such
action is likely to be most effective include (a) specifying levels of activity concentrations of 222Rn in dwellings
and other buildings with high occupancy factors at which protection can be considered optimized; (b) identifying
radon prone areas; (c) identifying characteristics of buildings that are likely to give rise to elevated activity
concentrations of 222Rn ; and (d) identifying and requiring preventive measures for radon in future buildings that
can be introduced at relatively low cost.
67
Remediation of areas with residual radioactive material
5.26. Employers shall ensure that the exposure of workers undertaking remedial actions is
controlled in accordance with the relevant requirements for occupational exposure in planned exposure
situations established in Section 3.
Exposure due to radon in workplaces
5.27. The regulatory body or other relevant authority shall establish a strategy for protection against
exposure due to 222Rn in workplaces, including the establishment of an appropriate reference level for
222
Rn. The reference level for 222Rn shall be set at a value that does not exceed an annual average
activity concentration of 222Rn of 1000 Bq/m3, with account taken of the prevailing social and
economic circumstances.56
5.28. Employers shall ensure that activity concentrations of 222Rn in workplaces are as low as
reasonably achievable below the reference level established in accordance with para. 5.27, and shall
ensure that protection is optimized.
5.29. If, despite all reasonable efforts by the employer to reduce radon levels, the activity
concentration of 222Rn in the workplace remains above the reference level established in accordance
with para. 5.27, the relevant requirements for occupational exposure in planned exposure situations as
stated in Section 3 shall apply.
Exposure of aircrew and space crew due to cosmic radiation
5.30. The regulatory body or other relevant authority shall determine whether assessment of the
exposure of aircrew due to cosmic radiation is warranted.
5.31. Where such assessment is deemed to be warranted, the regulatory body or other relevant
authority shall establish a framework which shall include a reference level of dose and a methodology
for the assessment and recording of doses received by aircrew from occupational exposure to cosmic
radiation.
5.32. In accordance with para. 5.31:
(a) Where the dose of aircrew members is likely to exceed the reference level, employers of
aircrew:
(i) shall assess doses and keep records;
(ii) shall make records available to aircrew members;
(b) Employers:
(i) shall inform female aircrew members of the risk to the embryo or fetus due to
exposure to cosmic radiation and of the need for early notification of pregnancy;
(ii) shall apply the requirements of para. 3.114 in respect of notification of pregnancy.
5.33. The regulatory body or other relevant authority shall establish, where appropriate, a framework
for radiation protection that applies to individuals in space based activities that is appropriate for the
exceptional conditions of space. While the requirements of these Standards in respect of dose limits do
not apply to individuals in space based activities, all reasonable efforts shall be made to optimize
protection by restricting the doses received by these individuals while not unduly limiting the extent of
the activities that they undertake.
56
On the assumption of an equilibrium factor for 222Rn of 0.4 and an annual occupancy rate of 2000 hours, the
value of activity concentration due to 222Rn of 1000 Bq/m3 corresponds to an annual effective dose of the order
of 10 mSv.
69
Schedule I
EXEMPTION AND CLEARANCE
CRITERIA FOR EXEMPTION
I-1. The general criteria for exemption are that:
(a) Radiation risks arising from the practice or a source within a practice are sufficiently low as
not to warrant regulatory control, with no appreciable likelihood of situations that could lead
to a failure to meet the general criterion for exemption; or
(b) Regulatory control of the practice or the source would yield no net benefit, in that no
reasonable control measures would achieve a worthwhile return in terms of reduction of
individual doses or of health risks.
I-2. A practice or a source within a practice may be exempted under the terms of para. I-1(a)
without further consideration provided that under all reasonably foreseeable circumstances the
effective dose expected to be incurred by any member of the public (normally evaluated on the basis
of a safety assessment) owing to the exempted practice or the exempted source within the practice is
of the order of 10 µSv or less in a year. To take into account low probability scenarios, a different
criterion could be used, namely that the effective dose expected to be incurred by any member of the
public for such low probability scenarios does not exceed 1 mSv in a year.
I-3. Under the criteria set out in paras I-1 and I-2, the following sources within justified practices
are automatically exempted without further consideration from the requirements of these Standards,
including requirements for notification, registration or licensing:
(a) Radioactive material in a moderate amount57 for which either the total activity of an individual
radionuclide present on the premises at any one time or the activity concentration as used in
the practice does not exceed the applicable exemption level given in Table I-1 of Schedule I;58
(b) Radioactive material in bulk amount57 for which the activity concentration of a given
radionuclide of artificial origin used in the practice does not exceed the relevant value given in
Table I-2 of Schedule I58;
(c) Radiation generators of a type approved by the regulatory body, or in the form of an electronic
tube, such as a cathode ray tube for the display of visual images, provided that:
(i) They do not in normal operating conditions cause an ambient dose equivalent rate or a
directional dose equivalent rate, as appropriate, exceeding 1 µSv/h at a distance of 0.1
m from any accessible surface of the equipment; or
(ii) The maximum energy of the radiation generated is no greater than 5 keV.
57
The exemption values (activity concentrations) presented in Table I-1 have been calculated on the basis of
scenarios involving a moderate amount of material: “The calculated values apply to practices involving small
scale usage of activity where the quantities involved are at the most of the order of a tonne” (see Ref. [25]). The
regulatory body will need to establish the amounts for which the concentration values in Table I-1 may be
applied, bearing in mind that for many radionuclides, in particular those for which there is no corresponding
value given in Table I-2, a restriction on the amount is not meaningful.
58
The exemption levels set out in Table I-1 and the exemption and clearance levels set out in Table I-2 of
Schedule I are subject to the following considerations: (a) They were derived using a conservative model based
on (i) the criteria of paras I-2 and I-11 respectively and (ii) a series of limiting (bounding) scenarios for use and
disposal (see Ref. [25] in the case of Table I-1 and Ref. [26] in the case of Table I-2). (b) If there is more than
one radionuclide, the derived exemption level or derived clearance level for the mixture is determined as
specified in paras I-7 and I-14.
70
I-4. For radionuclides of natural origin, exemption of bulk amounts of material is necessarily
considered on a case by case basis59 by using a dose criterion of the order of 1 mSv in a year,
commensurate with typical doses due to natural background levels of radiation.
I-5. The IAEA Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material [12] (the Transport
Regulations) do not apply to exempt material or exempt consignments; that is, they do not apply to
material in transport for which the activity concentration of the material (for exempt material) or the
total activity of radionuclides in the consignment (for an exempt consignment) does not exceed the
relevant ‘basic radionuclide value’ for exemption given in the Transport Regulations60. Usually, such
basic radionuclide values are numerically equal to the corresponding exempt activity concentrations or
exempt activities given in Table I-1 of Schedule I.
I-6. Exemptions may be granted subject to conditions specified by the regulatory body, such as
conditions relating to the physical or chemical form of the radioactive material, and to its use or the
means of its disposal. In particular, such an exemption may be granted for equipment containing
radioactive material that is not otherwise exempted under para. I-3(a) provided that:
(a) The equipment containing radioactive material is of a type approved by the regulatory body;
(b) The radioactive material:

(i) Is in the form of a sealed source that effectively prevents any contact with the
radioactive material and prevents its leakage; or
(ii) Is in the form of an unsealed source in a small amount such as sources used for
radioimmunoassay;
(c) In normal operating conditions the equipment does not cause an ambient dose equivalent rate or
a directional dose equivalent rate, as appropriate, exceeding 1 µSv/h at a distance of 0.1 m from
any accessible surface of the equipment;
(d) Necessary conditions for disposal of the equipment have been specified by the regulatory body.
I-7. For exemption of radioactive material containing more than one radionuclide, on the basis of
the levels given in Table I-1 and Table I-2, the condition for exemption is that the sum of the
individual radionuclide activities or activity concentrations, as appropriate, is less than the derived
exemption level for the mixture ( X m ), determined as follows:
1
Xm = n
f (i)
∑ X (i)
i =1
where f(i) is the fraction of activity or activity concentration, as appropriate, of radionuclide i in the
mixture, X(i) is the applicable level for radionuclide i as given in Table I-1 or Table I-2, and n is the
number of radionuclides present.
I-8. Radioactive material arising from authorized discharges is exempted from any requirements
for notification, registration or licensing unless otherwise specified by the regulatory body.
59
Material containing radionuclides of natural origin at an activity concentration of less than 1 Bq/g for any
radionuclide in the uranium and thorium decay chains and of less than 10 Bq/g for 40K is outside the scope of
planned exposure situations (para. 3.4(a)); hence the concept of exemption does not apply for such material.
60
For the purposes of material in transport, ‘exemption’ means exemption from the requirements of the IAEA
Transport Regulations [12].
71
I-9. The values provided in Table I-1 and Table I-2 are not intended to be applied to the control
of discharges or the control of radioactive residues in the environment.
CRITERIA FOR CLEARANCE
I-10. The general criteria for clearance are that:
(a) Radiation risks arising from the cleared material are sufficiently low as not to warrant regulatory
control, with no appreciable likelihood of occurrence for scenarios that could lead to a failure to
meet the general criterion for clearance; or
(b) Continued regulatory control of the material would yield no net benefit, in that no reasonable
control measures would achieve a worthwhile return in terms of reduction of individual doses or
of health risks.
I-11. Material may be cleared under the terms of para. I-10(a) without further consideration
provided that in all reasonably foreseeable situations the effective dose expected to be incurred by any
member of the public due to the cleared material is of the order of 10 µSv or less in a year. To take
into account low probability scenarios, a different criterion can be used, namely that the effective dose
expected to be incurred by any member of the public for such low probability scenarios does not
exceed 1 mSv in a year.
I-12. Radioactive material within a notified practice or an authorized practice may be cleared
without further consideration provided that:
(a) The activity concentration of an individual radionuclide of artificial origin in solid form does not
exceed the relevant level given in Table I-2 of Schedule I58; or
(b) The activity concentrations of radionuclides of natural origin do not exceed the relevant level
given in Table I-3 of Schedule I61; or
(c) For radionuclides of natural origin in residues that might be recycled into construction
materials62 or the disposal of which is liable to cause the contamination of drinking water
supplies, the activity concentration in the residues does not exceed specific values derived so as
to meet a dose criterion of the order of 1 mSv in a year, commensurate with typical doses due to
natural background levels of radiation.
I-13. Clearance may be granted by the regulatory body for specific situations, on the basis of the
criteria of paras I-10 and I-11, with account taken of the physical or chemical form of the
radioactive material, and its use or the means of its disposal63. Such clearance levels may be
specified in terms of activity concentration per unit mass or per unit surface area.
I-14. For clearance of radioactive material containing more than one radionuclide of artificial
origin, on the basis of the levels given in Table I-2, the condition for clearance is that the sum of the
individual radionuclide activity concentrations is less than the derived clearance level for the mixture
( X m ), determined as follows:
61
These values of activity concentration may also be applied for the clearance of materials arising from practices
subject to the clearance criteria given in para. I-11, pending the establishment of radionuclide specific values for
the radionuclides of natural origin given in Table I-3.
62
Regulatory control of construction materials is addressed in Section 5 as an existing exposure situation.
63
For example, specific clearance levels may be developed for metals, rubble from buildings and waste for
disposal in landfill sites.
72
1
Xm = n
f (i )
∑
i =1 X (i )
where f(i) is the fraction of activity concentration of radionuclide i in the mixture, X(i) is the applicable
level for radionuclide i as given in Table I-2, and n is the number of radionuclides present.
I-15. For clearance of bulk quantities of material containing a mixture of radionuclides of natural
origin and radionuclides of artificial origin, the conditions given in paras I-12(b) and I-14 both have to
be satisfied.
73
TABLE I-1: LEVELS FOR EXEMPTION OF MODERATE AMOUNTS OF MATERIAL

WITHOUT FURTHER CONSIDERATION: EXEMPT ACTIVITY CONCENTRATIONS AND
EXEMPT ACTIVITIES OF RADIONUCLIDES (see footnotes 57 and 58)
Activity Activity Activity Activity

Radionuclide concentration (Bq) Radionuclide concentration (Bq)
(Bq/g) (Bq/g)
H-3 1 × 106 1 × 109 Sc-48 1 × 101 1 × 105
Be-7 1 × 103 1 × 107 Sc-49 1 × 103 1 × 105
Be-10 1 × 104 1 × 106 Ti-44 1 × 101 1 × 105
C-11 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ti-45 1 × 101 1 × 106
C-14 1 × 104 1 × 107 V-47 1 × 101 1 × 105
N-13 1 × 102 1 × 109 V-48 1 × 101 1 × 105
Ne-19 1 × 102 1 × 109 V-49 1 × 104 1 × 107
O-15 1 × 102 1 × 109 Cr-48 1 × 102 1 × 106
F-18 1 × 101 1 × 106 Cr-49 1 × 101 1 × 106
Na-22 1 × 101 1 × 106 Cr-51 1 × 103 1 × 107
Na-24 1 × 101 1 × 105 Mn-51 1 × 101 1 × 105
Mg-28 1 × 101 1 × 105 Mn-52 1 × 101 1 × 105
Al-26 1 × 101 1 × 105 Mn-52m 1 × 101 1 × 105
Si-31 1 × 103 1 × 106 Mn-53 1 × 104 1 × 109
Si-32 1 × 103 1 × 106 Mn-54 1 × 101 1 × 106
P-32 1 × 103 1 × 105 Mn-56 1 × 101 1 × 105
P-33 1 × 105 1 × 108 Fe-52 1 × 101 1 × 106
S-35 1 × 105 1 × 108 Fe-55 1 × 104 1 × 106
Cl-36 1 × 104 1 × 106 Fe-59 1 × 101 1 × 106
Cl-38 1 × 101 1 × 105 Fe-60 1 × 102 1 × 105
Cl-39 1 × 101 1 × 105 Co-55 1 × 101 1 × 106
Ar-37 1 × 106 1 × 108 Co-56 1 × 101 1 × 105
Ar-39 1 × 107 1 × 104 Co-57 1 × 102 1 × 106
Ar-41 1 × 102 1 × 109 Co-58 1 × 101 1 × 106
K-40 1 × 102 1 × 106 Co-58m 1 × 104 1 × 107
K-42 1 × 102 1 × 106 Co-60 1 × 101 1 × 105
K-43 1 × 101 1 × 106 Co-60m 1 × 103 1 × 106
K-44 1 × 101 1 × 105 Co-61 1 × 102 1 × 106
K-45 1 × 101 1 × 105 Co-62m 1 × 101 1 × 105
Ca-41 1 × 105 1 × 107 Ni-56 1 × 101 1 × 106
Ca-45 1 × 104 1 × 107 Ni-57 1 × 101 1 × 106
Ca-47 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ni-59 1 × 104 1 × 108
Sc-43 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ni-63 1 × 105 1 × 108
Sc-44 1 × 101 1 × 105 Ni-65 1 × 101 1 × 106
Sc-45 1 × 102 1 × 107 Ni-66 1 × 104 1 × 107
Sc-46 1 × 101 1 × 106 Cu-60 1 × 101 1 × 105
Sc-47 1 × 102 1 × 106 Cu-61 1 × 101 1 × 106
74

(Bq/g) (Bq/g)
Cu-64 1 × 102 1 × 106 Br-74 1 × 101 1 × 105
Cu-67 1 × 102 1 × 106 Br-74m 1 × 101 1 × 105
Zn-62 1 × 102 1 × 106 Br-75 1 × 101 1 × 106
Zn-63 1 × 101 1 × 105 Br-76 1 × 101 1 × 105
Zn-65 1 × 101 1 × 106 Br-77 1 × 102 1 × 106
Zn-69 1 × 104 1 × 106 Br-80 1 × 102 1 × 105
Zn-69m 1 × 102 1 × 106 Br-80m 1 × 103 1 × 107
Zn-71m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Br-82 1 × 101 1 × 106
Zn-72 1 × 102 1 × 106 Br-83 1 × 103 1 × 106
Ga-65 1 × 101 1 × 105 Br-84 1 × 101 1 × 105
Ga-66 1 × 101 1 × 105 Kr-74 1 × 102 1 × 109
Ga-67 1 × 102 1 × 106 Kr-76 1 × 102 1 × 109
Ga-68 1 × 101 1 × 105 Kr-77 1 × 102 1 × 109
Ga-70 1 × 102 1 × 106 Kr-79 1 × 103 1 × 105
Ga-72 1 × 101 1 × 105 Kr-81 1 × 104 1 × 107
Ga-73 1 × 102 1 × 106 Kr-81m 1 × 103 1 × 1010
Ge-66 1 × 101 1 × 106 Kr-83m 1 × 105 1 × 1012
Ge-67 1 × 101 1 × 105 Kr-85 1 × 105 1 × 104
Ge-68a 1 × 101 1 × 105 Kr-85m 1 × 103 1 × 1010
Ge-69 1 × 101 1 × 106 Kr-87 1 × 102 1 × 109
Ge-71 1 × 104 1 × 108 Kr-88 1 × 102 1 × 109
Ge-75 1 × 103 1 × 106 Rb-79 1 × 101 1 × 105
Ge-77 1 × 101 1 × 105 Rb-81 1 × 101 1 × 106
Ge-78 1 × 102 1 × 106 Rb-81m 1 × 103 1 × 107
As-69 1 × 101 1 × 105 Rb-82m 1 × 101 1 × 106
As-70 1 × 101 1 × 105 Rb-83a 1 × 102 1 × 106
As-71 1 × 101 1 × 106 Rb-84 1 × 101 1 × 106
As-72 1 × 101 1 × 105 Rb-86 1 × 102 1 × 105
As-73 1 × 103 1 × 107 Rb-87 1 × 103 1 × 107
As-74 1 × 101 1 × 106 Rb-88 1 × 102 1 × 105
As-76 1 × 102 1 × 105 Rb-89 1 × 102 1 × 105
As-77 1 × 103 1 × 106 Sr-80 1 × 103 1 × 107
As-78 1 × 101 1 × 105 Sr-81 1 × 101 1 × 105
Se-70 1 × 101 1 × 106 Sr-82a 1 × 101 1 × 105
Se-73 1 × 101 1 × 106 Sr-83 1 × 101 1 × 106
Se-73m 1 × 102 1 × 106 Sr-85 1 × 102 1 × 106
Se-75 1 × 102 1 × 106 Sr-85m 1 × 102 1 × 107
Se-79 1 × 104 1 × 107 Sr-87m 1 × 102 1 × 106
Se-81 1 × 103 1 × 106 Sr-89 1 × 103 1 × 106
Se-81m 1 × 103 1 × 107 Sr-90a 1 × 102 1 × 104
Se-83 1 × 101 1 × 105 Sr-91 1 × 101 1 × 105
75

(Bq/g) (Bq/g)
Sr-92 1 × 101 1 × 106 Tc-96 1 × 101 1 × 106
Y-86 1 × 101 1 × 105 Tc-96m 1 × 103 1 × 107
Y-86m 1 × 102 1 × 107 Tc-97 1 × 103 1 × 108
Y-87a 1 × 101 1 × 106 Tc-97m 1 × 103 1 × 107
Y-88 1 × 101 1 × 106 Tc-98 1 × 101 1 × 106
Y-90 1 × 103 1 × 105 Tc-99 1 × 104 1 × 107
Y-90m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Tc-99m 1 × 102 1 × 107
Y-91 1 × 103 1 × 106 Tc-101 1 × 102 1 × 106
Y-91m 1 × 102 1 × 106 Tc-104 1 × 101 1 × 105
Y-92 1 × 102 1 × 105 Ru-94 1 × 102 1 × 106
Y-93 1 × 102 1 × 105 Ru-97 1 × 102 1 × 107
Y-94 1 × 101 1 × 105 Ru-103 1 × 102 1 × 106
Y-95 1 × 101 1 × 105 Ru-105 1 × 101 1 × 106
Zr-86 1 × 102 1 × 107 Ru-106a 1 × 102 1 × 105
Zr-88 1 × 102 1 × 106 Rh-99 1 × 101 1 × 106
Zr-89 1 × 101 1 × 106 Rh-99m 1 × 101 1 × 106
Zr-93a 1 × 103 1 × 107 Rh-100 1 × 101 1 × 106
Zr-95 1 × 101 1 × 106 Rh-101 1 × 102 1 × 107
Zr-97a 1 × 101 1 × 105 Rh-101m 1 × 102 1 × 107
Nb-88 1 × 101 1 × 105 Rh-102 1 × 101 1 × 106
Nb-89 (2.03 h) 1 × 101 1 × 105 Rh-102m 1 × 102 1 × 106
Nb-89m (1.10 h) 1 × 101 1 × 105 Rh-103m 1 × 104 1 × 108
Nb-90 1 × 101 1 × 105 Rh-105 1 × 102 1 × 107
Nb-93m 1 × 104 1 × 107 Rh-106m 1 × 101 1 × 105
Nb-94 1 × 101 1 × 106 Rh-107 1 × 102 1 × 106
Nb-95 1 × 101 1 × 106 Pd-100 1 × 102 1 × 107
Nb-95m 1 × 102 1 × 107 Pd-101 1 × 102 1 × 106
Nb-96 1 × 101 1 × 105 Pd-103 1 × 103 1 × 108
Nb-97 1 × 101 1 × 106 Pd-107 1 × 105 1 × 108
Nb-98 1 × 101 1 × 105 Pd-109 1 × 103 1 × 106
Mo-90 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ag-102 1 × 101 1 × 105
Mo-93 1 × 103 1 × 108 Ag-103 1 × 101 1 × 106
Mo-93m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ag-104 1 × 101 1 × 106
Mo-99 1 × 102 1 × 106 Ag-104m 1 × 101 1 × 106
Mo-101 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ag-105 1 × 102 1 × 106
Tc-93 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ag-106 1 × 101 1 × 106
Tc-93m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ag-106m 1 × 101 1 × 106
Tc-94 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ag-108m 1 × 101 1 × 106
Tc-94m 1 × 101 1 × 105 Ag-110m 1 × 101 1 × 106
Tc-95 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ag-111 1 × 103 1 × 106
Tc-95m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ag-112 1 × 101 1 × 105
76

(Bq/g) (Bq/g)
Ag-115 1 × 101 1 × 105 Sb-118m 1 × 101 1 × 106
Cd-104 1 × 102 1 × 107 Sb-119 1 × 103 1 × 107
Cd-107 1 × 103 1 × 107 Sb-120 (5.76d) 1 × 101 1 × 106
Cd-109 1 × 104 1 × 106 Sb-120 (15.89m) 1 × 102 1 × 106
Cd-113 1 × 103 1 × 106 Sb-122 1 × 102 1 × 104
Cd-113m 1 × 103 1 × 106 Sb-124 1 × 101 1 × 106
Cd-115 1 × 102 1 × 106 Sb-124m 1 × 102 1 × 106
Cd-115m 1 × 103 1 × 106 Sb-125 1 × 102 1 × 106
Cd-117 1 × 101 1 × 106 Sb-126 1 × 101 1 × 105
Cd-117m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Sb-126m 1 × 101 1 × 105
In-109 1 × 101 1 × 106 Sb-127 1 × 101 1 × 106
In-110 (4.9h) 1 × 101 1 × 106 Sb-128(9.01h) 1 × 101 1 × 105
In-110 (69.1m) 1 × 101 1 × 105 Sb-128 (10.4m) 1 × 101 1 × 105
In-111 1 × 102 1 × 106 Sb-129 1 × 101 1 × 106
In-112 1 × 102 1 × 106 Sb-130 1 × 101 1 × 105
In-113m 1 × 102 1 × 106 Sb-131 1 × 101 1 × 106
In-114 1 × 103 1 × 105 Te-116 1 × 102 1 × 107
In-114m 1 × 102 1 × 106 Te-121 1 × 101 1 × 106
In-115 1 × 103 1 × 105 Te-121m 1 × 102 1 × 106
In-115m 1 × 102 1 × 106 Te-123 1 × 103 1 × 106
In-116m 1 × 101 1 × 105 Te-123m 1 × 102 1 × 107
In-117 1 × 101 1 × 106 Te-125m 1 × 103 1 × 107
In-117m 1 × 102 1 × 106 Te-127 1 × 103 1 × 106
In-119m 1 × 102 1 × 105 Te-127m 1 × 103 1 × 107
Sn-110 1 × 102 1 × 107 Te-129 1 × 102 1 × 106
Sn-111 1 × 102 1 × 106 Te-129m 1 × 103 1 × 106
Sn-113 1 × 103 1 × 107 Te-131 1 × 102 1 × 105
Sn-117m 1 × 102 1 × 106 Te-131m 1 × 101 1 × 106
Sn-119m 1 × 103 1 × 107 Te-132 1 × 102 1 × 107
Sn-121 1 × 105 1 × 107 Te-133 1 × 101 1 × 105
Sn-121ma 1 × 103 1 × 107 Te-133m 1 × 101 1 × 105
Sn-123 1 × 103 1 × 106 Te-134 1 × 101 1 × 106
Sn-123m 1 × 102 1 × 106 I-120 1 × 101 1 × 105
Sn-125 1 × 102 1 × 105 I-120m 1 × 101 1 × 105
Sn-126a 1 × 101 1 × 105 I-121 1 × 102 1 × 106
Sn-127 1 × 101 1 × 106 I-123 1 × 102 1 × 107
Sn-128 1 × 101 1 × 106 I-124 1 × 101 1 × 106
Sb-115 1 × 101 1 × 106 I-125 1 × 103 1 × 106
Sb-116 1 × 101 1 × 106 I-126 1 × 102 1 × 106
Sb-116m 1 × 101 1 × 105 I-128 1 × 102 1 × 105
Sb-117 1 × 102 1 × 107 I-129 1 × 102 1 × 105
77

(Bq/g) (Bq/g)
I-130 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ba-139 1 × 102 1 × 105
I-131 1 × 102 1 × 106 Ba-140a 1 × 101 1 × 105
I-132 1 × 101 1 × 105 Ba-141 1 × 102 1 × 105
I-132m 1 × 102 1 × 106 Ba-142 1 × 102 1 × 106
I-133 1 × 101 1 × 106 La-131 1 × 101 1 × 106
I-134 1 × 101 1 × 105 La-132 1 × 101 1 × 106
I-135 1 × 101 1 × 106 La-135 1 × 103 1 × 107
Xe-120 1 × 102 1 × 109 La-137 1 × 103 1 × 107
Xe-121 1 × 102 1 × 109 La-138 1 × 101 1 × 106
Xe-122a 1 × 102 1 × 109 La-140 1 × 101 1 × 105
Xe-123 1 × 102 1 × 109 La-141 1 × 102 1 × 105
Xe-125 1 × 103 1 × 109 La-142 1 × 101 1 × 105
Xe-127 1 × 103 1 × 105 La-143 1 × 102 1 × 105
Xe-129m 1 × 103 1 × 104 Ce-134 1 × 103 1 × 107
Xe-131m 1 × 104 1 × 104 Ce-135 1 × 101 1 × 106
Xe-133m 1 × 103 1 × 104 Ce-137 1 × 103 1 × 107
Xe-133 1 × 103 1 × 104 Ce-137m 1 × 103 1 × 106
Xe-135 1 × 103 1 × 1010 Ce-139 1 × 102 1 × 106
Xe-135m 1 × 102 1 × 109 Ce-141 1 × 102 1 × 107
Xe-138 1 × 102 1 × 109 Ce-143 1 × 102 1 × 106
Cs-125 1 × 101 1 × 104 Ce-144a 1 × 102 1 × 105
Cs-127 1 × 102 1 × 105 Pr-136 1 × 101 1 × 105
Cs-129 1 × 102 1 × 105 Pr-137 1 × 102 1 × 106
Cs-130 1 × 102 1 × 106 Pr-138m 1 × 101 1 × 106
Cs-131 1 × 103 1 × 106 Pr-139 1 × 102 1 × 107
Cs-132 1 × 101 1 × 105 Pr-142 1 × 102 1 × 105
Cs-134m 1 × 103 1 × 105 Pr-142m 1 × 107 1 × 109
Cs-134 1 × 101 1 × 104 Pr-143 1 × 104 1 × 106
Cs-135 1 × 104 1 × 107 Pr-144 1 × 102 1 × 105
Cs-135m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Pr-145 1 × 103 1 × 105
Cs-136 1 × 101 1 × 105 Pr-147 1 × 101 1 × 105
Cs-137a 1 × 101 1 × 104 Nd-136 1 × 102 1 × 106
Cs-138 1 × 101 1 × 104 Nd-138 1 × 103 1 × 107
Ba-126 1 × 102 1 × 107 Nd-139 1 × 102 1 × 106
Ba-128 1 × 102 1 × 107 Nd-139m 1 × 101 1 × 106
Ba-131 1 × 102 1 × 106 Nd-141 1 × 102 1 × 107
Ba-131m 1 × 102 1 × 107 Nd-147 1 × 102 1 × 106
Ba-133 1 × 102 1 × 106 Nd-149 1 × 102 1 × 106
Ba-133m 1 × 102 1 × 106 Nd-151 1 × 101 1 × 105
Ba-135m 1 × 102 1 × 106 Pm-141 1 × 101 1 × 105
Ba-137m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Pm-143 1 × 102 1 × 106
78

(Bq/g) (Bq/g)
Pm-144 1 × 101 1 × 106 Gd-159 1 × 103 1 × 106
Pm-145 1 × 103 1 × 107 Tb-147 1 × 101 1 × 106
Pm-146 1 × 101 1 × 106 Tb-149 1 × 101 1 × 106
Pm-147 1 × 104 1 × 107 Tb-150 1 × 101 1 × 106
Pm-148 1 × 101 1 × 105 Tb-151 1 × 101 1 × 106
Pm-148m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Tb-153 1 × 102 1 × 107
Pm-149 1 × 103 1 × 106 Tb-154 1 × 101 1 × 106
Pm-150 1 × 101 1 × 105 Tb-155 1 × 102 1 × 107
Pm-151 1 × 102 1 × 106 Tb-156 1 × 101 1 × 106
Sm-141 1 × 101 1 × 105 Tb-156m (24.4h) 1 × 103 1 × 107
Sm-141m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Tb-156m (5h) 1 × 104 1 × 107
Sm-142 1 × 102 1 × 107 Tb-157 1 × 104 1 × 107
Sm-145 1 × 102 1 × 107 Tb-158 1 × 101 1 × 106
Sm-146 1 × 101 1 × 105 Tb-160 1 × 101 1 × 106
Sm-147 1 × 101 1 × 104 Tb-161 1 × 103 1 × 106
Sm-151 1 × 104 1 × 108 Dy-155 1 × 101 1 × 106
Sm-153 1 × 102 1 × 106 Dy-157 1 × 102 1 × 106
Sm-155 1 × 102 1 × 106 Dy-159 1 × 103 1 × 107
Sm-156 1 × 102 1 × 106 Dy-165 1 × 103 1 × 106
Eu-145 1 × 101 1 × 106 Dy-166 1 × 103 1 × 106
Eu-146 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ho-155 1 × 102 1 × 106
Eu-147 1 × 102 1 × 106 Ho-157 1 × 102 1 × 106
Eu-148 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ho-159 1 × 102 1 × 106
Eu-149 1 × 102 1 × 107 Ho-161 1 × 102 1 × 107
Eu-150 (34.2a) 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ho-162 1 × 102 1 × 107
Eu-150 (12.6h) 1 × 103 1 × 106 Ho-162m 1 × 101 1 × 106
Eu-152 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ho-164 1 × 103 1 × 106
Eu-152m 1 × 102 1 × 106 Ho-164m 1 × 103 1 × 107
Eu-154 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ho-166 1 × 103 1 × 105
Eu-155 1 × 102 1 × 107 Ho-166m 1 × 101 1 × 106
Eu-156 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ho-167 1 × 102 1 × 106
Eu157 1 × 102 1 × 106 Er-161 1 × 101 1 × 106
Eu-158 1 × 101 1 × 105 Er-165 1 × 103 1 × 107
Gd-145 1 × 101 1 × 105 Er-169 1 × 104 1 × 107
Gd-146a 1 × 101 1 × 106 Er-171 1 × 102 1 × 106
Gd-147 1 × 101 1 × 106 Er-172 1 × 102 1 × 106
Gd-148 1 × 101 1 × 104 Tm-162 1 × 101 1 × 106
Gd-149 1 × 102 1 × 106 Tm-166 1 × 101 1 × 106
Gd-151 1 × 102 1 × 107 Tm-167 1 × 102 1 × 106
Gd-152 1 × 101 1 × 104 Tm-170 1 × 103 1 × 106
Gd-153 1 × 102 1 × 107 Tm-171 1 × 104 1 × 108
79

(Bq/g) (Bq/g)
Tm-172 1 × 102 1 × 106 Ta-176 1 × 101 1 × 106
Tm-173 1 × 102 1 × 106 Ta-177 1 × 102 1 × 107
Tm-175 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ta-178 1 × 101 1 × 106
Yb-162 1 × 102 1 × 107 Ta-179 1 × 103 1 × 107
Yb-166 1 × 102 1 × 107 Ta-180 1 × 101 1 × 106
Yb-167 1 × 102 1 × 106 Ta-180m 1 × 103 1 × 107
Yb-169 1 × 102 1 × 107 Ta-182 1 × 101 1 × 104
Yb-175 1 × 103 1 × 107 Ta-182m 1 × 102 1 × 106
Yb-177 1 × 102 1 × 106 Ta-183 1 × 102 1 × 106
Yb-178 1 × 103 1 × 106 Ta-184 1 × 101 1 × 106
Lu-169 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ta-185 1 × 102 1 × 105
Lu-170 1 × 101 1 × 106 Ta-186 1 × 101 1 × 105
Lu-171 1 × 101 1 × 106 W-176 1 × 102 1 × 106
Lu-172 1 × 101 1 × 106 W-177 1 × 101 1 × 106
Lu-173 1 × 102 1 × 107 W-178a 1 × 101 1 × 106
Lu-174 1 × 102 1 × 107 W-179 1 × 102 1 × 107
Lu-174m 1 × 102 1 × 107 W-181 1 × 103 1 × 107
Lu-176 1 × 102 1 × 106 W-185 1 × 104 1 × 107
Lu-176m 1 × 103 1 × 106 W-187 1 × 102 1 × 106
Lu-177 1 × 103 1 × 107 W-188a 1 × 102 1 × 105
Lu-177m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Re-177 1 × 101 1 × 106
Lu-178 1 × 102 1 × 105 Re-178 1 × 101 1 × 106
Lu-178m 1 × 101 1 × 105 Re-181 1 × 101 1 × 106
Lu-179 1 × 103 1 × 106 Re-182 (64h) 1 × 101 1 × 106
Hf-170 1 × 102 1 × 106 Re-182 (12.7h) 1 × 101 1 × 106
Hf-172a 1 × 101 1 × 106 Re-184 1 × 101 1 × 106
Hf-173 1 × 102 1 × 106 Re-184m 1 × 102 1 × 106
Hf-175 1 × 102 1 × 106 Re-186 1 × 103 1 × 106
Hf-177m 1 × 101 1 × 105 Re-186m 1 × 103 1 × 107
Hf-178m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Re-187 1 × 106 1 × 109
Hf-179m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Re-188 1 × 102 1 × 105
Hf-180m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Re-188m 1 × 102 1 × 107
Hf-181 1 × 101 1 × 106 Re-189a 1 × 102 1 × 106
Hf-182 1 × 102 1 × 106 Os-180 1 × 102 1 × 107
Hf-182m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Os-181 1 × 101 1 × 106
Hf-183 1 × 101 1 × 106 Os-182 1 × 102 1 × 106
Hf-184 1 × 102 1 × 106 Os-185 1 × 101 1 × 106
Ta-172 1 × 101 1 × 106 Os-189m 1 × 104 1 × 107
Ta -173 1 × 101 1 × 106 Os-191 1 × 102 1 × 107
Ta-174 1 × 101 1 × 106 Os-191m 1 × 103 1 × 107
Ta-175 1 × 101 1 × 106 Os-193 1 × 102 1 × 106
80

(Bq/g) (Bq/g)
Os-194a 1 × 102 1 × 105 Hg-194a 1 × 101 1 × 106
Ir-182 1 × 101 1 × 105 Hg-195 1 × 102 1 × 106
Ir-184 1 × 101 1 × 106 Hg-195ma 1 × 102 1 × 106
Ir-185 1 × 101 1 × 106 Hg-197 1 × 102 1 × 107
Ir-186 (15.8h) 1 × 101 1 × 106 Hg-197m 1 × 102 1 × 106
Ir-186 (1.75h) 1 × 101 1 × 106 Hg-199m 1 × 102 1 × 106
Ir-187 1 × 102 1 × 106 Hg-203 1 × 102 1 × 105
Ir-188 1 × 101 1 × 106 Tl-194 1 × 101 1 × 106
Ir-189a 1 × 102 1 × 107 Tl-194m 1 × 101 1 × 106
Ir-190 1 × 101 1 × 106 Tl-195 1 × 101 1 × 106
Ir-190m (3.1h) 1 × 101 1 × 106 Tl-197 1 × 102 1 × 106
Ir-190m (1.2h) 1 × 104 1 × 107 Tl-198 1 × 101 1 × 106
Ir-192 1 × 101 1 × 104 Tl-198m 1 × 101 1 × 106
Ir-192m 1 × 102 1 × 107 Tl-199 1 × 102 1 × 106
Ir-193m 1 × 104 1 × 107 Tl-200 1 × 101 1 × 106
Ir-194 1 × 102 1 × 105 Tl-201 1 × 102 1 × 106
Ir-194m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Tl-202 1 × 102 1 × 106
Ir-195 1 × 102 1 × 106 Tl-204 1 × 104 1 × 104
Ir-195m 1 × 102 1 × 106 Pb-195m 1 × 101 1 × 106
Pt-186 1 × 101 1 × 106 Pb-198 1 × 102 1 × 106
Pt-188a 1 × 101 1 × 106 Pb-199 1 × 101 1 × 106
Pt-189 1 × 102 1 × 106 Pb-200 1 × 102 1 × 106
Pt-191 1 × 102 1 × 106 Pb-201 1 × 101 1 × 106
Pt-193 1 × 104 1 × 107 Pb-202 1 × 103 1 × 106
Pt-193m 1 × 103 1 × 107 Pb-202m 1 × 101 1 × 106
Pt-195m 1 × 102 1 × 106 Pb-203 1 × 102 1 × 106
Pt-197 1 × 103 1 × 106 Pb-205 1 × 104 1 × 107
Pt-197m 1 × 102 1 × 106 Pb-209 1 × 105 1 × 106
Pt-199 1 × 102 1 × 106 Pb-210a 1 × 101 1 × 104
Pt-200 1 × 102 1 × 106 Pb-211 1 × 102 1 × 106
Au-193 1 × 102 1 × 107 Pb-212a 1 × 101 1 × 105
Au-194 1 × 101 1 × 106 Pb-214 1 × 102 1 × 106
Au-195 1 × 102 1 × 107 Bi-200 1 × 101 1 × 106
Au-198 1 × 102 1 × 106 Bi-201 1 × 101 1 × 106
Au-198m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Bi-202 1 × 101 1 × 106
Au-199 1 × 102 1 × 106 Bi-203 1 × 101 1 × 106
Au-200 1 × 102 1 × 105 Bi-205 1 × 101 1 × 106
Au-200m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Bi-206 1 × 101 1 × 105
Au-201 1 × 102 1 × 106 Bi-207 1 × 101 1 × 106
Hg-193 1 × 102 1 × 106 Bi-210 1 × 103 1 × 106
Hg-193m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Bi-210ma 1 × 101 1 × 105
81

(Bq/g) (Bq/g)
Bi-212a 1 × 101 1 × 105 Pa-234 1 × 101 1 × 106
Bi-213 1 × 102 1 × 106 U-230a 1 × 101 1 × 105
Bi-214 1 × 101 1 × 105 U-231 1 × 102 1 × 107
Po-203 1 × 101 1 × 106 U-232a 1 × 100 1 × 103
Po-205 1 × 101 1 × 106 U-233 1 × 101 1 × 104
Po-206 1 × 101 1 × 106 U-234 1 × 101 1 × 104
Po-207 1 × 101 1 × 106 U-235a 1 × 101 1 × 104
Po-208 1 × 101 1 × 104 U-236 1 × 101 1 × 104
Po-209 1 × 101 1 × 104 U-237 1 × 102 1 × 106
Po-210 1 × 101 1 × 104 U-238a 1 × 101 1 × 104
At-207 1 × 101 1 × 106 U-239 1 × 102 1 × 106
At-211 1 × 103 1 × 107 U-240 1 × 103 1 × 107
Fr-222 1 × 103 1 × 105 U-240a 1 × 101 1 × 106
Fr-223 1 × 102 1 × 106 Np-232 1 × 101 1 × 106
Rn-220a 1 × 104 1 × 107 Np-233 1 × 102 1 × 107
Rn-222a 1 × 101 1 × 108 Np-234 1 × 101 1 × 106
Ra-223a 1 × 102 1 × 105 Np-235 1 × 103 1 × 107
Ra-224a 1 × 101 1 × 105 Np-236(1.5×105 a) 1 × 102 1 × 105
Ra-225 1 × 102 1 × 105 Np-236(22.5 h) 1 × 103 1 × 107
Ra-226a 1 × 101 1 × 104 Np-237a 1 × 100 1 × 103
Ra-227 1 × 102 1 × 106 Np-238 1 × 102 1 × 106
Ra-228a 1 × 101 1 × 105 Np-239 1 × 102 1 × 107
Ac-224 1 × 102 1 × 106 Np-240 1 × 101 1 × 106
Ac-225a 1 × 101 1 × 104 Pu-234 1 × 102 1 × 107
Ac-226 1 × 102 1 × 105 Pu-235 1 × 102 1 × 107
Ac-227a 1 × 10-1 1 × 103 Pu-236 1 × 101 1 × 104
Ac-228 1 × 101 1 × 106 Pu-237 1 × 103 1 × 107
Th-226a 1 × 103 1 × 107 Pu-238 1 × 100 1 × 104
Th-227 1 × 101 1 × 104 Pu-239 1 × 100 1 × 104
Th-228a 1 × 100 1 × 104 Pu-240 1 × 100 1 × 103
Th-229a 1 × 100 1 × 103 Pu-241 1 × 102 1 × 105
Th-230 1 × 100 1 × 104 Pu-242 1 × 100 1 × 104
Th-231 1 × 103 1 × 107 Pu-243 1 × 103 1 × 107
Th-232 1 × 101 1 × 104 Pu-244 1 × 100 1 × 104
Th-234a 1 × 103 1 × 105 Pu-245 1 × 102 1 × 106
Pa-227 1 × 101 1 × 106 Pu-246 1 × 102 1 × 106
Pa-228 1 × 101 1 × 106 Am-237 1 × 102 1 × 106
Pa-230 1 × 101 1 × 106 Am-238 1 × 101 1 × 106
Pa-231 1 × 100 1 × 103 Am-239 1 × 102 1 × 106
Pa-232 1 × 101 1 × 106 Am-240 1 × 101 1 × 106
Pa-233 1 × 102 1 × 107 Am-241 1 × 100 1 × 104
82

(Bq/g) (Bq/g)
Am-242 1 × 103 1 × 106 Bk-250 1 × 101 1 × 106
Am-242ma 1 × 100 1 × 104 Cf-244 1 × 104 1 × 107
Am-243a 1 × 100 1 × 103 Cf-246 1 × 103 1 × 106
Am-244 1 × 101 1 × 106 Cf-248 1 × 101 1 × 104
Am-244m 1 × 104 1 × 107 Cf-249 1 × 100 1 × 103
Am-245 1 × 103 1 × 106 Cf-250 1 × 101 1 × 104
Am-246 1 × 101 1 × 105 Cf-251 1 × 100 1 × 103
Am-246m 1 × 101 1 × 106 Cf-252 1 × 101 1 × 104
Cm-238 1 × 102 1 × 107 Cf-253 1 × 102 1 × 105
Cm-240 1 × 102 1 × 105 Cf-254 1 × 100 1 × 103
Cm-241 1 × 102 1 × 106 Es-250 1 × 102 1 × 106
Cm-242 1 × 102 1 × 105 Es-251 1 × 102 1 × 107
Cm-243 1 × 100 1 × 104 Es-253 1 × 102 1 × 105
Cm-244 1 × 101 1 × 104 Es-254 1 × 101 1 × 104
Cm-245 1 × 100 1 × 103 Es-254m 1 × 102 1 × 106
Cm-246 1 × 100 1 × 103 Fm-252 1 × 103 1 × 106
Cm-247 1 × 100 1 × 104 Fm-253 1 × 102 1 × 106
Cm-248 1 × 100 1 × 103 Fm-254 1 × 104 1 × 107
Cm-249 1 × 103 1 × 106 Fm-255 1 × 103 1 × 106
Cm-250 1 × 10-1 1 × 103 Fm-257 1 × 101 1 × 105
Bk-245 1 × 102 1 × 106 Md-257 1 × 102 1 × 107
Bk-246 1 × 101 1 × 106 Md-258 1 × 102 1 × 105
Bk-247 1 × 100 1 × 104
Bk-249 1 × 103 1 × 106
83
a
Parent radionuclides, and their progeny whose dose contributions are taken into account in the dose
calculations (thus requiring only the exemption level of the parent radionuclide to be considered), are listed in
the following.
Ge-68 Ga-68 Rn-220 Po-216

Rb-83 Kr-83m Rn-222 Po-218, Pb-214, Bi-214,
Sr-82 Rb-82 Po-214
Sr-90 Y-90 Ra-223 Rn-219, Po-215, Pb-211, Bi-211,
Tl-207
Y-87 Sr-87m
Ra-224 Rn-220, Po-216, Pb-212, Bi-212,
Zr-93 Nb-93m
Tl-208 (0.36), Po-212 (0.64)
Zr-97 Nb-97
Ra-226 Rn-222, Po-218, Pb-214, Bi-214,
Ru-106 Rh-106 Po-214, Pb-210, Bi-210, Po-210
Ag-108m Ag-108 Ra-228 Ac-228
Sn-121m Sn-121 (0.776) Ac-225 Fr-221, At-217, Bi-213,
Sn-126 Sb-126m Po-213 (0.978), Tl-209 (0.0216),
Xe-122 I-122 Pb-209 (0.978)
Cs-137 Ba-137m Ac-227 Fr-223 (0.0138)
Ba-140 La-140 Th-226 Ra-222, Rn-218, Po-214
Ce-134 La-134 Th-228 Ra-224, Rn-220, Po-216, Pb-212,
Ce-144 Pr-144 Bi-212,Tl-208 (0.36), Po-212 (0.64)
Gd-146 Eu-146 Th-229 Ra-225, Ac-225, Fr-221, At-217,
Bi-213, Po-213, Pb-209
Hf-172 Lu-172
Th-234 Pa-234m
W-178 Ta-178
U-230 Th-226, Ra-222, Rn-218, Po-214
W-188 Re-188
U-232 Th-228, Ra-224, Rn-220, Po-216,
Re-189 Os-189m (0.241)
Pb-212, Bi-212, Tl-208 (0.36),
Ir-189 Os-189m Po-212 (0.64)
Pt-188 Ir-188 U-235 Th-231
Hg-194 Au-194 U-238 Th-234, Pa-234m
Hg-195m Hg-195 (0.542) U-240 Np-240m
Pb-210 Bi-210, Po-210 Np-237 Pa-233
Pb-212 Bi-212, Tl-208 (0.36), Am-242m Am-242
Po-212 (0.64)
Am-243 Np-239
Bi-210m Tl-206
Bi-212 Tl-208 (0.36), Po-212 (0.64)
84
TABLE I-2. LEVELS FOR EXEMPTION OF BULK AMOUNTS OF SOLID MATERIAL

WITHOUT FURTHER CONSIDERATION AND FOR CLEARANCE OF SOLID MATERIAL
WITHOUT FURTHER CONSIDERATION: ACTIVITY CONCENTRATIONS OF
RADIONUCLIDES OF ARTIFICIAL ORIGIN (see footnote 58)
Activity Activity Activity

Radionuclide concentration Radionuclide concentration Radionuclide concentration
(Bq/g) (Bq/g) (Bq/g)
H-3 100 Co-60m 1000 Nb-95 1
Be-7 10 Co-61 100 Nb-97a 10
C-14 1 Co-62m 10 Nb-98 10
F-18 10 Ni-59 100 Mo-90 10
Na-22 0.1 Ni-63 100 Mo-93 10
Na-24 1 Ni-65 10 Mo-99a 10
Si-31 1000 Cu-64 100 Mo-101a 10
P-32 1000 Zn-65 0.1 Tc-96 1
P-33 1000 Zn-69 1000 Tc-96m 1000
S-35 100 Zn-69ma 10 Tc-97 10
Cl-36 1 Ga-72 10 Tc-97m 100
Cl-38 10 Ge-71 10 000 Tc-99 1
K-42 100 As-73 1000 Tc-99m 100
K-43 10 As-74 10 Ru-97 10
Ca-45 100 As-76 10 Ru-103a 1
Ca-47 10 As-77 1000 Ru-105a 10
Sc-46 0.1 Se-75 1 Ru-106a 0.1
Sc-47 100 Br-82 1 Rh-103m 10 000
Sc-48 1 Rb-86 100 Rh-105 100
V-48 1 Sr-85 1 Pd-103a 1000
Cr-51 100 Sr-85m 100 Pd-109a 100
Mn-51 10 Sr-87m 100 Ag-105 1
Mn-52 1 Sr-89 1000 Ag-110ma 0.1
Mn-52m 10 Sr-90a 1 Ag-111 100
Mn-53 100 Sr-91a 10 Cd-109a 1
Mn-54 0.1 Sr-92 10 Cd-115a 10
Mn-56 10 Y-90 1000 Cd-115ma 100
Fe-52a 10 Y-91 100 In-111 10
Fe-55 1000 Y-91m 100 In-113m 100
Fe-59 1 Y-92 100 In-114ma 10
Co-55 10 Y-93 100 In-115m 100
Co-56 0.1 Zr-93 10 Sn-113a 1
Co-57 1 Zr-95a 1 Sn-125 10
Co-58 1 Zr-97a 10 Sb-122 10
Co-58m 10 000 Nb-93m 10 Sb-124 1
Co-60 0.1 Nb-94 0.1 Sb-125a 0.1
85

Te-123m 1 Nd-149 100 Hg-197 100
Te-125m 1000 Pm-147 1000 Hg-197m 100
Te-127 1000 Pm-149 1000 Hg-203 10
Te-127ma 10 Sm-151 1000 Tl-200 10
Te-129 100 Sm-153 100 Tl-201 100
Te-129ma 10 Eu-152 0.1 Tl-202 10
Te-131 100 Eu-152m 100 Tl-204 1
Te-131ma 10 Eu-154 0.1 Pb-203 10
Te-132a 1 Eu-155 1 Bi-206 1
Te-133 10 Gd-153 10 Bi-207 0.1
Te-133m 10 Gd-159 100 Po-203 10
Te-134 10 Tb-160 1 Po-205 10
I-123 100 Dy-165 1000 Po-207 10
I-125 100 Dy-166 100 At-211 1000
I-126 10 Ho-166 100 Ra-225 10
I-129 0.01 Er-169 1000 Ra-227 100
I-130 10 Er-171 100 Th-226 1000
I-131 10 Tm-170 100 Th-229 0.1
I-132 10 Tm-171 1000 Pa-230 10
I-133 10 Yb-175 100 Pa-233 10
I-134 10 Lu-177 100 U-230b 10
I-135 10 Hf-181 1 U-231a 100
Cs-129 10 Ta-182 0.1 U-232a 0.1
Cs-131 1000 W-181 10 U-233 1
Cs-132 10 W-185 1000 U-236 10
Cs-134 0.1 W-187 10 U-237 100
Cs-134m 1000 Re-186 1000 U-239 100
Cs-135 100 Re-188 100 U-240a 100
Cs-136 1 Os-185 1 Np-237a 1
Cs-137a 0.1 Os-191 100 Np-239 100
Cs-138 10 Os-191m 1000 Np-240 10
Ba-131 10 Os-193 100 Pu-234 100
Ba-140 1 Ir-190 1 Pu-235 100
La-140 1 Ir-192 1 Pu-236 1
Ce-139 1 Ir-194 100 Pu-237 100
Ce-141 100 Pt-191 10 Pu-238 0.1
Ce-143 10 Pt-193m 1000 Pu-239 0.1
Ce-144 10 Pt-197 1000 Pu-240 0.1
Pr-142 100 Pt-197m 100 Pu-241 10
Pr-143 1000 Au-198 10 Pu-242 0.1
Nd-147 100 Au-199 100 Pu-243 1000
86

Pu-244a 0.1 Cm-246 0.1 Cf-252 1
Am-241 0.1 Cm-247a 0.1 Cf-253 100
Am-242 1000 Cm-248 0.1 Cf-254 1
Am-242ma 0.1 Bk-249 100 Es-253 100
Am-243a 0.1 Cf-246 1000 Es-254a 0.1
Cm-242 10 Cf-248 1 Es-254ma 10
Cm-243 1 Cf-249 0.1 Fm-254 10 000
Cm-244 1 Cf-250 1 Fm-255 100
Cm-245 0.1 Cf-251 0.1
a
Parent radionuclides, and their progeny whose dose contributions are taken into account in the dose
calculations (thus requiring only the exemption level of the parent radionuclide to be considered), are listed in
the following.
Fe-52 Mn-52m Sn-113 In-113m

Zn-69m Zn-69 Sb-125 Te-125m
Sr-90 Y-90 Te-127m Te-127
Sr-91 Y-91m Te-129m Te-129
Zr-95 Nb-95 Te-131m Te-131
Zr-97 Nb-97m, Nb-97 Te132 I-132
Nb-97 Nb-97m Cs-137 Ba-137m
Mo-99 Tc-99m Ce-144 Pr-144, Pr-144m
Mo-101 Tc-101 U-232sec Th-228, Ra-224, Rn-220,
Ru-103 Rh-103m Po-216, Pb-212, Bi-212, Tl-208
Ru-105 Rh-105m U-240 Np-240m, Np-240
Ru-106 Rh-106 Np237 Pa-233
Pd-103 Rh-103m Pu-244 U-240, Np-240m, Np-240
Pd-109 Ag-109m Am-242m Np-238
Ag-110m Ag-110 Am-243 Np-239
Cd-109 Ag-109m Cm-247 Pu-243
Cd-115 In-115m Es-254 Bk-250
Cd-115m In-115m Es-254m Fm-254
In-114m In-114
87
TABLE I-3: LEVELS FOR CLEARANCE OF MATERIAL: ACTIVITY CONCENTRATIONS OF

RADIONUCLIDES OF NATURAL ORIGIN
Radionuclide Activity concentration (Bq/g)
K-40 10
Each radionuclide in the uranium and thorium
1
decay chains
88
Schedule II
CATEGORIES FOR SEALED SOURCES USED IN COMMON PRACTICES
II-1. Table II-1 shows categories for sealed sources used in common practices, and Table II-2
shows activity corresponding to a dangerous source (D value) for selected radionuclides.
TABLE II-1. CATEGORIES FOR SEALED SOURCES USED IN COMMON PRACTICES
Ratio of activity in the

source to activity that is
Category Example of sourcesb and practices
considered dangerousi a
(A/D)
Radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs)
Irradiators
1 A/D ≥ 1000
Teletherapy sources
Fixed, multibeam teletherapy (‘gamma knife’) sources
1000>A/D ≥ 10 Industrial gamma radiography sources

2
High/medium dose rate brachytherapy sources
Fixed industrial gauges incorporating high activity

10>A/D ≥ 1
3 sources
Well logging gauges
Low dose rate brachytherapy sources (except eye

plaques and permanent implants)
1>A/D ≥ 0.01
4 Industrial gauges not incorporating high activity sources
Bone densitometers
Static eliminators
Low dose rate brachytherapy eye plaques and permanent

implant sources
0.01>A/D
X ray fluorescence devices
5 and
Electron capture devices
A>Exemptc
Mossbauer spectrometry sources
Positron emission tomography check sources
ia
A is the activity of the radionuclide in a source and D is the activity of that radionuclide that is regarded as
dangerous. A dangerous source is defined as one that could, if not under control, give rise to exposure sufficient
to cause severe deterministic effects. Values of D for selected radionuclides are given in Table II-2 on the basis
of the quantity of radioactive material that could give rise to severe deterministic effects for given exposure
scenarios and for given dose criteria. This column of the table can thus be used to determine the category of a
source, purely on the basis of the value of A/D. This may be appropriate if, for example: the practice is not
known or is not listed; if sources have a short half-life and/or are unsealed; or if sources are aggregated.
b
Factors other than A/D have been taken into consideration in assigning these sources to a particular category
[29].
c
Exempt quantities are given in Schedule I.
89
TABLE II-2. ACTIVITYa CORRESPONDING TO A DANGEROUS SOURCE (D VALUEb) FOR

SELECTED RADIONUCLIDES
D value D value
Radionuclide Radionuclide
(TBq) (TBq)
Am-241 6 × 10-2 Ni-63 6 × 101

Am-241/Be 6 × 10-2 P-32 1 × 101
Au-198 2 × 10-1 Pd-103 9 × 101
Cd-109 2 × 101 Pm-147 4 × 101
Cf-252 2 × 10-2 Po-210 6 × 10-2
Cm-244 5 × 10-2 Pu-238 6 × 10-2
Co-57 7 × 10-1 Pu-239/Be 6 × 10-2
Co-60 3 × 10-2 Ra-226 4 × 10-2
Cs-137 1 × 10-1 Ru-106
3 × 10-1
Fe-55 8 × 102 (Rh-106)
Gd-153 1 × 100 Se-75 2 × 10-1
Ge-68 7 × 10-2 Sr-90
1 × 100
(Y-90)
H-3 2 × 103
Tc-99m 7 × 10-1
I-125 2 × 10-1
Tl-204 2 × 101
I-131 2 × 10-1
Tm-170 2 × 101
Ir-192 8 × 10-2
Yb-169 3 × 10-1
Kr-85 3 × 101
Mo-99 3 × 10-1
a
Since Table II-2 does not show which dose criteria were used, these D values cannot be used ‘in reverse’ to
derive possible doses due to sources of known activity.
b
Full details of the derivation of the D values and D values for additional radionuclides are provided in Ref.
[27].
90
Schedule III
DOSE LIMITS FOR PLANNED EXPOSURE SITUATIONS
III-1. For occupational exposure of workers over the age of 18 years, the dose limits are:
(a) An effective dose of 20 mSv per year averaged over five consecutive years64 (100 mSv in 5
years), and of 50 mSv in any single year;
(b) An equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 20 mSv per year averaged over 5 consecutive years
(100 mSv in 5 years) and of 50 mSv in any single year;
(c) An equivalent dose to the extremities (hands and feet) or the skin65 of 500 mSv in a year.
Additional restrictions apply to occupational exposure for a female worker who has notified pregnancy
or is breast-feeding (para. 3.114).
III-2. For occupational exposure of apprentices of 16 to 18 years of age who are being trained for
employment involving radiation and for exposure of students of age 16 to 18 who use sources in the
course of their studies, the dose limits are:
(a) An effective dose of 6 mSv in a year;

(b) An equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 20 mSv in a year;
(c) An equivalent dose to the extremities (hands and feet) or the skin65 of 150 mSv in a year.
PUBLIC EXPOSURE
III-3. For public exposure, the dose limits are:
(a) An effective dose of 1 mSv in a year;

(b) In special circumstances66, a higher value of effective dose in a single year could apply, provided
that the average effective dose over five consecutive years does not exceed 1 mSv per year;
(c) An equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 15 mSv in a year;
(d) An equivalent dose to the skin of 50 mSv in a year.
VERIFICATION OF COMPLIANCE WITH DOSE LIMITS
III-4. The effective dose limits specified here in Schedule III apply to the sum of the relevant doses
from external exposure in the specified period and the relevant committed doses from intakes in the
same period; the period for calculating the committed dose shall normally be 50 years for intakes by
adults and up to age 70 years for intakes by children67.
64
The start of the averaging period shall be coincident with the first day of the relevant annual period after the
date of entry into force of these Standards, with no retrospective averaging.
65
The equivalent dose limits for the skin apply to the average dose over 1 cm2 of the most highly irradiated area
of the skin. The dose to the skin also contributes to the effective dose, this contribution being the average dose to
the entire skin multiplied by the tissue weighting factor for the skin.
66
For example, in authorized, justified and planned operational circumstances that lead to transitory increases in
exposures.
67
Information on procedures for the assessment of the effective dose to workers and members of the public is
provided in IAEA Safety Guides and in ICRP publications.
91
III-5. For occupational exposure, the personal dose equivalent Hp(10) may be used as an
approximation of the effective dose from external exposure to penetrating radiation.
III-6. Values of the effective dose per unit air kerma free-in-air and per unit particle fluence are
given in Tables III-1A–III-1D (see p.139), which is included in the PDF file in the accompanying CD-
ROM attached to the inside back cover of the printed publication [29].
III-7. Doses per unit intake (dose coefficients) for the estimation of the committed effective dose
for ingestion and inhalation of radionuclides are given in Tables III-2A–III-2H (see p.139), which is
included in the PDF file in the accompanying CD-ROM attached to the inside back cover [30, 31].
92
Schedule IV
CRITERIA FOR USE IN EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE
IV-1. Table IV-1 gives generic criteria for acute doses for which protective actions and other
response actions are expected to be undertaken under any circumstances to avoid or to minimize
severe deterministic effects.
IV-2. Table IV-2 gives guidance values for restricting exposure of emergency workers.
TABLE IV-1. GENERIC CRITERIA FOR ACUTE DOSES FOR WHICH PROTECTIVE ACTIONS
AND OTHER RESPONSE ACTIONS ARE EXPECTED TO BE UNDERTAKEN UNDER ANY
CIRCUMSTANCES TO AVOID OR TO MINIMIZE SEVERE DETERMINISTIC EFFECTS
External acute exposure (< 10 hours) If the dose is projected:

AD Red marrowa 1 Gy − Take precautionary urgent protective actions
AD Fetus 0.1 Gy immediately (even under difficult conditions)
AD Tissueb 25 Gy at 0.5 cm to keep doses below the generic criteria
− Provide public information and warnings
AD Skinc: 10 Gy to 100 cm2
− Carry out urgent decontamination
∆ = 30 daysd)
Internal exposure from acute intake (∆
AD(∆)Red marrow 0.2 Gy for radionuclides
If the dose has been received:
with atomic number
− Perform immediate medical examination,
Z ≥ 90e
consultation and indicated medical treatment
2 Gy for radionuclides with
− Carry out contamination control
atomic number Z ≤ 89e
− Carry out immediate decorporationf (if
AD(∆) Thyroid 2 Gy
applicable)
AD(∆) Lungg 30 Gy − Carry out registration for long term health
AD(∆) Colon 20 Gy monitoring
AD(∆′) Fetus
h
0.1 Gy − Provide comprehensive psychological
counselling
a
ADRed marrow represents the average RBE weighted absorbed dose to internal tissues or organs (e.g. red
marrow, lung, small intestine, gonads, thyroid) and to the lens of the eye from exposure in a uniform field of
strongly penetrating radiation.
b
Dose delivered to 100 cm2 at a depth of 0.5 cm under the body surface in tissue due to close contact with a
radioactive source (e.g. source carried in the hand or pocket).
c
The dose is to the 100 cm2 dermis (skin structures at a depth of 40 mg/cm2 (or 0.4 mm) below the surface).
d
AD(∆) is the RBE weighted absorbed dose delivered over the period of time ∆ by the intake (I05) that will
result in a severe deterministic effect in 5% of exposed individuals.
e
Different criteria are used to take account of the significant difference in the radionuclide specific intake
threshold values for the radionuclides in these groups.
f
The generic criterion for decorporation is based on the projected dose without decorporation. Decorporation
is the biological processes, facilitated by a chemical or biological agent, by which incorporated radionuclides
are removed from the human body.
g
For the purposes of these generic criteria ‘lung’ means the alveolar-interstitial region of the respiratory tract.
h
For this particular case, ∆′ means the period of in utero development.
93
TABLE IV-2. GUIDANCE VALUES FOR RESTRICTING EXPOSURE OF EMERGENCY

WORKERS
Tasks Guidance valuea

HP(10)b < 500 mSv
Life saving actions
This value may be exceeded under circumstances in
which the expected benefits to others clearly
outweigh the emergency worker’s own health risks,
and the emergency worker volunteers to take the
action and understands and accepts this health risk
Actions to prevent severe deterministic effects
and
actions to prevent the development of catastrophic HP(10) < 500 mSv
conditions that could significantly affect people
and the environment
HP(10) < 100 mSv

Actions to avert a large collective dose
a
These values apply only for the dose from exposure to external penetrating radiation. Doses from exposure to
non-penetrating external radiation and from intake or skin contamination need to be prevented by all possible
means. If this is not feasible, the effective dose and the equivalent dose to an organ that are received have to be
limited to minimize the health risk to the individual in line with the risk associated with the guidance values
given here.
b
HP(10) is the personal dose equivalent HP(d) where d = 10 mm.
95
REFERENCES
References are to editions that are current as of the time of publication of these Standards. Editions
that supersede these may be adopted under national legislation. In the event that the publications
referenced here are superseded, please refer to the most recent editions.
See also: http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/
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96
[15] FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS,

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, INTERNATIONAL LABOUR
ORGANIZATION, OECD NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY, PAN AMERICAN
HEALTH ORGANIZATION, UNITED NATIONS OFFICE FOR THE CO-
ORDINATION OF HUMANITARIAN AFFAIRS, WORLD HEALTH
ORGANIZATION, Preparedness and Response for a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency,
IAEA Safety Standards Series No. GS-R-2, IAEA, Vienna (2002).
[16] INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION, Basic Ionizing
Radiation Symbol, ISO 361, ISO, Geneva (1975).
[17] INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION, Ionizing-Radiation
Warning — Supplementary Symbol, ISO 21482, ISO, Geneva (2007).
[18] Council Directive 96/29 Euratom of 13 May 1996, Laying down basic safety standards for
the protection of health of workers and the general public against the dangers arising from
ionizing radiation, Official Journal of the European Communities No. L 159, Office for
Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg (1996).
[19] INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION, Technical and Ethical Guidelines for
Workers’ Health Surveillance; Occupational Safety and Health Series 72, ILO, Geneva
(1998).
[20] WORLD MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, 18th World Medical Assembly, Helsinki, 1974, as
amended by the 59th World Medical Assembly, Seoul, 2008.
[21] COUNCIL FOR INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS OF MEDICAL SCIENCES in
collaboration with WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, International Ethical
Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects, CIOMS, Geneva (2002).
[22] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION,
Radiological Protection in Biomedical Research, ICRP Publication 62, Annals of the
ICRP 22(3) (1991).
[23] JOINT FAO/WHO FOOD STANDARDS PROGRAMME, CODEX ALIMENTARIUS
COMMISSION, Codex General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Foods,
Schedule 1 — Radionuclides, CODEX STAN 193-1995, CAC, Rome (2006).
[24] WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality — 4th
Ed., WHO, Geneva (2011).
[25] EUROPEAN COMMISSION, Principles and Methods for Establishing Concentrations
and Quantities (Exemption Values) below which Reporting is not Required in the
European Directive, Radiation Protection 65, Office for Official Publications of the
European Communities, Luxembourg (1993) NATIONAL RADIOLOGICAL
PROTECTION BOARD, Exempt Concentrations and Quantities for Radionuclides not
included in the European Basic Safety Standards Directive, Mobbs, S.F., Harvey, M.P.,
NRPB –R306, Chilton, (1998).
[26] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Derivation of Activity
Concentration Values for Exclusion, Exemption and Clearance, Safety Reports Series No.
44, IAEA, Vienna (2005).
[27] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Dangerous Quantities of
Radioactive Material (D-values), EPR-D-VALUES 2006, IAEA, Vienna (2006).
[28] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Categorization of Radioactive
Sources, IAEA Safety Standards Series No. RS-G-1.9, IAEA, Vienna (2005).
[29] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, Conversion
Coefficients for Use in Radiological Protection against External Radiation, ICRP
Publication 74, Annals of the ICRP Vol. 26/3 (1997).
[30] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, ICRP
Database of Dose Coefficients: Workers and Members of the Public, Version 2.0.1 (CD-
ROM), Elsevier Science, Amsterdam (2003).
[31] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, Individual
Monitoring for Internal Exposure of Workers, Publication 78, Annals of the ICRP Vol.
27/3-4, Replacement of ICRP Publication 54 (1998).
97
Annex
GENERIC CRITERIA FOR PROTECTIVE ACTIONS AND OTHER RESPONSE ACTIONS

IN EMERGENCY EXPOSURE SITUATIONS TO REDUCE THE RISK OF STOCHASTIC
EFFECTS
A-1. Table A-1 in this Annex provides a set of generic criteria (expressed in terms of projected
dose and dose that has been received) for use in the protection strategy that are compatible with
reference levels (expressed in terms of residual dose) within a range of 20–100 mSv, and provides
details of specific protective actions and other response actions in different timeframes.
A-2. For the thyroid, iodine thyroid blocking is an urgent protective action that is prescribed: (i) if
exposure due to radioactive iodine is involved, (ii) before or shortly after a release of radioactive
iodine and (iii) only within a short period after the intake of radioactive iodine.
A-3. In the absence of national guidance, the generic criteria could be used as a basis for the
development of criteria at the national level. In exceptional situations, the use of a higher value for the
generic criteria may be necessary, such as when no replacement food or water is available.
TABLE A-1. GENERIC CRITERIA FOR PROTECTIVE ACTIONS AND OTHER RESPONSE
ACTIONS IN EMERGENCY EXPOSURE SITUATIONS TO REDUCE THE RISK OF
STOCHASTIC EFFECTS
Generic criteria Examples of protective actions and other response

actions
Projected dose that exceeds the following generic criteria: Take urgent protective actions and other response
actions
HThyroid 50 mSv in the first 7 days Iodine thyroid blocking
E 100 mSv in the first 7 days Sheltering; evacuation; decontamination; restriction of
HFetus 100 mSv in the first 7 days consumption of food, milk and water; contamination
control; public reassurance
Projected dose that exceeds the following generic criteria: Take protective actions and other response actions
early in the response
E 100 mSv per annum Temporary relocation; decontamination; replacement
HFetus 100 mSv for the full period of in utero of food, milk and water; public reassurance
development
Dose that has been received and that exceeds the following generic criteria: Take longer term medical
actions to detect and to effectively treat radiation induced health effects
E 100 mSv in a month Screening based on equivalent doses to specific
radiosensitive organs (as a basis for medical follow-
up), counselling
HFetus 100 mSv for the full period of in utero Counselling to allow informed decisions to be made
development in individual circumstances
99
DEFINITIONS
The following definitions apply for the purposes of these Standards.

Further definitions are provided in IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology Used in Nuclear Safety and
Radiation Protection (2007 Edition), IAEA, Vienna (2007).
http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/safety-glossary
The symbol ‘Θ’ denotes an information note; this note is not part of the definition.
absorbed dose
The fundamental dosimetric quantity D, defined as:
dε
D=
dm
where d ε is the mean energy imparted by ionizing radiation to matter in a volume element and dm is
the mass of matter in the volume element.
Θ The unit for absorbed dose is joule per kilogram (J/kg), given the name gray (Gy).
Θ The energy can be averaged over any defined volume, the average dose being equal to the total energy
imparted in the volume divided by the mass in the volume.
Θ Absorbed dose is defined at a point; for the average dose in a tissue or organ, see organ dose.
accident
Any unintended event, including operating errors, equipment failures and other mishaps, the
activation
The process of inducing radioactivity.
activity
1. The quantity A for an amount of radionuclide in a given energy state at a given time, defined
as:
dN
A(t ) =
dt
where dN is the expectation value of the number of spontaneous nuclear transformations from the
given energy state in the time interval dt.
Θ The SI unit of activity is the reciprocal second (s–1), termed the becquerel (Bq).
2. See facilities and activities.

100
ambient dose equivalent, H*(d)
The dose equivalent that would be produced by the corresponding aligned and expanded field
in the ICRU sphere at a depth d on the radius opposing the direction of the aligned field.
Θ Parameter defined at a point in a radiation field. Used as a directly measurable proxy (i.e.
substitute) for effective dose for use in monitoring of external exposure.
Θ The recommended value of d for strongly penetrating radiation is 10 mm.
annual dose
The dose from external exposure in a year plus the committed dose from intakes of
radionuclides in that year.
approval
The granting of consent by a regulatory body.
area monitoring
A form of workplace monitoring in which an area is monitored by taking measurements at
different points in that area.
Θ As opposed to measurements by a static monitor.
assessment
The process, and the result, of analysing systematically and evaluating the hazards associated
with sources and practices, and associated protection and safety measures.
authorization
The granting by a regulatory body or other governmental body of written permission for a
person or organization to conduct specified activities.
bioassay
Any procedure used to determine the nature, activity, location or retention of radionuclides in
the body by direct (in vivo) measurement or by in vitro analysis of material excreted or otherwise
removed from the body.
carers and comforters
Persons who willingly and voluntarily help (other than in their occupation) in the care, support
and comfort of patients undergoing radiological procedures for medical diagnosis or medical
treatment.
clearance
The removal of regulatory control by the regulatory body from radioactive material or
radioactive objects within notified or authorized practices.
Θ Removal of control in this context refers to control applied for radiation protection purposes.
101
clearance level
A value, established by a regulatory body and expressed in terms of activity concentration, at

or below which regulatory control may be removed from a source of radiation within a notified or
authorized practice.
committed dose
The lifetime dose expected to result from an intake.
committed effective dose
The quantity E(τ), defined as:
E ( τ) = ∑ wT ⋅H T ( τ)
T
where HT(τ) is the committed equivalent dose to tissue T over the integration time τ and wT is the
tissue weighting factor for tissue T. When τ is not specified, it will be taken to be 50 years for adults
and the time to age 70 years for intakes by children.
committed equivalent dose
The quantity HT(τ), defined as:
t0 + τ
H T ( τ) = ∫ H& T (t )dt
t0
where t0 is the time of intake, H& T (t ) is the equivalent dose rate at time t in organ or tissue T and τ is
the time elapsed after an intake of radioactive material. When τ is not specified, it will be taken to be
50 years for adults and the time to age 70 years for intakes by children.
confinement
Prevention or control of releases of radioactive material to the environment in operation or in

accidents.
constraint
A prospective and source related value of individual dose (dose constraint) or risk (risk
constraint) that is used in planned exposure situations as a parameter for the optimization of protection
and safety for the source, and that serves as a boundary in defining the range of options in
optimization.
Θ For occupational exposure, a constraint on individual dose to workers established and used by
registrants and licensees to set the range of options in optimizing protection and safety for the source.
Θ For public exposure, the dose constraint is a source related value established or approved by the
government or the regulatory body, with account taken of the doses from planned operations of all
sources under control. The dose constraint for each particular source is intended, among other things,
to ensure that the sum of doses from planned operations for all sources under control remains within
the dose limit.
102
Θ The risk constraint is a source related value that provides a basic level of protection for the
individuals most at risk from a source. This risk is a function of the probability of an unintended event
causing a dose, and the probability of the detriment due to the dose. Risk constraints correspond to
dose constraints but apply to potential exposure.
Θ For medical exposure, the dose constraint is a source related value used in optimizing the
protection of carers and comforters of patients undergoing radiological procedures, and the protection
of volunteers subject to exposure as part of a programme of biomedical research.
consumer product
A device or manufactured item into which radionuclides have deliberately been incorporated or
produced by activation, or which generates ionizing radiation, and which can be sold or made
available to members of the public without special surveillance or regulatory control after sale.
Θ This includes items such as smoke detectors and luminous dials into which radionuclides have
deliberately been incorporated and ion generating tubes. It does not include building materials,
ceramic tiles, spa waters, minerals and foodstuffs and it excludes products and appliances installed in
public places (e.g. exit signs).
containment
Methods or physical structures designed to prevent or control the release and the dispersion of
radioactive substances.
contamination
Radioactive substances on surfaces, or within solids, liquids or gases (including the human
body), where its presence is unintended or undesirable, or the process giving rise to its presence in
such places.
Θ Contamination does not include residual radioactive material remaining at a site after the
completion of decommissioning.
Θ The term contamination may have a connotation that is not intended. The term contamination
refers only to the presence of radioactivity, and gives no indication of the magnitude of the hazard
involved.
control
The function or power or (usually as controls) means of directing, regulating or restraining.
Θ It should be noted that the usual meaning of the English word control in safety related contexts is
somewhat ‘stronger’ (more active) than that of its usual translations and other similar words in some
other languages. For example, ‘control’ typically implies not only checking or monitoring something
but also ensuring that corrective or enforcement measures are taken if the results of the checking or
monitoring indicate such a need. This is in contrast, for example, to the more limited usage of the
equivalent word in French and Spanish.
regulatory control. Any form of control or regulation applied to facilities and activities by a
regulatory body for reasons relating to nuclear safety and radiation protection or to nuclear
security.
103
controlled area
A defined area in which specific protection measures and safety provisions are or could be
required for controlling exposures or preventing the spread of contamination in normal working
conditions, and preventing or limiting the extent of potential exposures.
decontamination
The complete or partial removal of contamination by a deliberate physical, chemical or

biological process.
Θ This definition is intended to include a wide range of processes for removing contamination from
people, equipment and buildings, but to exclude the removal of radionuclides from within the human
body or the removal of radionuclides by natural weathering or migration processes, which are not
considered to be decontamination.
decorporation
The biological processes, facilitated by a chemical or biological agent, by which incorporated

radionuclides are removed from the human body.
defence in depth
A hierarchical deployment of different levels of diverse equipment and procedures to prevent

the escalation of anticipated operational occurrences and to maintain the effectiveness of physical
barriers placed between a source or radioactive material and workers, members of the public or the
environment, in operational states and, for some barriers, in accident conditions.
Θ The objectives of defence in depth are:
(a) To compensate for potential human and component failures;
(b) To maintain the effectiveness of the barriers by averting damage to the facility and to the barriers
themselves;
(c) To protect workers, members of the public and the environment from harm in accident conditions
in the event that these barriers are not fully effective.
deterministic effect
A health effect of radiation for which generally a threshold level of dose exists above which
the severity of the effect is greater for a higher dose.
Θ The level of the threshold dose is characteristic of the particular health effect but may also depend,
to a limited extent, on the exposed individual. Examples of deterministic effects include erythema and
acute radiation syndrome (radiation sickness).
Θ Such an effect is described as a severe deterministic effect if it is fatal or life threatening or results
in a permanent injury that reduces quality of life.
Θ Deterministic effects are also referred to as ‘harmful tissue reactions’.

104
diagnostic reference level
A level used in medical imaging to indicate whether, in routine conditions, the dose to the
patient or the amount of radiopharmaceuticals administered in a specified radiological procedure is
unusually high or unusually low for that procedure.
directional dose equivalent, H′′(d,Ω

Ω)
The dose equivalent that would be produced by the corresponding expanded field in the ICRU
sphere at a depth d on a radius in a specified direction Ω.
Θ Parameter defined at a point in a radiation field. Used as a directly measurable proxy (i.e.
substitute) for equivalent dose in the skin for use in monitoring of external exposure.
Θ The recommended value of d for weakly penetrating radiation is 0.07 mm.
disposal
Emplacement of waste in an appropriate facility without the intention of retrieval.
dose
1. A measure of the energy deposited by radiation in a target.
2. Absorbed dose, committed equivalent dose, committed effective dose, effective dose,
equivalent dose or organ dose, as indicated by the context.
committed dose. committed equivalent dose or committed effective dose.
dose assessment
Assessment of the dose(s) to an individual or group of people.
dose constraint
See constraint.
dose limit
The value of the effective dose or the equivalent dose to individuals in planned exposure
situations that is not to be exceeded.
effective dose
The quantity E, defined as a summation of all the tissue equivalent doses, each multiplied by
the appropriate tissue weighting factor:
E = ∑ wT ⋅ H T
T
where HT is the equivalent dose in tissue T and wT is the tissue weighting factor for tissue T. From the
definition of equivalent dose, it follows that:
105
E = ∑ wT ⋅ ∑ wR ⋅ DT, R
T R
where wR is the radiation weighting factor for radiation R and DT,R is the average absorbed dose in the
tissue or organ T.
Θ The unit of effective dose is joule per kilogram (J/kg), given the name sievert (Sv).An explanation of
the quantity is given in Annex B of ICRP 103 [1].
Θ Effective dose is a measure of dose designed to reflect the amount of radiation detriment likely to
result from the dose.
Θ Effective dose cannot be used to quantify higher doses or to make decisions on the need for any
medical treatment relating to deterministic effects.
Θ Values of effective dose from any type(s) of radiation and mode(s) of exposure can be compared
directly.
emergency
A non-routine situation that necessitates prompt action, primarily to mitigate a hazard or adverse
consequences for human health and safety, quality of life, property or the environment. This includes
nuclear or radiation emergencies and conventional emergencies such as fires, release of hazardous
chemicals, storms or earthquakes. It includes situations for which prompt action is warranted to
mitigate the effects of a perceived hazard.
nuclear or radiation emergency. An emergency in which there is, or is perceived to be, a

hazard due to:
(a) The energy resulting from a nuclear chain reaction or from the decay of the products
of a chain reaction; or
(b) Radiation exposure.
emergency action level, EAL
A specific, predetermined, observable criterion used to detect, recognize and determine the
emergency class.
emergency class
A set of conditions that warrant a similar immediate emergency response.
Θ This is the term used for communicating to the response organizations and to members of the public
the level of response needed. The events that belong to a given emergency class are defined by criteria
specific to the installation, source or practice, which, if exceeded, indicate classification at the prescribed
level. For each emergency class, the initial actions of the response organizations are predefined.
emergency exposure situation
An emergency exposure situation is a situation of exposure that arises as a result of an

accident, a malicious act, or any other unexpected event, and requires prompt action in order to avoid
or reduce adverse consequences.
106
Θ Emergency exposures can be reduced only by protective actions and other response actions.
emergency plan
A description of the objectives, policy and concept of operations for the response to an
emergency and of the structure, authorities and responsibilities for a systematic, coordinated and
effective response. The emergency plan serves as the basis for the development of other plans,
procedures and checklists.
emergency preparedness
The capability to take actions that will effectively mitigate the consequences of an emergency
for human health and safety, quality of life, property and the environment.
emergency procedures
A set of instructions describing in detail the actions to be taken by response personnel in an

emergency.
emergency response
The performance of actions to mitigate the consequences of an emergency for human health and
safety, quality of life, property and the environment. It may also provide a basis for the resumption of
normal social and economic activity.
emergency response arrangements
The integrated set of infrastructural elements necessary to provide the capability for performing
a specified function or task required in response to a nuclear or radiation emergency. These elements
may include authorities and responsibilities, organization, coordination, personnel, plans, procedures,
facilities, equipment or training.
emergency worker
A person having specified duties as a worker in response to an emergency.
Θ Emergency workers may include workers employed by registrants and licensees as well as personnel
of responding organizations, such as police officers, firefighters, medical personnel, and drivers and
crews of evacuation vehicles.
employer
A person or organization with recognized responsibilities, commitments and duties towards a

worker in the employment of the person or organization by virtue of a mutually agreed relationship.
(A self-employed person is regarded as being both an employer and a worker.)
environment
The conditions under which people, animals and plants live or develop and which sustain all life
and development; especially such conditions as affected by human activities.
Θ Protection of the environment includes the protection and conservation of: non-human species, both
animal and plant, and their biodiversity; environmental goods and services such as the production of food
and feed; resources used in agriculture, forestry, fisheries and tourism; amenities used in spiritual,
107
cultural and recreational activities; media such as soil, water and air; and natural processes such as
carbon, nitrogen and water cycles.
environmental monitoring
The measurement of external dose rates due to sources in the environment or of radionuclide
concentrations in environmental media.
Θ Contrasted with source monitoring.
equilibrium equivalent concentration
The activity concentration of 222Rn or 220Rn in radioactive equilibrium with its short lived
progeny that would have the same potential alpha energy concentration as the actual (non-
equilibrium) mixture.
Θ The equilibrium equivalent concentration of 222Rn is given by
EEC 222Rn = 0.104 × C(218Po) + 0.514 × C(214Pb) + 0.382 × C(214Bi)
where C(x) is the activity concentration of nuclide x in air. 1 Bq/m3 EEC 222
Rn corresponds to 5.56 ×
10–6 mJ/m3.
Θ The equilibrium equivalent concentration of 220Rn is given by
EEC 220Rn = 0.913 × C(212Pb) + 0.087 × C(212Bi)
where C(x) is the activity concentration of nuclide x in air. 1 Bq/m3 EEC 220
Rn corresponds to 7.57 ×
10–5 mJ/m3.
equilibrium factor
222 222
The ratio of the equilibrium equivalent activity concentration of Rn to the actual Rn
activity concentration.
equivalent dose
equivalent dose, HT. The quantity HT,R, defined as:
H T, R = wR ⋅ DT, R
where DT,R is the absorbed dose delivered by radiation type R averaged over a tissue or organ T
and wR is the radiation weighting factor for radiation type R. When the radiation field is
composed of different radiation types with different values of wR the equivalent dose is:
H T = ∑ wR ⋅DT, R
R
Θ The unit of equivalent dose is the sievert (Sv), equal to 1 J/kg. An explanation of the quantity is given
in Annex B of ICRP 103 [1].
Θ Equivalent dose is a measure of the dose to a tissue or organ designed to reflect the amount of harm
caused.
108
Θ Equivalent dose cannot be used to quantify higher doses or to make decisions on the need for any
medical treatment relating to deterministic effects.
Θ Values of equivalent dose to a specified tissue from any type(s) of radiation can be compared directly.
evacuation
The rapid, temporary removal of people from an area to avoid or reduce short term radiation
exposure in an emergency.
Θ Evacuation is an urgent protective action. If people are removed from the area for a longer period of
time (more than a few months) the term relocation is used.
event
In the context of the reporting and analysis of events, an event is any occurrence unintended by
the operator, including operating error, equipment failure or other mishap, and deliberate action on the
part of others, the consequences or potential consequences of which are not negligible from the point
of view of protection or safety.
exemption
The determination by a regulatory body that a source or practice need not be subject to some
or all aspects of regulatory control on the basis that the exposure and the potential exposure due to the
source or practice are too small to warrant the application of those aspects or that this is the optimum
option for protection irrespective of the actual level of the doses or risks.
exemption level.
A value, established by a regulatory body and expressed in terms of activity concentration,

total activity, dose rate or radiation energy, at or below which a source of radiation need not be
subject to some or all aspects of regulatory control.
existing exposure situation
An existing exposure situation is a situation of exposure that already exists when a decision on
the need for control needs to be taken.
Θ Existing exposure situations include exposure to natural background radiation that is amenable to
control; exposure due to residual radioactive material that arose from past practices that were never
subject to regulatory control or exposure due to residual radioactive material arising from a nuclear or
radiation emergency after an emergency exposure situation has been declared to be ended.
exposure
The state or condition of being subject to irradiation.
external exposure. Exposure to radiation from a source outside the body.
internal exposure. Exposure to radiation from a source within the body.

109
exposure pathway
A route by which radiation or radionuclides can reach humans and cause exposure.
facilities and activities68
A general term encompassing nuclear facilities, uses of all sources of ionizing radiation, all
radioactive waste management activities, transport of radioactive material and any other practice or
circumstances in which people may be subject to exposure to radiation from naturally occurring or
artificial sources.
Θ Facilities includes: nuclear facilities; irradiation installations; some mining and raw material
processing facilities such as uranium mines; radioactive waste management facilities; and any other
places where radioactive material is produced, processed, used, handled, stored or disposed of — or
where radiation generators are installed — on such a scale that consideration of protection and safety is
required.
Activities includes: the production, use, import and export of radiation sources for industrial, research and
medical purposes; the transport of radioactive material; the decommissioning of facilities; radioactive
waste management activities such as the discharge of effluents; and some aspects of the remediation of
sites affected by residues from past activities.
Θ This term is intended to provide an alternative to the terminology of sources and practices (or
intervention) to refer to general categories of situations. For example, a practice may involve many
different facilities and/or activities, whereas the general definition (1) of source is too broad in some
cases: a facility or activity might constitute a source, or might involve the use of many sources, depending
upon the interpretation used.
Θ The term facilities and activities is very general, and includes those for which little or no regulatory
control may be necessary or achievable: the more specific terms authorized facility and authorized
activity should be used to distinguish those facilities and activities for which any form of authorization
has been given.
Θ In the Fundamental Safety Principles (Safety Fundamentals), the term ‘facilities and activities —
existing and new — utilized for peaceful purposes’ is abbreviated for convenience to facilities and
activities as a general term encompassing any human activity that may cause people to be exposed to
radiation risks arising from naturally occurring or artificial sources (see Ref. [2], para. 1.9).
feed
Any single or multiple materials, whether processed, semi-processed or raw, that is intended to
be fed directly to food producing animals.
fluence
Θ A measure of the strength of a radiation field. Commonly used without qualification to mean particle
fluence.
energy fluence, Ψ. A measure of the energy density of a radiation field, defined as:
68
A small number of ‘catch-all’ terms — namely: facilities and activities; protection and safety; and structures,
systems and components — are defined in the IAEA Safety Glossary. These terms may be used in exactly the
form listed to describe a whole group of things without cumbersome repetition, or slight variations of the terms
may be used to refer to particular subgroups. Although the definitions include an indication of the meanings of
the separate elements of the terms, these are not intended to be applied rigidly: if precise reference is needed to
particular items covered by the catch-all term, more precise terms should be used.
110
dR
Ψ=
da
where dR is the radiation energy incident on a sphere of cross-sectional area da.
Θ The energy fluence rate
dΨ
dt
is denoted by a lower case ψ.
Θ See INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, Conversion

Coefficients for Use in Radiological Protection against External Radiation, ICRP Publication 74, Annals
of the ICRP Volume 26/3, Pergamon Press, Oxford and New York (1997).
particle fluence, Φ. A measure of the density of particles in a radiation field, defined as:
dN
Φ=
da
where dN is the number of particles incident on a sphere of cross-sectional area da.
Θ The particle fluence rate
dΦ
dt
is denoted by a lower case φ.
Θ See INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, Conversion

Coefficients for Use in Radiological Protection against External Radiation, ICRP Publication 74, Annals
of the ICRP Volume 26/3, Pergamon Press, Oxford and New York (1997).
food
Any substance, whether processed, semi-processed or raw, which is intended for human
consumption.
Θ This includes drink (other than freshwater), chewing gum and substances used in the preparation or
processing of food; it does not include cosmetics, tobacco or drugs. Consumption in this context refers to
ingestion.
graded approach
For a system of control, such as a regulatory system or a safety system, a process or method in
which the stringency of the control measures and conditions to be applied is commensurate, to the
extent practicable, with the likelihood and possible consequences of, and the level of risk associated
with, a loss of control.
hazard assessment
Assessment of hazards associated with facilities, activities or sources within or beyond the
borders of a State in order to identify:
111
(a) Those events and the associated areas for which protective actions may be required within
the State;
(b) The actions that would be effective in mitigating the consequences of such events.
health authority
A governmental entity (at the national, regional or local level) that is responsible for policies
and interventions, including the development of standards and the provision of guidance, for
maintaining or improving human health, and that has the legal power of enforcing such policies and
interventions.
health professional
An individual who has been formally recognized through appropriate national procedures to
practise a profession related to health (e.g. medicine, dentistry, chiropractic, podiatry, nursing, medical
physics, medical radiation technology, radiopharmacy, occupational health).
health screening programme
A programme in which a health test or medical examination is performed for the purpose of the
early detection of disease.
health surveillance
See workers’ health surveillance.
incident
Any unintended event, including operating errors, equipment failures, initiating events, accident
precursors, near misses or other mishaps, or unauthorized act, malicious or non-malicious, the
individual monitoring
Monitoring using measurements by equipment worn by individual workers, or measurements

of quantities of radioactive material in or on the bodies of individual workers, or measurement of
radioactive material excreted by individual workers.
Θ Usually contrasted with workplace monitoring.
inspection imaging device
An imaging device designed specifically for imaging persons or cargo conveyances for the
purpose of detecting concealed objects on or within the human body or within cargo or a vehicle.
Θ In some types of inspection imaging device ionizing radiation is used to produce images by
backscatter, transmission or both. Other types of inspection imaging device utilize imaging by means of
electrical and magnetic fields, ultrasound and sonar waves, nuclear magnetic resonance, microwaves,
terahertz rays, millimetre waves, infrared radiation or visible light.
112
intake
1. The act or process of taking radionuclides into the body by inhalation or ingestion or through
the skin.
2. The activity of a radionuclide taken into the body in a given time period or as a result of a
given event.
interested party
A person, company, etc., with a concern or interest in the activities and performance of an
organization, business, system, etc.
Θ The term interested party is used in a broad sense to mean a person or group having an interest in the
performance of an organization. Those who can influence events may effectively become interested
parties — whether their ‘interest’ is regarded as ‘genuine’ or not — in the sense that their views need to
be considered. Interested parties have typically included the following: customers, owners, operators,
employees, suppliers, partners, trade unions; the regulated industry or professionals; scientific bodies;
governmental agencies or regulatory bodies (national, regional and local) whose responsibilities may
cover nuclear energy; the media; members of the public (individuals, community groups and interest
groups); and other States, especially neighbouring States that have entered into agreements providing
for an exchange of information concerning possible transboundary impacts, or States involved in the
export or import of certain technologies or materials.
investigation level
The value of a quantity such as effective dose, intake or contamination per unit area or volume
at or above which an investigation would be conducted.
ionizing radiation
See radiation.
justification
1. The process of determining for a planned exposure situation whether a practice is, overall,
beneficial; i.e., whether the expected benefits to individuals and to society from introducing or
continuing the practice outweigh the harm (including radiation detriment) resulting from the practice.
2. The process of determining for an emergency exposure situation or an existing exposure

situation whether a proposed protective action or remedial action is likely, overall, to be beneficial;
i.e., whether the expected benefits to individuals and to society (including the reduction in radiation
detriment) from introducing or continuing the protective action or remedial action outweigh the cost
of such action and any harm or damage caused by the action.
kerma, K
The quantity K, defined as:
dE tr
K=
dm
where dEtr is the sum of the initial kinetic energies of all charged ionizing particles liberated by
uncharged ionizing particles in a material of mass dm.
113
Θ SI unit is joules per kilogram (J/kg), termed gray (Gy).
Θ Originally an acronym for kinetic energy released in matter, but now accepted as a word.
air kerma. The kerma value for air.
Θ Under charged particle equilibrium conditions, the air kerma (in gray) is numerically approximately
equal to the absorbed dose in air (in gray).
reference air kerma rate. The kerma rate to air, in air, at a reference distance of 1 m, corrected for air
attenuation and scattering.
Θ This quantity is expressed in µGy/h at 1 m.
licence
A legal document issued by the regulatory body granting authorization to perform specified
activities relating to a facility or activity.
Θ A licence is a product of the authorization process and a practice with a current licence is an
authorized practice.
Θ Authorization may take other forms, such as registration.
Θ The licensee is the person or organization having overall responsibility for a facility or activity.
licensee
The holder of a current licence.
limit
The value of a quantity used in certain specified activities or circumstances that must not be
exceeded.
authorized limit. A limit on a measurable quantity, established or formally accepted by a

regulatory body.
operational limits and conditions. A set of rules setting forth parameter limits, the functional
capability and the performance levels of equipment and personnel approved by the regulatory
body for safe operation of an authorized facility.
linear energy transfer (LET), L∆
Defined generally as:
 dE 
L∆ =  
 dl  ∆
where dE is the energy lost in traversing distance dl and ∆ is an upper bound on the energy transferred
in any single collision.
114
Θ A measure of how, as a function of distance, energy is transferred from radiation to the exposed
matter. A high value of linear energy transfer indicates that energy is deposited within a small distance.
Θ L∞ (i.e. with ∆ = ∞) is termed the unrestricted linear energy transfer in defining quality factor.
Θ L∆ is also known as the restricted linear collision stopping power.
management system
A set of interrelated or interacting elements (the system) for establishing policies and objectives
and enabling the objectives to be achieved in an efficient and effective manner.
Θ The component parts of the management system include the organizational structure, resources and
organizational processes. Management is defined (in ISO 9000) as coordinated activities to direct and
control an organization.
Θ The management system integrates all elements of an organization into one coherent system to enable
all of the organization’s objectives to be achieved. These elements include the organizational structure,
resources and processes. Personnel, equipment and organizational culture as well as the documented
policies and processes are parts of the management system. The organization’s processes have to address
the totality of the requirements on the organization as established in, for example, IAEA safety standards
and other international codes and standards.
medical exposure
Exposure incurred by patients for the purposes of medical or dental diagnosis or treatment; by
carers and comforters; and by volunteers subject to exposure as part of a programme of biomedical
research.
Θ A patient is an individual who is a recipient of services of health care professionals and/or their agents
that are directed at (1) health promotion; (2) prevention of illness and injury; (3) monitoring health; (4)
maintaining health; and (5) medical treatment of diseases, disorders and injuries in order to achieve a cure
or, failing that, optimum comfort and function. Some asymptomatic individuals are included. For the
purpose of these Standards, the term ‘patient’ refers only to those individuals undergoing radiological
procedures.
medical physicist
A health professional, with specialist education and training in the concepts and techniques of
applying physics in medicine, and competent to practise independently in one or more of the subfields
(specialties) of medical physics.
Θ Competence of persons is normally assessed by the State by having a formal mechanism for
registration, accreditation or certification of medical physicists in the various specialties (e.g. diagnostic
radiology, radiation therapy, nuclear medicine). States that have yet to develop such a mechanism would
need to assess the education, training and competence of any individual proposed by the licensee to act as
a medical physicist and to decide, on the basis either of international accreditation standards or standards
of a State where such an accreditation system exists, whether such an individual could undertake the
functions of a medical physicist, within the required specialty.
115
medical radiation facility
A medical facility in which radiological procedures are carried out.
medical radiation technologist
A health professional, with specialist education and training in medical radiation technology,
competent to carry out radiological procedures, on delegation from the radiological medical
practitioner, in one or more of the specialties of medical radiation technology.
registration, accreditation or certification of medical radiation technologists in the various specialties (e.g.
diagnostic radiology, radiation therapy, nuclear medicine). States that have yet to develop such a
mechanism would need to assess the education, training and competence of any individual proposed by
the licensee to act as a medical radiation technologist and to decide, on the basis either of international
standards or standards of a State where such a system exists, whether such an individual could undertake
the functions of a medical radiation technologist, within the required specialty.
medical radiological equipment
Radiological equipment used in medical radiation facilities to perform radiological procedures

that either delivers an exposure to a person or directly controls or influences the extent of such
exposure. The term applies to radiation generators, such as X ray machines or medical linear
accelerators; to devices containing sealed sources, such as cobalt-60 teletherapy units; and to devices
used in medical imaging to capture images, such as a gamma camera, image intensifier, flat panel
detector or positron emission tomography scanner.
member of the public
For protection and safety purposes, in a general sense, any individual in the population except
when subject to occupational exposure or medical exposure. For the purpose of verifying compliance
with the annual dose limit for public exposure, this is the representative person.
monitoring
The measurement of dose, dose rate or activity related to the assessment or control of exposure
to radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results.
Θ ‘Measurement’ is used somewhat loosely here. The ‘measurement’ of dose often means the
measurement of a dose equivalent quantity as a proxy (i.e. substitute) for a dose quantity that cannot be
measured directly. Also, sampling may be involved as a preliminary step to measurement.
Θ Monitoring may be subdivided in two different ways: according to where the measurements are
made, into individual monitoring, workplace monitoring, source monitoring and environmental
monitoring; and, according to the purpose of the monitoring, into routine monitoring, task related
monitoring and special monitoring.
natural background
The doses, dose rates or activity concentrations associated with natural sources, or any other
sources in the environment that are not amenable to control.
Θ This is normally considered to include doses, dose rates or activity concentrations associated with
natural sources, global fallout (but not local fallout) from atmospheric nuclear weapon tests and the
Chernobyl accident.
116
natural source
A naturally occurring source of radiation, such as the sun and stars (sources of cosmic
radiation) and rocks and soil (terrestrial sources of radiation), or any other material whose
radioactivity is for all intents and purposes due only to radionuclides of natural origin, such as
products or residues from the processing of minerals; but excluding radioactive material for use in a
nuclear installation and radioactive waste generated in such an installation.
notification
A document submitted to the regulatory body by a person or organization to notify an intention

to carry out a practice or other use of a source.
nuclear fuel cycle

All operations associated with the production of nuclear energy.
Θ This includes:
(a) Mining and processing of uranium or thorium ores;
(b) Enrichment of uranium;
(c) Manufacture of nuclear fuel;
(d) Operation of nuclear reactors (including research reactors);
(e) Reprocessing of spent fuel;
(f) All waste management activities (including decommissioning) relating to operations associated
with the production of nuclear energy;
(g) Any related research and development activities.
nuclear installation
A nuclear fuel fabrication plant, research reactor (including subcritical and critical assemblies),
nuclear power plant, spent fuel storage facility, enrichment plant or reprocessing facility.
Θ This is essentially any authorized facilities that are part of the nuclear fuel cycle except facilities for
the mining or processing of uranium or thorium ores and radioactive waste management facilities.
nuclear or radiation emergency
See emergency.
(nuclear) security
The prevention and detection of, and response to, theft, sabotage, unauthorized access, illegal
transfer or other malicious acts involving nuclear material, other radioactive material or their
associated facilities.
Θ There is not an exact distinction between the general terms safety and security. In general, security is
concerned with malicious or negligent actions by humans that could cause or threaten harm to other
humans; safety is concerned with the broader issue of harm to humans (or the environment) from
radiation, whatever the cause. The precise interaction between security and safety depends on the
context. Security of nuclear material for reasons relating to non-proliferation is outside the scope of the
IAEA safety standards.
117
occupancy factor
A typical fraction of the time for which a location is occupied by an individual or group.
occupational exposure
Exposure of workers incurred in the course of their work.
operational intervention level (OIL)
A set level of a measurable quantity that corresponds to a generic criterion.
Θ Operational intervention levels are typically expressed in terms of dose rates or of activity of
radioactive material released, time integrated air activity concentrations, ground or surface
concentrations, or activity concentrations of radionuclides in environmental, food or water samples. An
operational intervention level is used immediately and directly (without further assessment) to
determine the appropriate protective actions on the basis of an environmental measurement.
optimization of protection and safety
The process of determining what level of protection and safety would result in the magnitude of
individual doses, the number of individuals (workers and members of the public) subject to exposure
and the likelihood of exposure being “as low as reasonably achievable, economic and social factors
being taken into account” (ALARA).
For medical exposures of patients, the optimization of protection and safety is the management
of the radiation dose to the patient commensurate with the medical purpose.
Θ “protection and safety is optimized” means that optimization of protection and safety has been applied
and the result of that process has been implemented.
personal dose equivalent, Hp(d).
The dose equivalent in soft tissue below a specified point on the body at an appropriate depth
d.
Θ Parameter used as a directly measurable proxy (i.e. substitute) for equivalent dose in tissues or
organs or (with d = 10 mm) for effective dose, in individual monitoring of external exposure.
Θ The recommended values of d are 10 mm for strongly penetrating radiation and 0.07 mm for
weakly penetrating radiation.
Θ ‘Soft tissue’ is commonly interpreted as the ICRU sphere.
planned exposure situation
A planned exposure situation is a situation of exposure that arises from the planned operation of
a source or from a planned activity that results in an exposure from a source.
Θ Since provision for protection and safety can be made before embarking on the activity concerned,
associated exposures and their probabilities of occurrence can be restricted from the outset. The primary
means of controlling exposure in planned exposure situations is by good design of installations,
equipment and operating procedures. In planned exposure situations, a certain level of exposure is
expected to occur.
118
planning target volume
A geometrical concept used in radiation therapy for planning medical treatment with
consideration of the net effect of movements of the patient and of the tissues to be irradiated,
variations in size and shape of the tissues, and variations in beam geometry such as beam size and
beam direction.
potential exposure
Prospective exposure that is not expected to be delivered with certainty but that may result from
an anticipated operational occurrence, accident at a source or owing to an event or sequence of events
of a probabilistic nature, including equipment failures and operating errors.
Θ Potential exposure includes prospectively considered exposures from a source due to an event or
sequence of events of a probabilistic nature, including those resulting from an accident, equipment
failures, operating errors, natural phenomena (such as hurricanes, earthquakes and floods) and
inadvertent human intrusion (such as the intrusion into a near surface waste disposal facility after
institutional control is removed).
practice
Any human activity that introduces additional sources of exposure or additional exposure
pathways, or modifies the network of exposure pathways from existing sources, so as to increase the
exposure or the likelihood of exposure of people or the number of people exposed.
! Radioactive waste is generated as a result of practices that involve some beneficial effect, such as the
generation of electricity by nuclear means or the diagnostic application of radioisotopes. The
management of this waste is therefore only one part of the overall practice.
projected dose
The dose that would be expected to be received if planned protective actions were not taken.
protection (against radiation)
radiation protection (also radiological protection). The protection of people from harmful
effects of exposure to ionizing radiation, and the means for achieving this.
protection and safety
The protection of people against exposure to ionizing radiation or due to radioactive material
and the safety of sources, including the means for achieving this, and the means for preventing
accidents and for mitigating the consequences of accidents if they do occur.
Θ For the purposes of the IAEA safety standards, ‘protection and safety’ includes the protection of
people against ionizing radiation and radiation safety; it does not include non-radiation-related aspects
of safety. Protection and safety is concerned with both radiation risks under normal circumstances and
radiation risks as a consequence of incidents, as well as with other possible direct consequences of a
loss of control over a nuclear reactor core, nuclear chain reaction, radioactive source or any other
source of radiation. Safety measures include actions to prevent incidents and arrangements put in place
to mitigate their consequences if they were to occur.
119
protection of the environment
See environment.
protective action
An action for the purposes of avoiding or reducing doses that might otherwise be received in an
emergency exposure situation or an existing exposure situation.
longer term protective action. A protective action that is not an urgent protective action.
Θ Such protective actions are likely to be prolonged over weeks, months or years.
Θ These include measures such as relocation, agricultural countermeasures and remedial actions.
mitigatory action. Immediate action by the operator or other party:
(1) To reduce the potential for conditions to develop that would result in exposure or a release
of radioactive material requiring emergency actions on or off the site; or
(2) To mitigate source conditions that may result in exposure or a release of radioactive
material requiring emergency actions on or off the site.
precautionary urgent protective action. A protective action in the event of a nuclear or

radiation emergency which must be taken before or shortly after a release of radioactive
material, or before an exposure, on the basis of the prevailing conditions to prevent or to reduce
the risk of severe deterministic effects.
urgent protective action. A protective action in the event of an emergency which must be taken
promptly (usually within hours) in order to be effective, and the effectiveness of which will be
markedly reduced if it is delayed.
public exposure
Exposure incurred by members of the public due to sources in planned exposure situations,
emergency exposure situations and existing exposure situations, excluding any occupational exposure
or medical exposure.
qualified expert
An individual who, by virtue of certification by appropriate boards or societies, professional

licences or academic qualifications and experience, is duly recognized as having expertise in a
relevant field of specialization, e.g. medical physics, radiation protection, occupational health, fire
safety, quality management or any relevant engineering or safety specialty.
quality assurance (QA)
The function of a management system that provides confidence that specified requirements will
be fulfilled.
Θ Planned and systematic actions are necessary to provide adequate confidence that an item, process or
service will satisfy given requirements for quality; for example, those specified in the licence. This
statement is slightly modified from that in ISO 921:1997 (Nuclear Energy: Vocabulary) to say ‘an item,
process or service’ instead of ‘a product or service’ and to add the example. A more general definition of
quality assurance and definitions of related terms can be found in ISO 8402:1994.
120
radiation
! When used in IAEA publications, the term radiation normally refers only to ionizing radiation. The
IAEA has no statutory responsibilities in relation to non-ionizing radiation.
ionizing radiation. For the purposes of radiation protection, radiation capable of producing ion
pairs in biological material(s).
Θ Ionizing radiation can be divided into low linear energy transfer radiation and high linear energy
transfer radiation (as a guide to its relative biological effectiveness), or into strongly penetrating
radiation and weakly penetrating radiation (as an indication of its ability to penetrate shielding or the
human body).
radiation detriment
The total harm that would eventually be incurred by a group that is subject to exposure and by
its descendants as a result of the group’s exposure to radiation from a source.
radiation generator
A device capable of generating ionizing radiation, such as X rays, neutrons, electrons or other
charged particles, that may be used for scientific, industrial or medical purposes.
See protection.
radiation protection officer
A person technically competent in radiation protection matters relevant for a given type of
practice who is designated by the registrant, licensee or employer to oversee the application of
relevant requirements.
radiation risks
− Detrimental health effects of exposure to radiation (including the likelihood of such
effects occurring).
− Any other safety related risks (including those to the environment) that might arise as a
direct consequence of:
• The presence of radioactive material (including radioactive waste) or its release to
the environment;
• A loss of control over a nuclear reactor core, nuclear chain reaction, radioactive
source or any other source of radiation.
radiation weighting factor, wR
A number by which the absorbed dose in a tissue or organ is multiplied to reflect the relative
biological effectiveness of the radiation in inducing stochastic effects at low doses, the result being the
equivalent dose.
121
RECOMMENDED RADIATION WEIGHTING FACTORS
Radiation type wR
Photons 1
Electrons and muons 1
Protons and charged pions 2
Alpha particles, fission fragments, heavy ions 20
Neutrons A continuous function of neutron energy:
Note: All values relate to the radiation incident on the body or, for internal radiation sources, emitted from the
incorporated radionuclide(s).
radioactive (adjective)
1. Exhibiting radioactivity; emitting or relating to the emission of ionizing radiation or particles.
Θ This is the ‘scientific’ definition, and should not be confused with the ‘regulatory’ definition (2).
2. Designated in national law or by a regulatory body as being subject to regulatory control

because of its radioactivity.
Θ This is the ‘regulatory’ definition, and should not be confused with the ‘scientific’ definition (1).
radioactive material
Material designated in national law or by a regulatory body as being subject to regulatory

control because of its radioactivity.
Θ This is the ‘regulatory’ meaning of radioactive (2), and should not be confused with the ‘scientific’
meaning (1) of radioactive: ‘exhibiting radioactivity; emitting or relating to the emission of ionizing
radiation or particles’. The ‘scientific’ meaning of radioactive — as in radioactive substance — refers
only to the presence of radioactivity, and gives no indication of the magnitude of the hazard involved.
radioactive source
A source containing radioactive material that is used as a source of radiation.
radioactive substance
Θ This is the ‘scientific’ meaning of radioactive (1), and should not be confused with the ‘regulatory’
meaning (2) of radioactive: ‘Designated in national law or by a regulatory body as being subject to
regulatory control because of its radioactivity.’ The ‘scientific’ meaning of radioactive refers only to the
presence of radioactivity, and gives no indication of the magnitude of the hazard involved.
122
radioactive waste
For legal and regulatory purposes, material for which no further use is foreseen that contains, or
is contaminated with, radionuclides at activity concentrations or activities greater than clearance levels
as established by the regulatory body.
! It should be recognized that this definition is purely for regulatory purposes, and that material with
activity concentrations equal to or less than clearance levels is radioactive from a physical viewpoint,
although the associated radiological hazards are considered negligible.
radioactive waste management
All administrative and operational activities involved in the handling, pretreatment, treatment,
conditioning, transport, storage and disposal of radioactive waste.
predisposal. Any waste management steps carried out prior to disposal, such as pretreatment,
treatment, conditioning, storage and transport activities.
Θ Predisposal is used as a contraction of ‘pre-disposal radioactive waste management’, not a form of

disposal.
processing. Any operation that changes the characteristics of waste, including pretreatment,
treatment and conditioning.
radioactive waste management facility
Facility specifically designed to handle, treat, condition, temporarily store or permanently

dispose of radioactive waste.
radiological medical practitioner
A health professional with specialist education and training in the medical uses of radiation,
who is competent to perform independently or to oversee procedures involving medical exposure in a
given specialty.
registration, accreditation or certification of radiological medical practitioners in the given specialty (e.g.
radiology, radiation therapy, nuclear medicine, dentistry, cardiology, etc.). States that have yet to develop
such a mechanism need to assess the education, training and competence of any individual proposed by
the licensee to act as a radiological medical practitioner and to decide, on the basis either of international
standards or standards of a State where such a system exists, whether such an individual can undertake
the functions of a radiological medical practitioner, within the required specialty.
radiological procedure
A medical imaging procedure or therapeutic procedure that involves ionizing radiation, such as
a procedure in diagnostic radiology, nuclear medicine or radiation therapy, or any planning procedure,
image guided interventional procedure or other interventional procedure involving radiation, delivered
by a radiation generator, by a device containing a sealed source or by an unsealed source, or
delivered by means of a radiopharmaceutical administered to a patient.
123
radiopharmacist
A health professional, with specialist education and training in radiopharmacy, who is

competent to prepare and dispense radiopharmaceuticals used for the purposes of medical diagnosis
and therapy.
registration, accreditation or certification of radiopharmacists. States that have yet to develop such a
mechanism need to assess the education, training and competence of any individual proposed by the
licensee to act as a radiopharmacist and to decide, on the basis either of international standards or
standards of a State where such a system exists, whether such an individual can undertake the functions
of a radiopharmacist.
radon
Any combination of isotopes of the element radon.
Θ For the purposes of these Standards, radon refers to radon-220 and radon-222.
radon progeny
The short lived radioactive decay products of radon-220 and radon-222.
Θ For radon-222, this includes the decay chain up to but not including lead-210, namely polonium-218,
lead-214, bismuth-214 and polonium-214, plus traces of astatine-218, thallium-210 and lead-209. Lead-
210, which has a half-life of 22.3 years, and its radioactive progeny — bismuth-210 and polonium-210,
plus traces of mercury-206 and thallium-206 — are, strictly, progeny of radon-222, but they are not
included in this listing because they will not normally be present in significant amounts in airborne form.
For radon-220, this includes polonium-216, lead-212, bismuth-212, polonium-212 and thallium-208.
RBE weighted absorbed dose, ADT
The quantity ADT,R, defined as:
ADT ,R = DT ,R × RBET ,R
where DT,R is the absorbed dose delivered by radiation of type R averaged over a tissue or organ T and
RBET,R is the relative biological effectiveness for radiation of type R in the production of severe
deterministic effects in a tissue or organ T. When the radiation field is composed of different
radiation types with different values of RBET,R, the RBE weighted absorbed dose is given by:
ADT = ∑ DT ,R × RBET ,R
R
Θ The unit of RBE weighted absorbed dose is the gray (Gy), equal to 1 J/kg.
Θ RBE weighted absorbed dose is a measure of the dose to a tissue or organ designed to reflect the risk
of development of severe deterministic effects.
Θ Values of RBE weighted absorbed dose to a specified tissue from any type(s) of radiation can be
compared directly.
124
recording level
A level of dose, exposure or intake specified by the regulatory body at or above which values
of dose to, exposure of or intake by workers are to be entered in their individual exposure records.
reference level
In an emergency exposure situation or an existing exposure situation, the level of dose, risk or
activity concentration above which it is not appropriate to plan to allow exposures to occur and below
which optimization of protection and safety would continue to be implemented.
Θ The chosen value for a reference level will depend upon the prevailing circumstances for the
exposure under consideration.
referring medical practitioner
A health professional who, in accordance with national requirements, may refer individuals to a
radiological medical practitioner for medical exposure.
registration
A form of authorization for practices of low or moderate risks whereby the person or
organization responsible for the practice has, as appropriate, prepared and submitted a safety
assessment of the facilities and equipment to the regulatory body. The practice or use is authorized
with conditions or limitations as appropriate.
Θ The requirements for safety assessment and the conditions or limitations applied to the practice would
be less severe for registration than those for licensing.
Θ Typical practices that are amenable to registration are those for which: (a) safety can largely be
ensured by the design of the facilities and equipment; (b) the operating procedures are simple to follow;
(c) the safety training requirements are minimal; and (d) there is a history of few problems with safety in
operations. Registration is best suited to those practices for which operations do not vary significantly.
registrant.
The holder of a current registration.
Θ Other derivative terms should not be needed; a registration is a product of the authorization process,
and a practice with a current registration is an authorized practice.
regulatory body
An authority or a system of authorities designated by the government of a State as having legal

authority for conducting the regulatory process, including issuing authorizations, and thereby
regulating nuclear, radiation, radioactive waste and transport safety.
Θ The national competent authority for the regulation of radioactive material transport safety (see Ref.
[12]) is included in this description.
regulatory control
Θ See control (1).

125
relative biological effectiveness (RBE)
A measure of the relative effectiveness of different radiation types at inducing a specified

health effect, expressed as the inverse ratio of the absorbed doses of two different radiation types that
would produce the same degree of a defined biological end point.
Θ Values of relative biological effectiveness in causing the development of deterministic effects are
selected to be representative of the severe deterministic effects that are significant to emergency
preparedness and response. The tissue specific and radiation specific values of RBET,R for the
development of selected severe deterministic effects are as shown in the table.
Health effect Critical organ Exposurea RBET,R
External and internal γ 1
External and internal n 3
Haematopoietic syndrome Red marrow
Internal β 1
Internal α 2
Pneumonitis Lungb
Internal β 1
Internal α 7
Gastrointestinal syndrome Colon
Internal β 1
Internal α 0c
External β, γ 1
Necrosis Tissued
External n 3
External β, γ 1
Moist desquamation Skine
External n 3
Intake of iodine isotopesf 0.2
Hypothyroidism Thyroid
Other thyroid seekers 1
a
External β, γ exposure includes exposure due to bremsstrahlung produced within
the material of the source.
b
Tissue of the alveolar-interstitial region of the respiratory tract.
c
For alpha emitters uniformly distributed in the contents of the colon, it is assumed
that irradiation of the walls of the intestine is negligible.
d
Tissue at a depth of 5 mm below the skin surface over an area of more than 100
cm2.
e
Tissue at a depth of 0.4 mm below the skin surface over an area of more than 100
cm2.
f
Uniform irradiation of the tissue of the thyroid gland is considered to be five
times more likely to produce deterministic effects than internal exposure due to
low energy beta emitting isotopes of iodine such as 131I, 129I, 125I, 124I and 123I.
Thyroid seeking radionuclides have a heterogeneous distribution in thyroid tissue.
The isotope 131I emits low energy beta particles, which leads to a reduced
effectiveness of irradiation of critical thyroid tissue owing to the dissipation of the
energy of the particles within other tissues.
126
remedial action
The removal of a source or the reduction of its magnitude (in terms of activity or amount) for
the purposes of preventing or reducing exposures that might otherwise occur in an existing exposure
situation.
remediation
Any measures that may be carried out to reduce the radiation exposure due to existing
contamination of land areas through actions applied to the contamination itself (the source) or to the
exposure pathways to humans.
Θ Complete removal of the contamination is not implied.
Θ See decontamination.
representative person
An individual receiving a dose that is representative of the doses to the more highly exposed
individuals in the population.
Θ ICRP Publication 101 indicates that the dose to the representative person “is the equivalent of, and
replaces, the mean dose in the ‘critical group’”, and provides guidance on assessing doses to the
representative person. The concept of critical group remains valid.
Θ See member of the public.
residual dose
The dose expected to be incurred in the future after protective actions have been terminated (or
a decision has been taken not to implement protective actions).
Θ This applies in an existing exposure situation or an emergency exposure situation.
response organization
An organization designated or otherwise recognized by a State as being responsible for

managing or implementing any aspect of an emergency response.
risk
A multiattribute quantity expressing hazard, danger or chance of harmful or injurious

consequences associated with exposures or potential exposures. It relates to quantities such as the
probability that specific deleterious consequences may arise and the magnitude and character of such
consequences.
risk constraint
See constraint.
safety
See protection and safety.

127
safety assessment
Assessment of all aspects of a practice that are relevant to protection and safety; for an
authorized facility, this includes siting, design and operation of the facility.
safety culture
The assembly of characteristics and attitudes in organizations and individuals which establishes
that, as an overriding priority, protection and safety issues receive the attention warranted by their
significance.
safety measure
Any action that might be taken, condition that might be applied or procedure that might be
followed to fulfil the basic requirements of Safety Requirements.
safety standards
Standards of safety issued pursuant to Article III(A)(6)69 of the Statute of the IAEA.
Θ Requirements, regulations, standards, rules, codes of practice or recommendations established to

protect people and the environment against ionizing radiation and to minimize danger to life and property.
scenario
A postulated or assumed set of conditions and/or events.
Θ Most commonly used in analysis or assessment to represent possible future conditions and/or events to
be modelled, such as possible accidents at a nuclear facility, or the possible future evolution of a
repository and its surroundings. A scenario may represent the conditions at a single point in time or a
single event, or a time history of conditions and/or events (including processes).
Θ See event.
sealed source
A radioactive source in which the radioactive material is (a) permanently sealed in a capsule or
(b) closely bonded and in a solid form.
security
See (nuclear) security.
source
1. Anything that may cause radiation exposure — such as by emitting ionizing radiation or by
releasing radioactive material — and can be treated as a single entity for protection and safety
purposes.
69
“[The Agency is authorized…] To establish or adopt, in consultation and, where appropriate, in collaboration
with the competent organs of the United Nations and with the specialized agencies concerned, standards of
safety for protection of health and minimization of danger to life and property (including such standards for
labour conditions)…”
128
Θ For example, materials emitting radon are sources in the environment; a sterilization gamma irradiation
unit is a source for the practice of radiation preservation of food and sterilization of other products; an X
ray unit may be a source for the practice of radiodiagnosis; a nuclear power plant is part of the practice of
generating electricity by nuclear fission, and may be regarded as a source (e.g. with respect to discharges
to the environment) or as a collection of sources (e.g. for occupational radiation protection purposes). A
complex or multiple installation situated at one location or site may, as appropriate, be considered a single
source for the purposes of application of international safety standards.
natural source. A naturally occurring source of radiation, such as the sun and stars (sources of
cosmic radiation) and rocks and soil (terrestrial sources of radiation), or any other material
whose radioactivity is for all intents and purposes due only to radionuclides of natural origin,
such as products or residues from the processing of minerals; but excluding radioactive material
for use in a nuclear installation and radioactive waste generated in such an installation.
radiation generator. A device capable of generating ionizing radiation, such as X rays,

neutrons, electrons or other charged particles, that may be used for scientific, industrial or
medical purposes.
2. Radioactive material used as a source of radiation.
Θ Such as those sources used for medical applications or in industrial instruments. These are, of course,
sources as defined in (1), but this usage is less general.
dangerous source. A source that could, if not under control, give rise to exposure sufficient to
cause severe deterministic effects. This categorization is used for determining the need for
emergency response arrangements and is not to be confused with categorizations of sources for
other purposes.
radioactive source. A source containing radioactive material that is used as a source of

radiation.
sealed source. A radioactive source in which the radioactive material is (a) permanently sealed
in a capsule or (b) closely bonded and in a solid form.
unsealed source. A radioactive source in which the radioactive material is neither (a)
permanently sealed in a capsule nor (b) closely bonded and in a solid form.
source monitoring
The measurement of activity in radioactive material being released to the environment or of

external dose rates due to sources within a facility or activity.
Θ Contrasted with environmental monitoring.
spent fuel
Nuclear fuel removed from a reactor following irradiation that is no longer usable in its present
form because of depletion of fissile material, poison buildup or radiation damage.
Θ The adjective ‘spent’ suggests that spent fuel cannot be used as fuel in its present form (e.g. as in spent
source). In practice, however, spent fuel is commonly used to refer to fuel which has been used as fuel but
will no longer be used, whether or not it could be used (and which might more accurately be termed
‘disused fuel’).
129
standards dosimetry laboratory
A laboratory, designated by the relevant national authority, that possesses certification or

accreditation necessary for the purpose of developing, maintaining or improving primary or secondary
standards for radiation dosimetry.
stochastic effect
A radiation induced health effect, the probability of occurrence of which is greater for a higher
radiation dose and the severity of which (if it occurs) is independent of dose.
Θ Stochastic effects may be somatic effects or hereditary effects, and generally occur without a
threshold level of dose. Examples include solid cancers and leukaemia.
storage
The holding of radioactive sources, spent fuel or radioactive waste in a facility that provides for
their/its containment, with the intention of retrieval.
structures, systems and components
A general term encompassing all of the elements (items) of a facility or activity which
contribute to protection and safety, except human factors.
Θ Structures are the passive elements: buildings, vessels, shielding, etc. A system comprises several
components, assembled in such a way as to perform a specific (active) function. A component is a
discrete element of a system. Examples of components are wires, transistors, integrated circuits, motors,
relays, solenoids, pipes, fittings, pumps, tanks and valves.
supervised area
A defined area not designated as a controlled area but for which occupational exposure
conditions are kept under review, even though no specific protection measures or safety provisions are
not normally needed.
supplier (of a source)
Any person or organization to whom a registrant or licensee delegates duties, totally or partially,
in relation to the design, manufacture, production or construction of a source.
Θ The term ‘supplier’ includes designers, manufacturers, producers, constructors, assemblers, installers,
distributors, sellers, exporters or importers of a source.
survey
radiological survey. An evaluation of the radiological conditions and potential hazards

associated with the production, use, transfer, release, disposal or presence of radioactive material or
other sources of radiation.
system
See structures, systems and components.

130
tissue weighting factor, wT
Multiplier of the equivalent dose to an tissue or organ, as given by the System of Radiological
Protection, used for radiation protection purposes to account for the different sensitivities of different
tissues or organs to the induction of stochastic effects of radiation.
Θ Recommended tissue weighting factors:

Tissue wT
Bone-marrow (red), Colon, Lung, Stomach, Breast, Remainder tissues* 0.12 0.72
Gonads 0.08 0.08
Bladder, Oesophagus, Liver, Thyroid 0.04 0.16
Bone surface, Brain, Salivary glands, Skin 0.01 0.04
Total 1.00
* The wT for the remainder tissues (0.12) applies to the arithmetic mean dose of the 13 organs and tissues for
each sex listed below. Remainder tissues: adrenals, extrathoracic (ET) region, gall bladder, heart, kidneys,
lymphatic nodes, muscle, oral mucosa, pancreas, prostate (male), small intestine, spleen, thymus, uterus/cervix
(female).
Θ Recommended tissue weighting factors are included on the accompanying CD.
transboundary exposure
Exposure of members of the public in one State due to radioactive material released via
accidents, discharges or waste disposal in another State.
transport
1. The deliberate physical movement of radioactive material (other than that forming part of
the means of propulsion) from one place to another.
2. The movement of something as a result of being carried by a medium.
Θ A general term used when a number of different processes are involved. The most common examples
are heat transport — a combination of advection, convection, etc., in a cooling medium — and
radionuclide transport in the environment — which could include processes such as advection, diffusion,
sorption and uptake.
trigger
A level or condition that is selected to act as an initiator for setting off an event or action
(especially a response).
unsealed source
A radioactive source in which the radioactive material is neither (a) permanently sealed in a
capsule nor (b) closely bonded and in a solid form.
urgent protective action
See protective action.

131
worker
Any person who works, whether full time, part time or temporarily, for an employer and who
has recognized rights and duties in relation to occupational radiation protection.
Θ A self-employed person is regarded as having the duties of both an employer and a worker.
workers’ health surveillance
Medical supervision intended to ensure the initial and continuing fitness of workers for their
intended tasks.
workplace monitoring
Monitoring using measurements made in the working environment.

Θ Usually contrasted with individual monitoring.
133
Abu-Eid, R. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, United States of America

Ahier, B. OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)
Akhadi, M. National Nuclear Energy Agency (BATAN), Indonesia
Al-Arfaj, A. Institute of Atomic Energy Research (AERI), Saudi Arabia
Ali, H. Atomic Licensing Board (AELB), Malaysia
Ali, M. Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority (PNRA), Pakistan
Amaral, E. International Atomic Energy Agency
Amor Calvo, I. Consejo de Seguridad Nuclear (CSN), Spain
Ampuero Flores, C. Instituto Peruano de Energía Nuclear (IPEN), Peru
Andersen, R. World Nuclear Association
Arvela, H. Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (STUK), Finland
Awatsuji, Y. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science & Technology
(MEXT), Japan
Båckström, T. Swedish Radiation Protection Authority (SSI), Sweden
Badulin, V. Ministry of Health, Bulgaria
Baeklandt, L. Federal Agency for Nuclear Control (FANC), Belgium
Basurto Cázares, J. Comisión Nacional de Seguridad Nuclear y Salvaguardias
(CNSNS), Mexico
Berkovskyy, V. International Atomic Energy Agency
Boal, T. International Atomic Energy Agency
Bochichhio, F. Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), Italy
Bologna, L. APAT, Italy
Borras, C. Consultant, Radiological Physics and Health Services,
Washington DC, United States of America
Böttger, A. Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and
Nuclear Safety, Germany
Bourguignon, M. World Health Organization
Brewer, S. Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL), Canada
Buglova, E. International Atomic Energy Agency
Bundy, K. Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission, Canada
Burns, P. Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency
(ARPANSA), Australia
Byron, D. Food & Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Cabral Molina, W. Ministerio de Industria, Energia y Mineria (MIEM), Uruguay
Calamosca, M. Institute for Radiation Protection, Italy
Cancio, D. Unidad de Protección Radiológica, Spain
Canoba, A. Autoridad Regulatoria Nuclear, Argentina
Carboneras Martinez, P. Empresa Nacional de Residuos Radioactivos (ENRESA), Spain
Carr, Z. World Health Organization
Cernohlavek, N. Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety, Austria
Chambers, D. SENES Consultants Limited, Canada
Charette, M. International Source Suppliers and Producers Association (ISSPA)
Cherf, A. International Atomic Energy Agency
Cheung, K. International Organization for Medical Physics
Chi, C. China Institute for Radiation Protection, China
Cho, K. Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS), Republic of Korea
Christofides, S. International Organization for Medical Physics
Clement, C. International Commission on Radiological Protection
Colgan, T. International Atomic Energy Agency
Cool, D. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, United States of America
134
Cooper, J. Health Protection Agency (HPA), United Kingdom

Coppee, G. International Labour Organization
Crick, M. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic
Radiation
Cripwell, B. International Labour Organization
Cruz-Suarez, R. International Atomic Energy Agency
Currivan, L. Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland (RPII), Ireland
Czarwinski, R. International Atomic Energy Agency
de la Fuenta Puch, A. Centro Nacional de Seguridad Nuclear (CNSN), Cuba
Deboodt, P. International Atomic Energy Agency
Delattre, D. International Atomic Energy Agency
Delves, D. International Atomic Energy Agency
Dimitriou, P. Greek Atomic Energy Commission (GAEC), Greece
Ditto, M. Federal Ministry for Health and Women, Austria
Ebdon-Jackson, S. Health Protection Agency (HPA), United Kingdom
Fenton, D. Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland (RPII), Ireland
Fischer, H. Bundesministerium für Land und Forstwirtschaft, Umwelt und
Wasserwirtschaft, Austria
Frullani, S. Instituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), Italy
Fujii, K. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science & Technology
(MEXT), Japan
Fundarek, P. Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC), Canada
Garcia-Talavera, M. Consejo de Seguridad Nuclear, Spain
Garcier, Y. World Nuclear Association
Gaunt, M. International Labour Organization, International Organization of
Employers
Ghovanlou, A. Health & Physics Safety, United States of America
Gilley, N. FL Bureau of Radiation Control, United States of America
Gomaa, M. Atomic Energy Authority (AEA), Egypt
Gonzalez, A. Autoridad Regulatoria Nuclear, Argentina
Griebel, J. Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz (BfS), Germany
Groth, S. World Health Organization
Gruson, M. Office fédéral de la santé publique, Switzerland
Guven, M. Turkish Atomic Energy Authority, Turkey
Hamani, W. Centre National des Sciences et Technologies Nucléaires
(CNSTN), Tunisia
Hammer, J. Swiss Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate (HSK), Switzerland
Hanninen, R. Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (STUK), Finland
Hattori, T. Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Japan
Havukainen, R. Radiation & Nuclear Safety Authority (STUK), Finland
Hedemann, P. Danish Decommissioning, Denmark
Helming, M. Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and
Hesse, J. World Nuclear Association
Hoffmann, B. Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz (BfS), Germany
Homma, T. Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA), Japan
Huffman, D. AREVA Resources Canada Inc., Canada
Hugron, R. National Defence Headquarters, Canada
Hulka, J. SÚRO National Radiation Protection Institute, Czech Republic
Hunt, J. International Atomic Energy Agency
Iimoto, T. University of Tokyo, Japan
Inokuchi, T. Nuclear Safety Commission, Japan
Ishikawa, N. Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC), Japan
Ito, K. Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA), Japan
135
Janssens, A. European Commission, Luxembourg

Janzekovic, H. Slovenian Nuclear Safety Administration, Slovenia
Jensen, L. National Institute of Radiation Protection, Denmark
Jerachanchai, S. Office of Atoms for Peace, Thailand
Jimenez, P. Pan American Health Organization (PAHO)
Jones, G. International Atomic Energy Agency
Jung, T. Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz (BfS), Germany
Jurina, V. Public Health Authority, Slovakia
Kamenopoulou, V. Greek Atomic Energy Commission (GAEC), Greece
Kardan, M. Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEOI), Iran
Kelly, N. United Kingdom
Kenigsberg, J National Commission of Radiation Protection, Belarus
Kirchner, G. Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz (BfS), Germany
Koblinger, L. Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority (HAEA), Hungary
Koc, J. Temelin Nuclear Power Plant, Czech Republic
Koch, J. Soreq Nuclear Research Center, Israel
Kolovou, M. Greek Atomic Energy Commission (GAEC), Greece
Kralik, I. State Office for Radiation Protection, Croatia
Krca, S. State Office for Radiation Protection, Croatia
Kuhlen, J. Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and
Kulich, V. Dukovany Nuclear Power Plant, Czech Republic
Kutkov, V. Russian Research Centre “Kurchatov Institute”, Russian
Federation
Landfermann, H. Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and
Larsson, C. Swedish Radiation Protection Authority (SSI), Sweden
Lazo, E. OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), France
Le Guen, B. World Nuclear Association
Le Heron, J. International Atomic Energy Agency
Lecomte, J-F. Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire (IRSN), France
Lindvall, C. Barseback Kraft AB, Sweden
Lipsztein, J Instituto de Radioproteção e Dosimetria (IRD/CNEN), Brazil
Long, K. Food & Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Long, W. Center for Radon and Air Toxics, United States of America
Lopes Gonzalez, F. Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Nicaragua, Nicaragua
Lorenz, B. World Nuclear Association
Louvat, D. International Atomic Energy Agency
Lund, I. Swedish Radiation Protection Authority (SSI), Sweden
Magnusson, S. Icelandic Radiation Protection Institute, Iceland
Makarovska, O. State Nuclear Regulatory Committee, Ukraine
Mansoux, H. International Atomic Energy Agency
Marechal, N. Commissão Nacional de Energia Nuclear (CNEN), Brazil
Marengo, M. World Federation of Nuclear Medicine and Biology
Maringer, F. Low-level Counting Laboratory Arsenal, Austria
Markkanen, M. Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (STUK), Finland
Martin Calvarro, J. Consejo de Seguridad Nuclear (CSN), Spain
Martincic, R. International Atomic Energy Agency
Mason, C. International Atomic Energy Agency
Massera, G. Autoridad Regulatoria Nuclear, Argentina
Mayya, Y. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, India
McClelland, V. Department of Energy, United States of America
McKenna, T. International Atomic Energy Agency
McLaughlin, J. University College Dublin, Ireland
136
Meghzifene, A. International Atomic Energy Agency

Merta, A. National Atomic Energy Agency (PAA), Poland
Metcalf, P. International Atomic Energy Agency
Mirsaidov, U. Nuclear and Radiation Safety Agency, Tajikistan
Miyazaki, S. Kansai Electric Power Co. Inc., Japan
Mizumachi, W. Japan Nuclear Energy Safety Organization (JNES), Japan
Mokrani, Z. Nuclear Research Centre, Algeria
Mrabit, K. International Atomic Energy Agency
Mundigl, S. European Commission, Luxembourg
Naegele, J. European Commission, Luxembourg
Nandakumar, A. International Atomic Energy Agency
Niu, S. International Labour Organization
Owen, D. International Labour Organization
Parkes, R. Health & Safety Executive (HSE), United Kingdom
Pather, T National Nuclear Regulator, South Africa
Paynter, R. Health Protection Agency (HPA), United Kingdom
Peñalosa, A. International Organization of Employers (IOE)
Perez, M. World Health Organization
Perrin, M. Autorite de Sûreté Nucléaire (ASN), France
Petrova, K. State Office for Nuclear Safety, Czech Republic
Philpott, L. Health & Safety Executive (HSE), United Kingdom
Pinak, M. OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), France
Poffijn, A. Agence Federale de Controle Nucleaire (FANC), Belgium
Purvis, C. Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC), Canada
Radolic, V. University Josip Juraj Strossmayer, Croatia
Rannou, A. Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire (IRSN), France
Rehani, M. International Atomic Energy Agency
Ringertz, H. International Society of Radiology
Rochedo, E. Instituto de Radioproteção e Dosimetria (IRD/CNEN), Brazil
Rotaru, I. National Commission for Nuclear Activities Control, Romania
Rudjord, A. Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority, Norway
Runova, J. Scientific and Engineering Centre for Nuclear and Radiation
Safety (SEC NRS), Russian Federation
Ryder, G. International Trade Union Confederation, Belgium
Saint-Pierre, S. World Nuclear Association, United Kingdom
Sallit, G. Department for Transport (DFT), United Kingdom
Salomon, S. Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency
(ARPANSA), Australia
Sanz Alduan, M. Consejo de Seguridad Nuclear (CSN), Spain
Schmitt-Hannig, A. Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz (BfS), Germany
Sefzig, R. Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and
Shannoun, F. World Health Organization
Simeonov, G. European Commission, Luxembourg
Sinaga, M. Nuclear Energy Regulatory Agency (BAPETEN), Indonesia
Stasiunaitiene, R. Ministry of Health, Lithuania
Stephen, P. Nuclear Directorate, UK
Stern, W. International Atomic Energy Agency
Storrie, R. International Source Suppliers and Producers Association (ISSPA)
Sugier, A. Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire (IRSN), France
Suman, H. International Atomic Energy Agency
Sutej, T. Ministry of Health, Romania
Svensson, H. International Organization for Medical Physics
Syahrir National Nuclear Energy Agency (BATAN), Indonesia
137
Telleria, D. International Atomic Energy Agency

Thomas, G. Health & Safety Executive (HSE), United Kingdom
Tirmarche, M. Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire (IRSN), France
Todorov, N. Bulgarian Nuclear Regulatory Agency (BNRA), Bulgaria
Tokonami, S. National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
Tomasek, L. SÚRO National Radiation Protection Institute, Czech Republic
Tonhauser, W. International Atomic Energy Agency
Ugleveit, F. Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority (NRPA), Norway
Valentin, J. International Commission on Radiological Protection
Van der Steen, J. Nuclear Research & Consultancy Group, Netherlands
Viktorsson, C. International Atomic Energy Agency
Wambersie, A. International Commission on Radiation Units, Belgium
Wangler, M. International Atomic Energy Agency
Weiss, W. Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz (BfS), Germany
Wheatley, J. International Atomic Energy Agency
Wiklund, A. European Commission, Luxembourg
Wirth, E. Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz (BfS), Germany
Wood, P. International Society of Radiographers and Radiological
Technologists
Wrixon, A. International Atomic Energy Agency
Wymer, D. International Atomic Energy Agency
Xiao, X. China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIAE), China
Yonehara, H. National Institute of Radiological Sciences (NIRS), Japan
Zafmanjato, J. Ministère de l’éducation national et de la recherché scientifique
(MENRS), Madagascar
Zeeb, H. World Health Organization
Zodiates, T. International Labour Organization, International Trade Union
Confederation
Zuur, C. Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment (VROM),
Netherlands
139
SCHEDULE III
TABLES III-1 AND III-2
These tables are included in the PDF file in the accompanying CD-ROM attached to the inside back
cover of the printed publication.
1. TABLE III-1A. CONVERSION COEFFICIENTS FROM AIR KERMA FREE-IN-AIR TO

Hp(10,0o) IN AN ICRU SLAB (PHOTONS)
2. TABLE III-1B. CONVERSION COEFFICIENTS FROM AIR KERMA FREE-IN-AIR TO

Hp(0.07,0o) IN AN ICRU SLAB (PHOTONS)
3. TABLE III-1C. EFFECTIVE DOSE PER UNIT NEUTRON FLUENCE E/Φ for
MONOENERGETIC NEUTRONS INCIDENT IN ISO GEOMETRY ON AN ADULT
ANTHROPOMORPHIC COMPUTATIONAL PHANTOM
4. TABLE III-1D. REFERENCE CONVERSION COEFFICIENTS FROM FLUENCE TO

DIRECTIONAL DOSE EQUIVALENT FOR MONOENERGETIC ELECTRONS AND
NORMAL INCIDENCE
5. TABLE III-2A. WORKERS: COMMITTED EFFECTIVE DOSE PER UNIT INTAKE e(g)
VIA INHALATION AND INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
6. TABLE III-2B. COMPOUNDS AND VALUES OF GUT TRANSFER FACTOR f1 USED

TO CALCULATE COMMITTED EFFECTIVE DOSE PER UNIT INTAKE VIA
INGESTION FOR WORKERS
7. TABLE III-2C. COMPOUNDS, LUNG ABSORPTION TYPES AND VALUES OF GUT

TRANSFER FACTOR f1 USED TO CALCULATE COMMITTED EFFECTIVE DOSE PER
UNIT INTAKE VIA INHALATION FOR WORKERS
8. TABLE III-2D. MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC: COMMITTED EFFECTIVE DOSE PER

UNIT INTAKE e(g) VIA INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
9. TABLE III-2E. MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC: COMMITTED EFFECTIVE DOSE PER

UNIT INTAKE e(g) VIA INHALATION (Sv.Bq-1)
10. TABLE III-2F. LUNG ABSORPTION TYPES USED TO CALCULATE COMMITTED

EFFECTIVE DOSE PER UNIT INTAKE VIA INHALATION FOR EXPOSURE TO
PARTICULAR AEROSOLS OR TO GASES AND VAPOURS FOR MEMBERS OF THE
PUBLIC
11. TABLE III-2G. INHALATION: COMMITTED EFFECTIVE DOSE PER UNIT INTAKE
e(g) FOR SOLUBLE OR REACTIVE GASES AND VAPOURS
12. TABLE III-2H. EFFECTIVE DOSE RATE FOR EXPOSURE TO INERT GASES FOR
ADULTS
140
TABLE III-1A. CONVERSION COEFFICIENTS FROM AIR KERMA FREE-IN-AIR TO HP(10,0°)

IN AN ICRU SLAB (PHOTONS) [29]
Photon energy HP(10,0o)/K

(MeV) (Sv/Gy)
0.010 0.009
0.0125 0.098
0.015 0.264
0.0175 0.445
0.020 0.611
0.025 0.883
0.030 1.112
0.040 1.490
0.050 1.766
0.060 1.892
0.080 1.903
0.100 1.811
0.125 1.696
0.150 1.607
0.200 1.492
0.300 1.369
0.400 1.300
0.500 1.256
0.600 1.226
0.800 1.190
1.0 1.167
1.5 1.139
3.0 1.117
6.0 1.109
10.0 1.111
141
TABLE III-1B. CONVERSION COEFFICIENTS FROM AIR KERMA FREE-IN-AIR TO

HP(0.07,0°) IN AN ICRU SLAB (PHOTONS) [29]
Photon energy HP(0.07,0o)/K

(MeV) (Sv/Gy)
0.005 0.750
0.010 0.947
0.015 0.981
0.020 1.045
0.030 1.230
0.040 1.444
0.050 1.632
0.060 1.716
0.080 1.732
0.100 1.669
0.150 1.518
0.200 1.432
0.300 1.336
0.400 1.280
0.500 1.244
0.600 1.220
0.800 1.189
1.000 1.173
142
TABLE III-1C. EFFECTIVE DOSE PER UNIT NEUTRON FLUENCE E/Φ FOR MONOENERGETIC
NEUTRONS INCIDENT IN ISO GEOMETRY ON AN ADULT ANTHROPOMORPHIC
COMPUTATIONAL PHANTOM [29]
Neutron
energy E/Φ
(MeV) (pSv cm2)
1.00 × 10-9 2.40
1.00 × 10-8 2.89
2.53 × 10-8 3.30
1.00 × 10-7 4.13
-7
2.00 × 10 4.59
5.00 × 10-7 5.20
1.00 × 10-6 5.63
2.00 × 10-6 5.96
-6
5.00 × 10 6.28
1.00 × 10-5 6.44
2.00 × 10-5 6.51
5.00 × 10-5 6.51
-4
1.00 × 10 6.45
2.00 × 10-4 6.32
5.00 × 10-4 6.14
1.00 × 10-3 6.04
-3
2.00 × 10 6.05
5.00 × 10-3 6.52
1.00 × 10-2 7.70
2.00 × 10-2 10.2
-2
3.00 × 10 12.7
5.00 × 10-2 17.3
7.00 × 10-2 21.5
1.00 × 10-1 25.2
-1
1.50 × 10 35.2
2.00 × 10-1 42.4
3.00 × 10-1 54.7
5.00 × 10-1 75.0
-1
7.00 × 10 92.8
9.00 × 10-1 108
1.00 × 100 116
1.20 × 100 130
2.00 × 100 178
3.00 × 100 220
4.00 × 100 250
5.00 × 100 272
0
6.00 × 10 282
7.00 × 100 290
8.00 × 100 297
9.00 × 100 303
1
1.00 × 10 309
1.20 × 101 322
1.40 × 101 333
1.50 × 101 338
1
1.60 × 10 342
1.80 × 101 345
2.00 × 101 343
143
TABLE III-1D. REFERENCE CONVERSION COEFFICIENTS FROM FLUENCE TO DIRECTIONAL

DOSE EQUIVALENT FOR MONOENERGETIC ELECTRONS AND NORMAL INCIDENCE [29]
Electron energy H′(0.07,0°)/Φ H′(3,0°)/Φ H′(10,0°)/Φ

(MeV) (nSv cm2) (nSv cm2) (nSv cm2)
0.07 0.221
0.08 1.056
0.09 1.527
0.10 1.661
0.1125 1.627
0.125 1.513
0.15 1.229
0.20 0.834
0.30 0.542
0.40 0.455
0.50 0.403
0.60 0.366
0.70 0.344 0.000
0.80 0.329 0.045
1.00 0.312 0.301
1.25 0.296 0.486
1.50 0.287 0.524
1.75 0.282 0.512 0.000
2.00 0.279 0.481 0.005
2.50 0.278 0.417 0.156
3.00 0.276 0.373 0.336
3.50 0.274 0.351 0.421
4.00 0.272 0.334 0.447
5.00 0.271 0.317 0.430
6.00 0.271 0.309 0.389
7.00 0.271 0.306 0.360
8.00 0.271 0.305 0.341
10.00 0.275 0.303 0.330
144
TABLE III-2A. WORKERS: COMMITTED EFFECTIVE DOSE PER UNIT INTAKE e(g) VIA INHALATION AND
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Inhalation Ingestion
Physical __________________________
Nuclide half-life Type f1 e(g)1 µm e(g)5 µm f1 e(g)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Hydrogen
Tritiated 12.3 a 1.000 1.8 × 10-11
Water
OBT70 12.3 a 1.000 4.2 × 10-11
Beryllium
Be-7 53.3 d M 0.005 4.8 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11 0.005 2.8 × 10-11
S 0.005 5.2 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11
Be-10 1.60 × 106 a M 0.005 9.1 × 10-9 6.7 × 10-9 0.005 1.1 × 10-9
S 0.005 3.2 × 10-8 1.9 × 10-8
Carbon
C-11 0.340 h 1.000 2.4 × 10-11
C-14 5.73 × 103 a 1.000 5.8 × 10-10
Fluorine
F-18 1.83 h F 1.000 3.0 × 10-11 5.4 × 10-11 1.000 4.9 × 10-11
M 1.000 5.7 × 10-11 8.9 × 10-11
` S 1.000 6.0 × 10-11 9.3 × 10-11
Sodium
Na-22 2.60 a F 1.000 1.3 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.000 3.2 × 10-9
Na-24 15.0 h F 1.000 2.9 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10 1.000 4.3 × 10-10
Magnesium
Mg-28 20.9 h F 0.500 6.4 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-9 0.500 2.2 × 10-9
M 0.500 1.2 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9
Aluminium
Al-26 7.16 × 105 a F 0.010 1.1 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 0.010 3.5 × 10-9
M 0.010 1.8 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8
Silicon
Si-31 2.62 h F 0.010 2.9 × 10-11 5.1 × 10-11 0.010 1.6 × 10-10
M 0.010 7.5 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10
S 0.010 8.0 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10
Si-32 4.50 × 102 a F 0.010 3.2 × 10-9 3.7 × 10-9 0.010 5.6 × 10-10
M 0.010 1.5 × 10-8 9.6 × 10-9
S 0.010 1.1 × 10-7 5.5 × 10-8
Note: Types F, M and S denote fast, moderate and slow absorption from the lung, respectively.
70
OBT: organically bound tritium.
145
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Phosphorus
P-32 14.3 d F 0.800 8.0 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-9 0.800 2.4 × 10-9
M 0.800 3.2 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9
P-33 25.4 d F 0.800 9.6 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-10 0.800 2.4 × 10-10
M 0.800 1.4 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9
Sulphur
S-35 87.4 d F 0.800 5.3 × 10-11 8.0 × 10-11 0.800 1.4 × 10-10
(inorganic) M 0.800 1.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 0.100 1.9 × 10-10
S-35 87.4 d 1.000 7.7 × 10-10
(organic)
Chlorine
Cl-36 3.01 × 105 a F 1.000 3.4 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-10 1.000 9.3 × 10-10
M 1.000 6.9 × 10-9 5.1 × 10-9
Cl-38 0.620 h F 1.000 2.7 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 1.000 1.2 × 10-10
M 1.000 4.7 × 10-11 7.3 × 10-11
Cl-39 0.927 h F 1.000 2.7 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11 1.000 8.5 × 10-11
M 1.000 4.8 × 10-11 7.6 × 10-11
Potassium
K-40 1.28 × 109 a F 1.000 2.1 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9 1.000 6.2 × 10-9
K-42 12.4 h F 1.000 1.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.000 4.3 × 10-10
K-43 22.6 h F 1.000 1.5 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 1.000 2.5 × 10-10
K-44 0.369 h F 1.000 2.1 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11 1.000 8.4 × 10-11
K-45 0.333 h F 1.000 1.6 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 1.000 5.4 × 10-11
Calcium
Ca-41 1.40 × 105 a M 0.300 1.7 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 0.300 2.9 × 10-10
Ca-45 163 d M 0.300 2.7 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 0.300 7.6 × 10-10
Ca-47 4.53 d M 0.300 1.8 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 0.300 1.6 × 10-9
Scandium
Sc-43 3.89 h S 1.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-10
Sc-44 3.93 h S 1.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-10
Sc-44m 2.44 d S 1.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-9
Sc-46 83.8 d S 1.0 × 10-4 6.4 × 10-9 4.8 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-9
Sc-47 3.35 d S 1.0 × 10-4 7.0 × 10-10 7.3 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 5.4 × 10-10
Sc-48 1.82 d S 1.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-9
Sc-49 0.956 h S 1.0 × 10-4 4.1 × 10-11 6.1 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-4 8.2 × 10-11
146
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Titanium
Ti-44 47.3 a F 0.010 6.1 × 10-8 7.2 × 10-8 0.010 5.8 × 10-9
M 0.010 4.0 × 10-8 2.7 × 10-8
S 0.010 1.2 × 10-7 6.2 × 10-8
Ti-45 3.08 h F 0.010 4.6 × 10-11 8.3 × 10-11 0.010 1.5 × 10-10
M 0.010 9.1 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-10
S 0.010 9.6 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-10
Vanadium
V-47 0.543 h F 0.010 1.9 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 0.010 6.3 × 10-11
M 0.010 3.1 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11
V-48 16.2 d F 0.010 1.1 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 0.010 2.0 × 10-9
M 0.010 2.3 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9
V-49 330 d F 0.010 2.1 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 0.010 1.8 × 10-11
M 0.010 3.2 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11
Chromium
Cr-48 23.0 h F 0.100 1.0 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 0.100 2.0 × 10-10
M 0.100 2.0 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 0.010 2.0 × 10-10
S 0.100 2.2 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10
Cr-49 0.702 h F 0.100 2.0 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 0.100 6.1 × 10-11
M 0.100 3.5 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11 0.010 6.1 × 10-11
S 0.100 3.7 × 10-11 5.9 × 10-11
Cr-51 27.7 d F 0.100 2.1 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 0.100 3.8 × 10-11
M 0.100 3.1 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11 0.010 3.7 × 10-11
S 0.100 3.6 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11
Manganese
Mn-51 0.770 h F 0.100 2.4 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 0.100 9.3 × 10-11
M 0.100 4.3 × 10-11 6.8 × 10-11
Mn-52 5.59 d F 0.100 9.9 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-9 0.100 1.8 × 10-9
M 0.100 1.4 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9
Mn-52m 0.352 h F 0.100 2.0 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 0.100 6.9 × 10-11
M 0.100 3.0 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11
Mn-53 3.70 × 106 a F 0.100 2.9 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11 0.100 3.0 × 10-11
M 0.100 5.2 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11
Mn-54 312 d F 0.100 8.7 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-9 0.100 7.1 × 10-10
M 0.100 1.5 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9
Mn-56 2.58 h F 0.100 6.9 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.100 2.5 × 10-10
M 0.100 1.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10
Iron
Fe-52 8.28 h F 0.100 4.1 × 10-10 6.9 × 10-10 0.100 1.4 × 10-9
M 0.100 6.3 × 10-10 9.5 × 10-10
147
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Fe-55 2.70 a F 0.100 7.7 × 10-10 9.2 × 10-10 0.100 3.3 × 10-10
M 0.100 3.7 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10
Fe-59 44.5 d F 0.100 2.2 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9 0.100 1.8 × 10-9
M 0.100 3.5 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9
Fe-60 1.00 × 105 a F 0.100 2.8 × 10-7 3.3 × 10-7 0.100 1.1 × 10-7
M 0.100 1.3 × 10-7 1.2 × 10-7
Cobalt
Co-55 17.5 h M 0.100 5.1 × 10-10 7.8 × 10-10 0.100 1.0 × 10-9
S 0.050 5.5 × 10-10 8.3 × 10-10 0.050 1.1 × 10-9
Co-56 78.7 d M 0.100 4.6 × 10-9 4.0 × 10-9 0.100 2.5 × 10-9
S 0.050 6.3 × 10-9 4.9 × 10-9 0.050 2.3 × 10-9
Co-57 271 d M 0.100 5.2 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 0.100 2.1 × 10-10
S 0.050 9.4 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-10 0.050 1.9 × 10-10
Co-58 70.8 d M 0.100 1.5 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 0.100 7.4 × 10-10
S 0.050 2.0 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 0.050 7.0 × 10-10
Co-58m 9.15 h M 0.100 1.3 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11 0.100 2.4 × 10-11
S 0.050 1.6 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 0.050 2.4 × 10-11
Co-60 5.27 a M 0.100 9.6 × 10-9 7.1 × 10-9 0.100 3.4 × 10-9
S 0.050 2.9 × 10-8 1.7 × 10-8 0.050 2.5 × 10-9
Co-60m 0.174 h M 0.100 1.1 × 10-12 1.2 × 10-12 0.100 1.7 × 10-12
S 0.050 1.3 × 10-12 1.2 × 10-12 0.050 1.7 × 10-12
Co-61 1.65 h M 0.100 4.8 × 10-11 7.1 × 10-11 0.100 7.4 × 10-11
S 0.050 5.1 × 10-11 7.5 × 10-11 0.050 7.4 × 10-11
Co-62m 0.232 h M 0.100 2.1 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11 0.100 4.7 × 10-11
S 0.050 2.2 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11 0.050 4.7 × 10-11
Nickel
Ni-56 6.10 d F 0.050 5.1 × 10-10 7.9 × 10-10 0.050 8.6 × 10-10
M 0.050 8.6 × 10-10 9.6 × 10-10
Ni-57 1.50 d F 0.050 2.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 0.050 8.7 × 10-10
M 0.050 5.1 × 10-10 7.6 × 10-10
Ni-59 7.50 × 104 a F 0.050 1.8 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 0.050 6.3 × 10-11
M 0.050 1.3 × 10-10 9.4 × 10-11
Ni-63 96.0 a F 0.050 4.4 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10 0.050 1.5 × 10-10
M 0.050 4.4 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10
Ni-65 2.52 h F 0.050 4.4 × 10-11 7.5 × 10-11 0.050 1.8 × 10-10
M 0.050 8.7 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-10
Ni-66 2.27 d F 0.050 4.5 × 10-10 7.6 × 10-10 0.050 3.0 × 10-9
M 0.050 1.6 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9
Copper
Cu-60 0.387 h F 0.500 2.4 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11 0.500 7.0 × 10-11
M 0.500 3.5 × 10-11 6.0 × 10-11
148
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
S 0.500 3.6 × 10-11 6.2 × 10-11

Cu-61 3.41 h F 0.500 4.0 × 10-11 7.3 × 10-11 0.500 1.2 × 10-10
M 0.500 7.6 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10
S 0.500 8.0 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10
Cu-64 12.7 h F 0.500 3.8 × 10-11 6.8 × 10-11 0.500 1.2 × 10-10
M 0.500 1.1 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10
S 0.500 1.2 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10
Cu-67 2.58 d F 0.500 1.1 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 0.500 3.4 × 10-10
M 0.500 5.2 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10
S 0.500 5.8 × 10-10 5.8 × 10-10
Zinc
Zn-62 9.26 h S 0.500 4.7 × 10-10 6.6 × 10-10 0.500 9.4 × 10-10
Zn-63 0.635 h S 0.500 3.8 × 10-11 6.1 × 10-11 0.500 7.9 × 10-11
Zn-65 244 d S 0.500 2.9 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 0.500 3.9 × 10-9
Zn-69 0.950 h S 0.500 2.8 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11 0.500 3.1 × 10-11
Zn-69m 13.8 h S 0.500 2.6 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 0.500 3.3 × 10-10
Zn-71m 3.92 h S 0.500 1.6 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 0.500 2.4 × 10-10
Zn-72 1.94 d S 0.500 1.2 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 0.500 1.4 × 10-9
Gallium
Ga-65 0.253 h F 0.001 1.2 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 0.001 3.7 × 10-11
M 0.001 1.8 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11
Ga-66 9.40 h F 0.001 2.7 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10 0.001 1.2 × 10-9
M 0.001 4.6 × 10-10 7.1 × 10-10
Ga-67 3.26 d F 0.001 6.8 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10 0.001 1.9 × 10-10
M 0.001 2.3 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10
Ga-68 1.13 h F 0.001 2.8 × 10-11 4.9 × 10-11 0.001 1.0 × 10-10
M 0.001 5.1 × 10-11 8.1 × 10-11
Ga-70 0.353 h F 0.001 9.3 × 10-12 1.6 × 10-11 0.001 3.1 × 10-11
M 0.001 1.6 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11
Ga-72 14.1 h F 0.001 3.1 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10 0.001 1.1 × 10-9
M 0.001 5.5 × 10-10 8.4 × 10-10
Ga-73 4.91 h F 0.001 5.8 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-10 0.001 2.6 × 10-10
M 0.001 1.5 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10
Germanium
Ge-66 2.27 h F 1.000 5.7 × 10-11 9.9 × 10-11 1.000 1.0 × 10-10
M 1.000 9.2 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-10
Ge-67 0.312 h F 1.000 1.6 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 1.000 6.5 × 10-11
M 1.000 2.6 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11
Ge-68 288 d F 1.000 5.4 × 10-10 8.3 × 10-10 1.000 1.3 × 10-9
M 1.000 1.3 × 10-8 7.9 × 10-9
Ge-69 1.63 d F 1.000 1.4 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.000 2.4 × 10-10
149
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
M 1.000 2.9 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10

Ge-71 11.8 d F 1.000 5.0 × 10-12 7.8 × 10-12 1.000 1.2 × 10-11
M 1.000 1.0 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11
Ge-75 1.38 h F 1.000 1.6 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 1.000 4.6 × 10-11
M 1.000 3.7 × 10-11 5.4 × 10-11
Ge-77 11.3 h F 1.000 1.5 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.000 3.3 × 10-10
M 1.000 3.6 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10
Ge-78 1.45 h F 1.000 4.8 × 10-11 8.1 × 10-11 1.000 1.2 × 10-10
M 1.000 9.7 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-10
Arsenic
As-69 0.253 h M 0.500 2.2 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 0.500 5.7 × 10-11
As-70 0.876 h M 0.500 7.2 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.500 1.3 × 10-10
As-71 2.70 d M 0.500 4.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 0.500 4.6 × 10-10
As-72 1.08 d M 0.500 9.2 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-9 0.500 1.8 × 10-9
As-73 80.3 d M 0.500 9.3 × 10-10 6.5 × 10-10 0.500 2.6 × 10-10
As-74 17.8 d M 0.500 2.1 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 0.500 1.3 × 10-9
As-76 1.10 d M 0.500 7.4 × 10-10 9.2 × 10-10 0.500 1.6 × 10-9
As-77 1.62 d M 0.500 3.8 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10 0.500 4.0 × 10-10
As-78 1.51 h M 0.500 9.2 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-10 0.500 2.1 × 10-10
Selenium
Se-70 0.683 h F 0.800 4.5 × 10-11 8.2 × 10-11 0.800 1.2 × 10-10
M 0.800 7.3 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.050 1.4 × 10-10
Se-73 7.15 h F 0.800 8.6 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-10 0.800 2.1 × 10-10
M 0.800 1.6 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 0.050 3.9 × 10-10
Se-73m 0.650 h F 0.800 9.9 × 10-12 1.7 × 10-11 0.800 2.8 × 10-11
M 0.800 1.8 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 0.050 4.1 × 10-11
Se-75 120 d F 0.800 1.0 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 0.800 2.6 × 10-9
M 0.800 1.4 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 0.050 4.1 × 10-10
Se-79 6.50 × 104 a F 0.800 1.2 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 0.800 2.9 × 10-9
M 0.800 2.9 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9 0.050 3.9 × 10-10
Se-81 0.308 h F 0.800 8.6 × 10-12 1.4 × 10-11 0.800 2.7 × 10-11
M 0.800 1.5 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 0.050 2.7 × 10-11
Se-81m 0.954 h F 0.800 1.7 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 0.800 5.3 × 10-11
M 0.800 4.7 × 10-11 6.8 × 10-11 0.050 5.9 × 10-11
Se-83 0.375 h F 0.800 1.9 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11 0.800 4.7 × 10-11
M 0.800 3.3 × 10-11 5.3 × 10-11 0.050 5.1 × 10-11
Bromine
Br-74 0.422 h F 1.000 2.8 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11 1.000 8.4 × 10-11
M 1.000 4.1 × 10-11 6.8 × 10-11
Br-74m 0.691 h F 1.000 4.2 × 10-11 7.5 × 10-11 1.000 1.4 × 10-10
M 1.000 6.5 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10
150
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Br-75 1.63 h F 1.000 3.1 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11 1.000 7.9 × 10-11
M 1.000 5.5 × 10-11 8.5 × 10-11
Br-76 16.2 h F 1.000 2.6 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 1.000 4.6 × 10-10
M 1.000 4.2 × 10-10 5.8 × 10-10
Br-77 2.33 d F 1.000 6.7 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 1.000 9.6 × 10-11
M 1.000 8.7 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-10
Br-80 0.290 h F 1.000 6.3 × 10-12 1.1 × 10-11 1.000 3.1 × 10-11
M 1.000 1.0 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11
Br-80m 4.42 h F 1.000 3.5 × 10-11 5.8 × 10-11 1.000 1.1 × 10-10
M 1.000 7.6 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-10
Br-82 1.47 d F 1.000 3.7 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-10 1.000 5.4 × 10-10
M 1.000 6.4 × 10-10 8.8 × 10-10
Br-83 2.39 h F 1.000 1.7 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 1.000 4.3 × 10-11
M 1.000 4.8 × 10-11 6.7 × 10-11
Br-84 0.530 h F 1.000 2.3 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 1.000 8.8 × 10-11
M 1.000 3.9 × 10-11 6.2 × 10-11
Rubidium
Rb-79 0.382 h F 1.000 1.7 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 1.000 5.0 × 10-11
Rb-81 4.58 h F 1.000 3.7 × 10-11 6.8 × 10-11 1.000 5.4 × 10-11
Rb-81m 0.533 h F 1.000 7.3 × 10-12 1.3 × 10-11 1.000 9.7 × 10-12
Rb-82m 6.20 h F 1.000 1.2 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.000 1.3 × 10-10
Rb-83 86.2 d F 1.000 7.1 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-9 1.000 1.9 × 10-9
Rb-84 32.8 d F 1.000 1.1 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 1.000 2.8 × 10-9
Rb-86 18.6 d F 1.000 9.6 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-9 1.000 2.8 × 10-9
Rb-87 4.70 × 1010 a F 1.000 5.1 × 10-10 7.6 × 10-10 1.000 1.5 × 10-9
Rb-88 0.297 h F 1.000 1.7 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 1.000 9.0 × 10-11
Rb-89 0.253 h F 1.000 1.4 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 1.000 4.7 × 10-11
Strontium
Sr-80 1.67 h F 0.300 7.6 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-10 0.300 3.4 × 10-10
S 0.010 1.4 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 0.010 3.5 × 10-10
Sr-81 0.425 h F 0.300 2.2 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 0.300 7.7 × 10-11
S 0.010 3.8 × 10-11 6.1 × 10-11 0.010 7.8 × 10-11
Sr-82 25.0 d F 0.300 2.2 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9 0.300 6.1 × 10-9
S 0.010 1.0 × 10-8 7.7 × 10-9 0.010 6.0 × 10-9
Sr-83 1.35 d F 0.300 1.7 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 0.300 4.9 × 10-10
S 0.010 3.4 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-10 0.010 5.8 × 10-10
Sr-85 64.8 d F 0.300 3.9 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10 0.300 5.6 × 10-10
S 0.010 7.7 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-10 0.010 3.3 × 10-10
Sr-85m 1.16 h F 0.300 3.1 × 10-12 5.6 × 10-12 0.300 6.1 × 10-12
S 0.010 4.5 × 10-12 7.4 × 10-12 0.010 6.1 × 10-12
Sr-87m 2.80 h F 0.300 1.2 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 0.300 3.0 × 10-11
S 0.010 2.2 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 0.010 3.3 × 10-11
151
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Sr-89 50.5 d F 0.300 1.0 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 0.300 2.6 × 10-9
S 0.010 7.5 × 10-9 5.6 × 10-9 0.010 2.3 × 10-9
Sr-90 29.1 a F 0.300 2.4 × 10-8 3.0 × 10-8 0.300 2.8 × 10-8
S 0.010 1.5 × 10-7 7.7 × 10-8 0.010 2.7 × 10-9
Sr-91 9.50 h F 0.300 1.7 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 0.300 6.5 × 10-10
S 0.010 4.1 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10 0.010 7.6 × 10-10
Sr-92 2.71 h F 0.300 1.1 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 0.300 4.3 × 10-10
S 0.010 2.3 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 0.010 4.9 × 10-10
Yttrium
Y-86 14.7 h M 1.0 × 10-4 4.8 × 10-10 8.0 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 9.6 × 10-10
S 1.0 × 10-4 4.9 × 10-10 8.1 × 10-10
Y-86m 0.800 h M 1.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-4 5.6 × 10-11
S 1.0 × 10-4 3.0 × 10-11 4.9 × 10-11
Y-87 3.35 d M 1.0 × 10-4 3.8 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 5.5 × 10-10
S 1.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10
Y-88 107 d M 1.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-9
S 1.0 × 10-4 4.1 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9
Y-90 2.67 d M 1.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 2.7 × 10-9
S 1.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9
Y-90m 3.19 h M 1.0 × 10-4 9.6 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-10
S 1.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10
Y-91 58.5 d M 1.0 × 10-4 6.7 × 10-9 5.2 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-9
S 1.0 × 10-4 8.4 × 10-9 6.1 × 10-9
Y-91m 0.828 h M 1.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-11
S 1.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11
Y-92 3.54 h M 1.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 4.9 × 10-10
S 1.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10
Y-93 10.1 h M 1.0 × 10-4 4.1 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-9
S 1.0 × 10-4 4.3 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-10
Y-94 0.318 h M 1.0 × 10-4 2.8 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-4 8.1 × 10-11
S 1.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11
Y-95 0.178 h M 1.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-4 4.6 × 10-11
S 1.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11
Zirconium
Zr-86 16.5 h F 0.002 3.0 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10 0.002 8.6 × 10-10
M 0.002 4.3 × 10-10 6.8 × 10-10
S 0.002 4.5 × 10-10 7.0 × 10-10
Zr-88 83.4 d F 0.002 3.5 × 10-9 4.1 × 10-9 0.002 3.3 × 10-10
M 0.002 2.5 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9
S 0.002 3.3 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9
Zr-89 3.27 d F 0.002 3.1 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10 0.002 7.9 × 10-10
M 0.002 5.3 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-10
152
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
S 0.002 5.5 × 10-10 7.5 × 10-10

6
Zr-93 1.53 × 10 a F 0.002 2.5 × 10-8 2.9 × 10-8 0.002 2.8 × 10-10
M 0.002 9.6 × 10-9 6.6 × 10-9
S 0.002 3.1 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9
Zr-95 64.0 d F 0.002 2.5 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9 0.002 8.8 × 10-10
M 0.002 4.5 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9
S 0.002 5.5 × 10-9 4.2 × 10-9
Zr-97 16.9 h F 0.002 4.2 × 10-10 7.4 × 10-10 0.002 2.1 × 10-9
M 0.002 9.4 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-9
S 0.002 1.0 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
Niobium
Nb-88 0.238 h M 0.010 2.9 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11 0.010 6.3 × 10-11
S 0.010 3.0 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11
Nb-89 2.03 h M 0.010 1.2 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 0.010 3.0 × 10-10
S 0.010 1.3 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
Nb-89m 1.10 h M 0.010 7.1 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10 0.010 1.4 × 10-10
S 0.010 7.4 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10
Nb-90 14.6 h M 0.010 6.6 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-9 0.010 1.2 × 10-9
S 0.010 6.9 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-9
Nb-93m 13.6 a M 0.010 4.6 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 0.010 1.2 × 10-10
S 0.010 1.6 × 10-9 8.6 × 10-10
Nb-94 2.03 × 104 a M 0.010 1.0 × 10-8 7.2 × 10-9 0.010 1.7 × 10-9
S 0.010 4.5 × 10-8 2.5 × 10-8
Nb-95 35.1 d M 0.010 1.4 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 0.010 5.8 × 10-10
S 0.010 1.6 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9
Nb-95m 3.61 d M 0.010 7.6 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-10 0.010 5.6 × 10-10
S 0.010 8.5 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-10
Nb-96 23.3 h M 0.010 6.5 × 10-10 9.7 × 10-10 0.010 1.1 × 10-9
S 0.010 6.8 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-9
Nb-97 1.20 h M 0.010 4.4 × 10-11 6.9 × 10-11 0.010 6.8 × 10-11
S 0.010 4.7 × 10-11 7.2 × 10-11
Nb-98 0.858 h M 0.010 5.9 × 10-11 9.6 × 10-11 0.010 1.1 × 10-10
S 0.010 6.1 × 10-11 9.9 × 10-11
Molybdenum
Mo-90 5.67 h F 0.800 1.7 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 0.800 3.1 × 10-10
S 0.050 3.7 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10 0.050 6.2 × 10-10
Mo-93 3.50 × 103 a F 0.800 1.0 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 0.800 2.6 × 10-9
S 0.050 2.2 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 0.050 2.0 × 10-10
Mo-93m 6.85 h F 0.800 1.0 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 0.800 1.6 × 10-10
S 0.050 1.8 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 0.050 2.8 × 10-10
Mo-99 2.75 d F 0.800 2.3 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 0.800 7.4 × 10-10
S 0.050 9.7 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-9 0.050 1.2 10-9
153
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Mo-101 0.244 h F 0.800 1.5 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 0.800 4.2 × 10-11
S 0.050 2.7 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 0.050 4.2 × 10-11
Technetium
Tc-93 2.75 h F 0.800 3.4 × 10-11 6.2 × 10-11 0.800 4.9 × 10-11
M 0.800 3.6 × 10-11 6.5 × 10-11
Tc-93m 0.725 h F 0.800 1.5 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 0.800 2.4 × 10-11
M 0.800 1.7 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11
Tc-94 4.88 h F 0.800 1.2 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 0.800 1.8 × 10-10
M 0.800 1.3 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
Tc-94m 0.867 h F 0.800 4.3 × 10-11 6.9 × 10-11 0.800 1.1 × 10-10
M 0.800 4.9 × 10-11 8.0 × 10-11
Tc-95 20.0 h F 0.800 1.0 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 0.800 1.6 × 10-10
M 0.800 1.0 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
Tc-95m 61.0 d F 0.800 3.1 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10 0.800 6.2 × 10-10
M 0.800 8.7 × 10-10 8.6 × 10-10
Tc-96 4.28 d F 0.800 6.0 × 10-10 9.8 × 10-10 0.800 1.1 × 10-9
M 0.800 7.1 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-9
Tc-96m 0.858 h F 0.800 6.5 × 10-12 1.1 × 10-11 0.800 1.3 × 10-11
M 0.800 7.7 × 10-12 1.1 × 10-11
Tc-97 2.60 × 106 a F 0.800 4.5 × 10-11 7.2 × 10-11 0.800 8.3 × 10-11
M 0.800 2.1 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
Tc-97m 87.0 d F 0.800 2.8 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10 0.800 6.6 × 10-10
M 0.800 3.1 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9
Tc-98 4.20 × 106 a F 0.800 1.0 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 0.800 2.3 × 10-9
M 0.800 8.1 × 10-9 6.1 × 10-9
Tc-99 2.13 × 105 a F 0.800 2.9 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10 0.800 7.8 × 10-10
M 0.800 3.9 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9
Tc-99m 6.02 h F 0.800 1.2 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 0.800 2.2 × 10-11
M 0.800 1.9 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11
Tc-101 0.237 h F 0.800 8.7 × 10-12 1.5 × 10-11 0.800 1.9 × 10-11
M 0.800 1.3 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11
Tc-104 0.303 h F 0.800 2.4 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 0.800 8.1 × 10-11
M 0.800 3.0 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11
Ruthenium
Ru-94 0.863 h F 0.050 2.7 × 10-11 4.9 × 10-11 0.050 9.4 × 10-11
M 0.050 4.4 × 10-11 7.2 × 10-11
S 0.050 4.6 × 10-11 7.4 × 10-11
Ru-97 2.90 d F 0.050 6.7 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.050 1.5 × 10-10
M 0.050 1.1 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
S 0.050 1.1 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
Ru-103 39.3 d F 0.050 4.9 × 10-10 6.8 × 10-10 0.050 7.3 × 10-10
M 0.050 2.3 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9
154
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
S 0.050 2.8 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9

Ru-105 4.44 h F 0.050 7.1 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-10 0.050 2.6 × 10-10
M 0.050 1.7 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10
S 0.050 1.8 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10
Ru-106 1.01 a F 0.050 8.0 × 10-9 9.8 × 10-9 0.050 7.0 × 10-9
M 0.050 2.6 × 10-8 1.7 × 10-8
S 0.050 6.2 × 10-8 3.5 × 10-8
Rhodium
Rh-99 16.0 d F 0.050 3.3 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-10 0.050 5.1 × 10-10
M 0.050 7.3 × 10-10 8.2 × 10-10
S 0.050 8.3 × 10-10 8.9 × 10-10
Rh-99m 4.70 h F 0.050 3.0 × 10-11 5.7 × 10-11 0.050 6.6 × 10-11
M 0.050 4.1 × 10-11 7.2 × 10-11
S 0.050 4.3 × 10-11 7.3 × 10-11
Rh-100 20.8 h F 0.050 2.8 × 10-10 5.1 × 10-10 0.050 7.1 × 10-10
M 0.050 3.6 × 10-10 6.2 × 10-10
S 0.050 3.7 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-10
Rh-101 3.20 a F 0.050 1.4 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 0.050 5.5 × 10-10
M 0.050 2.2 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9
S 0.050 5.0 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9
Rh-101m 4.34 d F 0.050 1.0 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 0.050 2.2 × 10-10
M 0.050 2.0 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10
S 0.050 2.1 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10
Rh-102 2.90 a F 0.050 7.3 × 10-9 8.9 × 10-9 0.050 2.6 × 10-9
M 0.050 6.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-9
S 0.050 1.6 × 10-8 9.0 × 10-9
Rh-102m 207 d F 0.050 1.5 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 0.050 1.2 × 10-9
M 0.050 3.8 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9
S 0.050 6.7 × 10-9 4.2 × 10-9
Rh-103m 0.935 h F 0.050 8.6 × 10-13 1.2 × 10-12 0.050 3.8 × 10-12
M 0.050 2.3 × 10-12 2.4 × 10-12
S 0.050 2.5 × 10-12 2.5 × 10-12
Rh-105 1.47 d F 0.050 8.7 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-10 0.050 3.7 × 10-10
M 0.050 3.1 × 10-10 4.1 × 10-10
S 0.050 3.4 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10
Rh-106m 2.20 h F 0.050 7.0 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-10 0.050 1.6 × 10-10
M 0.050 1.1 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
S 0.050 1.2 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
Rh-107 0.362 h F 0.050 9.6 × 10-12 1.6 × 10-11 0.050 2.4 × 10-11
M 0.050 1.7 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11
S 0.050 1.7 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11
Palladium
155
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Pd-100 3.63 d F 0.005 4.9 × 10-10 7.6 × 10-10 0.005 9.4 × 10-10
-10
M 0.005 7.9 × 10 9.5 × 10-10
S 0.005 8.3 × 10-10 9.7 × 10-10
-11
Pd-101 8.27 h F 0.005 4.2 × 10 7.5 × 10-11 0.005 9.4 × 10-11
-11
M 0.005 6.2 × 10 9.8 × 10-11
-11
S 0.005 6.4 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
Pd-103 17.0 d F 0.005 9.0 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.005 1.9 × 10-10
-10
M 0.005 3.5 × 10 3.0 × 10-10
-10
S 0.005 4.0 × 10 2.9 × 10-10
Pd-107 6.50 × 106 a F 0.005 2.6 × 10 -11
3.3 × 10-11 0.005 3.7 × 10-11
M 0.005 8.0 × 10-11 5.2 × 10-11
-10
S 0.005 5.5 × 10 2.9 × 10-10
-10
Pd-109 13.4 h F 0.005 1.2 × 10 2.1 × 10-10 0.005 5.5 × 10-10
-10
M 0.005 3.4 × 10 4.7 × 10-10
S 0.005 3.6 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10
Silver
Ag-102 0.215 h F 0.050 1.4 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 0.050 4.0 × 10-11
M 0.050 1.8 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11
S 0.050 1.9 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11
Ag-103 1.09 h F 0.050 1.6 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 0.050 4.3 × 10-11
M 0.050 2.7 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11
S 0.050 2.8 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11
Ag-104 1.15 h F 0.050 3.0 × 10-11 5.7 × 10-11 0.050 6.0 × 10-11
M 0.050 3.9 × 10-11 6.9 × 10-11
S 0.050 4.0 × 10-11 7.1 × 10-11
Ag-104m 0.558 h F 0.050 1.7 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 0.050 5.4 × 10-11
M 0.050 2.6 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11
S 0.050 2.7 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11
Ag-105 41.0 d F 0.050 5.4 × 10-10 8.0 × 10-10 0.050 4.7 × 10-10
M 0.050 6.9 × 10-10 7.0 × 10-10
S 0.050 7.8 × 10-10 7.3 × 10-10
Ag-106 0.399 h F 0.050 9.8 × 10-12 1.7 × 10-11 0.050 3.2 × 10-11
M 0.050 1.6 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11
S 0.050 1.6 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11
Ag-106m 8.41 d F 0.050 1.1 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 0.050 1.5 × 10-9
M 0.050 1.1 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9
S 0.050 1.1 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
Ag-108m 1.27 × 102 a F 0.050 6.1 × 10-9 7.3 × 10-9 0.050 2.3 × 10-9
M 0.050 7.0 × 10-9 5.2 × 10-9
S 0.050 3.5 × 10-8 1.9 × 10-8
Ag-110m 250 d F 0.050 5.5 × 10-9 6.7 × 10-9 0.050 2.8 × 10-9
M 0.050 7.2 × 10-9 5.9 × 10-9
S 0.050 1.2 × 10-8 7.3 × 10-9
156
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Ag-111 7.45 d F 0.050 4.1 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10 0.050 1.3 × 10-9
M 0.050 1.5 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9
S 0.050 1.7 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9
Ag-112 3.12 h F 0.050 8.2 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-10 0.050 4.3 × 10-10
M 0.050 1.7 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10
S 0.050 1.8 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10
Ag-115 0.333 h F 0.050 1.6 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 0.050 6.0 × 10-11
M 0.050 2.8 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11
S 0.050 3.0 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11
Cadmium
Cd-104 0.961 h F 0.050 2.7 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11 0.050 5.8 × 10-11
M 0.050 3.6 × 10-11 6.2 × 10-11
S 0.050 3.7 × 10-11 6.3 × 10-11
Cd-107 6.49 h F 0.050 2.3 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 0.050 6.2 × 10-11
M 0.050 8.1 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-10
S 0.050 8.7 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10
Cd-109 1.27 a F 0.050 8.1 × 10-9 9.6 × 10-9 0.050 2.0 × 10-9
M 0.050 6.2 × 10-9 5.1 × 10-9
S 0.050 5.8 × 10-9 4.4 × 10-9
Cd-113 9.30 × 1015 a F 0.050 1.2 × 10-7 1.4 × 10-7 0.050 2.5 × 10-8
M 0.050 5.3 × 10-8 4.3 × 10-8
S 0.050 2.5 × 10-8 2.1 × 10-8
Cd-113m 13.6 a F 0.050 1.1 × 10-7 1.3 × 10-7 0.050 2.3 × 10-8
M 0.050 5.0 × 10-8 4.0 × 10-8
S 0.050 3.0 × 10-8 2.4 × 10-8
Cd-115 2.23 d F 0.050 3.7 × 10-10 5.4 × 10-10 0.050 1.4 × 10-9
M 0.050 9.7 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-9
S 0.050 1.1 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9
Cd-115m 44.6 d F 0.050 5.3 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-9 0.050 3.3 × 10-9
M 0.050 5.9 × 10-9 5.5 × 10-9
S 0.050 7.3 × 10-9 5.5 × 10-9
Cd-117 2.49 h F 0.050 7.3 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-10 0.050 2.8 × 10-10
M 0.050 1.6 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10
S 0.050 1.7 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10
Cd-117m 3.36 h F 0.050 1.0 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 0.050 2.8 × 10-10
M 0.050 2.0 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10
S 0.050 2.1 × 10-10 3.2 × 10-10
Indium
In-109 4.20 h F 0.020 3.2 × 10-11 5.7 × 10-11 0.020 6.6 × 10-11
M 0.020 4.4 × 10-11 7.3 × 10-11
In-110 4.90 h F 0.020 1.2 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 0.020 2.4 × 10-10
M 0.020 1.4 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10
157
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
In-110m 1.15 h F 0.020 3.1 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11 0.020 1.0 × 10-10
M 0.020 5.0 × 10-11 8.1 × 10-11
In-111 2.83 d F 0.020 1.3 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 0.020 2.9 × 10-10
M 0.020 2.3 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10
In-112 0.240 h F 0.020 5.0 × 10-12 8.6 × 10-12 0.020 1.0 × 10-11
M 0.020 7.8 × 10-12 1.3 × 10-11
In-113m 1.66 h F 0.020 1.0 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 0.020 2.8 × 10-11
M 0.020 2.0 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11
In-114m 49.5 d F 0.020 9.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-8 0.020 4.1 × 10-9
M 0.020 5.9 × 10-9 5.9 × 10-9
In-115 5.10 × 1015 a F 0.020 3.9 × 10-7 4.5 × 10-7 0.020 3.2 × 10-8
M 0.020 1.5 × 10-7 1.1 × 10-7
In-115m 4.49 h F 0.020 2.5 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 0.020 8.6 × 10-11
M 0.020 6.0 × 10-11 8.7 × 10-11
In-116m 0.902 h F 0.020 3.0 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11 0.020 6.4 × 10-11
M 0.020 4.8 × 10-11 8.0 × 10-11
In-117 0.730 h F 0.020 1.6 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 0.020 3.1 × 10-11
M 0.020 3.0 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11
In-117m 1.94 h F 0.020 3.1 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11 0.020 1.2 × 10-10
M 0.020 7.3 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10
In-119m 0.300 h F 0.020 1.1 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 0.020 4.7 × 10-11
M 0.020 1.8 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11
Tin
Sn-110 4.00 h F 0.020 1.1 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 0.020 3.5 × 10-10
M 0.020 1.6 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10
Sn-111 0.588 h F 0.020 8.3 × 10-12 1.5 × 10-11 0.020 2.3 × 10-11
M 0.020 1.4 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11
Sn-113 115 d F 0.020 5.4 × 10-10 7.9 × 10-10 0.020 7.3 × 10-10
M 0.020 2.5 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9
Sn-117m 13.6 d F 0.020 2.9 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 0.020 7.1 × 10-10
M 0.020 2.3 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9
Sn-119m 293 d F 0.020 2.9 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 0.020 3.4 × 10-10
M 0.020 2.0 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9
Sn-121 1.13 d F 0.020 6.4 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-10 0.020 2.3 × 10-10
M 0.020 2.2 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10
Sn-121m 55.0 a F 0.020 8.0 × 10-10 9.7 × 10-10 0.020 3.8 × 10-10
M 0.020 4.2 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9
Sn-123 129 d F 0.020 1.2 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 0.020 2.1 × 10-9
M 0.020 7.7 × 10-9 5.6 × 10-9
Sn-123m 0.668 h F 0.020 1.4 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 0.020 3.8 × 10-11
M 0.020 2.8 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11
Sn-125 9.64 d F 0.020 9.2 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-9 0.020 3.1 × 10-9
M 0.020 3.0 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9
158
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Sn-126 1.00 × 105 a F 0.020 1.1 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 0.020 4.7 × 10-9
M 0.020 2.7 × 10-8 1.8 × 10-8
Sn-127 2.10 h F 0.020 6.9 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.020 2.0 × 10-10
M 0.020 1.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10
Sn-128 0.985 h F 0.020 5.4 × 10-11 9.5 × 10-11 0.020 1.5 × 10-10
M 0.020 9.6 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-10
Antimony
Sb-115 0.530 h F 0.100 9.2 × 10-12 1.7 × 10-11 0.100 2.4 × 10-11
M 0.010 1.4 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11
Sb-116 0.263 h F 0.100 9.9 × 10-12 1.8 × 10-11 0.100 2.6 × 10-11
M 0.010 1.4 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11
Sb-116m 1.00 h F 0.100 3.5 × 10-11 6.4 × 10-11 0.100 6.7 × 10-11
M 0.010 5.0 × 10-11 8.5 × 10-11
Sb-117 2.80 h F 0.100 9.3 × 10-12 1.7 × 10-11 0.100 1.8 × 10-11
M 0.010 1.7 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11
Sb-118m 5.00 h F 0.100 1.0 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 0.100 2.1 × 10-10
M 0.010 1.3 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10
Sb-119 1.59 d F 0.100 2.5 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 0.100 8.1 × 10-11
M 0.010 3.7 × 10-11 5.9 × 10-11
Sb-120 5.76 d F 0.100 5.9 × 10-10 9.8 × 10-10 0.100 1.2 × 10-9
M 0.010 1.0 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9
Sb-120 0.265 h F 0.100 4.9 × 10-12 8.5 × 10-12 0.100 1.4 × 10-11
M 0.010 7.4 × 10-12 1.2 × 10-11
Sb-122 2.70 d F 0.100 3.9 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-10 0.100 1.7 × 10-9
M 0.010 1.0 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9
Sb-124 60.2 d F 0.100 1.3 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 0.100 2.5 × 10-9
M 0.010 6.1 × 10-9 4.7 × 10-9
Sb-124m 0.337 h F 0.100 3.0 × 10-12 5.3 × 10-12 0.100 8.0 × 10-12
M 0.010 5.5 × 10-12 8.3 × 10-12
Sb-125 2.77 a F 0.100 1.4 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 0.100 1.1 × 10-9
M 0.010 4.5 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9
Sb-126 12.4 d F 0.100 1.1 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 0.100 2.4 × 10-9
M 0.010 2.7 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9
Sb-126m 0.317 h F 0.100 1.3 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 0.100 3.6 × 10-11
M 0.010 2.0 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11
Sb-127 3.85 d F 0.100 4.6 × 10-10 7.4 × 10-10 0.100 1.7 × 10-9
M 0.010 1.6 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9
Sb-128 9.01 h F 0.100 2.5 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10 0.100 7.6 × 10-10
M 0.010 4.2 × 10-10 6.7 × 10-10
Sb-128 0.173 h F 0.100 1.1 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 0.100 3.3 × 10-11
M 0.010 1.5 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11
Sb-129 4.32 h F 0.100 1.1 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 0.100 4.2 × 10-10
M 0.010 2.4 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10
159
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Sb-130 0.667 h F 0.100 3.5 × 10-11 6.3 × 10-11 0.100 9.1 × 10-11
M 0.010 5.4 × 10-11 9.1 × 10-11
Sb-131 0.383 h F 0.100 3.7 × 10-11 5.9 × 10-11 0.100 1.0 × 10-10
M 0.010 5.2 × 10-11 8.3 × 10-11
Tellurium
Te-116 2.49 h F 0.300 6.3 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.300 1.7 × 10-10
M 0.300 1.1 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10
Te-121 17.0 d F 0.300 2.5 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 0.300 4.3 × 10-10
M 0.300 3.9 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10
Te-121m 154 d F 0.300 1.8 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 0.300 2.3 × 10-9
M 0.300 4.2 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9
Te-123 1.00 × 1013 a F 0.300 4.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-9 0.300 4.4 × 10-9
M 0.300 2.6 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9
Te-123m 120 d F 0.300 9.7 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-9 0.300 1.4 × 10-9
M 0.300 3.9 × 10-9 3.4 × 10-9
Te-125m 58.0 d F 0.300 5.1 × 10-10 6.7 × 10-10 0.300 8.7 × 10-10
M 0.300 3.3 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9
Te-127 9.35 h F 0.300 4.2 × 10-11 7.2 × 10-11 0.300 1.7 × 10-10
M 0.300 1.2 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
Te-127m 109 d F 0.300 1.6 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 0.300 2.3 × 10-9
M 0.300 7.2 × 10-9 6.2 × 10-9
Te-129 1.16 h F 0.300 1.7 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 0.300 6.3 × 10-11
M 0.300 3.8 × 10-11 5.7 × 10-11
Te-129m 33.6 d F 0.300 1.3 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 0.300 3.0 × 10-9
M 0.300 6.3 × 10-9 5.4 × 10-9
Te-131 0.417 h F 0.300 2.3 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 0.300 8.7 × 10-11
M 0.300 3.8 × 10-11 6.1 × 10-11
Te-131m 1.25 d F 0.300 8.7 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-9 0.300 1.9 × 10-9
M 0.300 1.1 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9
Te-132 3.26 d F 0.300 1.8 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 0.300 3.7 × 10-9
M 0.300 2.2 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9
Te-133 0.207 h F 0.300 2.0 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 0.300 7.2 × 10-11
M 0.300 2.7 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11
Te-133m 0.923 h F 0.300 8.4 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.300 2.8 × 10-10
M 0.300 1.2 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
Te-134 0.696 h F 0.300 5.0 × 10-11 8.3 × 10-11 0.300 1.1 × 10-10
M 0.300 7.1 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10
Iodine
I-120 1.35 h F 1.000 1.0 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.000 3.4 × 10-10
I-120m 0.883 h F 1.000 8.7 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-10 1.000 2.1 × 10-10
I-121 2.12 h F 1.000 2.8 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 1.000 8.2 × 10-11
I-123 13.2 h F 1.000 7.6 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10 1.000 2.1 × 10-10
160
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
I-124 4.18 d F 1.000 4.5 × 10-9 6.3 × 10-9 1.000 1.3 × 10-8
I-125 60.1 d F 1.000 5.3 × 10-9 7.3 × 10-9 1.000 1.5 × 10-8
I-126 13.0 d F 1.000 1.0 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 1.000 2.9 × 10-8
I-128 0.416 h F 1.000 1.4 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 1.000 4.6 × 10-11
I-129 1.57 × 107 a F 1.000 3.7 × 10-8 5.1 × 10-8 1.000 1.1 × 10-7
I-130 12.4 h F 1.000 6.9 × 10-10 9.6 × 10-10 1.000 2.0 × 10-9
I-131 8.04 d F 1.000 7.6 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-8 1.000 2.2 × 10-8
I-132 2.30 h F 1.000 9.6 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-10 1.000 2.9 × 10-10
I-132m 1.39 h F 1.000 8.1 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10 1.000 2.2 × 10-10
I-133 20.8 h F 1.000 1.5 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.000 4.3 × 10-9
I-134 0.876 h F 1.000 4.8 × 10-11 7.9 × 10-11 1.000 1.1 × 10-10
I-135 6.61 h F 1.000 3.3 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10 1.000 9.3 × 10-10
Caesium
Cs-125 0.750 h F 1.000 1.3 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 1.000 3.5 × 10-11
Cs-127 6.25 h F 1.000 2.2 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 1.000 2.4 × 10-11
Cs-129 1.34 d F 1.000 4.5 × 10-11 8.1 × 10-11 1.000 6.0 × 10-11
Cs-130 0.498 h F 1.000 8.4 × 10-12 1.5 × 10-11 1.000 2.8 × 10-11
Cs-131 9.69 d F 1.000 2.8 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 1.000 5.8 × 10-11
Cs-132 6.48 d F 1.000 2.4 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 1.000 5.0 × 10-10
Cs-134 2.06 a F 1.000 6.8 × 10-9 9.6 × 10-9 1.000 1.9 × 10-8
Cs-134m 2.90 h F 1.000 1.5 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 1.000 2.0 × 10-11
Cs-135 2.30 × 106 a F 1.000 7.1 × 10-10 9.9 × 10-10 1.000 2.0 × 10-9
Cs-135m 0.883 h F 1.000 1.3 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 1.000 1.9 × 10-11
Cs-136 13.1 d F 1.000 1.3 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.000 3.0 × 10-9
Cs-137 30.0 a F 1.000 4.8 × 10-9 6.7 × 10-9 1.000 1.3 × 10-8
Cs-138 0.536 h F 1.000 2.6 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 1.000 9.2 × 10-11
Barium
Ba-126 1.61 h F 0.100 7.8 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.100 2.6 × 10-10
Ba-128 2.43 d F 0.100 8.0 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-9 0.100 2.7 × 10-9
Ba-131 11.8 d F 0.100 2.3 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10 0.100 4.5 × 10-10
Ba-131m 0.243 h F 0.100 4.1 × 10-12 6.4 × 10-12 0.100 4.9 × 10-12
Ba-133 10.7 a F 0.100 1.5 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 0.100 1.0 × 10-9
Ba-133m 1.62 d F 0.100 1.9 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 0.100 5.5 × 10-10
Ba-135m 1.20 d F 0.100 1.5 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 0.100 4.5 × 10-10
Ba-139 1.38 h F 0.100 3.5 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11 0.100 1.2 × 10-10
Ba-140 12.7 d F 0.100 1.0 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 0.100 2.5 × 10-9
Ba-141 0.305 h F 0.100 2.2 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 0.100 7.0 × 10-11
Ba-142 0.177 h F 0.100 1.6 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 0.100 3.5 × 10-11
Lanthanum
La-131 0.983 h F 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-11
M 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11
161
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
La-132 4.80 h F 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-10
M 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10
La-135 19.5 h F 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.0 × 10-11
M 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11
La-137 6.00 × 104 a F 5.0 × 10-4 8.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 8.1 × 10-11
M 5.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9
La-138 1.35 × 1011 a F 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-7 1.8 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9
M 5.0 × 10-4 6.1 × 10-8 4.2 × 10-8
La-140 1.68 d F 5.0 × 10-4 6.0 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-9
M 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9
La-141 3.93 h F 5.0 × 10-4 6.7 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.6 × 10-10
M 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
La-142 1.54 h F 5.0 × 10-4 5.6 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-10
M 5.0 × 10-4 9.3 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-10
La-143 0.237 h F 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 5.6 × 10-11
M 5.0 × 10-4 2.2 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11
Cerium
Ce-134 3.00 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-9
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9
Ce-135 17.6 h M 5.0 × 10-4 4.9 × 10-10 7.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 7.9 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 5.1 × 10-10 7.6 × 10-10
Ce-137 9.00 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-11
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11
Ce-137m 1.43 d M 5.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 5.4 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 4.3 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-10
Ce-139 138 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.6 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
Ce-141 32.5 d M 5.0 × 10-4 3.1 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 7.1 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 3.6 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9
Ce-143 1.38 d M 5.0 × 10-4 7.4 × 10-10 9.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9
S 5.0 × 10-4 8.1 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-9
Ce-144 284 d M 5.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-8 2.3 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 5.2 × 10-9
S 5.0 × 10-4 4.9 × 10-8 2.9 × 10-8
Praseodymium
Pr-136 0.218 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.3 × 10-11
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11
Pr-137 1.28 h M 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-11
S 5.0 × 10-4 2.2 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11
Pr-138m 2.10 h M 5.0 × 10-4 7.6 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 7.9 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-10
Pr-139 4.51 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.1 × 10-11
S 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11
162
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Pr-142 19.1 h M 5.0 × 10-4 5.3 × 10-10 7.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-9
S 5.0 × 10-4 5.6 × 10-10 7.4 × 10-10
Pr-142m 0.243 h M 5.0 × 10-4 6.7 × 10-12 8.9 × 10-12 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-11
S 5.0 × 10-4 7.1 × 10-12 9.4 × 10-12
Pr-143 13.6 d M 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-9
S 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9
Pr-144 0.288 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-11
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11
Pr-145 5.98 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10
Pr-147 0.227 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.3 × 10-11
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11
Neodymium
Nd-136 0.844 h M 5.0 × 10-4 5.3 × 10-11 8.5 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 9.9 × 10-11
S 5.0 × 10-4 5.6 × 10-11 8.9 × 10-11
Nd-138 5.04 h M 5.0 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 6.4 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 2.6 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10
Nd-139 0.495 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-11
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11
Nd-139m 5.50 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10
Nd-141 2.49 h M 5.0 × 10-4 5.1 × 10-12 8.5 × 10-12 5.0 × 10-4 8.3 × 10-12
S 5.0 × 10-4 5.3 × 10-12 8.8 × 10-12
Nd-147 11.0 d M 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9
S 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9
Nd-149 1.73 h M 5.0 × 10-4 8.5 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 9.0 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-10
Nd-151 0.207 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.0 × 10-11
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11
Promethium
Pm-141 0.348 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.6 × 10-11
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11
Pm-143 265 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-9 9.6 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-9 8.3 × 10-10
Pm-144 363 d M 5.0 × 10-4 7.8 × 10-9 5.4 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 9.7 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 7.0 × 10-9 3.9 × 10-9
Pm-145 17.7 a M 5.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9
Pm-146 5.53 a M 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 9.0 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-8 9.0 × 10-9
Pm-147 2.62 a M 5.0 × 10-4 4.7 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.6 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 4.6 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9
163
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Pm-148 5.37 d M 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.7 × 10-9
S 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9
Pm-148m 41.3 d M 5.0 × 10-4 4.9 × 10-9 4.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-9
S 5.0 × 10-4 5.4 × 10-9 4.3 × 10-9
Pm-149 2.21 d M 5.0 × 10-4 6.6 × 10-10 7.6 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 9.9 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 7.2 × 10-10 8.2 × 10-10
Pm-150 2.68 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.6 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10
Pm-151 1.18 d M 5.0 × 10-4 4.2 × 10-10 6.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 7.3 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 4.5 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-10
Samarium
Sm-141 0.170 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-11
Sm-141m 0.377 h M 5.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 6.5 × 10-11
Sm-142 1.21 h M 5.0 × 10-4 7.4 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-10
Sm-145 340 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-10
Sm-146 1.03 × 108 a M 5.0 × 10-4 9.9 × 10-6 6.7 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 5.4 × 10-8
Sm-147 1.06 × 1011 a M 5.0 × 10-4 8.9 × 10-6 6.1 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 4.9 × 10-8
Sm-151 90.0 a M 5.0 × 10-4 3.7 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 9.8 × 10-11
Sm-153 1.95 d M 5.0 × 10-4 6.1 × 10-10 6.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 7.4 × 10-10
Sm-155 0.368 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-11
Sm-156 9.40 h M 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-10
Europium
Eu-145 5.94 d M 5.0 × 10-4 5.6 × 10-10 7.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 7.5 × 10-10
Eu-146 4.61 d M 5.0 × 10-4 8.2 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-9
Eu-147 24.0 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 4.4 × 10-10
Eu-148 54.5 d M 5.0 × 10-4 2.7 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-9
Eu-149 93.1 d M 5.0 × 10-4 2.7 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-10
Eu-150 34.2 a M 5.0 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-8 3.4 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-9
Eu-150 12.6 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.8 × 10-10
Eu-152 13.3 a M 5.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-8 2.7 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-9
Eu-152m 9.32 h M 5.0 × 10-4 2.2 × 10-10 3.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-10
Eu-154 8.80 a M 5.0 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-8 3.5 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-9
Eu-155 4.96 a M 5.0 × 10-4 6.5 × 10-9 4.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-10
Eu-156 15.2 d M 5.0 × 10-4 3.3 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.2 × 10-9
Eu-157 15.1 h M 5.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 6.0 × 10-10
Eu-158 0.765 h M 5.0 × 10-4 4.8 × 10-11 7.5 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 9.4 × 10-11
Gadolinium
Gd-145 0.382 h F 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 4.4 × 10-11
M 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11
Gd-146 48.3 d F 5.0 × 10-4 4.4 × 10-9 5.2 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 9.6 × 10-10
M 5.0 × 10-4 6.0 × 10-9 4.6 × 10-9
164
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Gd-147 1.59 d F 5.0 × 10-4 2.7 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 6.1 × 10-10
M 5.0 × 10-4 4.1 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-10
Gd-148 93.0 a F 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-5 3.0 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 5.5 × 10-8
M 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-5 7.2 × 10-6
Gd-149 9.40 d F 5.0 × 10-4 2.6 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.5 × 10-10
M 5.0 × 10-4 7.0 × 10-10 7.9 × 10-10
Gd-151 120 d F 5.0 × 10-4 7.8 × 10-10 9.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-10
M 5.0 × 10-4 8.1 × 10-10 6.5 × 10-10
Gd-152 1.08 × 1014 a F 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-5 2.2 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 4.1 × 10-8
M 5.0 × 10-4 7.4 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-6
Gd-153 242 d F 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.7 × 10-10
M 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
Gd-159 18.6 h F 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.9 × 10-10
M 5.0 × 10-4 2.7 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10
Terbium
Tb-147 1.65 h M 5.0 × 10-4 7.9 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-10
Tb-149 4.15 h M 5.0 × 10-4 4.3 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-10
Tb-150 3.27 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-10
Tb-151 17.6 h M 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-10
Tb-153 2.34 d M 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-10
Tb-154 21.4 h M 5.0 × 10-4 3.8 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 6.5 × 10-10
Tb-155 5.32 d M 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-10
Tb-156 5.34 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-9
Tb-156m 1.02 d M 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-10
Tb-156m 5.00 h M 5.0 × 10-4 9.2 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 8.1 × 10-11
Tb-157 7.1 × 101 a M 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9 7.9 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-11
Tb-158 1.80 × 102 a M 5.0 × 10-4 4.3 × 10-8 3.0 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9
Tb-160 72.3 d M 5.0 × 10-4 6.6 × 10-9 5.4 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-9
Tb-161 6.91 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 7.2 × 10-10
Dysprosium
Dy-155 10.0 h M 5.0 × 10-4 8.0 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-10
Dy-157 8.10 h M 5.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 6.1 × 10-11
Dy-159 144 d M 5.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-10
Dy-165 2.33 h M 5.0 × 10-4 6.1 × 10-11 8.7 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-10
Dy-166 3.40 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-9
Holmium
Ho-155 0.800 h M 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.7 × 10-11
Ho-157 0.210 h M 5.0 × 10-4 4.5 × 10-12 7.6 × 10-12 5.0 × 10-4 6.5 × 10-12
Ho-159 0.550 h M 5.0 × 10-4 6.3 × 10-12 1.0 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 7.9 × 10-12
Ho-161 2.50 h M 5.0 × 10-4 6.3 × 10-12 1.0 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-11
Ho-162 0.250 h M 5.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-12 4.5 × 10-12 5.0 × 10-4 3.3 × 10-12
165
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
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Ho-162m 1.13 h M 5.0 × 10-4 2.2 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 2.6 × 10-11
Ho-164 0.483 h M 5.0 × 10-4 8.6 × 10-12 1.3 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 9.5 × 10-12
Ho-164m 0.625 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-11
Ho-166 1.12 d M 5.0 × 10-4 6.6 × 10-10 8.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-9
Ho-166m 1.20 × 103 a M 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-7 7.8 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-9
Ho-167 3.10 h M 5.0 × 10-4 7.1 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 8.3 × 10-11
Erbium
Er-161 3.24 h M 5.0 × 10-4 5.1 × 10-11 8.5 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 8.0 × 10-11
Er-165 10.4 h M 5.0 × 10-4 8.3 × 10-12 1.4 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-11
Er-169 9.30 d M 5.0 × 10-4 9.8 × 10-10 9.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.7 × 10-10
Er-171 7.52 h M 5.0 × 10-4 2.2 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.6 × 10-10
Er-172 2.05 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-9
Thulium
Tm-162 0.362 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-11
Tm-166 7.70 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.8 × 10-10
Tm-167 9.24 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 5.6 × 10-10
Tm-170 129 d M 5.0 × 10-4 6.6 × 10-9 5.2 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-9
Tm-171 1.92 a M 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-9 9.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-10
Tm-172 2.65 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-9
Tm-173 8.24 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.1 × 10-10
Tm-175 0.253 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 2.7 × 10-11
Ytterbium
Yb-162 0.315 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-11
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11
Yb-166 2.36 d M 5.0 × 10-4 7.2 × 10-10 9.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 9.5 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 7.6 × 10-10 9.5 × 10-10
Yb-167 0.292 h M 5.0 × 10-4 6.5 × 10-12 9.0 × 10-12 5.0 × 10-4 6.7 × 10-12
S 5.0 × 10-4 6.9 × 10-12 9.5 × 10-12
Yb-169 32.0 d M 5.0 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 7.1 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 2.8 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9
Yb-175 4.19 d M 5.0 × 10-4 6.3 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.4 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 7.0 × 10-10 7.0 × 10-10
Yb-177 1.90 h M 5.0 × 10-4 6.4 × 10-11 8.8 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 9.7 × 10-11
S 5.0 × 10-4 6.9 × 10-11 9.4 × 10-11
Yb-178 1.23 h M 5.0 × 10-4 7.1 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 7.6 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10
Lutetium
Lu-169 1.42 d M 5.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.6 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 3.8 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-10
Lu-170 2.00 d M 5.0 × 10-4 6.4 × 10-10 9.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 9.9 × 10-10
166
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
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S 5.0 × 10-4 6.7 × 10-10 9.5 × 10-10

Lu-171 8.22 d M 5.0 × 10-4 7.6 × 10-10 8.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 6.7 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 8.3 × 10-10 9.3 × 10-10
Lu-172 6.70 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-9
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9
Lu-173 1.37 a M 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.6 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
Lu-174 3.31 a M 5.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.7 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9
Lu-174m 142 d M 5.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 5.3 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 3.8 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9
Lu-176 3.60 × 1010 a M 5.0 × 10-4 6.6 × 10-8 4.6 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-9
S 5.0 × 10-4 5.2 × 10-8 3.0 × 10-8
Lu-176m 3.68 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
Lu-177 6.71 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 5.3 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
Lu-177m 161 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-9
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8
Lu-178 0.473 h M 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 4.7 × 10-11
S 5.0 × 10-4 2.6 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11
Lu-178m 0.378 h M 5.0 × 10-4 3.3 × 10-11 5.4 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.8 × 10-11
S 5.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11
Lu-179 4.59 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
Hafnium
Hf-170 16.0 h F 0.002 1.7 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 0.002 4.8 × 10-10
M 0.002 3.2 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10
Hf-172 1.87 a F 0.002 3.2 × 10-8 3.7 × 10-8 0.002 1.0 × 10-9
M 0.002 1.9 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8
Hf-173 24.0 h F 0.002 7.9 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-10 0.002 2.3 × 10-10
M 0.002 1.6 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
Hf-175 70.0 d F 0.002 7.2 × 10-10 8.7 × 10-10 0.002 4.1 × 10-10
M 0.002 1.1 × 10-9 8.8 × 10-10
Hf-177m 0.856 h F 0.002 4.7 × 10-11 8.4 × 10-11 0.002 8.1 × 10-11
M 0.002 9.2 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-10
Hf-178m 31.0 a F 0.002 2.6 × 10-7 3.1 × 10-7 0.002 4.7 × 10-9
M 0.002 1.1 × 10-7 7.8 × 10-8
Hf-179m 25.1 d F 0.002 1.1 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 0.002 1.2 × 10-9
M 0.002 3.6 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9
Hf-180m 5.50 h F 0.002 6.4 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.002 1.7 × 10-10
M 0.002 1.4 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10
Hf-181 42.4 d F 0.002 1.4 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 0.002 1.1 × 10-9
167
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
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M 0.002 4.7 × 10-9 4.1 × 10-9

6
Hf-182 9.00 × 10 a F 0.002 3.0 × 10-7 3.6 × 10-7 0.002 3.0 × 10-9
M 0.002 1.2 × 10-7 8.3 × 10-8
Hf-182m 1.02 h F 0.002 2.3 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 0.002 4.2 × 10-11
M 0.002 4.7 × 10-11 7.1 × 10-11
Hf-183 1.07 h F 0.002 2.6 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11 0.002 7.3 × 10-11
M 0.002 5.8 × 10-11 8.3 × 10-11
Hf-184 4.12 h F 0.002 1.3 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 0.002 5.2 × 10-10
M 0.002 3.3 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10
Tantalum
Ta-172 0.613 h M 0.001 3.4 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11 0.001 5.3 × 10-11
S 0.001 3.6 × 10-11 5.7 × 10-11
Ta-173 3.65 h M 0.001 1.1 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 0.001 1.9 × 10-10
S 0.001 1.2 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
Ta-174 1.20 h M 0.001 4.2 × 10-11 6.3 × 10-11 0.001 5.7 × 10-11
S 0.001 4.4 × 10-11 6.6 × 10-11
Ta-175 10.5 h M 0.001 1.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 0.001 2.1 × 10-10
S 0.001 1.4 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10
Ta-176 8.08 h M 0.001 2.0 × 10-10 3.2 × 10-10 0.001 3.1 × 10-10
S 0.001 2.1 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10
Ta-177 2.36 d M 0.001 9.3 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.001 1.1 × 10-10
S 0.001 1.0 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10
Ta-178 2.20 h M 0.001 6.6 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-10 0.001 7.8 × 10-11
S 0.001 6.9 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10
Ta-179 1.82 a M 0.001 2.0 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 0.001 6.5 × 10-11
S 0.001 5.2 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10
Ta-180 1.00 × 1013 a M 0.001 6.0 × 10-9 4.6 × 10-9 0.001 8.4 × 10-10
S 0.001 2.4 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8
Ta-180m 8.10 h M 0.001 4.4 × 10-11 5.8 × 10-11 0.001 5.4 × 10-11
S 0.001 4.7 × 10-11 6.2 × 10-11
Ta-182 115 d M 0.001 7.2 × 10-9 5.8 × 10-9 0.001 1.5 × 10-9
S 0.001 9.7 × 10-9 7.4 × 10-9
Ta-182m 0.264 h M 0.001 2.1 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11 0.001 1.2 × 10-11
S 0.001 2.2 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11
Ta-183 5.10 d M 0.001 1.8 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 0.001 1.3 × 10-9
S 0.001 2.0 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9
Ta-184 8.70 h M 0.001 4.1 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-10 0.001 6.8 × 10-10
S 0.001 4.4 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-10
Ta-185 0.816 h M 0.001 4.6 × 10-11 6.8 × 10-11 0.001 6.8 × 10-11
S 0.001 4.9 × 10-11 7.2 × 10-11
Ta-186 0.175 h M 0.001 1.8 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 0.001 3.3 × 10-11
S 0.001 1.9 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11
168
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Tungsten
W-176 2.30 h F 0.300 4.4 × 10-11 7.6 × 10-11 0.300 1.0 × 10-10
0.010 1.1 × 10-10
W-177 2.25 h F 0.300 2.6 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 0.300 5.8 × 10-11
0.010 6.1 × 10-11
W-178 21.7 d F 0.300 7.6 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.300 2.2 × 10-10
0.010 2.5 × 10-10
W-179 0.625 h F 0.300 9.9 × 10-13 1.8 × 10-12 0.300 3.3 × 10-12
0.010 3.3 × 10-12
W-181 121 d F 0.300 2.8 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11 0.300 7.6 × 10-11
0.010 8.2 × 10-11
W-185 75.1 d F 0.300 1.4 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 0.300 4.4 × 10-10
0.010 5.0 × 10-10
W-187 23.9 h F 0.300 2.0 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 0.300 6.3 × 10-10
0.010 7.1 × 10-10
W-188 69.4 d F 0.300 5.9 × 10-10 8.4 × 10-10 0.300 2.1 × 10-9
0.010 2.3 × 10-9
Rhenium
Re-177 0.233 h F 0.800 1.0 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 0.800 2.2 × 10-11
M 0.800 1.4 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11
Re-178 0.220 h F 0.800 1.1 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 0.800 2.5 × 10-11
M 0.800 1.5 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
Re-181 20.0 h F 0.800 1.9 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 0.800 4.2 × 10-10
M 0.800 2.5 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10
Re-182 2.67 d F 0.800 6.8 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-9 0.800 1.4 × 10-9
M 0.800 1.3 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9
Re-182 12.7 h F 0.800 1.5 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 0.800 2.7 × 10-10
M 0.800 2.0 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10
Re-184 38.0 d F 0.800 4.6 × 10-10 7.0 × 10-10 0.800 1.0 × 10-9
M 0.800 1.8 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9
Re-184m 165 d F 0.800 6.1 × 10-10 8.8 × 10-10 0.800 1.5 × 10-9
M 0.800 6.1 × 10-9 4.8 × 10-9
Re-186 3.78 d F 0.800 5.3 × 10-10 7.3 × 10-10 0.800 1.5 × 10-9
M 0.800 1.1 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9
Re-186m 2.00 × 105 a F 0.800 8.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-9 0.800 2.2 × 10-9
M 0.800 1.1 × 10-8 7.9 × 10-9
Re-187 5.00 × 1010 a F 0.800 1.9 × 10-12 2.6 × 10-12 0.800 5.1 × 10-12
M 0.800 6.0 × 10-12 4.6 × 10-12
Re-188 17.0 h F 0.800 4.7 × 10-10 6.6 × 10-10 0.800 1.4 × 10-9
M 0.800 5.5 × 10-10 7.4 10-10
Re-188m 0.3 h F 0.800 1.0 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 0.800 3.0 × 10-11
M 0.800 1.4 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11
Re-189 1.01 d F 0.800 2.7 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10 0.800 7.8 × 10-10
169
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
M 0.800 4.3 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-10
Osmium
Os-180 0.366 h F 0.010 8.8 × 10-12 1.6 × 10-11 0.010 1.7 × 10-11
M 0.010 1.4 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
S 0.010 1.5 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11
Os-181 1.75 h F 0.010 3.6 × 10-11 6.4 × 10-11 0.010 8.9 × 10-11
M 0.010 6.3 × 10-11 9.6 × 10-11
S 0.010 6.6 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-10
Os-182 22.0 h F 0.010 1.9 × 10-10 3.2 × 10-10 0.010 5.6 × 10-10
M 0.010 3.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10
S 0.010 3.9 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10
Os-185 94.0 d F 0.010 1.1 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 0.010 5.1 × 10-10
M 0.010 1.2 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9
S 0.010 1.5 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
Os-189m 6.00 h F 0.010 2.7 × 10-12 5.2 × 10-12 0.010 1.8 × 10-11
M 0.010 5.1 × 10-12 7.6 × 10-12
S 0.010 5.4 × 10-12 7.9 × 10-12
Os-191 15.4 d F 0.010 2.5 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10 0.010 5.7 × 10-10
M 0.010 1.5 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9
S 0.010 1.8 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9
Os-191m 13.0 h F 0.010 2.6 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11 0.010 9.6 × 10-11
M 0.010 1.3 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10
S 0.010 1.5 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10
Os-193 1.25 d F 0.010 1.7 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 0.010 8.1 × 10-10
M 0.010 4.7 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-10
S 0.010 5.1 × 10-10 6.8 × 10-10
Os-194 6.00 a F 0.010 1.1 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 0.010 2.4 × 10-9
M 0.010 2.0 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8
S 0.010 7.9 × 10-8 4.2 × 10-8
Iridium
Ir-182 0.250 h F 0.010 1.5 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 0.010 4.8 × 10-11
M 0.010 2.4 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11
S 0.010 2.5 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11
Ir-184 3.02 h F 0.010 6.7 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.010 1.7 × 10-10
M 0.010 1.1 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
S 0.010 1.2 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
Ir-185 14.0 h F 0.010 8.8 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-10 0.010 2.6 × 10-10
M 0.010 1.8 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10
S 0.010 1.9 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10
Ir-186 15.8 h F 0.010 1.8 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 0.010 4.9 × 10-10
M 0.010 3.2 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10
S 0.010 3.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10
170
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Ir-186 1.75 h F 0.010 2.5 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 0.010 6.1 × 10-11
M 0.010 4.3 × 10-11 6.9 × 10-11
S 0.010 4.5 × 10-11 7.1 × 10-11
Ir-187 10.5 h F 0.010 4.0 × 10-11 7.2 × 10-11 0.010 1.2 × 10-10
M 0.010 7.5 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10
S 0.010 7.9 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10
Ir-188 1.73 d F 0.010 2.6 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 0.010 6.3 × 10-10
M 0.010 4.1 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-10
S 0.010 4.3 × 10-10 6.2 × 10-10
Ir-189 13.3 d F 0.010 1.1 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 0.010 2.4 × 10-10
M 0.010 4.8 × 10-10 4.1 × 10-10
S 0.010 5.5 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10
Ir-190 12.1 d F 0.010 7.9 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-9 0.010 1.2 × 10-9
M 0.010 2.0 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9
S 0.010 2.3 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9
Ir-190m 3.10 h F 0.010 5.3 × 10-11 9.7 × 10-11 0.010 1.2 × 10-10
M 0.010 8.3 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-10
S 0.010 8.6 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-10
Ir-190m 1.20 h F 0.010 3.7 × 10-12 5.6 × 10-12 0.010 8.0 × 10-12
M 0.010 9.0 × 10-12 1.0 × 10-11
S 0.010 1.0 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11
Ir-192 74.0 d F 0.010 1.8 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 0.010 1.4 × 10-9
M 0.010 4.9 × 10-9 4.1 × 10-9
S 0.010 6.2 × 10-9 4.9 × 10-9
Ir-192m 2.41 × 102 a F 0.010 4.8 × 10-9 5.6 × 10-9 0.010 3.1 × 10-10
M 0.010 5.4 × 10-9 3.4 × 10-9
S 0.010 3.6 × 10-8 1.9 × 10-8
Ir-193m 11.9 d F 0.010 1.0 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 0.010 2.7 × 10-10
M 0.010 1.0 × 10-9 9.1 × 10-10
S 0.010 1.2 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9
Ir-194 19.1 h F 0.010 2.2 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 0.010 1.3 × 10-9
M 0.010 5.3 × 10-10 7.1 × 10-10
S 0.010 5.6 × 10-10 7.5 × 10-10
Ir-194m 171 d F 0.010 5.4 × 10-9 6.5 × 10-9 0.010 2.1 × 10-9
M 0.010 8.5 × 10-9 6.5 × 10-9
S 0.010 1.2 × 10-8 8.2 × 10-9
Ir-195 2.50 h F 0.010 2.6 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 0.010 1.0 × 10-10
M 0.010 6.7 × 10-11 9.6 × 10-11
S 0.010 7.2 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-10
Ir-195m 3.80 h F 0.010 6.5 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10 0.010 2.1 × 10-10
M 0.010 1.6 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10
S 0.010 1.7 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10
171
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Platinum
Pt-186 2.00 h F 0.010 3.6 × 10-11 6.6 × 10-11 0.010 9.3 × 10-11
Pt-188 10.2 d F 0.010 4.3 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-10 0.010 7.6 × 10-10
Pt-189 10.9 h F 0.010 4.1 × 10-11 7.3 × 10-11 0.010 1.2 × 10-10
Pt-191 2.80 d F 0.010 1.1 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 0.010 3.4 × 10-10
Pt-193 50.0 a F 0.010 2.1 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 0.010 3.1 × 10-11
Pt-193m 4.33 d F 0.010 1.3 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 0.010 4.5 × 10-10
Pt-195m 4.02 d F 0.010 1.9 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 0.010 6.3 × 10-10
Pt-197 18.3 h F 0.010 9.1 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-10 0.010 4.0 × 10-10
Pt-197m 1.57 h F 0.010 2.5 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11 0.010 8.4 × 10-11
Pt-199 0.513 h F 0.010 1.3 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 0.010 3.9 × 10-11
Pt-200 12.5 h F 0.010 2.4 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10 0.010 1.2 × 10-9
Gold
Au-193 17.6 h F 0.100 3.9 × 10-11 7.1 × 10-11 0.100 1.3 × 10-10
M 0.100 1.1 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10
S 0.100 1.2 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
Au-194 1.64 d F 0.100 1.5 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 0.100 4.2 × 10-10
M 0.100 2.4 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10
S 0.100 2.5 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10
Au-195 183 d F 0.100 7.1 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.100 2.5 × 10-10
M 0.100 1.0 × 10-9 8.0 × 10-10
S 0.100 1.6 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9
Au-198 2.69 d F 0.100 2.3 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 0.100 1.0 × 10-9
M 0.100 7.6 × 10-10 9.8 × 10-10
S 0.100 8.4 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-9
Au-198m 2.30 d F 0.100 3.4 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-10 0.100 1.3 × 10-9
M 0.100 1.7 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9
S 0.100 1.9 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9
Au-199 3.14 d F 0.100 1.1 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 0.100 4.4 × 10-10
M 0.100 6.8 × 10-10 6.8 × 10-10
S 0.100 7.5 × 10-10 7.6 × 10-10
Au-200 0.807 h F 0.100 1.7 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 0.100 6.8 × 10-11
M 0.100 3.5 × 10-11 5.3 × 10-11
S 0.100 3.6 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11
Au-200m 18.7 h F 0.100 3.2 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10 0.100 1.1 × 10-9
M 0.100 6.9 × 10-10 9.8 × 10-10
S 0.100 7.3 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-9
Au-201 0.440 h F 0.100 9.2 × 10-12 1.6 × 10-11 0.100 2.4 × 10-11
M 0.100 1.7 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11
S 0.100 1.8 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11
Mercury
Hg-193 3.50 h F 0.400 2.6 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11 1.000 3.1 × 10-11
172
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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(organic) 0.400 6.6 × 10-11

-11 -11
Hg-193 3.50 h F 0.020 2.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 0.020 8.2 × 10-11
(inorganic) M 0.020 7.5 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-10
Hg-193m 11.1 h F 0.400 1.1 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.000 1.3 × 10-10
(organic) 0.400 3.0 × 10-10
Hg-193m 11.1 h F 0.020 1.2 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 0.020 4.0 × 10-10
(inorganic) M 0.020 2.6 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10
Hg-194 2.60 × 102 a F 0.400 1.5 × 10-8 1.9 × 10-8 1.000 5.1 × 10-8
(organic) 0.400 2.1 × 10-8
Hg-194 2.60 × 102 a F 0.020 1.3 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 0.020 1.4 × 10-9
(inorganic) M 0.020 7.8 × 10-9 5.3 × 10-9
Hg-195 9.90 h F 0.400 2.4 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11 1.000 3.4 × 10-11
(organic) 0.400 7.5 × 10-11
Hg-195 9.90 h F 0.020 2.7 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11 0.020 9.7 × 10-11
(inorganic) M 0.020 7.2 × 10-11 9.2 × 10-11
Hg-195m 1.73 d F 0.400 1.3 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.000 2.2 × 10-10
(organic) 0.400 4.1 × 10-10
Hg-195m 1.73 d F 0.020 1.5 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 0.020 5.6 × 10-10
(inorganic) M 0.020 5.1 × 10-10 6.5 × 10-10
Hg-197 2.67 d F 0.400 5.0 × 10-11 8.5 × 10-11 1.000 9.9 × 10-11
(organic) 0.400 1.7 × 10-10
Hg-197 2.67 d F 0.020 6.0 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-10 0.020 2.3 × 10-10
(inorganic) M 0.020 2.9 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10
Hg-197m 23.8 h F 0.400 1.0 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.000 1.5 × 10-10
(organic) 0.400 3.4 × 10-10
Hg-197m 23.8 h F 0.020 1.2 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 0.020 4.7 × 10-10
(inorganic) M 0.020 5.1 × 10-10 6.6 × 10-10
Hg-199m 0.710 h F 0.400 1.6 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 1.000 2.8 × 10-11
(organic) 0.400 3.1 × 10-11
Hg-199m 0.710 h F 0.020 1.6 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 0.020 3.1 × 10-11
(inorganic) M 0.020 3.3 × 10-11 5.2 × 10-11
Hg-203 46.6 d F 0.400 5.7 × 10-10 7.5 × 10-10 1.000 1.9 × 10-9
(organic) 0.400 1.1 × 10-9
Hg-203 46.6 d F 0.020 4.7 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-10 0.020 5.4 × 10-10
(inorganic) M 0.020 2.3 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9
Thallium
Tl-194 0.550 h F 1.000 4.8 × 10-12 8.9 × 10-12 1.000 8.1 × 10-12
Tl-194m 0.546 h F 1.000 2.0 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11 1.000 4.0 × 10-11
Tl-195 1.16 h F 1.000 1.6 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 1.000 2.7 × 10-11
Tl-197 2.84 h F 1.000 1.5 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 1.000 2.3 × 10-11
Tl-198 5.30 h F 1.000 6.6 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 1.000 7.3 × 10-11
Tl-198m 1.87 h F 1.000 4.0 × 10-11 7.3 × 10-11 1.000 5.4 × 10-11
Tl-199 7.42 h F 1.000 2.0 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11 1.000 2.6 × 10-11
173
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Tl-200 1.09 d F 1.000 1.4 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.000 2.0 × 10-10
Tl-201 3.04 d F 1.000 4.7 × 10-11 7.6 × 10-11 1.000 9.5 × 10-11
Tl-202 12.2 d F 1.000 2.0 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 1.000 4.5 × 10-10
Tl-204 3.78 a F 1.000 4.4 × 10-10 6.2 × 10-10 1.000 1.3 × 10-9
Lead
Pb-195m 0.263 h F 0.200 1.7 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 0.200 2.9 × 10-11
Pb-198 2.40 h F 0.200 4.7 × 10-11 8.7 × 10-11 0.200 1.0 × 10-10
Pb-199 1.50 h F 0.200 2.6 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11 0.200 5.4 × 10-11
Pb-200 21.5 h F 0.200 1.5 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 0.200 4.0 × 10-10
Pb-201 9.40 h F 0.200 6.5 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.200 1.6 × 10-10
Pb-202 3.00 × 105 a F 0.200 1.1 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 0.200 8.7 × 10-9
Pb-202m 3.62 h F 0.200 6.7 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.200 1.3 × 10-10
Pb-203 2.17 d F 0.200 9.1 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-10 0.200 2.4 × 10-10
Pb-205 1.43 × 107 a F 0.200 3.4 × 10-10 4.1 × 10-10 0.200 2.8 × 10-10
Pb-209 3.25 h F 0.200 1.8 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 0.200 5.7 × 10-11
Pb-210 22.3 a F 0.200 8.9 × 10-7 1.1 × 10-6 0.200 6.8 × 10-7
Pb-211 0.601 h F 0.200 3.9 × 10-9 5.6 × 10-9 0.200 1.8 × 10-10
Pb-212 10.6 h F 0.200 1.9 × 10-8 3.3 × 10-8 0.200 5.9 × 10-9
Pb-214 0.447 h F 0.200 2.9 × 10-9 4.8 × 10-9 0.200 1.4 × 10-10
Bismuth
Bi-200 0.606 h F 0.050 2.4 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 0.050 5.1 × 10-11
M 0.050 3.4 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-1
Bi-201 1.80 h F 0.050 4.7 × 10-11 8.3 × 10-11 0.050 1.2 × 10-10
M 0.050 7.0 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10
Bi-202 1.67 h F 0.050 4.6 × 10-11 8.4 × 10-11 0.050 8.9 × 10-11
M 0.050 5.8 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-10
Bi-203 11.8 h F 0.050 2.0 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 0.050 4.8 × 10-10
M 0.050 2.8 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10
Bi-205 15.3 d F 0.050 4.0 × 10-10 6.8 × 10-10 0.050 9.0 × 10-10
M 0.050 9.2 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-9
Bi-206 6.24 d F 0.050 7.9 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-9 0.050 1.9 × 10-9
M 0.050 1.7 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9
Bi-207 38.0 a F 0.050 5.2 × 10-10 8.4 × 10-10 0.050 1.3 × 10-9
M 0.050 5.2 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9
Bi-210 5.01 d F 0.050 1.1 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 0.050 1.3 × 10-9
M 0.050 8.4 × 10-8 6.0 × 10-8
Bi-210m 3.00 × 106 a F 0.050 4.5 × 10-8 5.3 × 10-8 0.050 1.5 × 10-8
M 0.050 3.1 × 10-6 2.1 × 10-6
Bi-212 1.01 h F 0.050 9.3 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-8 0.050 2.6 × 10-10
M 0.050 3.0 × 10-8 3.9 × 10-8
Bi-213 0.761 h F 0.050 1.1 × 10-8 1.8 × 10-8 0.050 2.0 × 10-10
M 0.050 2.9 × 10-8 4.1 × 10-8
174
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
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Bi-214 0.332 h F 0.050 7.2 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-8 0.050 1.1 × 10-10
M 0.050 1.4 × 10-8 2.1 × 10-8
Polonium
Po-203 0.612 h F 0.100 2.5 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 0.100 5.2 × 10-11
M 0.100 3.6 × 10-11 6.1 × 10-11
Po-205 1.80 h F 0.100 3.5 × 10-11 6.0 × 10-11 0.100 5.9 × 10-11
M 0.100 6.4 × 10-11 8.9 × 10-11
Po-207 5.83 h F 0.100 6.3 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-10 0.100 1.4 × 10-10
M 0.100 8.4 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-10
Po-210 138 d F 0.100 6.0 × 10-7 7.1 × 10-7 0.100 2.4 × 10-7
M 0.100 3.0 × 10-6 2.2 × 10-6
Astatine
At-207 1.80 h F 1.000 3.5 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 1.000 2.3 × 10-10
M 1.000 2.1 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9
At-211 7.21 h F 1.000 1.6 × 10-8 2.7 × 10-8 1.000 1.1 × 10-8
M 1.000 9.8 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-7
Francium
Fr-222 0.240 h F 1.000 1.4 × 10-8 2.1 × 10-8 1.000 7.1 × 10-10
Fr-223 0.363 h F 1.000 9.1 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-9 1.000 2.3 × 10-9
Radium
Ra-223 11.4 d M 0.200 6.9 × 10-6 5.7 × 10-6 0.200 1.0 × 10-7
Ra-224 3.66 d M 0.200 2.9 × 10-6 2.4 × 10-6 0.200 6.5 × 10-8
Ra-225 14.8 d M 0.200 5.8 × 10-6 4.8 × 10-6 0.200 9.5 × 10-8
Ra-226 1.60 × 103 a M 0.200 3.2 × 10-6 2.2 × 10-6 0.200 2.8 × 10-7
Ra-227 0.703 h M 0.200 2.8 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 0.200 8.4 × 10-11
Ra-228 5.75 a M 0.200 2.6 × 10-6 1.7 × 10-6 0.200 6.7 × 10-7
Actinium
Ac-224 2.90 h F 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 7.0 × 10-10
M 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-7 8.9 × 10-8
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-7 9.9 × 10-8
Ac-225 10.0 d F 5.0 × 10-4 8.7 × 10-7 1.0 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-8
M 5.0 × 10-4 6.9 × 10-6 5.7 × 10-6
S 5.0 × 10-4 7.9 × 10-6 6.5 × 10-6
Ac-226 1.21 d F 5.0 × 10-4 9.5 × 10-8 2.2 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-8
M 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-6 9.2 × 10-7
S 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-6 1.0 × 10-6
Ac-227 21.8 a F 5.0 × 10-4 5.4 × 10-4 6.3 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-6
M 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-4
S 5.0 × 10-4 6.6 × 10-5 4.7 × 10-5
Ac-228 6.13 h F 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-8 2.9 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 4.3 × 10-10
175
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
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M 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8

S 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8
Thorium
Th-226 0.515 h M 5.0 × 10-4 5.5 × 10-8 7.4 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-10
S 2.0 × 10-4 5.9 × 10-8 7.8 × 10-8 2.0 × 10-4 3.6 × 10-10
Th-227 18.7 d M 5.0 × 10-4 7.8 × 10-6 6.2 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 8.9 × 10-9
S 2.0 × 10-4 9.6 × 10-6 7.6 × 10-6 2.0 × 10-4 8.4 × 10-9
Th-228 1.91 a M 5.0 × 10-4 3.1 × 10-5 2.3 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 7.0 × 10-8
S 2.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-5 3.2 × 10-5 2.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-8
Th-229 7.34 × 103 a M 5.0 × 10-4 9.9 × 10-5 6.9 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 4.8 × 10-7
S 2.0 × 10-4 6.5 × 10-5 4.8 × 10-5 2.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-7
Th-230 7.70 × 104 a M 5.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-5 2.8 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-7
S 2.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-5 7.2 × 10-6 2.0 × 10-4 8.7 × 10-8
Th-231 1.06 d M 5.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-10
S 2.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-10
Th-232 1.40 × 1010 a M 5.0 × 10-4 4.2 × 10-5 2.9 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 2.2 × 10-7
S 2.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-5 1.2 × 10-5 2.0 × 10-4 9.2 × 10-8
Th-234 24.1 d M 5.0 × 10-4 6.3 × 10-9 5.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-9
S 2.0 × 10-4 7.3 × 10-9 5.8 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-9
Protactinium
Pa-227 0.638 h M 5.0 × 10-4 7.0 × 10-8 9.0 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 4.5 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 7.6 × 10-8 9.7 × 10-8
Pa-228 22.0 h M 5.0 × 10-4 5.9 × 10-8 4.6 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 7.8 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 6.9 × 10-8 5.1 × 10-8
Pa-230 17.4 d M 5.0 × 10-4 5.6 × 10-7 4.6 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 9.2 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 7.1 × 10-7 5.7 × 10-7
Pa-231 3.27 × 104 a M 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-4 8.9 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 7.1 × 10-7
S 5.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-5 1.7 × 10-5
Pa-232 1.31 d M 5.0 × 10-4 9.5 × 10-9 6.8 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 7.2 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9
Pa-233 27.0 d M 5.0 × 10-4 3.1 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 8.7 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 3.7 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9
Pa-234 6.70 h M 5.0 × 10-4 3.8 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 5.1 × 10-10
S 5.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-10 5.8 × 10-10
Uranium
U-230 20.8 d F 0.020 3.6 × 10-7 4.2 × 10-7 0.020 5.5 × 10-8
M 0.020 1.2 × 10-5 1.0 × 10-5 0.002 2.8 × 10-8
S 0.002 1.5 × 10-5 1.2 × 10-5
U-231 4.20 d F 0.020 8.3 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-10 0.020 2.8 × 10-10
M 0.020 3.4 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 0.002 2.8 × 10-10
S 0.002 3.7 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10
176
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
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Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
U-232 72.0 a F 0.020 4.0 × 10-6 4.7 × 10-6 0.020 3.3 × 10-7
M 0.020 7.2 × 10-6 4.8 × 10-6 0.002 3.7 × 10-8
S 0.002 3.5 × 10-5 2.6 × 10-5
U-233 1.58 × 105 a F 0.020 5.7 × 10-7 6.6 × 10-7 0.020 5.0 × 10-8
M 0.020 3.2 × 10-6 2.2 × 10-6 0.002 8.5 × 10-9
S 0.002 8.7 × 10-6 6.9 × 10-6
U-234 2.44 × 105 a F 0.020 5.5 × 10-7 6.4 × 10-7 0.020 4.9 × 10-8
M 0.020 3.1 × 10-6 2.1 × 10-6 0.002 8.3 × 10-9
S 0.002 8.5 × 10-6 6.8 × 10-6
U-235 7.04 × 108 a F 0.020 5.1 × 10-7 6.0 × 10-7 0.020 4.6 × 10-8
M 0.020 2.8 × 10-6 1.8 × 10-6 0.002 8.3 × 10-9
S 0.002 7.7 × 10-6 6.1 × 10-6
U-236 2.34 × 107 a F 0.020 5.2 × 10-7 6.1 × 10-7 0.020 4.6 × 10-8
M 0.020 2.9 × 10-6 1.9 × 10-6 0.002 7.9 × 10-9
S 0.002 7.9 × 10-6 6.3 × 10-6
U-237 6.75 d F 0.020 1.9 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 0.020 7.6 × 10-10
M 0.020 1.6 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 0.002 7.7 × 10-10
S 0.002 1.8 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9
U-238 4.47 × 109 a F 0.020 4.9 × 10-7 5.8 × 10-7 0.020 4.4 × 10-8
M 0.020 2.6 × 10-6 1.6 × 10-6 0.002 7.6 × 10-9
S 0.002 7.3 × 10-6 5.7 × 10-6
U-239 0.392 h F 0.020 1.1 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 0.020 2.7 × 10-11
M 0.020 2.3 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11 0.002 2.8 × 10-11
S 0.002 2.4 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11
U-240 14.1 h F 0.020 2.1 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 0.020 1.1 × 10-9
M 0.020 5.3 × 10-10 7.9 × 10-10 0.002 1.1 × 10-9
S 0.002 5.7 × 10-10 8.4 × 10-10
Neptunium
Np-232 0.245 h M 5.0 × 10-4 4.7 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 9.7 × 10-12
Np-233 0.603 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-12 3.0 × 10-12 5.0 × 10-4 2.2 × 10-12
Np-234 4.40 d M 5.0 × 10-4 5.4 × 10-10 7.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 8.1 × 10-10
Np-235 1.08 a M 5.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 5.3 × 10-11
Np-236 1.15 × 105 a M 5.0 × 10-4 3.0 × 10-6 2.0 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-8
Np-236 22.5 h M 5.0 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-10
Np-237 2.14 × 106 a M 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-5 1.5 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-7
Np-238 2.12 d M 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 9.1 × 10-10
Np-239 2.36 d M 5.0 × 10-4 9.0 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 8.0 × 10-10
Np-240 1.08 h M 5.0 × 10-4 8.7 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 8.2 × 10-11
Plutonium
Pu-234 8.80 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-10
S 1.0 × 10-5 2.2 × 10-8 1.8 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-5 1.5 × 10-10
1.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-10
177
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Pu-235 0.422 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-12 2.5 × 10-12 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-12
S 1.0 × 10-5 1.6 × 10-12 2.6 × 10-12 1.0 × 10-5 2.1 × 10-12
1.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-12
Pu-236 2.85 a M 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-5 1.3 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 8.6 × 10-8
S 1.0 × 10-5 9.6 × 10-6 7.4 × 10-6 1.0 × 10-5 6.3 × 10-9
1.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-8
Pu-237 45.3 d M 5.0 × 10-4 3.3 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-10
S 1.0 × 10-5 3.6 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-5 1.0 × 10-10
1.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-10
Pu-238 87.7 a M 5.0 × 10-4 4.3 × 10-5 3.0 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-7
S 1.0 × 10-5 1.5 × 10-5 1.1 × 10-5 1.0 × 10-5 8.8 × 10-9
1.0 × 10-4 4.9 × 10-8
Pu-239 2.41 × 104 a M 5.0 × 10-4 4.7 × 10-5 3.2 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-7
S 1.0 × 10-5 1.5 × 10-5 8.3 × 10-6 1.0 × 10-5 9.0 × 10-9
1.0 × 10-4 5.3 × 10-8
Pu-240 6.54 × 103 a M 5.0 × 10-4 4.7 × 10-5 3.2 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-7
S 1.0 × 10-5 1.5 × 10-5 8.3 × 10-6 1.0 × 10-5 9.0 × 10-9
1.0 × 10-4 5.3 × 10-8
Pu-241 14.4 a M 5.0 × 10-4 8.5 × 10-7 5.8 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 4.7 × 10-9
S 1.0 × 10-5 1.6 × 10-7 8.4 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-5 1.1 × 10-10
1.0 × 10-4 9.6 × 10-10
Pu-242 3.76 × 105 a M 5.0 × 10-4 4.4 × 10-5 3.1 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-7
S 1.0 × 10-5 1.4 × 10-5 7.7 × 10-6 1.0 × 10-5 8.6 × 10-9
1.0 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-8
Pu-243 4.95 h M 5.0 × 10-4 8.2 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 8.5 × 10-11
S 1.0 × 10-5 8.5 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-5 8.5 × 10-11
1.0 × 10-4 8.5 × 10-11
Pu-244 8.26 × 107 a M 5.0 × 10-4 4.4 × 10-5 3.0 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-7
S 1.0 × 10-5 1.3 × 10-5 7.4 × 10-6 1.0 × 10-5 1.1 × 10-8
1.0 × 10-4 5.2 × 10-8
Pu-245 10.5 h M 5.0 × 10-4 4.5 × 10-10 6.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 7.2 × 10-10
S 1.0 × 10-5 4.8 × 10-10 6.5 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-5 7.2 × 10-10
1.0 × 10-4 7.2 × 10-10
Pu-246 10.9 d M 5.0 × 10-4 7.0 × 10-9 6.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.3 × 10-9
S 1.0 × 10-5 7.6 × 10-9 7.0 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-5 3.3 × 10-9
1.0 × 10-4 3.3 × 10-9
Americium
Am-237 1.22 h M 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-11
Am-238 1.63 h M 5.0 × 10-4 8.5 × 10-11 6.6 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-11
Am-239 11.9 h M 5.0 × 10-4 2.2 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-10
Am-240 2.12 d M 5.0 × 10-4 4.4 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 5.8 × 10-10
Am-241 4.32 × 102 a M 5.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-5 2.7 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-7
Am-242 16.0 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 3.0 × 10-10
178
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Am-242m 1.52 × 102 a M 5.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-5 2.4 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-7
Am-243 7.38 × 103 a M 5.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-5 2.7 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-7
Am-244 10.1 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 4.6 × 10-10
Am-244m 0.433 h M 5.0 × 10-4 7.9 × 10-11 6.2 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-11
Am-245 2.05 h M 5.0 × 10-4 5.3 × 10-11 7.6 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 6.2 × 10-11
Am-246 0.650 h M 5.0 × 10-4 6.8 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 5.8 × 10-11
Am-246m 0.417 h M 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-11
Curium
Cm-238 2.40 h M 5.0 × 10-4 4.1 × 10-9 4.8 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 8.0 × 10-11
Cm-240 27.0 d M 5.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-6 2.3 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 7.6 × 10-9
Cm-241 32.8 d M 5.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-8 2.6 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 9.1 × 10-10
Cm-242 163 d M 5.0 × 10-4 4.8 × 10-6 3.7 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-8
Cm-243 28.5 a M 5.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-5 2.0 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-7
Cm-244 18.1 a M 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-5 1.7 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-7
Cm-245 8.50 × 103 a M 5.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-5 2.7 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-7
Cm-246 4.73 × 103 a M 5.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-5 2.7 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-7
Cm-247 1.56 × 107 a M 5.0 × 10-4 3.6 × 10-5 2.5 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-7
Cm-248 3.39 × 105 a M 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-4 9.5 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 7.7 × 10-7
Cm-249 1.07 h M 5.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-11 5.1 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.1 × 10-11
Cm-250 6.90 × 103 a M 5.0 × 10-4 7.9 × 10-4 5.4 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 4.4 × 10-6
Berkelium
Bk-245 4.94 d M 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 5.7 × 10-10
Bk-246 1.83 d M 5.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.8 × 10-10
Bk-247 1.38 × 103 a M 5.0 × 10-4 6.5 × 10-5 4.5 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-7
Bk-249 320 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-7 1.0 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 9.7 × 10-10
Bk-250 3.22 h M 5.0 × 10-4 9.6 × 10-10 7.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-10
Californium
Cf-244 0.323 h M 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-8 1.8 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 7.0 × 10-11
Cf-246 1.49 d M 5.0 × 10-4 4.2 × 10-7 3.5 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 3.3 × 10-9
Cf-248 334 d M 5.0 × 10-4 8.2 × 10-6 6.1 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 2.8 × 10-8
Cf-249 3.50 × 102 a M 5.0 × 10-4 6.6 × 10-5 4.5 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-7
Cf-250 13.1 a M 5.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-5 2.2 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-7
Cf-251 8.98 × 102 a M 5.0 × 10-4 6.7 × 10-5 4.6 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 3.6 × 10-7
Cf-252 2.64 a M 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-5 1.3 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 9.0 × 10-8
Cf-253 17.8 d M 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-6 1.0 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-9
Cf-254 60.5 d M 5.0 × 10-4 3.7 × 10-5 2.2 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-7
Einsteinium
Es-250 2.10 h M 5.0 × 10-4 5.9 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-11
Es-251 1.38 d M 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-10
Es-253 20.5 d M 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-6 2.1 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 6.1 × 10-9
179
INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Physical __________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Es-254 276 d M 5.0 × 10-4 8.0 × 10-6 6.0 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 2.8 × 10-8
Es-254m 1.64 d M 5.0 × 10-4 4.4 × 10-7 3.7 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 4.2 × 10-9
Fermium
Fm-252 22.7 h M 5.0 × 10-4 3.0 × 10-7 2.6 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 2.7 × 10-9
Fm-253 3.00 d M 5.0 × 10-4 3.7 × 10-7 3.0 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 9.1 × 10-10
Fm-254 3.24 h M 5.0 × 10-4 5.6 × 10-8 7.7 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 4.4 × 10-10
Fm-255 20.1 h M 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-7 2.6 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-9
Fm-257 101 d M 5.0 × 10-4 6.6 × 10-6 5.2 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-8
Mendelevium
Md-257 5.20 h M 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-8 2.0 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-10
Md-258 55.0 d M 5.0 × 10-4 5.5 × 10-6 4.4 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-8
180
TABLE III-2B. COMPOUNDS AND VALUES OF GUT TRANSFER FACTOR f1 USED TO

CALCULATE COMMITTED EFFECTIVE DOSE PER UNIT INTAKE VIA INGESTION FOR
WORKERS
Element Gut transfer Compounds

factor f1
Hydrogen 1.000 Tritiated water (ingested)

1.000 Organically bound tritium
Beryllium 0.005 All compounds

Carbon 1.000 Labelled organic compounds
Fluorine 1.000 All compounds
Sodium 1.000 All compounds
Magnesium 0.500 All compounds
Aluminium 0.010 All compounds
Silicon 0.010 All compounds
Phosphorus 0.800 All compounds
Sulphur 0.800 Inorganic compounds
0.100 Elemental sulphur
1.000 Organic sulphur
Chlorine 1.000 All compounds
Potassium 1.000 All compounds
Calcium 0.300 All compounds
Scandium 1.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Titanium 0.010 All compounds
Vanadium 0.010 All compounds
Chromium 0.100 Hexavalent compounds
0.010 Trivalent compounds
Manganese 0.100 All compounds
Iron 0.100 All compounds
Cobalt 0.100 All unspecified compounds
0.050 Oxides, hydroxides and inorganic compounds
Nickel 0.050 All compounds
Copper 0.500 All compounds
Zinc 0.500 All compounds
181
Gallium 0.001 All compounds

Germanium 1.000 All compounds
Arsenic 0.500 All compounds
Selenium 0.800 All unspecified compounds
0.050 Elemental selenium and selenides
Bromine 1.000 All compounds

Rubidium 1.000 All compounds
Strontium 0.300 All unspecified compounds
0.010 Strontium titanate (SrTiO3)
Yttrium 1.0 × 10-4 All compounds

Zirconium 0.002 All compounds
Niobium 0.010 All compounds
Molybdenum 0.800 All unspecified compounds
0.050 Molybdenum sulphide
Technetium 0.800 All compounds
Ruthenium 0.050 All compounds
Rhodium 0.050 All compounds
Palladium 0.005 All compounds
Silver 0.050 All compounds
Cadmium 0.050 All inorganic compounds
Indium 0.020 All compounds
Tin 0.020 All compounds
Antimony 0.100 All compounds
Tellurium 0.300 All compounds
Iodine 1.000 All compounds
Caesium 1.000 All compounds
Barium 0.100 All compounds
Lanthanum 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Cerium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Praseodymium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Neodymium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
182
Promethium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds

Samarium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Europium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Gadolinium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Terbium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Dysprosium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Holmium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Erbium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Thulium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Ytterbium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Lutetium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Hafnium 0.002 All compounds
Tantalum 0.001 All compounds
Tungsten 0.300 All unspecified compounds
0.010 Tungstic acid
Rhenium 0.800 All compounds
Osmium 0.010 All compounds
Iridium 0.010 All compounds
Platinum 0.010 All compounds
Gold 0.100 All compounds
Mercury 0.020 All inorganic compounds
Mercury 1.000 Methyl mercury
0.400 All unspecified organic compounds
Thallium 1.000 All compounds

Lead 0.200 All compounds
Bismuth 0.050 All compounds
Polonium 0.100 All compounds
Astatine 1.000 All compounds
Francium 1.000 All compounds
Radium 0.200 All compounds
Actinium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
183
Thorium 5.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds

2.0 × 10-4 Oxides and hydroxides
Protactinium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Uranium 0.020 All unspecified compounds
0.002 Most tetravalent compounds, e.g., UO2, U3O8,
UF4
Neptunium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Plutonium 5.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds
1.0 × 10-4 Nitrates
1.0 × 10-5 Insoluble oxides
Americium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Curium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Berkelium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Californium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Einsteinium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Fermium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Mendelevium 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
184
TABLE III-2C. COMPOUNDS, LUNG ABSORPTION TYPES AND VALUES OF GUT

TRANSFER FACTOR f1 USED TO CALCULATE COMMITTED EFFECTIVE DOSE PER UNIT
INTAKE VIA INHALATION FOR WORKERS
Element Absorption Gut Compounds
type(s) transfer
factor f1
Beryllium M 0.005 All unspecified compounds

S 0.005 Oxides, halides and nitrates
Fluorine F 1.000 Determined by combining cation
M 1.000 Determined by combining cation
S 1.000 Determined by combining cation
Sodium F 1.000 All compounds
Magnesium F 0.500 All unspecified compounds
M 0.500 Oxides, hydroxides, carbides, halides and nitrates
Aluminium F 0.010 All unspecified compounds
M 0.010 Oxides, hydroxides, carbides, halides, nitrates and
metallic aluminium
Silicon F 0.010 All unspecified compounds
M 0.010 Oxides, hydroxides, carbides and nitrates
S 0.010 Aluminosilicate glass aerosol
Phosphorus F 0.800 All unspecified compounds
M 0.800 Some phosphates: determined by combining cation
Sulphur F 0.800 Sulphides and sulphates: determined by combining
cation
M 0.800 Elemental sulphur. Sulphides and sulphates:
determined by combining cation
Chlorine F 1.000 Determined by combining cation
Potassium F 1.000 All compounds
Calcium M 0.300 All compounds
Scandium S 1.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Titanium F 0.010 All unspecified compounds
S 0.010 Strontium titanate (SrTiO3)
Vanadium F 0.010 All unspecified compounds
M 0.010 Oxides, hydroxides, carbides and halides
Chromium F 0.100 All unspecified compounds
M 0.100 Halides and nitrates
S 0.100 Oxides and hydroxides
Manganese F 0.100 All unspecified compounds
185

type(s) transfer
factor f1
M 0.100 Oxides, hydroxides, halides and nitrates
Iron F 0.100 All unspecified compounds
M 0.100 Oxides, hydroxides and halides
Cobalt M 0.100 All unspecified compounds

S 0.050 Oxides, hydroxides, halides and nitrates
Nickel F 0.050 All unspecified compounds
M 0.050 Oxides, hydroxides and carbides
Copper F 0.500 All unspecified inorganic compounds
M 0.500 Sulphides, halides and nitrates
Zinc S 0.500 All compounds
Gallium F 0.001 All unspecified compounds
Germanium F 1.000 All unspecified compounds
M 1.000 Oxides, sulphides and halides
Arsenic M 0.500 All compounds
Selenium F 0.800 All unspecified inorganic compounds
M 0.800 Elemental selenium, oxides, hydroxides and
carbides
Bromine F 1.000 Determined by combining cation
Rubidium F 1.000 All compounds
Strontium F 0.300 All unspecified compounds
S 0.010 Strontium titanate (SrTiO3)
Yttrium M 1.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds
S 1.0 × 10-4 Oxides and hydroxides
Zirconium F 0.002 All unspecified compounds
S 0.002 Zirconium carbide
Niobium M 0.010 All unspecified compounds
Molybdenum F 0.800 All unspecified compounds
S 0.050 Molybdenum sulphide, oxides and hydroxides
Technetium F 0.800 All unspecified compounds
Ruthenium F 0.050 All unspecified compounds
186

type(s) transfer
factor f1
M 0.050 Halides
Rhodium F 0.050 All unspecified compounds
M 0.050 Halides
Palladium F 0.005 All unspecified compounds
M 0.005 Nitrates and halides
Silver F 0.050 All unspecified compounds and metallic silver
M 0.050 Nitrates and sulphides
S 0.050 Oxides, hydroxides and carbides
Cadmium F 0.050 All unspecified compounds
M 0.050 Sulphides, halides and nitrates
Indium F 0.020 All unspecified compounds
Tin F 0.020 All unspecified compounds
M 0.020 Stannic phosphate, sulphides, oxides, hydroxides,
halides and nitrates
Antimony F 0.100 All unspecified compounds
M 0.010 Oxides, hydroxides, halides, sulphides, sulphates
and nitrates
Tellurium F 0.300 All unspecified compounds
M 0.300 Oxides, hydroxides and nitrates
Iodine F 1.000 All compounds
Caesium F 1.000 All compounds
Barium F 0.100 All compounds
Lanthanum F 5.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds
M 5.0 × 10-4 Oxides and hydroxides
Cerium M 5.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds
S 5.0 × 10-4 Oxides, hydroxides and fluorides
Praseodymium M 5.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds
S 5.0 × 10-4 Oxides, hydroxides, carbides and fluorides
Neodymium M 5.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds
Promethium M 5.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds
187

type(s) transfer
factor f1
Samarium M 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds

Europium M 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Gadolinium F 5.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds
M 5.0 × 10-4 Oxides, hydroxides and fluorides
Terbium M 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Dysprosium M 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Holmium M 5.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds
Erbium M 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Thulium M 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Ytterbium M 5.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds
Lutetium M 5.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds
Hafnium F 0.002 All unspecified compounds
M 0.002 Oxides, hydroxides, halides, carbides and nitrates
Tantalum M 0.001 All unspecified compounds
S 0.001 Elemental tantalum, oxides, hydroxides, halides,
carbides, nitrates and nitrides
Tungsten F 0.300 All compounds
Rhenium F 0.800 All unspecified compounds
Osmium F 0.010 All unspecified compounds
Iridium F 0.010 All unspecified compounds
M 0.010 Metallic iridium, halides and nitrates
Platinum F 0.010 All compounds
Gold F 0.100 All unspecified compounds
Mercury F 0.020 Sulphates
M 0.020 Oxides, hydroxides, halides, nitrates and sulphides
Mercury F 0.400 All organic compounds
188

type(s) transfer
factor f1
Thallium F 1.000 All compounds

Lead F 0.200 All compounds
Bismuth F 0.050 Bismuth nitrate
M 0.050 All unspecified compounds
Polonium F 0.100 All unspecified compounds
M 0.100 Oxides, hydroxides and nitrates
Astatine F 1.000 Determined by combining cation
Francium F 1.000 All compounds
Radium M 0.200 All compounds
Actinium F 5.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds
M 5.0 × 10-4 Halides and nitrates
Thorium M 5.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds
Protactinium M 5.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds
Uranium F 0.020 Most hexavalent compounds, e.g., UF6 , UO2F2 and
UO2(NO3)2
M 0.020 Less soluble compounds, e.g., UO3, UF4, UCl4 and
most other hexavalent compounds
S 0.002 Highly insoluble compounds, e.g., UO2 and U3O8
Neptunium M 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Plutonium M 5.0 × 10-4 All unspecified compounds
S 1.0 × 10-5 Insoluble oxides
Americium M 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Curium M 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Berkelium M 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Californium M 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Einsteinium M 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Fermium M 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
Mendelevium M 5.0 × 10-4 All compounds
TABLE III-2D. MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC: COMMITTED EFFECTIVE DOSE PER UNIT INTAKE e(g) VIA INGESTION (Sv.Bq-1)
Age g ≤ 1 a
Physical Age g 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a
Nuclide half-life f1 e(g) f1 for g > 1 a e(g) e(g) e(g) e(g) e(g)
Hydrogen
Tritiated 12.3 a 1.000 6.4 × 10-11 1.000 4.8 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11
water
OBT71 12.3 a 1.000 1.2 × 10-10 1.000 1.2 × 10-10 7.3 × 10-11 5.7 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11
Beryllium
Be-7 53.3 d 0.020 1.8 × 10-10 0.005 1.3 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-11 5.3 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11
6 -8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Be-10 1.60 × 10 a 0.020 1.4 × 10 0.005 8.0 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
Carbon
C-11 0.340 h 1.000 2.6 × 10-10 1.000 1.5 × 10-10 7.3 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
3 -9 -9 -10 -10 -10
C-14 5.73 × 10 a 1.000 1.4 × 10 1.000 1.6 × 10 9.9 × 10 8.0 × 10 5.7 × 10 5.8 × 10-10
Fluorine
F-18 1.83 h 1.000 5.2 × 10-10 1.000 3.0 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 9.1 × 10-11 6.2 × 10-11 4.9 × 10-11
Sodium
Na-22 2.60 a 1.000 2.1 × 10-8 1.000 1.5 × 10-8 8.4 × 10-9 5.5 × 10-9 3.7 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9
Na-24 15.0 h 1.000 3.5 × 10-9 1.000 2.3 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.7 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10
Magnesium
Mg-28 20.9 h 1.000 1.2 × 10-8 0.500 1.4 × 10-8 7.4 × 10-9 4.5 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9
Aluminium
Al-26 7.16 × 105 a 0.020 3.4 × 10-8 0.010 2.1 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 7.1 × 10-9 4.3 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9
189
71
OBT: organically bound tritium.
190
Age g ≤ 1 a
Silicon
Si-31 2.62 h 0.020 1.9 × 10-9 0.010 1.0 × 10-9 5.1 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
2 -9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Si-32 4.50 × 10 a 0.020 7.3 × 10 0.010 4.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.0 × 10 5.6 × 10-10
Phosphorus
P-32 14.3 d 1.000 3.1 × 10-8 0.800 1.9 × 10-8 9.4 × 10-9 5.3 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
P-33 25.4 d 1.000 2.7 × 10 0.800 1.8 × 10 9.1 × 10 5.3 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.4 × 10-10
Sulphur
S-35 87.4 d 1.000 1.3 × 10-9 1.000 8.7 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10
(inorganic)
S-35 87.4 d 1.000 7.7 × 10-9 1.000 5.4 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 9.5 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-10
(organic)
Chlorine
Cl-36 3.01 × 105 a 1.000 9.8 × 10-9 1.000 6.3 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 9.3 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Cl-38 0.620 h 1.000 1.4 × 10 1.000 7.7 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Cl-39 0.927 h 1.000 9.7 × 10 1.000 5.5 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.5 × 10-11
Potassium
K-40 1.28 × 109 a 1.000 6.2 × 10-8 1.000 4.2 × 10-8 2.1 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 7.6 × 10-9 6.2 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
K-42 12.4 h 1.000 5.1 × 10 1.000 3.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 8.6 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
K-43 22.6 h 1.000 2.3 × 10 1.000 1.4 × 10 7.6 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.5 × 10-10
K-44 0.369 h 1.000 1.0 × 10-9 1.000 5.5 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 8.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
K-45 0.333 h 1.000 6.2 × 10 1.000 3.5 × 10 1.7 × 10 9.9 × 10 6.8 × 10 5.4 × 10-11
Age g ≤ 1 a
Calcium72
Ca-41 1.40 × 105 a 0.600 1.2 × 10-9 0.300 5.2 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Ca-45 163 d 0.600 1.1 × 10 0.300 4.9 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.1 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Ca-47 4.53 d 0.600 1.3 × 10 0.300 9.3 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.6 × 10-9
Scandium
Sc-43 3.89 h 0.001 1.8 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-9 6.1 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
Sc-44 3.93 h 0.001 3.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.1 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.5 × 10-10
Sc-44m 2.44 d 0.001 2.4 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-8 8.3 × 10-9 5.1 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Sc-46 83.8 d 0.001 1.1 × 10 1.0 × 10 7.9 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.5 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Sc-47 3.35 d 0.001 6.1 × 10 1.0 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.8 × 10 5.4 × 10-10
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Sc-48 1.82 d 0.001 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10 9.3 × 10 5.1 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-9
Sc-49 0.956 h 0.001 1.0 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 5.7 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 8.2 × 10-11
Titanium
Ti-44 47.3 a 0.020 5.5 × 10-8 0.010 3.1 × 10-8 1.7 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 6.9 × 10-9 5.8 × 10-9
Ti-45 3.08 h 0.020 1.6 × 10-9 0.010 9.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10
Vanadium
V-47 0.543 h 0.020 7.3 × 10-10 0.010 4.1 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 8.0 × 10-11 6.3 × 10-11
V-48 16.2 d 0.020 1.5 × 10-8 0.010 1.1 × 10-8 5.9 × 10-9 3.9 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
V-49 330 d 0.020 2.2 × 10 0.010 1.4 × 10 6.9 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.8 × 10-11
Chromium
Cr-48 23.0 h 0.200 1.4 × 10-9 0.100 9.9 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10
191
72
The f1 value for calcium for 1 to 15 year olds is 0.4.
192
Age g ≤ 1 a
0.020 1.4 × 10-9 0.010 9.9 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Cr-49 0.702 h 0.200 6.8 × 10 0.100 3.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.7 × 10 6.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
0.020 6.8 × 10 0.010 3.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.7 × 10 6.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Cr-51 27.7 d 0.200 3.5 × 10 0.100 2.3 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.8 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.8 × 10-11
0.020 3.3 × 10-10 0.010 2.2 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.5 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11
Manganese
Mn-51 0.770 h 0.200 1.1 × 10-9 0.100 6.1 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 9.3 × 10-11
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Mn-52 5.59 d 0.200 1.2 × 10 0.100 8.8 × 10 5.1 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.8 × 10-9
Mn-52m 0.352 h 0.200 7.8 × 10-10 0.100 4.4 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.8 × 10-11 6.9 × 10-11
6 -10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Mn-53 3.70 × 10 a 0.200 4.1 × 10 0.100 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.5 × 10 3.7 × 10 3.0 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Mn-54 312 d 0.200 5.4 × 10 0.100 3.1 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.7 × 10 7.1 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Mn-56 2.58 h 0.200 2.7 × 10 0.100 1.7 × 10 8.5 × 10 5.1 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.5 × 10-10
Iron73
Fe-52 8.28 h 0.600 1.3 × 10-8 0.100 9.1 × 10-9 4.6 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Fe-55 2.70 a 0.600 7.6 × 10 0.100 2.4 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.7 × 10 3.3 × 10-10
Fe-59 44.5 d 0.600 3.9 × 10-8 0.100 1.3 × 10-8 7.5 × 10-9 4.7 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9
5 -7 -7 -7 -7 -7
Fe-60 1.00 × 10 a 0.600 7.9 × 10 0.100 2.7 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.1 × 10-7
Cobalt74
Co-55 17.5 h 0.600 6.0 × 10-9 0.100 5.5 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Co-56 78.7 d 0.600 2.5 × 10 0.100 1.5 × 10 8.8 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.5 × 10-9
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Co-57 271 d 0.600 2.9 × 10 0.100 1.6 × 10 8.9 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.1 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
Co-58 70.8 d 0.600 7.3 × 10 0.100 4.4 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.4 × 10-10
73
The f1 value for iron for 1 to 15 year olds is 0.2.
74
The f1 value for cobalt for 1 to 15 year olds is 0.3.
Age g ≤ 1 a
Co-58m 9.15 h 0.600 2.0 × 10-10 0.100 1.5 × 10-10 7.8 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
-8 -8 -8 -8 -9
Co-60 5.27 a 0.600 5.4 × 10 0.100 2.7 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.9 × 10 3.4 × 10-9
-11 -11 -12 -12 -12
Co-60m 0.174 h 0.600 2.2 × 10 0.100 1.2 × 10 5.7 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.7 × 10-12
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Co-61 1.65 h 0.600 8.2 × 10 0.100 5.1 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.2 × 10 7.4 × 10-11
Co-62m 0.232 h 0.600 5.3 × 10-10 0.100 3.0 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 8.7 × 10-11 6.0 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11
Nickel
Ni-56 6.10 d 0.100 5.3 × 10-9 0.050 4.0 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 8.6 × 10-10
Ni-57 1.50 d 0.100 6.8 × 10-9 0.050 4.9 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 8.7 × 10-10
4 -10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Ni-59 7.50 × 10 a 0.100 6.4 × 10 0.050 3.4 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.3 × 10 6.3 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Ni-63 96.0 a 0.100 1.6 × 10 0.050 8.4 × 10 4.6 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.5 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Ni-65 2.52 h 0.100 2.1 × 10 0.050 1.3 × 10 6.3 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.8 × 10-10
Ni-66 2.27 d 0.100 3.3 × 10-8 0.050 2.2 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 6.6 × 10-9 3.7 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9
Copper
Cu-60 0.387 h 1.000 7.0 × 10-10 0.500 4.2 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.9 × 10-11 7.0 × 10-11
Cu-61 3.41 h 1.000 7.1 × 10-10 0.500 7.5 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Cu-64 12.7 h 1.000 5.2 × 10 0.500 8.3 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Cu-67 2.58 d 1.000 2.1 × 10 0.500 2.4 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.2 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.4 × 10-10
Zinc
Zn-62 9.26 h 1.000 4.2 × 10-9 0.500 6.5 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 9.4 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Zn-63 0.635 h 1.000 8.7 × 10 0.500 5.2 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 7.9 × 10-11
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Zn-65 244 d 1.000 3.6 × 10 0.500 1.6 × 10 9.7 × 10 6.4 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.9 × 10-9
Zn-69 0.950 h 1.000 3.5 × 10-10 0.500 2.2 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Zn-69m 13.8 h 1.000 1.3 × 10 0.500 2.3 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.0 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Zn-71m 3.92 h 1.000 1.4 × 10 0.500 1.5 × 10 7.8 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.4 × 10-10
193
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
Zn-72 1.94 d 1.000 8.7 × 10 0.500 8.6 × 10 4.5 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-9
194
Age g ≤ 1 a
Gallium
Ga-65 0.253 h 0.010 4.3 × 10-10 0.001 2.4 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 6.9 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Ga-66 9.40 h 0.010 1.2 × 10 0.001 7.9 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
Ga-67 3.26 d 0.010 1.8 × 10-9 0.001 1.2 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Ga-68 1.13 h 0.010 1.2 × 10 0.001 6.7 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Ga-70 0.353 h 0.010 3.9 × 10 0.001 2.2 × 10 1.0 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.1 × 10-11
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Ga-72 14.1 h 0.010 1.0 × 10 0.001 6.8 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
Ga-73 4.91 h 0.010 3.0 × 10-9 0.001 1.9 × 10-9 9.3 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10
Germanium
Ge-66 2.27 h 1.000 8.3 × 10-10 1.000 5.3 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10
Ge-67 0.312 h 1.000 7.7 × 10-10 1.000 4.2 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 8.2 × 10-11 6.5 × 10-11
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Ge-68 288 d 1.000 1.2 × 10 1.000 8.0 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Ge-69 1.63 d 1.000 2.0 × 10 1.000 1.3 × 10 7.1 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.4 × 10-10
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
Ge-71 11.8 d 1.000 1.2 × 10 1.000 7.8 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-11
Ge-75 1.38 h 1.000 5.5 × 10-10 1.000 3.1 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 8.7 × 10-11 5.9 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Ge-77 11.3 h 1.000 3.0 × 10 1.000 1.8 × 10 9.9 × 10 6.2 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.3 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Ge-78 1.45 h 1.000 1.2 × 10 1.000 7.0 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
Arsenic
As-69 0.253 h 1.000 6.6 × 10-10 0.500 3.7 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-11 5.7 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
As-70 0.876 h 1.000 1.2 × 10 0.500 7.8 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
As-71 2.70 d 1.000 2.8 × 10 0.500 2.8 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.3 × 10 5.7 × 10 4.6 × 10-10
As-72 1.08 d 1.000 1.1 × 10-8 0.500 1.2 × 10-8 6.3 × 10-9 3.8 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
As-73 80.3 d 1.000 2.6 × 10 0.500 1.9 × 10 9.3 × 10 5.6 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.6 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
As-74 17.8 d 1.000 1.0 × 10 0.500 8.2 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
As-76 110 d 1.000 1.0 × 10 0.500 1.1 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10-9
Age g ≤ 1 a
As-77 1.62 d 1.000 2.7 × 10-9 0.500 2.9 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 8.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
As-78 1.51 h 1.000 2.0 × 10 0.500 1.4 × 10 7.0 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.1 × 10-10
Selenium
Se-70 0.683 h 1.000 1.0 × 10-9 0.800 7.1 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Se-73 7.15 h 1.000 1.6 × 10 0.800 1.4 × 10 7.4 × 10 4.8 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.1 × 10-10
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Se-73m 0.650 h 1.000 2.6 × 10 0.800 1.8 × 10 9.5 × 10 5.9 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.8 × 10-11
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Se-75 120 d 1.000 2.0 × 10 0.800 1.3 × 10 8.3 × 10 6.0 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.6 × 10-9
Se-79 6.50 × 104 a 1.000 4.1 × 10-8 0.800 2.8 × 10-8 1.9 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 4.1 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Se-81 0.308 h 1.000 3.4 × 10 0.800 1.9 × 10 9.0 × 10 5.1 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.7 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Se-81m 0.954 h 1.000 6.0 × 10 0.800 3.7 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.7 × 10 5.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Se-83 0.375 h 1.000 4.6 × 10 0.800 2.9 × 10 1.5 × 10 8.7 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.7 × 10-11
Bromine
Br-74 0.422 h 1.000 9.0 × 10-10 1.000 5.2 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 8.4 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Br-74m 0.691 h 1.000 1.5 × 10 1.000 8.5 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-10
Br-75 1.63 h 1.000 8.5 × 10-10 1.000 4.9 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 9.9 × 10-11 7.9 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Br-76 16.2 h 1.000 4.2 × 10 1.000 2.7 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.7 × 10 5.6 × 10 4.6 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Br-77 2.33 d 1.000 6.3 × 10 1.000 4.4 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Br-80 0.290 h 1.000 3.9 × 10 1.000 2.1 × 10 1.0 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.1 × 10-11
Br-80m 4.42 h 1.000 1.4 × 10-9 1.000 8.0 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Br-82 1.47 d 1.000 3.7 × 10 1.000 2.6 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.5 × 10 6.4 × 10 5.4 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Br-83 2.39 h 1.000 5.3 × 10 1.000 3.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.3 × 10 5.5 × 10 4.3 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Br-84 0.530 h 1.000 1.0 × 10 1.000 5.8 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.8 × 10-11
Rubidium
Rb-79 0.382 h 1.000 5.7 × 10-10 1.000 3.2 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 9.2 × 10-11 6.3 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11
195
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Rb-81 4.58 h 1.000 5.4 × 10 1.000 3.2 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.7 × 10 5.4 × 10-11
196
Age g ≤ 1 a
Rb-81m 0.533 h 1.000 1.1 × 10-10 1.000 6.2 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 9.7 × 10-12
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Rb-82m 6.20 h 1.000 8.7 × 10 1.000 5.9 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.3 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Rb-83 86.2 d 1.000 1.1 × 10 1.000 8.4 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.9 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Rb-84 32.8 d 1.000 2.0 × 10 1.000 1.4 × 10 7.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.8 × 10-9
Rb-86 18.7 d 1.000 3.1 × 10-8 1.000 2.0 × 10-8 9.9 × 10-9 5.9 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9
10 -8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Rb-87 4.70 × 10 a 1.000 1.5 × 10 1.000 1.0 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.1 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.5 × 10-9
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Rb-88 0.297 h 1.000 1.1 × 10 1.000 6.2 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Rb-89 0.253 h 1.000 5.4 × 10 1.000 3.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 8.6 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.7 × 10-11
Strontium75
Sr-80 1.67 h 0.600 3.7 × 10-9 0.300 2.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.5 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Sr-81 0.425 h 0.600 8.4 × 10 0.300 4.9 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.6 × 10 7.7 × 10-11
Sr-82 25.0 d 0.600 7.2 × 10-8 0.300 4.1 × 10-8 2.1 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 8.7 × 10-9 6.1 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Sr-83 1.35 d 0.600 3.4 × 10 0.300 2.7 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.1 × 10 5.7 × 10 4.9 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
Sr-85 64.8 d 0.600 7.7 × 10 0.300 3.1 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.3 × 10 5.6 × 10-10
-11 -11 -11 -11 -12
Sr-85m 1.16 h 0.600 4.5 × 10 0.300 3.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.8 × 10 6.1 × 10-12
Sr-87m 2.80 h 0.600 2.4 × 10-10 0.300 1.7 × 10-10 9.0 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Sr-89 50.5 d 0.600 3.6 × 10 0.300 1.8 × 10 8.9 × 10 5.8 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.6 × 10-9
-7 -8 -8 -8 -8
Sr-90 29.1 a 0.600 2.3 × 10 0.300 7.3 × 10 4.7 × 10 6.0 × 10 8.0 × 10 2.8 × 10-8
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Sr-91 9.50 h 0.600 5.2 × 10 0.300 4.0 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.4 × 10 6.5 × 10-10
Sr-92 2.71 h 0.600 3.4 × 10-9 0.300 2.7 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 8.2 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10
Yttrium
Y-86 14.7 h 0.001 7.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 5.2 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 9.6 × 10-10
Y-86m 0.800 h 0.001 4.5 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 3.1 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.1 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11
75
The f1 value for strontium for 1 to 15 year olds is 0.4.
Age g ≤ 1 a
Y-87 3.35 d 0.001 4.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 7.0 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Y-88 107 d 0.001 8.1 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -8 -9 -9
Y-90 2.67 d 0.001 3.1 × 10 1.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 5.9 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.7 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Y-90m 3.19 h 0.001 1.8 × 10 1.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.1 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.7 × 10-10
Y-91 58.5 d 0.001 2.8 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-8 8.8 × 10-9 5.2 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9
-11 -4 -11 -11 -11 -11
Y-91m 0.828 h 0.001 9.2 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-11
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Y-92 3.54 h 0.001 5.9 × 10 1.0 × 10 3.6 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.2 × 10 4.9 × 10-10
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Y-93 10.1 h 0.001 1.4 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.5 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
Y-94 0.318 h 0.001 9.9 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 5.5 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 8.1 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -11 -11
Y-95 0.178 h 0.001 5.7 × 10 1.0 × 10 3.1 × 10 1.5 × 10 8.7 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.6 × 10-11
Zirconium
Zr-86 16.5 h 0.020 6.9 × 10-9 0.010 4.8 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 8.6 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Zr-88 83.4 d 0.020 2.8 × 10 0.010 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.0 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.5 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Zr-89 3.27 d 0.020 6.5 × 10 0.010 4.5 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.9 × 10 7.9 × 10-10
6 -9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Zr-93 1.53 × 10 a 0.020 1.2 × 10 0.010 7.6 × 10 5.1 × 10 5.8 × 10 8.6 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
Zr-95 64.0 d 0.020 8.5 × 10-9 0.010 5.6 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 9.5 × 10-1
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Zr-97 16.9 h 0.020 2.2 × 10 0.010 1.4 × 10 7.3 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10-9
Niobium
Nb-88 0.238 h 0.020 6.7 × 10-10 0.010 3.8 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.9 × 10-11 6.3 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Nb-89 2.03 h 0.020 3.0 × 10 0.010 2.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.7 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Nb-89m 1.10 h 0.020 1.5 × 10 0.010 8.7 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.4 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Nb-90 14.6 h 0.020 1.1 × 10 0.010 7.2 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
Nb-93m 13.6 a 0.020 1.5 × 10-9 0.010 9.1 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
4 -8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Nb-94 2.03 × 10 a 0.020 1.5 × 10 0.010 9.7 × 10 5.3 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Nb-95 35.1 d 0.020 4.6 × 10 0.010 3.2 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.4 × 10 5.8 × 10-10
197
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Nb-95m 3.61 d 0.020 6.4 × 10 0.010 4.1 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.1 × 10 5.6 × 10-10
198
Age g ≤ 1 a
Nb-96 23.3 h 0.020 9.2 × 10-9 0.010 6.3 × 10-9 3.4 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Nb-97 1.20 h 0.020 7.7 × 10 0.010 4.5 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.7 × 10 6.8 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Nb-98 0.858 h 0.020 1.2 × 10 0.010 7.1 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
Molybdenum
Mo-90 5.67 h 1.000 1.7 × 10-9 1.000 1.2 × 10-9 6.3 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
3 -9 -9 -9 -9 -9
Mo-93 3.50 × 10 a 1.000 7.9 × 10 1.000 6.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.4 × 10 3.1 × 10-9
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Mo-93m 6.85 h 1.000 8.0 × 10 1.000 5.4 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
Mo-99 2.75 d 1.000 5.5 × 10-9 1.000 3.5 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 7.6 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Mo-101 0.244 h 1.000 4.8 × 10 1.000 2.7 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.6 × 10 5.2 × 10 4.1 × 10-11
Technetium
Tc-93 2.75 h 1.000 2.7 × 10-10 0.500 2.5 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 9.8 × 10-11 6.8 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Tc-93m 0.725 h 1.000 2.0 × 10 0.500 1.3 × 10 7.3 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.5 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Tc-94 4.88 h 1.000 1.2 × 10 0.500 1.0 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.0 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Tc-94m 0.867 h 1.000 1.3 × 10 0.500 6.5 × 10 3.3 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
Tc-95 20.0 h 1.000 9.9 × 10-10 0.500 8.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Tc-95m 61.0 d 1.000 4.7 × 10 0.500 2.8 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 7.0 × 10 5.6 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
Tc-96 4.28 d 1.000 6.7 × 10 0.500 5.1 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
Tc-96m 0.858 h 1.000 1.0 × 10 0.500 6.5 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.2 × 10-11
Tc-97 2.60 × 106 a 1.000 9.9 × 10-10 0.500 4.9 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.8 × 10-11 6.8 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Tc-97m 87.0 d 1.000 8.7 × 10 0.500 4.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.0 × 10 5.5 × 10-10
6 -8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Tc-98 4.20 × 10 a 1.000 2.3 × 10 0.500 1.2 × 10 6.1 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.0 × 10-9
5 -8 -9 -9 -9 -10
Tc-99 2.13 × 10 a 1.000 1.0 × 10 0.500 4.8 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.2 × 10 6.4 × 10-10
Tc-99m 6.02 h 1.000 2.0 × 10-10 0.500 1.3 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Tc-101 0.237 h 1.000 2.4 × 10 0.500 1.3 × 10 6.1 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10-1
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Tc-104 0.303 h 1.000 1.0 × 10 0.500 5.3 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.0 × 10-11
Age g ≤ 1 a
Ruthenium
Ru-94 0.863 h 0.100 9.3 × 10-10 0.050 5.9 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 9.4 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Ru-97 2.90 d 0.100 1.2 × 10 0.050 8.5 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.5 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Ru-103 39.3 d 0.100 7.1 × 10 0.050 4.6 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.2 × 10 7.3 × 10-10
Ru-105 4.44 h 0.100 2.7 × 10-9 0.050 1.8 × 10-9 9.1 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10
-8 -8 -8 -8 -9
Ru-106 1.01 a 0.100 8.4 × 10 0.050 4.9 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.5 × 10 8.6 × 10 7.0 × 10-9
Rhodium
Rh-99 16.0 d 0.100 4.2 × 10-9 0.050 2.9 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.5 × 10-10 5.1 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Rh-99m 4.70 h 0.100 4.9 × 10 0.050 3.5 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.3 × 10 6.6 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Rh-100 20.8 h 0.100 4.9 × 10 0.050 3.6 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.8 × 10 7.1 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Rh-101 3.20 a 0.100 4.9 × 10 0.050 2.8 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.7 × 10 5.5 × 10-10
Rh-101m 4.34 d 0.100 1.7 × 10-9 0.050 1.2 × 10-9 6.8 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Rh-102 2.90 a 0.100 1.9 × 10 0.050 1.0 × 10 6.4 × 10 4.3 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.6 × 10-9
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Rh-102m 207 d 0.100 1.2 × 10 0.050 7.4 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
-11 -11 -11 -12 -12
Rh-103m 0.935 h 0.100 4.7 × 10 0.050 2.7 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.4 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.8 × 10-12
Rh-105 1.47 d 0.100 4.0 × 10-9 0.050 2.7 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 8.0 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Rh-106m 2.20 h 0.100 1.4 × 10 0.050 9.7 × 10 5.3 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10-10
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Rh-107 0.362 h 0.100 2.9 × 10 0.050 1.6 × 10 7.9 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.4 × 10-11
Palladium
Pd-100 3.63 d 0.050 7.4 × 10-9 0.005 5.2 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 9.4 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Pd-101 8.27 h 0.050 8.2 × 10 0.005 5.7 × 10 3.1 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.4 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Pd-103 17.0 d 0.050 2.2 × 10 0.005 1.4 × 10 7.2 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10-10
Pd-107 6.50 × 106 a 0.050 4.4 × 10-10 0.005 2.8 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.1 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Pd-109 13.4 h 0.050 6.3 × 10 0.005 4.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.8 × 10 5.5 × 10-10
199
Silver
200
Age g ≤ 1 a
Ag-102 0.215 h 0.100 4.2 × 10-10 0.050 2.4 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.3 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Ag-103 1.09 h 0.100 4.5 × 10 0.050 2.7 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.3 × 10 5.5 × 10 4.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Ag-104 1.15 h 0.100 4.3 × 10 0.050 2.9 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.5 × 10 6.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Ag-104m 0.558 h 0.100 5.6 × 10 0.050 3.3 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.8 × 10 5.4 × 10-11
Ag-105 41.0 d 0.100 3.9 × 10-9 0.050 2.5 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 9.1 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Ag-106 0.399 h 0.100 3.7 × 10 0.050 2.1 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.2 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
Ag-106m 8.41 d 0.100 9.7 × 10 0.050 6.9 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.5 × 10-9
2 -8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Ag-108m 1.27 × 10 a 0.100 2.1 × 10 0.050 1.1 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.3 × 10-9
Ag-110m 250 d 0.100 2.4 × 10-8 0.050 1.4 × 10-8 7.8 × 10-9 5.2 × 10-9 3.4 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Ag-111 7.45 d 0.100 1.4 × 10 0.050 9.3 × 10 4.6 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Ag-112 3.12 h 0.100 4.9 × 10 0.050 3.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 8.9 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.3 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Ag-115 0.333 h 0.100 7.2 × 10 0.050 4.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.7 × 10 6.0 × 10-11
Cadmium
Cd-104 0.961 h 0.100 4.2 × 10-10 0.050 2.9 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-11 5.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Cd-107 6.49 h 0.100 7.1 × 10 0.050 4.6 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.8 × 10 6.2 × 10-11
Cd-109 1.27 a 0.100 2.1 × 10-8 0.050 9.5 × 10-9 5.5 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9
15 -7 -8 -8 -8 -8
Cd-113 9.30 × 10 a 0.100 1.0 × 10 0.050 4.8 × 10 3.7 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.5 × 10-8
-7 -8 -8 -8 -8
Cd-113m 13.6 a 0.100 1.2 × 10 0.050 5.6 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.3 × 10-8
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Cd-115 2.23 d 0.100 1.4 × 10 0.050 9.7 × 10 4.9 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-9
Cd-115m 44.6 d 0.100 4.1 × 10-8 0.050 1.9 × 10-8 9.7 × 10-9 6.9 × 10-9 4.1 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Cd-117 2.49 h 0.100 2.9 × 10 0.050 1.9 × 10 9.5 × 10 5.7 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Cd-117m 3.36 h 0.100 2.6 × 10 0.050 1.7 × 10 9.0 × 10 5.6 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.8 × 10-10
Indium
In-109 4.20 h 0.040 5.2 × 10-10 0.020 3.6 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.2 × 10-11 6.6 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
In-110 4.90 h 0.040 1.5 × 10 0.020 1.1 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.4 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
In-110m 1.15 h 0.040 1.1 × 10 0.020 6.4 × 10 3.2 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
Age g ≤ 1 a
In-111 2.83 d 0.040 2.4 × 10-9 0.020 1.7 × 10-9 9.1 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
In-112 0.240 h 0.040 1.2 × 10 0.020 6.7 × 10 3.3 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
In-113m 1.66 h 0.040 3.0 × 10 0.020 1.8 × 10 9.3 × 10 6.2 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.8 × 10-11
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
In-114m 49.5 d 0.040 5.6 × 10 0.020 3.1 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.0 × 10 5.2 × 10 4.1 × 10-9
In-115 5.10 × 1015 a 0.040 1.3 × 10-7 0.020 6.4 × 10-8 4.8 × 10-8 4.3 × 10-8 3.6 × 10-8 3.2 × 10-8
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
In-115m 4.49 h 0.040 9.6 × 10 0.020 6.0 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
In-116m 0.902 h 0.040 5.8 × 10 0.020 3.6 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.0 × 10 6.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
In-117 0.730 h 0.040 3.3 × 10 0.020 1.9 × 10 9.7 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.1 × 10-11
In-117m 1.94 h 0.040 1.4 × 10-9 0.020 8.6 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
In-119m 0.300 h 0.040 5.9 × 10 0.020 3.2 × 10 1.6 × 10 8.8 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.7 × 10-11
Tin
Sn-110 4.00 h 0.040 3.5 × 10-9 0.020 2.3 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.4 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Sn-111 0.588 h 0.040 2.5 × 10 0.020 1.5 × 10 7.4 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.3 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Sn-113 115 d 0.040 7.8 × 10 0.020 5.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.2 × 10 7.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Sn-117m 13.6 d 0.040 7.7 × 10 0.020 5.0 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.5 × 10 8.8 × 10 7.1 × 10-10
Sn-119m 293 d 0.040 4.1 × 10-9 0.020 2.5 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 7.5 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Sn-121 1.13 d 0.040 2.6 × 10 0.020 1.7 × 10 8.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Sn-121m 55.0 a 0.040 4.6 × 10 0.020 2.7 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.2 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.8 × 10-10
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Sn-123 129 d 0.040 2.5 × 10 0.020 1.6 × 10 7.8 × 10 4.6 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10-9
Sn-123m 0.668 h 0.040 4.7 × 10-10 0.020 2.6 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 7.3 × 10-11 4.9 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
Sn-125 9.64 d 0.040 3.5 × 10 0.020 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.7 × 10 3.8 × 10 3.1 × 10-9
5 -8 -8 -8 -9 -9
Sn-126 1.00 × 10 a 0.040 5.0 × 10 0.020 3.0 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.8 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.7 × 10-9
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Sn-127 2.10 h 0.040 2.0 × 10 0.020 1.3 × 10 6.6 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.0 × 10-10
Sn-128 0.985 h 0.040 1.6 × 10-9 0.020 9.7 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10
Antimony
201
Sb-115 0.530 h 0.200 2.5 × 10-10 0.100 1.5 × 10-10 7.5 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
202
Age g ≤ 1 a
Sb-116 0.263 h 0.200 2.7 × 10-10 0.100 1.6 × 10-10 8.0 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Sb-116m 1.00 h 0.200 5.0 × 10 0.100 3.3 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.3 × 10 6.7 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Sb-117 2.80 h 0.200 1.6 × 10 0.100 1.0 × 10 5.6 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.8 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Sb-118m 5.00 h 0.200 1.3 × 10 0.100 1.0 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10-10
Sb-119 1.59 d 0.200 8.4 × 10-10 0.100 5.8 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 8.0 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
Sb-120 5.76 d 0.200 8.1 × 10 0.100 6.0 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
Sb-120 0.265 h 0.200 1.7 × 10 0.100 9.4 × 10 4.6 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.4 × 10-11
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Sb-122 2.70 d 0.200 1.8 × 10 0.100 1.2 × 10 6.1 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-9
Sb-124 60.2 d 0.200 2.5 × 10-8 0.100 1.6 × 10-8 8.4 × 10-9 5.2 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9
-11 -11 -11 -11 -11
Sb-124m 0.337 h 0.200 8.5 × 10 0.100 4.9 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.0 × 10-12
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Sb-125 2.77 a 0.200 1.1 × 10 0.100 6.1 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Sb-126 12.4 d 0.200 2.0 × 10 0.100 1.4 × 10 7.6 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.4 × 10-9
Sb-126m 0.317 h 0.200 3.9 × 10-10 0.100 2.2 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.6 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Sb-127 3.85 d 0.200 1.7 × 10 0.100 1.2 × 10 5.9 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Sb-128 9.01 h 0.200 6.3 × 10 0.100 4.5 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.5 × 10 7.6 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Sb-128 0.173 h 0.200 3.7 × 10 0.100 2.1 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.3 × 10-11
Sb-129 4.32 h 0.200 4.3 × 10-9 0.100 2.8 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 8.8 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Sb-130 0.667 h 0.200 9.1 × 10 0.100 5.4 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.1 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Sb-131 0.383 h 0.200 1.1 × 10 0.100 7.3 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
Tellurium
Te-116 2.49 h 0.600 1.4 × 10-9 0.300 1.0 × 10-9 5.5 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-1
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Te-121 17.0 d 0.600 3.1 × 10 0.300 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.0 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.3 × 10-1
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Te-121m 154 d 0.600 2.7 × 10 0.300 1.2 × 10 6.9 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.3 × 10-9
Te-123 1.00 × 1013 a 0.600 2.0 × 10-8 0.300 9.3 × 10-9 6.9 × 10-9 5.4 × 10-9 4.7 × 10-9 4.4 × 10-9
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Te-123m 120 d 0.600 1.9 × 10 0.300 8.8 × 10 4.9 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-9
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Te-125m 58.0 d 0.600 1.3 × 10 0.300 6.3 × 10 3.3 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.7 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Te-127 9.35 h 0.600 1.5 × 10 0.300 1.2 × 10 6.2 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-10
Age g ≤ 1 a
Te-127m 109 d 0.600 4.1 × 10-8 0.300 1.8 × 10-8 9.5 × 10-9 5.2 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Te-129 1.16 h 0.600 7.5 × 10 0.300 4.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.0 × 10 6.3 × 10-11
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
Te-129m 33.6 d 0.600 4.4 × 10 0.300 2.4 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.6 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.0 × 10-9
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Te-131 0.417 h 0.600 9.0 × 10 0.300 6.6 × 10 3.5 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.7 × 10-11
Te-131m 1.25 d 0.600 2.0 × 10-8 0.300 1.4 × 10-8 7.8 × 10-9 4.3 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
Te-132 3.26 d 0.600 4.8 × 10 0.300 3.0 × 10 1.6 × 10 8.3 × 10 5.3 × 10 3.8 × 10-9
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Te-133 0.207 h 0.600 8.4 × 10 0.300 6.3 × 10 3.3 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.2 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Te-133m 0.923 h 0.600 3.1 × 10 0.300 2.4 × 10 1.3 × 10 6.3 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.8 × 10-10
Te-134 0.696 h 0.600 1.1 × 10-9 0.300 7.5 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
Iodine
I-120 1.35 h 1.000 3.9 × 10-9 1.000 2.8 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 7.2 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10
I-120m 0.883 h 1.000 2.3 × 10-9 1.000 1.5 × 10-9 7.8 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
I-121 2.12 h 1.000 6.2 × 10 1.000 5.3 × 10 3.1 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.2 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
I-123 13.2 h 1.000 2.2 × 10 1.000 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.1 × 10-10
-7 -7 -8 -8 -8
I-124 4.18 d 1.000 1.2 × 10 1.000 1.1 × 10 6.3 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10-8
I-125 60.1 d 1.000 5.2 × 10-8 1.000 5.7 × 10-8 4.1 × 10-8 3.1 × 10-8 2.2 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8
-7 -7 -7 -8 -8
I-126 13.0 d 1.000 2.1 × 10 1.000 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 6.8 × 10 4.5 × 10 2.9 × 10-8
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
I-128 0.416 h 1.000 5.7 × 10 1.000 3.3 × 10 1.6 × 10 8.9 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.6 × 10-11
7 -7 -7 -7 -7 -7
I-129 1.57 × 10 a 1.000 1.8 × 10 1.000 2.2 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-7
I-130 12.4 h 1.000 2.1 × 10-8 1.000 1.8 × 10-8 9.8 × 10-9 4.6 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9
-7 -7 -7 -8 -8
I-131 8.04 d 1.000 1.8 × 10 1.000 1.8 × 10 1.0 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.2 × 10-8
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
I-132 2.30 h 1.000 3.0 × 10 1.000 2.4 × 10 1.3 × 10 6.2 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.9 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
I-132m 1.39 h 1.000 2.4 × 10 1.000 2.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.2 × 10-10
I-133 20.8 h 1.000 4.9 × 10-8 1.000 4.4 × 10-8 2.3 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8 6.8 × 10-9 4.3 × 10-9
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
I-134 0.876 h 1.000 1.1 × 10 1.000 7.5 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
I-135 6.61 h 1.000 1.0 × 10 1.000 8.9 × 10 4.7 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.3 × 10-10
203
204
Age g ≤ 1 a
Caesium
Cs-125 0.750 h 1.000 3.9 × 10-10 1.000 2.2 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.5 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Cs-127 6.25 h 1.000 1.8 × 10 1.000 1.2 × 10 6.6 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Cs-129 1.34 d 1.000 4.4 × 10 1.000 3.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.2 × 10 6.0 × 10-11
Cs-130 0.498 h 1.000 3.3 × 10-10 1.000 1.8 × 10-10 9.0 × 10-11 5.2 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Cs-131 9.69 d 1.000 4.6 × 10 1.000 2.9 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.9 × 10 5.8 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Cs-132 6.48 d 1.000 2.7 × 10 1.000 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.7 × 10 5.7 × 10 5.0 × 10-10
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
Cs-134 2.06 a 1.000 2.6 × 10 1.000 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.9 × 10-8
Cs-134m 2.90 h 1.000 2.1 × 10-10 1.000 1.2 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11
6 -9 -9 -9 -9 -9
Cs-135 2.30 × 10 a 1.000 4.1 × 10 1.000 2.3 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.7 × 10 2.0 × 10 2.0 × 10-9
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
Cs-135m 0.883 h 1.000 1.3 × 10 1.000 8.6 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.9 × 10-11
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Cs-136 13.1 d 1.000 1.5 × 10 1.000 9.5 × 10 6.1 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.4 × 10 3.0 × 10-9
Cs-137 30.0 a 1.000 2.1 × 10-8 1.000 1.2 × 10-8 9.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Cs-138 0.536 h 1.000 1.1 × 10 1.000 5.9 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.2 × 10-11
Barium76
Ba-126 1.61 h 0.600 2.7 × 10-9 0.200 1.7 × 10-9 8.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Ba-128 2.43 d 0.600 2.0 × 10 0.200 1.7 × 10 9.0 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.7 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Ba-131 11.8 d 0.600 4.2 × 10 0.200 2.6 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.4 × 10 6.2 × 10 4.5 × 10-10
-11 -11 -11 -12 -12
Ba-131m 0.243 h 0.600 5.8 × 10 0.200 3.2 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.3 × 10 6.3 × 10 4.9 × 10-12
Ba-133 10.7 a 0.600 2.2 × 10-8 0.200 6.2 × 10-9 3.9 × 10-9 4.6 × 10-9 7.3 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Ba-133m 1.62 d 0.600 4.2 × 10 0.200 3.6 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 5.9 × 10 5.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Ba-135m 1.20 d 0.600 3.3 × 10 0.200 2.9 × 10 1.5 × 10 8.5 × 10 4.7 × 10 4.3 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Ba-139 1.38 h 0.600 1.4 × 10 0.200 8.4 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
Ba-140 12.7 d 0.600 3.2 × 10-8 0.200 1.8 × 10-8 9.2 × 10-9 5.8 × 10-9 3.7 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9
76
The f1 value for barium for 1 to 15 year olds is 0.3.
Age g ≤ 1 a
Ba-141 0.305 h 0.600 7.6 × 10-10 0.200 4.7 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.6 × 10-11 7.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Ba-142 0.177 h 0.600 3.6 × 10 0.200 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.6 × 10 4.3 × 10 3.5 × 10-11
Lanthanum
La-131 0.983 h 0.005 3.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.6 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
La-132 4.80 h 0.005 3.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.8 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.9 × 10-10
-10 -4 -10 -10 -11 -11
La-135 19.5 h 0.005 2.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.4 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.0 × 10-11
4 -9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
La-137 6.00 × 10 a 0.005 1.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.5 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.1 × 10-11
La-138 1.35 × 1011 a 0.005 1.3 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 4.6 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
La-140 1.68 d 0.005 2.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 6.8 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.0 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
La-141 3.93 h 0.005 4.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.6 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.6 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
La-142 1.54 h 0.005 1.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.8 × 10-10
La-143 0.237 h 0.005 6.9 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.1 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11
Cerium
Ce-134 3.00 d 0.005 2.8 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-8 9.1 × 10-9 5.5 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9
Ce-135 17.6 h 0.005 7.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 4.7 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 7.9 × 10-10
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
Ce-137 9.00 h 0.005 2.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 8.8 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.5 × 10-11
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Ce-137m 1.43 d 0.005 6.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.8 × 10 5.4 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Ce-139 138 d 0.005 2.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.6 × 10 8.6 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.6 × 10-10
Ce-141 32.5 d 0.005 8.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 5.1 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 8.8 × 10-10 7.1 × 10-10
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Ce-143 1.38 d 0.005 1.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.0 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -8 -8 -9
Ce-144 284 d 0.005 6.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.5 × 10 5.2 × 10-9
Praseodymium
Pr-136 0.218 h 0.005 3.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 6.1 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -11 -11
Pr-137 1.28 h 0.005 4.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.0 × 10-11
205
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
Pr-138m 2.10 h 0.005 1.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.4 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-10
206
Age g ≤ 1 a
Pr-139 4.51 h 0.005 3.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.5 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Pr-142 19.1 h 0.005 1.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 9.8 × 10 4.9 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
Pr-142m 0.243 h 0.005 2.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.2 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-11
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Pr-143 13.6 d 0.005 1.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.7 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
Pr-144 0.288 h 0.005 6.4 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 9.5 × 10-11 6.5 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
Pr-145 5.98 h 0.005 4.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.5 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.9 × 10-10
-10 -4 -10 -10 -11 -11
Pr-147 0.227 h 0.005 3.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.1 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.3 × 10-11
Neodymium
Nd-136 0.844 h 0.005 1.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 6.1 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 9.9 × 10-11
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Nd-138 5.04 h 0.005 7.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.5 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.0 × 10 6.4 × 10-10
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
Nd-139 0.495 h 0.005 2.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.3 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.0 × 10-11
Nd-139m 5.50 h 0.005 2.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-9 7.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10
-11 -4 -11 -11 -11 -11
Nd-141 2.49 h 0.005 7.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.3 × 10-12
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Nd-147 11.0 d 0.005 1.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.8 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
Nd-149 1.73 h 0.005 1.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.7 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
Nd-151 0.207 h 0.005 3.4 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-10 9.7 × 10-11 5.7 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11
Promethium
Pm-141 0.348 h 0.005 4.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 6.8 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11
Pm-143 265 d 0.005 1.9 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-9 6.7 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Pm-144 363 d 0.005 7.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.7 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.7 × 10-10
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
Pm-145 17.7 a 0.005 1.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.8 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Pm-146 5.53 a 0.005 1.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.1 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.0 × 10-10
Pm-147 2.62 a 0.005 3.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-9 9.6 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10 3.2 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
Pm-148 5.37 d 0.005 3.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 9.7 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.7 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
Pm-148m 41.3 d 0.005 1.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.7 × 10-9
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Pm-149 2.21 d 0.005 1.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.4 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.9 × 10-10
Age g ≤ 1 a
Pm-150 2.68 h 0.005 2.8 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-9 8.7 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10 3.2 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Pm-151 1.18 d 0.005 8.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.1 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.1 × 10 7.3 × 10-10
Samarium
Sm-141 0.170 h 0.005 4.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 7.3 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -10 -11
Sm-141m 0.377 h 0.005 7.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.2 × 10 6.5 × 10-11
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Sm-142 1.21 h 0.005 2.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 6.2 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Sm-145 340 d 0.005 2.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 7.3 × 10 4.5 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.1 × 10-10
Sm-146 1.03 × 108 a 0.005 1.5 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-7 1.0 × 10-7 7.0 × 10-8 5.8 × 10-8 5.4 × 10-8
11 -6 -4 -7 -8 -8 -8
Sm-147 1.06 × 10 a 0.005 1.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.2 × 10 6.4 × 10 5.2 × 10 4.9 × 10-8
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
Sm-151 90.0 a 0.005 1.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.4 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.8 × 10-11
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Sm-153 1.95 d 0.005 8.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.4 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.2 × 10 7.4 × 10-10
Sm-155 0.368 h 0.005 3.6 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-10 9.7 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Sm-156 9.40 h 0.005 2.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.8 × 10 9.0 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.5 × 10-10
Europium
Eu-145 5.94 d 0.005 5.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.7 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 9.4 × 10-10 7.5 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Eu-146 4.61 d 0.005 8.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.2 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
Eu-147 24.0 d 0.005 3.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.9 × 10 5.6 × 10 4.4 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Eu-148 54.5 d 0.005 8.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
Eu-149 93.1 d 0.005 9.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 6.3 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Eu-150 34.2 a 0.005 1.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.7 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
Eu-150 12.6 h 0.005 4.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.2 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.8 × 10-10
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Eu-152 13.3 a 0.005 1.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.4 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-9
Eu-152m 9.32 h 0.005 5.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.6 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
Eu-154 8.80 a 0.005 2.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.0 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
Eu-155 4.96 a 0.005 4.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.8 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.2 × 10-10
207
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
Eu-156 15.2 d 0.005 2.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 7.5 × 10 4.6 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.2 × 10-9
208
Age g ≤ 1 a
Eu-157 15.1 h 0.005 6.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 4.3 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 7.5 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-10
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
Eu-158 0.765 h 0.005 1.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.2 × 10 3.1 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.4 × 10-11
Gadolinium
Gd-145 0.382 h 0.005 4.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.6 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.1 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Gd-146 48.3 d 0.005 9.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.6 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Gd-147 1.59 d 0.005 4.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.2 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.7 × 10 6.1 × 10-10
-6 -4 -7 -7 -8 -8
Gd-148 93.0 a 0.005 1.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.3 × 10 5.9 × 10 5.6 × 10-8
Gd-149 9.40 d 0.005 4.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.7 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 9.3 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Gd-151 120 d 0.005 2.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 6.8 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.0 × 10-10
14 -6 -4 -7 -8 -8 -8
Gd-152 1.08 × 10 a 0.005 1.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.7 × 10 5.3 × 10 4.3 × 10 4.1 × 10-8
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Gd-153 242 d 0.005 2.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.8 × 10 9.4 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.7 × 10-10
Gd-159 18.6 h 0.005 5.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.6 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.2 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-10
Terbium
Tb-147 1.65 h 0.005 1.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-9 5.4 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
Tb-149 4.15 h 0.005 2.4 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-9 8.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Tb-150 3.27 h 0.005 2.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.6 × 10 8.3 × 10 5.1 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.5 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
Tb-151 17.6 h 0.005 2.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.7 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.4 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Tb-153 2.34 d 0.005 2.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 8.2 × 10 5.1 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.5 × 10-10
Tb-154 21.4 h 0.005 4.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 8.1 × 10-10 6.5 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Tb-155 5.32 d 0.005 1.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 6.8 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Tb-156 5.34 d 0.005 9.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.3 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Tb-156m 1.02 d 0.005 1.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 5.6 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.7 × 10-10
Tb-156m 5.00 h 0.005 8.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 5.2 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 8.1 × 10-11
2 -10 -4 -10 -10 -11 -11
Tb-157 1.50 × 10 a 0.005 4.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.8 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.4 × 10-11
2 -8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Tb-158 1.50 × 10 a 0.005 1.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.9 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
Tb-160 72.3 d 0.005 1.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10-9
Age g ≤ 1 a
Tb-161 6.91 d 0.005 8.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 5.3 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 9.0 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-10
Dysprosium
Dy-155 10.0 h 0.005 9.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 6.8 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10
Dy-157 8.10 h 0.005 4.4 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.1 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-11 6.1 × 10-11
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
Dy-159 144 d 0.005 1.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.4 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
Dy-165 2.33 h 0.005 1.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.9 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
Dy-166 3.40 d 0.005 1.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.0 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10-9
Holmium
Ho-155 0.800 h 0.005 3.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.1 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11
-11 -4 -11 -11 -11 -12
Ho-157 0.210 h 0.005 5.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.6 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.1 × 10 6.5 × 10-12
Ho-159 0.550 h 0.005 7.1 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 4.3 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11 9.9 × 10-12 7.9 × 10-12
-10 -4 -11 -11 -11 -11
Ho-161 2.50 h 0.005 1.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.1 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-11
-11 -4 -11 -11 -12 -12
Ho-162 0.250 h 0.005 3.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.3 × 10-12
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
Ho-162m 1.13 h 0.005 2.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 7.9 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.6 × 10-11
Ho-164 0.483 h 0.005 1.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 6.5 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 9.5 × 10-12
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
Ho-164m 0.625 h 0.005 2.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.6 × 10-11
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
Ho-166 1.12 d 0.005 1.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.1 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-9
3 -8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Ho-166m 1.20 × 10 a 0.005 2.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 9.3 × 10 5.3 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.0 × 10-9
Ho-167 3.10 h 0.005 8.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 5.5 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 8.3 × 10-11
Erbium
Er-161 3.24 h 0.005 6.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.4 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 8.0 × 10-11
Er-165 10.4 h 0.005 1.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-10 6.2 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
Er-169 9.30 d 0.005 4.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.2 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.7 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
Er-171 7.52 h 0.005 4.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.6 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.6 × 10-10
209
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Er-172 2.05 d 0.005 1.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.8 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-9
210
Age g ≤ 1 a
Thulium
Tm-162 0.362 h 0.005 2.9 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-10 8.7 × 10-11 5.2 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Tm-166 7.70 h 0.005 2.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 8.3 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.8 × 10-10
Tm-167 9.24 d 0.005 6.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.0 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Tm-170 129 d 0.005 1.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 9.8 × 10 4.9 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
Tm-171 1.92 a 0.005 1.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.8 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
Tm-172 2.65 d 0.005 1.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.1 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-9
Tm-173 8.24 h 0.005 3.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.5 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
Tm-175 0.253 h 0.005 3.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 8.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.7 × 10-11
Ytterbium
Yb-162 0.315 h 0.005 2.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-10 6.9 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Yb-166 2.36 d 0.005 7.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.4 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.5 × 10-10
-11 -4 -11 -11 -11 -12
Yb-167 0.292 h 0.005 7.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.4 × 10 6.7 × 10-12
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Yb-169 32.0 d 0.005 7.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.6 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.5 × 10 8.8 × 10 7.1 × 10-10
Yb-175 4.19 d 0.005 5.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 9.5 × 10-10 5.4 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
Yb-177 1.90 h 0.005 1.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.8 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.8 × 10-11
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
Yb-178 1.23 h 0.005 1.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.4 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
Lutetium
Lu-169 1.42 d 0.005 3.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 8.9 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Lu-170 2.00 d 0.005 7.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.2 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.9 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Lu-171 8.22 d 0.005 5.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.5 × 10 6.7 × 10-10
Lu-172 6.70 d 0.005 1.0 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 7.0 × 10-9 3.9 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Lu-173 1.37 a 0.005 2.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.6 × 10 8.6 × 10 5.3 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.6 × 10-1
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Lu-174 3.31 a 0.005 3.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 9.1 × 10 5.6 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.7 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Lu-174m 142 d 0.005 6.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.8 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.6 × 10 5.3 × 10-10
Age g ≤ 1 a
Lu-176 3.60 × 1010 a 0.005 2.4 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-8 5.7 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Lu-176m 3.68 h 0.005 2.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.0 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Lu-177 6.71 d 0.005 6.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.6 × 10 5.3 × 10-10
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
Lu-177m 161 d 0.005 1.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-9
Lu-178 0.473 h 0.005 5.9 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.3 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 9.0 × 10-11 6.1 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -11 -11
Lu-178m 0.378 h 0.005 4.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.1 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.8 × 10-11
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Lu-179 4.59 h 0.005 2.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 7.5 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10-10
Hafnium
Hf-170 16.0 h 0.020 3.9 × 10-9 0.002 2.7 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 9.5 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Hf-172 1.87 a 0.020 1.9 × 10 0.002 6.1 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-9
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Hf-173 24.0 h 0.020 1.9 × 10 0.002 1.3 × 10 7.2 × 10 4.6 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.3 × 10-10
Hf-175 70.0 d 0.020 3.8 × 10-9 0.002 2.4 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 8.4 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10 4.1 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Hf-177m 0.856 h 0.020 7.8 × 10 0.002 4.7 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.1 × 10-11
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
Hf-178m 31.0 a 0.020 7.0 × 10 0.002 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.8 × 10 5.5 × 10 4.7 × 10-9
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Hf-179m 25.1 d 0.020 1.2 × 10 0.002 7.8 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
Hf-180m 5.50 h 0.020 1.4 × 10-9 0.002 9.7 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Hf-181 42.4 d 0.020 1.2 × 10 0.002 7.4 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
6 -8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Hf-182 9.00 × 10 a 0.020 5.6 × 10 0.002 7.9 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.3 × 10 3.0 × 10-9
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Hf-182m 1.02 h 0.020 4.1 × 10 0.002 2.5 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.8 × 10 5.2 × 10 4.2 × 10-11
Hf-183 1.07 h 0.020 8.1 × 10-10 0.002 4.8 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 9.3 × 10-11 7.3 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Hf-184 4.12 h 0.020 5.5 × 10 0.002 3.6 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.6 × 10 5.2 × 10-10
Tantalum
Ta-172 0.613 h 0.010 5.5 × 10-10 0.001 3.2 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 9.8 × 10-11 6.6 × 10-11 5.3 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Ta-173 3.65 h 0.010 2.0 × 10 0.001 1.3 × 10 6.5 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Ta-174 1.20 h 0.010 6.2 × 10 0.001 3.7 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.2 × 10 5.7 × 10-11
211
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Ta-175 10.5 h 0.010 1.6 × 10 0.001 1.1 × 10 6.2 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10-10
212
Age g ≤ 1 a
Ta-176 8.08 h 0.010 2.4 × 10-9 0.001 1.7 × 10-9 9.2 × 10-10 6.1 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Ta-177 2.36 d 0.010 1.0 × 10 0.001 6.9 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Ta-178 2.20 h 0.010 6.3 × 10 0.001 4.5 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.1 × 10 7.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Ta-179 1.82 a 0.010 6.2 × 10 0.001 4.1 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.1 × 10 6.5 × 10-11
Ta-180 1.00 × 1013 a 0.010 8.1 × 10-9 0.001 5.3 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 8.4 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Ta-180m 8.10 h 0.010 5.8 × 10 0.001 3.7 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.7 × 10 5.4 × 10-11
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Ta-182 115 d 0.010 1.4 × 10 0.001 9.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.1 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.5 × 10-9
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
Ta-182m 0.264 h 0.010 1.4 × 10 0.001 7.5 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-11
Ta-183 5.10 d 0.010 1.4 × 10-8 0.001 9.3 × 10-9 4.7 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Ta-184 8.70 h 0.010 6.7 × 10 0.001 4.4 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.5 × 10 6.8 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Ta-185 0.816 h 0.010 8.3 × 10 0.001 4.6 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.6 × 10 6.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Ta-186 0.175 h 0.010 3.8 × 10 0.001 2.1 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.1 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.3 × 10-11
Tungsten
W-176 2.30 h 0.600 6.8 × 10-10 0.300 5.5 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
W-177 2.25 h 0.600 4.4 × 10 0.300 3.2 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.2 × 10 5.8 × 10-11
W-178 21.7 d 0.600 1.8 × 10-9 0.300 1.4 × 10-9 7.3 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
-11 -11 -11 -12 -12
W-179 0.625 h 0.600 3.4 × 10 0.300 2.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.2 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.3 × 10-12
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
W-181 121 d 0.600 6.3 × 10 0.300 4.7 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.5 × 10 7.6 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
W-185 75.1 d 0.600 4.4 × 10 0.300 3.3 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.7 × 10 5.5 × 10 4.4 × 10-10
W-187 23.9 h 0.600 5.5 × 10-9 0.300 4.3 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 7.8 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-10
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
W-188 69.4 d 0.600 2.1 × 10 0.300 1.5 × 10 7.7 × 10 4.6 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10-9
Rhenium
Re-177 0.233 h 1.000 2.5 × 10-10 0.800 1.4 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Re-178 0.220 h 1.000 2.9 × 10 0.800 1.6 × 10 7.9 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.5 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Re-181 20.0 h 1.000 4.2 × 10 0.800 2.8 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.2 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.2 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Re-182 2.67 d 1.000 1.4 × 10 0.800 8.9 × 10 4.7 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.4 × 10-9
Age g ≤ 1 a
Re-182 12.7 h 1.000 2.4 × 10-9 0.800 1.7 × 10-9 8.9 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-1
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
Re-184 38.0 d 1.000 8.9 × 10 0.800 5.6 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-9
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Re-184m 165 d 1.000 1.7 × 10 0.800 9.8 × 10 4.9 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.5 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Re-186 3.78 d 1.000 1.9 × 10 0.800 1.1 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.5 × 10-9
Re-186m 2.00 × 105 a 1.000 3.0 × 10-8 0.800 1.6 × 10-8 7.6 × 10-9 4.4 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9
10 -11 -11 -11 -11 -12
Re-187 5.00 × 10 a 1.000 6.8 × 10 0.800 3.8 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.6 × 10 5.1 × 10-12
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Re-188 17.0 h 1.000 1.7 × 10 0.800 1.1 × 10 5.4 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.4 × 10-9
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Re-188m 0.310 h 1.000 3.8 × 10 0.800 2.3 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.1 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.0 × 10-11
Re-189 1.01 d 1.000 9.8 × 10-9 0.800 6.2 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 7.8 × 10-10
Osmium
Os-180 0.366 h 0.020 1.6 × 10-10 0.010 9.8 × 10-11 5.1 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11
Os-181 1.75 h 0.020 7.6 × 10-10 0.010 5.0 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 8.9 × 10-1
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Os-182 22.0 h 0.020 4.6 × 10 0.010 3.2 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.0 × 10 5.6 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Os-185 94.0 d 0.020 3.8 × 10 0.010 2.6 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.8 × 10 6.5 × 10 5.1 × 10-10
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Os-189m 6.00 h 0.020 2.1 × 10 0.010 1.3 × 10 6.5 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.8 × 10-11
Os-191 15.4 d 0.020 6.3 × 10-9 0.010 4.1 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.0 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Os-191m 13.0 h 0.020 1.1 × 10 0.010 7.1 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.6 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
Os-193 1.25 d 0.020 9.3 × 10 0.010 6.0 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.1 × 10-10
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Os-194 6.00 a 0.020 2.9 × 10 0.010 1.7 × 10 8.8 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.4 × 10-9
Iridium
Ir-182 0.250 h 0.020 5.3 × 10-10 0.010 3.0 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 8.9 × 10-11 6.0 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Ir-184 3.02 h 0.020 1.5 × 10 0.010 9.7 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-10
Ir-185 14.0 h 0.020 2.4 × 10-9 0.010 1.6 × 10-9 8.6 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Ir-186 15.8 h 0.020 3.8 × 10 0.010 2.7 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.6 × 10 6.1 × 10 4.9 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Ir-186 1.75 h 0.020 5.8 × 10 0.010 3.6 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.7 × 10 6.1 × 10-11
213
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Ir-187 10.5 h 0.020 1.1 × 10 0.010 7.3 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
214
Age g ≤ 1 a
Ir-188 1.73 d 0.020 4.6 × 10-9 0.010 3.3 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.9 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-10=
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Ir-189 13.3 d 0.020 2.5 × 10 0.010 1.7 × 10 8.6 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.4 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Ir-190 12.1 d 0.020 1.0 × 10 0.010 7.1 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Ir-190m 3.10 h 0.020 9.4 × 10 0.010 6.4 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
Ir-190m 1.20 h 0.020 7.9 × 10-11 0.010 5.0 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11 8.0 × 10-12
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Ir-192 74.0 d 0.020 1.3 × 10 0.010 8.7 × 10 4.6 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-9
2 -9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Ir-192m 2.41 × 10 a 0.020 2.8 × 10 0.010 1.4 × 10 8.3 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.7 × 10 3.1 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Ir-193m 11.9 d 0.020 3.2 × 10 0.010 2.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.7 × 10-1
Ir-194 19.1 h 0.020 1.5 × 10-8 0.010 9.8 × 10-9 4.9 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Ir-194m 171 d 0.020 1.7 × 10 0.010 1.1 × 10 6.4 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10-9
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Ir-195 2.50 h 0.020 1.2 × 10 0.010 7.3 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Ir-195m 3.80 h 0.020 2.3 × 10 0.010 1.5 × 10 7.3 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10-10
Platinum
Pt-186 2.00 h 0.020 7.8 × 10-10 0.010 5.3 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 9.3 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Pt-188 10.2 d 0.020 6.7 × 10 0.010 4.5 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.5 × 10 7.6 × 10-10
Pt-189 10.9 h 0.020 1.1 × 10-9 0.010 7.4 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Pt-191 2.80 d 0.020 3.1 × 10 0.010 2.1 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.9 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.4 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Pt-193 50.0 a 0.020 3.7 × 10 0.010 2.4 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.9 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.1 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Pt-193m 4.33 d 0.020 5.2 × 10 0.010 3.4 × 10 1.7 × 10 9.9 × 10 5.6 × 10 4.5 × 10-10
Pt-195m 4.02 d 0.020 7.1 × 10-9 0.010 4.6 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 7.9 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Pt-197 18.3 h 0.020 4.7 × 10 0.010 3.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 8.8 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.0 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Pt-197m 1.57 h 0.020 1.0 × 10 0.010 6.1 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Pt-199 0.513 h 0.020 4.7 × 10 0.010 2.7 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.9 × 10-11
Pt-200 12.5 h 0.020 1.4 × 10-8 0.010 8.8 × 10-9 4.4 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9
Gold
Au-193 17.6 h 0.200 1.2 × 10-9 0.100 8.8 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10
Age g ≤ 1 a
Au-194 1.65 d 0.200 2.9 × 10-9 0.100 2.2 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 8.1 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Au-195 183 d 0.200 2.4 × 10 0.100 1.7 × 10 8.9 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.5 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Au-198 2.69 d 0.200 1.0 × 10 0.100 7.2 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-9
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Au-198m 2.30 d 0.200 1.2 × 10 0.100 8.5 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
Au-199 3.14 d 0.200 4.5 × 10-9 0.100 3.1 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 9.5 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Au-200 0.807 h 0.200 8.3 × 10 0.100 4.7 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.7 × 10 6.8 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
Au-200m 18.7 h 0.200 9.2 × 10 0.100 6.6 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Au-201 0.440 h 0.200 3.1 × 10 0.100 1.7 × 10 8.2 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.4 × 10-11
Mercury
Hg-193 3.50 h 1.000 3.3 × 10-10 1.000 1.9 × 10-10 9.8 × 10-11 5.8 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
(organic) 0.800 4.7 × 10 0.400 4.4 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.3 × 10 6.6 × 10-11
Hg-193 3.50 h 0.040 8.5 × 10-10 0.020 5.5 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 8.2 × 10-11
(inorganic)
Hg-193m 11.1 h 1.000 1.1 × 10-9 1.000 6.8 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
(organic) 0.800 1.6 × 10 0.400 1.8 × 10 9.5 × 10 6.0 × 10 3.7 × 10 3.0 × 10-10
Hg-193m 11.1 h 0.040 3.6 × 10-9 0.020 2.4 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 8.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10
(inorganic)
Hg-194 2.60 × 102 a 1.000 1.3 × 10-7 1.000 1.2 × 10-7 8.4 × 10-8 6.6 × 10-8 5.5 × 10-8 5.1 × 10-8
-7 -8 -8 -8 -8
(organic) 0.800 1.1 × 10 0.400 4.8 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.3 × 10 2.1 × 10-8
Hg-194 2.60 × 102 a 0.040 7.2 × 10-9 0.020 3.6 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
(inorganic)
Hg-195 9.90 h 1.000 3.0 × 10-10 1.000 2.0 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
(organic) 0.800 4.6 × 10 0.400 4.8 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.3 × 10 7.5 × 10-11
Hg-195 9.90 h 0.040 9.5 × 10-10 0.020 6.3 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 9.7 × 10-11
(inorganic)
Hg-195m 1.73 d 1.000 2.1 × 10-9 1.000 1.3 × 10-9 6.8 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
215
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
(organic) 0.800 2.6 × 10 0.400 2.8 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.7 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.1 × 10-10
216
Age g ≤ 1 a
Hg-195m 1.73 d 0.040 5.8 × 10-9 0.020 3.8 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.0 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10
(inorganic)
Hg-197 2.67 d 1.000 9.7 × 10-10 1.000 6.2 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 9.9 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
(organic) 0.800 1.3 × 10 0.400 1.2 × 10 6.1 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.7 × 10-10
Hg-197 2.67 d 0.040 2.5 × 10-9 0.020 1.6 × 10-9 8.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10
(inorganic)
Hg-197m 23.8 h 1.000 1.5 × 10-9 1.000 9.5 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
(organic) 0.800 2.2 × 10 0.400 2.5 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.3 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.4 × 10-10
Hg-197m 23.8 h 0.040 5.2 × 10-9 0.020 3.4 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 5.9 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10
(inorganic)
Hg-199m 0.710 h 1.000 3.4 × 10-10 1.000 1.9 × 10-10 9.3 × 10-11 5.3 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
(organic) 0.800 3.6 × 10 0.400 2.1 × 10 1.0 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.1 × 10-11
Hg-199m 0.710 h 0.040 3.7 × 10-10 0.020 2.1 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11
(inorganic)
Hg-203 46.6 d 1.000 1.5 × 10-8 1.000 1.1 × 10-8 5.7 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
(organic) 0.800 1.3 × 10 0.400 6.4 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
Hg-203 46.6 d 0.040 5.5 × 10-9 0.020 3.6 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.7 × 10-10 5.4 × 10-10
(inorganic)
Thallium
Tl-194 0.550 h 1.000 6.1 × 10-11 1.000 3.9 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11 8.1 × 10-12
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Tl-194m 0.546 h 1.000 3.8 × 10 1.000 2.2 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.0 × 10 4.9 × 10 4.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Tl-195 1.16 h 1.000 2.3 × 10 1.000 1.4 × 10 7.5 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.7 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Tl-197 2.84 h 1.000 2.1 × 10 1.000 1.3 × 10 6.7 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.3 × 10-11
Tl-198 5.30 h 1.000 4.7 × 10-10 1.000 3.3 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 8.7 × 10-11 7.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Tl-198m 1.87 h 1.000 4.8 × 10 1.000 3.0 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.7 × 10 6.7 × 10 5.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Tl-199 7.42 h 1.000 2.3 × 10 1.000 1.5 × 10 7.7 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.6 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Tl-200 1.09 d 1.000 1.3 × 10 1.000 9.1 × 10 5.3 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.0 × 10-10
Age g ≤ 1 a
Tl-201 3.04 d 1.000 8.4 × 10-10 1.000 5.5 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 9.5 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Tl-202 12.2 d 1.000 2.9 × 10 1.000 2.1 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.9 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.5 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Tl-204 3.78 a 1.000 1.3 × 10 1.000 8.5 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
Lead77
Pb-195m 0.263 h 0.600 2.6 × 10-10 0.200 1.6 × 10-10 8.4 × 10-11 5.2 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Pb-198 2.40 h 0.600 5.9 × 10 0.200 4.8 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Pb-199 1.50 h 0.600 3.5 × 10 0.200 2.6 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.4 × 10 6.3 × 10 5.4 × 10-11
Pb-200 21.5 h 0.600 2.5 × 10-9 0.200 2.0 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 7.0 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Pb-201 9.40 h 0.600 9.4 × 10 0.200 7.8 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.6 × 10-10
5 -8 -8 -8 -8 -8
Pb-202 3.00 × 10 a 0.600 3.4 × 10 0.200 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.9 × 10 2.7 × 10 8.8 × 10-9
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Pb-202m 3.62 h 0.600 7.6 × 10 0.200 6.1 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.3 × 10-10
Pb-203 2.17 d 0.600 1.6 × 10-9 0.200 1.3 × 10-9 6.8 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10
7 -9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Pb-205 1.43 × 10 a 0.600 2.1 × 10 0.200 9.9 × 10 6.2 × 10 6.1 × 10 6.5 × 10 2.8 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Pb-209 3.25 h 0.600 5.7 × 10 0.200 3.8 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.6 × 10 5.7 × 10-11
-6 -6 -6 -6 -6
Pb-210 22.3 a 0.600 8.4 × 10 0.200 3.6 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 6.9 × 10-7
Pb-211 0.601 h 0.600 3.1 × 10-9 0.200 1.4 × 10-9 7.1 × 10-10 4.1 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
-7 -8 -8 -8 -8
Pb-212 10.6 h 0.600 1.5 × 10 0.200 6.3 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 6.0 × 10-9
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Pb-214 0.447 h 0.600 2.7 × 10 0.200 1.0 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.4 × 10-10
Bismuth
Bi-200 0.606 h 0.100 4.2 × 10-10 0.050 2.7 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 9.5 × 10-11 6.4 × 10-11 5.1 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Bi-201 1.80 h 0.100 1.0 × 10 0.050 6.7 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Bi-202 1.67 h 0.100 6.4 × 10 0.050 4.4 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.9 × 10-11
Bi-203 11.8 h 0.100 3.5 × 10-9 0.050 2.5 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 9.3 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10
217
77
The f1 value for lead for 1 to 15 year olds is 0.4.
218
Age g ≤ 1 a
Bi-205 15.3 d 0.100 6.1 × 10-9 0.050 4.5 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 9.0 × 10-10
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Bi-206 6.24 d 0.100 1.4 × 10 0.050 1.0 × 10 5.7 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10-9
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Bi-207 38.0 a 0.100 1.0 × 10 0.050 7.1 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Bi-210 5.01 d 0.100 1.5 × 10 0.050 9.7 × 10 4.8 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
Bi-210m 3.00 × 106 a 0.100 2.1 × 10-7 0.050 9.1 × 10-8 4.7 × 10-8 3.0 × 10-8 1.9 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Bi-212 1.01 h 0.100 3.2 × 10 0.050 1.8 × 10 8.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.6 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Bi-213 0.761 h 0.100 2.5 × 10 0.050 1.4 × 10 6.7 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.0 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Bi-214 0.332 h 0.100 1.4 × 10 0.050 7.4 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
Polonium
Po-203 0.612 h 1.000 2.9 × 10-10 0.500 2.4 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-11 5.8 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11
Po-205 1.80 h 1.000 3.5 × 10-10 0.500 2.8 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-11 5.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
Po-207 5.83 h 1.000 4.4 × 10 0.500 5.7 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-1
-5 -6 -6 -6 -6
Po-210 138 d 1.000 2.6 × 10 0.500 8.8 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.2 × 10-6
Astatine
At-207 1.80 h 1.000 2.5 × 10-9 1.000 1.6 × 10-9 8.0 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10
-7 -8 -8 -8 -8
At-211 7.21 h 1.000 1.2 × 10 1.000 7.8 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10-8
Francium
Fr-222 0.240 h 1.000 6.2 × 10-9 1.000 3.9 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 8.5 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-10
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Fr-223 0.363 h 1.000 2.6 × 10 1.000 1.7 × 10 8.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.4 × 10-9
Radium78
78
The f1 value for radium for 1 to 15 year olds is 0.3.
Age g ≤ 1 a
Ra-223 11.4 d 0.600 5.3 × 10-6 0.200 1.1 × 10-6 5.7 × 10-7 4.5 × 10-7 3.7 × 10-7 1.0 × 10-7
-6 -7 -7 -7 -7
Ra-224 3.66 d 0.600 2.7 × 10 0.200 6.6 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.0 × 10 6.5 × 10-8
-6 -6 -7 -7 -7
Ra-225 14.8 d 0.600 7.1 × 10 0.200 1.2 × 10 6.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.4 × 10 9.9 × 10-8
3 -6 -7 -7 -7 -6
Ra-226 1.60 × 10 a 0.600 4.7 × 10 0.200 9.6 × 10 6.2 × 10 8.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 2.8 × 10-7
Ra-227 0.703 h 0.600 1.1 × 10-9 0.200 4.3 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.1 × 10-11
-5 -6 -6 -6 -6
Ra-228 5.75 a 0.600 3.0 × 10 0.200 5.7 × 10 3.4 × 10 3.9 × 10 5.3 × 10 6.9 × 10-7
Actinium
Ac-224 2.90 h 0.005 1.0 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 5.2 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 8.8 × 10-10 7.0 × 10-10
-7 -4 -7 -8 -8 -8
Ac-225 10.0 d 0.005 4.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.8 × 10 9.1 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.4 × 10-8
-7 -4 -8 -8 -8 -8
Ac-226 1.21 d 0.005 1.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.6 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-8
-5 -4 -6 -6 -6 -6
Ac-227 21.8 a 0.005 3.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.1 × 10-6
Ac-228 6.13 h 0.005 7.4 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.8 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 8.7 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10
Thorium
Th-226 0.515 h 0.005 4.4 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 6.7 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10
Th-227 18.7 d 0.005 3.0 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 7.0 × 10-8 3.6 × 10-8 2.3 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 8.8 × 10-9
-6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -8
Th-228 1.91 a 0.005 3.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.4 × 10 7.2 × 10-8
3 -5 -4 -6 -7 -7 -7
Th-229 7.34 × 10 a 0.005 1.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 7.8 × 10 6.2 × 10 5.3 × 10 4.9 × 10-7
4 -6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Th-230 7.70 × 10 a 0.005 4.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.2 × 10 2.1 × 10-7
Th-231 1.06 d 0.005 3.9 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.4 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10
10 -6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Th-232 1.40 × 10 a 0.005 4.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.3 × 10-7
-8 -4 -8 -8 -9 -9
Th-234 24.1 d 0.005 4.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.4 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.4 × 10-9
Protactinium
Pa-227 0.638 h 0.005 5.8 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 8.7 × 10-10 5.8 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Pa-228 22.0 h 0.005 1.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.8 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.7 × 10 7.8 × 10-10
219
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Pa-230 17.4 d 0.005 2.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.7 × 10 3.1 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.2 × 10-10
220
Age g ≤ 1 a
Pa-231 3.27 × 104 a 0.005 1.3 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-6 1.1 × 10-6 9.2 × 10-7 8.0 × 10-7 7.1 × 10-7
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Pa-232 1.31 d 0.005 6.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.9 × 10 7.2 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Pa-233 27.0 d 0.005 9.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.2 × 10 3.2 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.7 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Pa-234 6.70 h 0.005 5.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.2 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.4 × 10 5.1 × 10-10
Uranium
U-230 20.8 d 0.040 7.9 × 10-7 0.020 3.0 × 10-7 1.5 × 10-7 1.0 × 10-7 6.6 × 10-8 5.6 × 10-8
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
U-231 4.20 d 0.040 3.1 × 10 0.020 2.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.1 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.8 × 10-10
U-232 72.0 a 0.040 2.5 × 10-6 0.020 8.2 × 10-7 5.8 × 10-7 5.7 × 10-7 6.4 × 10-7 3.3 × 10-7
5 -7 -7 -8 -8 -8
U-233 1.58 × 10 a 0.040 3.8 × 10 0.020 1.4 × 10 9.2 × 10 7.8 × 10 7.8 × 10 5.1 × 10-8
5 -7 -7 -8 -8 -8
U-234 2.44 × 10 a 0.040 3.7 × 10 0.020 1.3 × 10 8.8 × 10 7.4 × 10 7.4 × 10 4.9 × 10-8
8 -7 -7 -8 -8 -8
U-235 7.04 × 10 a 0.040 3.5 × 10 0.020 1.3 × 10 8.5 × 10 7.1 × 10 7.0 × 10 4.7 × 10-8
U-236 2.34 × 107 a 0.040 3.5 × 10-7 0.020 1.3 × 10-7 8.4 × 10-8 7.0 × 10-8 7.0 × 10-8 4.7 × 10-8
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
U-237 6.75 d 0.040 8.3 × 10 0.020 5.4 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.5 × 10 7.6 × 10-10
9 -7 -7 -8 -8 -8
U-238 4.47 × 10 a 0.040 3.4 × 10 0.020 1.2 × 10 8.0 × 10 6.8 × 10 6.7 × 10 4.5 × 10-8
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
U-239 0.392 h 0.040 3.4 × 10 0.020 1.9 × 10 9.3 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.7 × 10-11
U-240 14.1 h 0.040 1.3 × 10-8 0.020 8.1 × 10-9 4.1 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
Neptunium
Np-232 0.245 h 0.005 8.7 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 5.1 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 9.7 × 10-12
Np-233 0.603 h 0.005 2.1 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-11 6.6 × 10-12 4.0 × 10-12 2.8 × 10-12 2.2 × 10-12
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Np-234 4.40 d 0.005 6.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.1 × 10-10
-10 -4 -10 -10 -10 -11
Np-235 1.08 a 0.005 7.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.8 × 10 5.3 × 10-11
5 -7 -4 -8 -8 -8 -8
Np-236 1.15 × 10 a 0.005 1.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.7 × 10-8
Np-236 22.5 h 0.005 2.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-9 6.6 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
6 -6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Np-237 2.14 × 10 a 0.005 2.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10 1.1 × 10 1.1 × 10-7
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Np-238 2.12 d 0.005 9.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.2 × 10 3.2 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.1 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Np-239 2.36 d 0.005 8.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.7 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.0 × 10-10
Age g ≤ 1 a
Np-240 1.08 h 0.005 8.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 5.2 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 8.2 × 10-11
Plutonium
Pu-234 8.80 h 0.005 2.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9 5.5 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
Pu-235 0.422 h 0.005 2.2 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-11 6.5 × 10-12 3.9 × 10-12 2.7 × 10-12 2.1 × 10-12
-6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -8
Pu-236 2.85 a 0.005 2.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.5 × 10 8.7 × 10-8
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
Pu-237 45.3 d 0.005 1.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.9 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
-6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Pu-238 87.7 a 0.005 4.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.2 × 10 2.3 × 10-7
Pu-239 2.41 × 104 a 0.005 4.2 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 4.2 × 10-7 3.3 × 10-7 2.7 × 10-7 2.4 × 10-7 2.5 × 10-7
3 -6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Pu-240 6.54 × 10 a 0.005 4.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.5 × 10-7
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Pu-241 14.4 a 0.005 5.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.7 × 10 5.5 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.8 × 10 4.8 × 10-9
5 -6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Pu-242 3.76 × 10 a 0.005 4.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.3 × 10 2.4 × 10-7
Pu-243 4.95 h 0.005 1.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 6.2 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-11
7 -6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Pu-244 8.26 × 10 a 0.005 4.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.3 × 10 2.4 × 10-7
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Pu-245 10.5 h 0.005 8.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.1 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.5 × 10 8.9 × 10 7.2 × 10-10
-8 -4 -8 -8 -9 -9
Pu-246 10.9 d 0.005 3.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.1 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.3 × 10-9
Americium
Am-237 1.22 h 0.005 1.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
Am-238 1.63 h 0.005 2.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.1 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.2 × 10-11
Am-239 11.9 h 0.005 2.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-9 8.4 × 10-10 5.1 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Am-240 2.12 d 0.005 4.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.3 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.3 × 10 5.8 × 10-10
2 -6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Am-241 4.32 × 10 a 0.005 3.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.2 × 10 2.0 × 10 2.0 × 10-7
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
Am-242 16.0 h 0.005 5.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.4 × 10 3.7 × 10 3.0 × 10-10
Am-242m 1.52 × 102 a 0.005 3.1 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 3.0 × 10-7 2.3 × 10-7 2.0 × 10-7 1.9 × 10-7 1.9 × 10-7
3 -6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Am-243 7.38 × 10 a 0.005 3.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.2 × 10 2.0 × 10 2.0 × 10-7
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
Am-244 10.1 h 0.005 4.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.1 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.6 × 10 5.8 × 10 4.6 × 10-10
221
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
Am-244m 0.433 h 0.005 3.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 9.6 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.9 × 10-11
222
Age g ≤ 1 a
Am-245 2.05 h 0.005 6.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.5 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 7.9 × 10-11 6.2 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -10 -11
Am-246 0.650 h 0.005 6.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.8 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.3 × 10 5.8 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -11 -11
Am-246m 0.417 h 0.005 3.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.4 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.4 × 10-11
Curium
Cm-238 2.40 h 0.005 7.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.9 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 8.0 × 10-11
-7 -4 -8 -8 -8 -9
Cm-240 27.0 d 0.005 2.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.8 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.2 × 10 7.6 × 10-9
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Cm-241 32.8 d 0.005 1.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.7 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.1 × 10-10
Cm-242 163 d 0.005 5.9 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 7.6 × 10-8 3.9 × 10-8 2.4 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8
-6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Cm-243 28.5 a 0.005 3.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.5 × 10-7
-6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Cm-244 18.1 a 0.005 2.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.2 × 10-7
3 -6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Cm-245 8.50 × 10 a 0.005 3.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.3 × 10 2.1 × 10 2.1 × 10-7
Cm-246 4.73 × 103 a 0.005 3.7 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 3.7 × 10-7 2.8 × 10-7 2.2 × 10-7 2.1 × 10-7 2.1 × 10-7
7 -6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Cm-247 1.56 × 10 a 0.005 3.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.9 × 10-7
5 -5 -4 -6 -6 -7 -7
Cm-248 3.39 × 10 a 0.005 1.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.4 × 10 7.7 × 10 7.7 × 10-7
-10 -4 -10 -10 -11 -11
Cm-249 1.07 h 0.005 3.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.1 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.1 × 10-11
Cm-250 6.90 × 103 a 0.005 7.8 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 8.2 × 10-6 6.0 × 10-6 4.9 × 10-6 4.4 × 10-6 4.4 × 10-6
Berkelium
Bk-245 4.94 d 0.005 6.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.2 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10
Bk-246 1.83 d 0.005 3.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.6 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 9.4 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10
3 -6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Bk-247 1.38 × 10 a 0.005 8.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.6 × 10 6.3 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.8 × 10 3.5 × 10-7
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Bk-249 320 d 0.005 2.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.7 × 10-10
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
Bk-250 3.22 h 0.005 1.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.5 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-10
Californium
Cf-244 0.323 h 0.005 9.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.8 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.9 × 10-11 7.0 × 10-11
-8 -4 -8 -8 -9 -9
Cf-246 1.49 d 0.005 5.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.3 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.3 × 10-9
Age g ≤ 1 a
Cf-248 334 d 0.005 1.5 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-7 9.9 × 10-8 6.0 × 10-8 3.3 × 10-8 2.8 × 10-
2 -6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Cf-249 3.50 × 10 a 0.005 9.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.7 × 10 6.4 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.8 × 10 3.5 × 10-7
-6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Cf-250 13.1 a 0.005 5.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.6 × 10-7
2 -6 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
Cf-251 8.98 × 10 a 0.005 9.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.8 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.6 × 10-7
Cf-252 2.64 a 0.005 5.0 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 5.1 × 10-7 3.2 × 10-7 1.9 × 10-7 1.0 × 10-7 9.0 × 10-8
-7 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
Cf-253 17.8 d 0.005 1.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.0 × 10 3.7 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.4 × 10-9
-5 -4 -6 -6 -7 -7
Cf-254 60.5 d 0.005 1.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.0 × 10-7
Einsteinium
Es-250 2.10 h 0.005 2.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 9.9 × 10-11 5.7 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Es-251 1.38 d 0.005 1.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.1 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.7 × 10-10
-7 -4 -8 -8 -8 -9
Es-253 20.5 d 0.005 1.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.5 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.4 × 10 7.6 × 10 6.1 × 10-9
Es-254 276 d 0.005 1.4 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-7 9.8 × 10-8 6.0 × 10-8 3.3 × 10-8 2.8 × 10-8
-8 -4 -8 -8 -9 -9
Es-254m 1.64 d 0.005 5.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.1 × 10 5.2 × 10 4.2 × 10-9
Fermium
Fm-252 22.7 h 0.005 3.8 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-8 9.9 × 10-9 5.9 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Fm-253 3.00 d 0.005 2.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.7 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.1 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
Fm-254 3.24 h 0.005 5.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.2 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.3 × 10 5.6 × 10 4.4 × 10-10
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
Fm-255 20.1 h 0.005 3.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 9.5 × 10 5.6 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.5 × 10-9
Fm-257 101 d 0.005 9.8 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-7 6.5 × 10-8 4.0 × 10-8 1.9 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8
Mendelevium
Md-257 5.20 h 0.005 3.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 8.8 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
Md-258 55.0 d 0.005 6.3 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 8.9 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-8 3.0 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8
223
224
TABLE III-2E. MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC: COMMITTED EFFECTIVE DOSE PER UNIT INTAKE e(g) VIA INHALATION (Sv.Bq-1)
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Nuclide half-life Type f1 e(g) g>1a e(g) e(g) e(g) e(g) e(g)
Hydrogen
Tritiated 12.3 a F 1.000 2.6 × 10-11 1.000 2.0 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11 8.2 × 10-12 5.9 × 10-12 6.2 × 10-12
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
water M 0.200 3.4 × 10 0.100 2.7 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.2 × 10 5.3 × 10 4.5 × 10-11
S 0.020 1.2 × 10-9 0.010 1.0 × 10-9 6.3 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10
Beryllium
Be-7 53.3 d M 0.020 2.5 × 10-10 0.005 2.1 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 8.3 × 10-11 6.2 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11
S 0.020 2.8 × 10-10 0.005 2.4 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 9.6 × 10-11 6.8 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11
6 -8 -8 -8 -8 -8
Be-10 1.60 × 10 a M 0.020 4.1 × 10 0.005 3.4 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.6 × 10-9
S 0.020 9.9 × 10-8 0.005 9.1 × 10-8 6.1 × 10-8 4.2 × 10-8 3.7 × 10-8 3.5 × 10-8
Carbon
C-11 0.340 h F 1.000 1.0 × 10-10 1.000 7.0 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11
M 0.200 1.5 × 10-10 0.100 1.1 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.6 × 10 0.010 1.1 × 10 5.1 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.8 × 10-11
C-14 5.73 × 103 a F 1.000 6.1 × 10-10 1.000 6.7 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 8.3 × 10 0.100 6.6 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.0 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
S 0.020 1.9 × 10 0.010 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.4 × 10 6.4 × 10 5.8 × 10-9
Fluorine
F-18 1.83 h F 1.000 2.6 × 10-10 1.000 1.9 × 10-10 9.1 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 1.000 4.1 × 10 1.000 2.9 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.7 × 10 6.9 × 10 5.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 1.000 4.2 × 10 1.000 3.1 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 7.3 × 10 5.9 × 10-11
Sodium
Na-22 2.60 a F 1.000 9.7 × 10-9 1.000 7.3 × 10-9 3.8 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9
Na-24 15.0 h F 1.000 2.3 × 10-9 1.000 1.8 × 10-9 9.3 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10
Magnesium
Mg-28 20.9 h F 1.000 5.3 × 10-9 0.500 4.7 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 7.3 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 1.000 7.3 × 10 0.500 7.2 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
Aluminium
Al-26 7.16 × 105 a F 0.020 8.1 × 10-8 0.010 6.2 × 10-8 3.2 × 10-8 2.0 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
M 0.020 8.8 × 10 0.010 7.4 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.2 × 10 2.0 × 10-8
Silicon
Si-31 2.62 h F 0.020 3.6 × 10-10 0.010 2.3 × 10-10 9.5 × 10-11 5.9 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.020 6.9 × 10 0.010 4.4 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.9 × 10 7.4 × 10-11
S 0.020 7.2 × 10-10 0.010 4.7 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 9.5 × 10-11 7.9 × 10-11
Si-32 4.50 × 102 a F 0.020 3.0 × 10-8 0.010 2.3 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 6.4 × 10-9 3.8 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
M 0.020 7.1 × 10 0.010 6.0 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.7 × 10-8
-7 -7 -7 -7 -7
S 0.020 2.8 × 10 0.010 2.7 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10 1.1 × 10-7
225
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Phosphorus
P-32 14.3 d F 1.000 1.2 × 10-8 0.800 7.5 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 9.8 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-10
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
M 1.000 2.2 × 10 0.800 1.5 × 10 8.0 × 10 5.3 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.4 × 10-9
P-33 25.4 d F 1.000 1.2 × 10-9 0.800 7.8 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 9.2 × 10-11
M 1.000 6.1 × 10-9 0.800 4.6 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9
Sulphur
S-35 87.4 d F 1.000 5.5 × 10-10 0.800 3.9 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-11 5.1 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
(inorganic) M 0.200 5.9 × 10 0.100 4.5 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.4 × 10-9
S 0.020 7.7 × 10-9 0.010 6.0 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9
Chlorine
Cl-36 3.01 × 105 a F 1.000 3.9 × 10-9 1.000 2.6 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 7.1 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10
M 1.000 3.1 × 10-8 1.000 2.6 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8 8.8 × 10-9 7.3 × 10-9
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Cl-38 0.620 h F 1.000 2.9 × 10 1.000 1.9 × 10 8.4 × 10 5.1 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 1.000 4.7 × 10 1.000 3.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.5 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.5 × 10-11
Cl-39 0.927 h F 1.000 2.7 × 10-10 1.000 1.8 × 10-10 8.4 × 10-11 5.1 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 1.000 4.3 × 10 1.000 2.8 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.5 × 10 5.6 × 10 4.6 × 10-11
Potassium
K-40 1.28 × 109 a F 1.000 2.4 × 10-8 1.000 1.7 × 10-8 7.5 × 10-9 4.5 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9
K-42 12.4 h F 1.000 1.6 × 10-9 1.000 1.0 × 10-9 4.4 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
K-43 22.6 h F 1.000 1.3 × 10-9 1.000 9.7 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10
K-44 0.369 h F 1.000 2.2 × 10-10 1.000 1.4 × 10-10 6.5 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11
K-45 0.333 h F 1.000 1.5 × 10-10 1.000 1.0 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11
Calcium79
Ca-41 1.40 × 105 a F 0.600 6.7 × 10-10 0.300 3.8 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10
M 0.200 4.2 × 10-10 0.100 2.6 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 9.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 6.7 × 10 0.010 6.0 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.8 × 10-10
Ca-45 163 d F 0.600 5.7 × 10-9 0.300 3.0 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 7.6 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 1.2 × 10 0.100 8.8 × 10 5.3 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.7 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 1.5 × 10 0.010 1.2 × 10 7.2 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.7 × 10-9
Ca-47 4.53 d F 0.600 4.9 × 10-9 0.300 3.6 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.1 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10
M 0.200 1.0 × 10-8 0.100 7.7 × 10-9 4.2 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 1.2 × 10 0.010 8.5 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10-9
Scandium
Sc-43 3.89 h S 0.001 9.3 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 6.7 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
79
The f1 value for calcium for 1 to 15 year olds for Type F is 0.4.
226
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Sc-44 3.93 h S 0.001 1.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-9 5.6 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
Sc-44m 2.44 d S 0.001 1.1 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-4 8.4 × 10-9 4.2 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
Sc-46 83.8 d S 0.001 2.8 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 9.8 × 10-9 8.4 × 10-9 6.8 × 10-9
Sc-47 3.35 d S 0.001 4.0 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 2.8 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 9.2 × 10-10 7.3 × 10-10
Sc-48 1.82 d S 0.001 7.8 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 5.9 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
Sc-49 0.956 h S 0.001 3.9 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.1 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11
Titanium
Ti-44 47.3 a F 0.020 3.1 × 10-7 0.010 2.6 × 10-7 1.5 × 10-7 9.6 × 10-8 6.6 × 10-8 6.1 × 10-8
-7 -7 -8 -8 -8
M 0.020 1.7 × 10 0.010 1.5 × 10 9.2 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.6 × 10 4.2 × 10-8
-7 -7 -7 -7 -7
S 0.020 3.2 × 10 0.010 3.1 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.2 × 10-7
Ti-45 3.08 h F 0.020 4.4 × 10-10 0.010 3.2 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 9.1 × 10-11 5.1 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.020 7.4 × 10 0.010 5.2 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.8 × 10-11
S 0.020 7.7 × 10-10 0.010 5.5 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 9.3 × 10-11
Vanadium
V-47 0.543 h F 0.020 1.8 × 10-10 0.010 1.2 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.020 2.8 × 10 0.010 1.9 × 10 8.6 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.9 × 10-11
V-48 16.2 d F 0.020 8.4 × 10-9 0.010 6.4 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
M 0.020 1.4 × 10-8 0.010 1.1 × 10-8 6.3 × 10-9 4.3 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9
V-49 330 d F 0.020 2.0 × 10-10 0.010 1.6 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.020 2.8 × 10 0.010 2.1 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.3 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.4 × 10-11
Chromium
Cr-48 23.0 h F 0.200 7.6 × 10-10 0.100 6.0 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 9.9 × 10-11
M 0.200 1.1 × 10-9 0.100 9.1 × 10-10 5.1 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.200 1.2 × 10 0.100 9.8 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.2 × 10-10
Cr-49 0.702 h F 0.200 1.9 × 10-10 0.100 1.3 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 3.0 × 10 0.100 2.0 × 10 9.5 × 10 6.1 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.200 3.1 × 10 0.100 2.1 × 10 9.9 × 10 6.4 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.5 × 10-11
Cr-51 27.7 d F 0.200 1.7 × 10-10 0.100 1.3 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11
M 0.200 2.6 × 10-10 0.100 1.9 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.200 2.6 × 10 0.100 2.1 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.6 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.7 × 10-11
Manganese
Mn-51 0.770 h F 0.200 2.5 × 10-10 0.100 1.7 × 10-10 7.5 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11
M 0.200 4.0 × 10-10 0.100 2.7 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.8 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11
Mn-52 5.59 d F 0.200 7.0 × 10-9 0.100 5.5 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 9.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 8.6 × 10 0.100 6.8 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-9
Mn-52m 0.352 h F 0.200 1.9 × 10-10 0.100 1.3 × 10-10 6.1 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 2.8 × 10 0.100 1.9 × 10 8.7 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.9 × 10-11
227
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Mn-53 3.70 × 106 a F 0.200 3.2 × 10-10 0.100 2.2 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11
M 0.200 4.6 × 10-10 0.100 3.4 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-11 5.4 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Mn-54 312 d F 0.200 5.2 × 10 0.100 4.1 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.9 × 10 8.5 × 10-10
M 0.200 7.5 × 10-9 0.100 6.2 × 10-9 3.8 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9
Mn-56 2.58 h F 0.200 6.9 × 10-10 0.100 4.9 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 7.8 × 10-11 6.4 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 1.1 × 10 0.100 7.8 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
Iron80
Fe-52 8.28 h F 0.600 5.2 × 10-9 0.100 3.6 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 8.9 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10
M 0.200 5.8 × 10-9 0.100 4.1 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.4 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
S 0.020 6.0 × 10 0.010 4.2 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.7 × 10 6.3 × 10-10
Fe-55 2.70 a F 0.600 4.2 × 10-9 0.100 3.2 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 9.4 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 1.9 × 10 0.100 1.4 × 10 9.9 × 10 6.2 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.8 × 10-10
S 0.020 1.0 × 10-9 0.010 8.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Fe-59 44.5 d F 0.600 2.1 × 10 0.100 1.3 × 10 7.1 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.2 × 10-9
M 0.200 1.8 × 10-8 0.100 1.3 × 10-8 7.9 × 10-9 5.5 × 10-9 4.6 × 10-9 3.7 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 1.7 × 10 0.010 1.3 × 10 8.1 × 10 5.8 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.0 × 10-9
Fe-60 1.00 × 105 a F 0.600 4.4 × 10-7 0.100 3.9 × 10-7 3.5 × 10-7 3.2 × 10-7 2.9 × 10-7 2.8 × 10-7
-7 -7 -7 -7 -7
M 0.200 2.0 × 10 0.100 1.7 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.4 × 10-7
S 0.020 9.3 × 10-8 0.010 8.8 × 10-8 6.7 × 10-8 5.2 × 10-8 4.9 × 10-8 4.9 × 10-8
Cobalt81
Co-55 17.5 h F 0.600 2.2 × 10-9 0.100 1.8 × 10-9 9.0 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.200 4.1 × 10 0.100 3.1 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.8 × 10 6.1 × 10 5.0 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
S 0.020 4.6 × 10 0.010 3.3 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.6 × 10 5.3 × 10-10
Co-56 78.7 d F 0.600 1.4 × 10-8 0.100 1.0 × 10-8 5.5 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
M 0.200 2.5 × 10 0.100 2.1 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.4 × 10 5.8 × 10 4.8 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -9
S 0.020 2.9 × 10 0.010 2.5 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.0 × 10 6.7 × 10-9
Co-57 271 d F 0.600 1.5 × 10-9 0.100 1.1 × 10-9 5.6 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.200 2.8 × 10 0.100 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.5 × 10 6.7 × 10 5.5 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 4.4 × 10 0.010 3.7 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.0 × 10-9
Co-58 70.8 d F 0.600 4.0 × 10-9 0.100 3.0 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 7.3 × 10 0.100 6.5 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 9.0 × 10 0.010 7.5 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10-9
Co-58m 9.15 h F 0.600 4.8 × 10-11 0.100 3.6 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11 5.9 × 10-12 5.2 × 10-12
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 1.1 × 10 0.100 7.6 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-11
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.3 × 10 0.010 9.0 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.7 × 10-11
Co-60 5.27 a F 0.600 3.0 × 10-8 0.100 2.3 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 8.9 × 10-9 6.1 × 10-9 5.2 × 10-9
80
The f1 value for iron for 1 to 15 year olds for Type F is 0.2.
81
The f1 value for cobalt for 1 to 15 year olds for Type F is 0.3.
228
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
M 0.200 4.2 × 10-8 0.100 3.4 × 10-8 2.1 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8
S 0.020 9.2 × 10-8 0.010 8.6 × 10-8 5.9 × 10-8 4.0 × 10-8 3.4 × 10-8 3.1 × 10-8
-12 -12 -12 -12 -13
Co-60m 0.174 h F 0.600 4.4 × 10 0.100 2.8 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.3 × 10 6.9 × 10-13
M 0.200 7.1 × 10-12 0.100 4.7 × 10-12 2.7 × 10-12 1.8 × 10-12 1.5 × 10-12 1.2 × 10-12
-12 -12 -12 -12 -12
S 0.020 7.6 × 10 0.010 5.1 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-12
Co-61 1.65 h F 0.600 2.1 × 10-10 0.100 1.4 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.200 4.0 × 10 0.100 2.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.2 × 10 5.7 × 10 4.7 × 10-11
S 0.020 4.3 × 10-10 0.010 2.8 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.8 × 10-11 6.1 × 10-11 5.1 × 10-11
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
Co-62m 0.232 h F 0.600 1.4 × 10 0.100 9.5 × 10 4.5 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-11
M 0.200 1.9 × 10-10 0.100 1.3 × 10-10 6.1 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 2.0 × 10 0.010 1.3 × 10 6.3 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.1 × 10-11
Nickel
Ni-56 6.10 d F 0.100 3.3 × 10-9 0.050 2.8 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 9.3 × 10-10 5.8 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.100 4.9 × 10 0.050 4.1 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.7 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 5.5 × 10 0.010 4.6 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-9
Ni-57 1.50 d F 0.100 2.2 × 10-9 0.050 1.8 × 10-9 8.9 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.100 3.6 × 10 0.050 2.8 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.5 × 10 6.2 × 10 5.0 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
S 0.020 3.9 × 10 0.010 3.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.6 × 10 5.3 × 10-10
Ni-59 7.50 × 104 a F 0.100 9.6 × 10-10 0.050 8.1 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.100 7.9 × 10 0.050 6.2 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 1.7 × 10 0.010 1.5 × 10 9.5 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.6 × 10 4.4 × 10-10
Ni-63 96.0 a F 0.100 2.3 × 10-9 0.050 2.0 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.7 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.100 2.5 × 10 0.050 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.0 × 10 5.3 × 10 4.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 4.8 × 10 0.010 4.3 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
Ni-65 2.52 h F 0.100 4.4 × 10-10 0.050 3.0 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-11 4.9 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.100 7.7 × 10 0.050 5.2 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 8.1 × 10 0.010 5.5 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.0 × 10-11
Ni-66 2.27 d F 0.100 5.7 × 10-9 0.050 3.8 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 5.1 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.100 1.3 × 10 0.050 9.4 × 10 4.5 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 1.5 × 10 0.010 1.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.8 × 10-9
Copper
Cu-60 0.387 h F 1.000 2.1 × 10-10 0.500 1.6 × 10-10 7.5 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 1.000 3.0 × 10 0.500 2.2 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 1.000 3.1 × 10 0.500 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.7 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.4 × 10-11
Cu-61 3.41 h F 1.000 3.1 × 10-10 0.500 2.7 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 7.9 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11
M 1.000 4.9 × 10-10 0.500 4.4 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 9.1 × 10-11 7.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 1.000 5.1 × 10 0.500 4.5 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.6 × 10 7.8 × 10-11
Cu-64 12.7 h F 1.000 2.8 × 10-10 0.500 2.7 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.6 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 1.000 5.5 × 10 0.500 5.4 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 1.000 5.8 × 10 0.500 5.7 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
229
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Cu-67 2.58 d F 1.000 9.5 × 10-10 0.500 8.0 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10
M 1.000 2.3 × 10-9 0.500 2.0 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 8.1 × 10-10 6.9 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 1.000 2.5 × 10 0.500 2.1 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.9 × 10 7.7 × 10 6.1 × 10-10
Zinc
Zn-62 9.26 h F 1.000 1.7 × 10-9 0.500 1.7 × 10-9 7.7 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
M 0.200 4.5 × 10 0.100 3.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 5.0 × 10-10
S 0.020 5.1 × 10-9 0.010 3.4 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.6 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10
Zn-63 0.635 h F 1.000 2.1 × 10-10 0.500 1.4 × 10-10 6.5 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.200 3.4 × 10 0.100 2.3 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.6 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.020 3.6 × 10 0.010 2.4 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.9 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.7 × 10-11
Zn-65 244 d F 1.000 1.5 × 10-8 0.500 1.0 × 10-8 5.7 × 10-9 3.8 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 8.5 × 10 0.100 6.5 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.6 × 10-9
S 0.020 7.6 × 10-9 0.010 6.7 × 10-9 4.4 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9
Zn-69 0.950 h F 1.000 1.1 × 10-10 0.500 7.4 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 2.2 × 10 0.100 1.4 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 2.3 × 10 0.010 1.5 × 10 6.9 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.8 × 10-11
Zn-69m 13.8 h F 1.000 6.6 × 10-10 0.500 6.7 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 9.9 × 10-11 8.2 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 2.1 × 10 0.100 1.5 × 10 7.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.4 × 10-10
S 0.020 2.2 × 10-9 0.010 1.7 × 10-9 8.2 × 10-10 5.4 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10
Zn-71m 3.92 h F 1.000 6.2 × 10-10 0.500 5.5 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 9.1 × 10-11 7.4 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 1.3 × 10 0.100 9.4 × 10 4.6 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.5 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 1.4 × 10 0.010 1.0 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10-10
Zn-72 1.94 d F 1.000 4.3 × 10-9 0.500 3.5 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 5.9 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 8.8 × 10 0.100 6.5 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
S 0.020 9.7 × 10-9 0.010 7.0 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9
Gallium
Ga-65 0.253 h F 0.010 1.1 × 10-10 0.001 7.3 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.010 1.6 × 10 0.001 1.1 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.7 × 10-11
Ga-66 9.40 h F 0.010 2.8 × 10-9 0.001 2.0 × 10-9 9.2 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10
M 0.010 4.5 × 10-9 0.001 3.1 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 9.2 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10
Ga-67 3.26 d F 0.010 6.4 × 10-10 0.001 4.6 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-11 6.4 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.010 1.4 × 10 0.001 1.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.6 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.4 × 10-10
Ga-68 1.13 h F 0.010 2.9 × 10-10 0.001 1.9 × 10-10 8.8 × 10-11 5.4 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11
M 0.010 4.6 × 10-10 0.001 3.1 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 9.2 × 10-11 5.9 × 10-11 4.9 × 10-11
Ga-70 0.353 h F 0.010 9.5 × 10-11 0.001 6.0 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11 8.8 × 10-12
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 0.010 1.5 × 10 0.001 9.6 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.6 × 10-11
Ga-72 14.1 h F 0.010 2.9 × 10-9 0.001 2.2 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
M 0.010 4.5 × 10 0.001 3.3 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.5 × 10 5.3 × 10-10
Ga-73 4.91 h F 0.010 6.7 × 10-10 0.001 4.5 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-11 5.4 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.010 1.2 × 10 0.001 8.4 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-10
230
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Germanium
Ge-66 2.27 h F 1.000 4.5 × 10-10 1.000 3.5 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.7 × 10-11 5.4 × 10-11
M 1.000 6.4 × 10-10 1.000 4.8 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 9.1 × 10-11
Ge-67 0.312 h F 1.000 1.7 × 10-10 1.000 1.1 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 1.000 2.5 × 10 1.000 1.6 × 10 7.3 × 10 4.6 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.5 × 10-11
Ge-68 288 d F 1.000 5.4 × 10-9 1.000 3.8 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.3 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
M 1.000 6.0 × 10 1.000 5.0 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.4 × 10-8
Ge-69 1.63 d F 1.000 1.2 × 10-9 1.000 9.0 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 1.000 1.8 × 10 1.000 1.4 × 10 7.4 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.9 × 10-10
Ge-71 11.8 d F 1.000 6.0 × 10-11 1.000 4.3 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11 6.1 × 10-12 4.8 × 10-12
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 1.000 1.2 × 10 1.000 8.6 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10-11
Ge-75 1.38 h F 1.000 1.6 × 10-10 1.000 1.0 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 1.000 2.9 × 10 1.000 1.9 × 10 8.9 × 10 6.1 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.6 × 10-11
Ge-77 11.3 h F 1.000 1.3 × 10-9 1.000 9.5 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 1.000 2.3 × 10 1.000 1.7 × 10 8.8 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.7 × 10-10
Ge-78 1.45 h F 1.000 4.3 × 10-10 1.000 2.9 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.9 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 1.000 7.3 × 10 1.000 5.0 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.5 × 10-11
Arsenic
As-69 0.253 h M 1.000 2.1 × 10-10 0.500 1.4 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11
As-70 0.876 h M 1.000 5.7 × 10-10 0.500 4.3 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.3 × 10-11 6.7 × 10-11
As-71 2.70 d M 1.000 2.2 × 10-9 0.500 1.9 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10
As-72 1.08 d M 1.000 5.9 × 10-9 0.500 5.7 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 9.0 × 10-10
As-73 80.3 d M 1.000 5.4 × 10-9 0.500 4.0 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9
As-74 17.8 d M 1.000 1.1 × 10-8 0.500 8.4 × 10-9 4.7 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9
As-76 1.10 d M 1.000 5.1 × 10-9 0.500 4.6 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 8.8 × 10-10 7.4 × 10-10
As-77 1.62 d M 1.000 2.2 × 10-9 0.500 1.7 × 10-9 8.9 × 10-10 6.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10
As-78 1.51 h M 1.000 8.0 × 10-10 0.500 5.8 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 8.9 × 10-11
Selenium
Se-70 0.683 h F 1.000 3.9 × 10-10 0.800 3.0 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 9.0 × 10-11 5.1 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.200 6.5 × 10 0.100 4.7 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.9 × 10 7.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 0.020 6.8 × 10 0.010 4.8 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.4 × 10 7.6 × 10-11
Se-73 7.15 h F 1.000 7.7 × 10-10 0.800 6.5 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 8.0 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 1.6 × 10 0.100 1.2 × 10 5.9 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 1.8 × 10 0.010 1.3 × 10 6.3 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10-10
Se-73m 0.650 h F 1.000 9.3 × 10-11 0.800 7.2 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11 9.2 × 10-12
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 1.8 × 10 0.100 1.3 × 10 6.1 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.9 × 10 0.010 1.3 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.2 × 10-11
231
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Se-75 120 d F 1.000 7.8 × 10-9 0.800 6.0 × 10-9 3.4 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9
M 0.200 5.4 × 10-9 0.100 4.5 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 5.6 × 10 0.010 4.7 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
Se-79 6.50 × 104 a F 1.000 1.6 × 10-8 0.800 1.3 × 10-8 7.7 × 10-9 5.6 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 1.4 × 10 0.100 1.1 × 10 6.9 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.6 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
S 0.020 2.3 × 10 0.010 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.7 × 10 7.6 × 10 6.8 × 10-9
Se-81 0.308 h F 1.000 8.6 × 10-11 0.800 5.4 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11 9.2 × 10-12 8.0 × 10-12
M 0.200 1.3 × 10-10 0.100 8.5 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.4 × 10 0.010 8.9 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.5 × 10-11
Se-81m 0.954 h F 1.000 1.8 × 10-10 0.800 1.2 × 10-10 5.4 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.200 3.8 × 10 0.100 2.5 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.0 × 10 5.8 × 10 4.7 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.020 4.1 × 10 0.010 2.7 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.5 × 10 6.2 × 10 5.1 × 10-11
Se-83 0.375 h F 1.000 1.7 × 10-10 0.800 1.2 × 10-10 5.8 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11
M 0.200 2.7 × 10-10 0.100 1.9 × 10-10 9.2 × 10-11 5.9 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 2.8 × 10 0.010 2.0 × 10 9.6 × 10 6.2 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.4 × 10-11
Bromine
Br-74 0.422 h F 1.000 2.5 × 10-10 1.000 1.8 × 10-10 8.6 × 10-11 5.3 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 1.000 3.6 × 10 1.000 2.5 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.5 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.8 × 10-11
Br-74m 0.691 h F 1.000 4.0 × 10-10 1.000 2.8 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.1 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 1.000 5.9 × 10 1.000 4.1 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.5 × 10 6.2 × 10-11
Br-75 1.63 h F 1.000 2.9 × 10-10 1.000 2.1 × 10-10 9.7 × 10-11 5.9 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 1.000 4.5 × 10 1.000 3.1 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.7 × 10 6.5 × 10 5.3 × 10-11
Br-76 16.2 h F 1.000 2.2 × 10-9 1.000 1.7 × 10-9 8.4 × 10-10 5.1 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 1.000 3.0 × 10 1.000 2.3 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.1 × 10-10
Br-77 2.33 d F 1.000 5.3 × 10-10 1.000 4.4 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-11 6.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 1.000 6.3 × 10 1.000 5.1 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.4 × 10-11
Br-80 0.290 h F 1.000 7.1 × 10-11 1.000 4.4 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 6.9 × 10-12 5.9 × 10-12
M 1.000 1.1 × 10-10 1.000 6.5 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11 9.4 × 10-12
Br-80m 4.42 h F 1.000 4.3 × 10-10 1.000 2.8 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 1.000 6.8 × 10 1.000 4.5 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.3 × 10 7.6 × 10-11
Br-82 1.47 d F 1.000 2.7 × 10-9 1.000 2.2 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.0 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
M 1.000 3.8 × 10 1.000 3.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.9 × 10 6.3 × 10-10
Br-83 2.39 h F 1.000 1.7 × 10-10 1.000 1.1 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11
M 1.000 3.5 × 10-10 1.000 2.3 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-11 5.9 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Br-84 0.530 h F 1.000 2.4 × 10 1.000 1.6 × 10 7.1 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.2 × 10-11
M 1.000 3.7 × 10-10 1.000 2.4 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.9 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11
Rubidium
Rb-79 0.382 h F 1.000 1.6 × 10-10 1.000 1.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11
Rb-81 4.58 h F 1.000 3.2 × 10-10 1.000 2.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.1 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11
232
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Rb-81m 0.533 h F 1.000 6.2 × 10-11 1.000 4.6 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11 8.5 × 10-12 7.0 × 10-12
Rb-82m 6.20 h F 1.000 8.6 × 10-10 1.000 7.3 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
Rb-83 86.2 d F 1.000 4.9 × 10-9 1.000 3.8 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 7.9 × 10-10 6.9 × 10-10
Rb-84 32.8 d F 1.000 8.6 × 10-9 1.000 6.4 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9
Rb-86 18.7 d F 1.000 1.2 × 10-8 1.000 7.7 × 10-9 3.4 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 9.3 × 10-10
Rb-87 4.70 × 1010 a F 1.000 6.0 × 10-9 1.000 4.1 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10
Rb-88 0.297 h F 1.000 1.9 × 10-10 1.000 1.2 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11
Rb-89 0.253 h F 1.000 1.4 × 10-10 1.000 9.3 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11
Strontium82
Sr-80 1.67 h F 0.600 7.8 × 10-10 0.300 5.4 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 7.9 × 10-11 7.1 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 1.4 × 10 0.100 9.0 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.3 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 1.5 × 10 0.010 9.4 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.4 × 10-10
Sr-81 0.425 h F 0.600 2.1 × 10-10 0.300 1.5 × 10-10 6.7 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.200 3.3 × 10 0.100 2.2 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.6 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.020 3.4 × 10 0.010 2.3 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.9 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.7 × 10-11
Sr-82 25.0 d F 0.600 2.8 × 10-8 0.300 1.5 × 10-8 6.6 × 10-9 4.6 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
M 0.200 5.5 × 10 0.100 4.0 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.9 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.020 6.1 × 10 0.010 4.6 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.1 × 10-8
Sr-83 1.35 d F 0.600 1.4 × 10-9 0.300 1.1 × 10-9 5.5 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 2.5 × 10 0.100 1.9 × 10 9.5 × 10 6.0 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.1 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.020 2.8 × 10 0.010 2.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.4 × 10-10
Sr-85 64.8 d F 0.600 4.4 × 10-9 0.300 2.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 9.6 × 10-10 8.3 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
M 0.200 4.3 × 10 0.100 3.1 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.8 × 10 6.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 4.4 × 10 0.010 3.7 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.1 × 10-10
Sr-85m 1.16 h F 0.600 2.4 × 10-11 0.300 1.9 × 10-11 9.6 × 10-12 6.0 × 10-12 3.7 × 10-12 2.9 × 10-12
-11 -11 -11 -12 -12
M 0.200 3.1 × 10 0.100 2.5 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.0 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.1 × 10-12
-11 -11 -11 -12 -12
S 0.020 3.2 × 10 0.010 2.6 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.3 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.3 × 10-12
Sr-87m 2.80 h F 0.600 9.7 × 10-11 0.300 7.8 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 1.6 × 10 0.100 1.2 × 10 5.9 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.7 × 10 0.010 1.2 × 10 6.2 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10-11
Sr-89 50.5 d F 0.600 1.5 × 10-8 0.300 7.3 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
M 0.200 3.3 × 10 0.100 2.4 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.1 × 10 7.3 × 10 6.1 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -9
S 0.020 3.9 × 10 0.010 3.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.3 × 10 7.9 × 10-9
Sr-90 29.1 a F 0.600 1.3 × 10-7 0.300 5.2 × 10-8 3.1 × 10-8 4.1 × 10-8 5.3 × 10-8 2.4 × 10-8
-7 -7 -8 -8 -8
M 0.200 1.5 × 10 0.100 1.1 × 10 6.5 × 10 5.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.6 × 10-8
-7 -7 -7 -7 -7
S 0.020 4.2 × 10 0.010 4.0 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.6 × 10-7
Sr-91 9.50 h F 0.600 1.4 × 10-9 0.300 1.1 × 10-9 5.2 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.200 3.1 × 10 0.100 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.9 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.7 × 10-10
82
The f1 value for strontium for 1 to 15 year olds for Type F is 0.4.
233
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
S 0.020 3.5 × 10-9 0.010 2.5 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.7 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-10 4.1 × 10-10
Sr-92 2.71 h F 0.600 9.0 × 10-10 0.300 7.1 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 9.8 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 1.9 × 10 0.100 1.4 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.1 × 10-10
S 0.020 2.2 × 10-9 0.010 1.5 × 10-9 7.0 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10
Yttrium
Y-86 14.7 h M 0.001 3.7 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 9.3 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10
S 0.001 3.8 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 3.0 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 9.6 × 10-10 5.8 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
Y-86m 0.800 h M 0.001 2.2 × 10 1.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 8.7 × 10 5.6 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.7 × 10-11
S 0.001 2.3 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-10 9.0 × 10-11 5.7 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11
Y-87 3.35 d M 0.001 2.7 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 7.0 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.001 2.8 × 10 1.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.9 × 10-10
Y-88 × 107 d M 0.001 1.9 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8 6.7 × 10-9 4.9 × 10-9 4.1 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
S 0.001 2.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 9.8 × 10 6.6 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.4 × 10-9
Y-90 2.67 d M 0.001 1.3 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-4 8.4 × 10-9 4.0 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.001 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.8 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.5 × 10-9
Y-90m 3.19 h M 0.001 7.2 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 5.7 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 9.5 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.001 7.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
Y-91 58.5 d M 0.001 3.9 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-4 3.0 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 8.4 × 10-9 7.1 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.001 4.3 × 10 1.0 × 10 3.4 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.9 × 10-9
Y-91m 0.828 h M 0.001 7.0 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-4 5.5 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11
-11 -4 -11 -11 -11 -11
S 0.001 7.4 × 10 1.0 × 10 5.9 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-11
Y-92 3.54 h M 0.001 1.8 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-9 5.3 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.001 1.9 × 10 1.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.8 × 10-10
Y-93 10.1 h M 0.001 4.4 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 8.1 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10
S 0.001 4.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-4 3.0 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 8.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10
Y-94 0.318 h M 0.001 2.8 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-10 8.1 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.001 2.9 × 10 1.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 8.4 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.8 × 10-11
Y-95 0.178 h M 0.001 1.5 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-4 9.8 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.001 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 4.5 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.6 × 10-11
Zirconium
Zr-86 16.5 h F 0.020 2.4 × 10-9 0.002 1.9 × 10-9 9.5 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.020 3.4 × 10 0.002 2.6 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.4 × 10 5.2 × 10 4.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.020 3.5 × 10 0.002 2.7 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.7 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.3 × 10-10
Zr-88 83.4 d F 0.020 6.9 × 10-9 0.002 8.3 × 10-9 5.6 × 10-9 4.7 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.020 8.5 × 10 0.002 7.8 × 10 5.1 × 10 3.6 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.6 × 10-9
S 0.020 1.3 × 10-8 0.002 1.2 × 10-8 7.7 × 10-9 5.2 × 10-9 4.3 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9
Zr-89 3.27 d F 0.020 2.6 × 10-9 0.002 2.0 × 10-9 9.9 × 10-10 6.1 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.020 3.7 × 10 0.002 2.8 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.6 × 10 6.5 × 10 5.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
S 0.020 3.9 × 10 0.002 2.9 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.8 × 10 5.5 × 10-10
234
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Zr-93 1.53 × 106 a F 0.020 3.5 × 10-9 0.002 4.8 × 10-9 5.3 × 10-9 9.7 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-8 2.5 × 10-8
M 0.020 3.3 × 10-9 0.002 3.1 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 4.1 × 10-9 7.5 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-8
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 7.0 × 10 0.002 6.4 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.3 × 10 3.3 × 10 3.3 × 10-9
Zr-95 64.0 d F 0.020 1.2 × 10-8 0.002 1.1 × 10-8 6.4 × 10-9 4.2 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
M 0.020 2.0 × 10 0.002 1.6 × 10 9.7 × 10 6.8 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.8 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
S 0.020 2.4 × 10 0.002 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.3 × 10 7.3 × 10 5.9 × 10-9
Zr-97 16.9 h F 0.020 5.0 × 10-9 0.002 3.4 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 9.1 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10
M 0.020 7.8 × 10-9 0.002 5.3 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 9.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 8.2 × 10 0.002 5.6 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.9 × 10-10
Niobium
Nb-88 0.238 h F 0.020 1.8 × 10-10 0.010 1.3 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.020 2.5 × 10 0.010 1.8 × 10 8.5 × 10 5.3 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.7 × 10-11
S 0.020 2.6 × 10-10 0.010 1.8 × 10-10 8.7 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Nb-89 2.03 h F 0.020 7.0 × 10 0.010 4.8 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.4 × 10 6.1 × 10-11
M 0.020 1.1 × 10-9 0.010 7.6 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 1.2 × 10 0.010 7.9 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
Nb-89m 1.10 h F 0.020 4.0 × 10-10 0.010 2.9 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.3 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.020 6.2 × 10 0.010 4.3 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.2 × 10 6.8 × 10-11
S 0.020 6.4 × 10-10 0.010 4.4 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.6 × 10-11 7.1 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Nb-90 14.6 h F 0.020 3.5 × 10 0.010 2.7 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.2 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.8 × 10-10
M 0.020 5.1 × 10-9 0.010 3.9 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 7.8 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
S 0.020 5.3 × 10 0.010 4.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.1 × 10 6.6 × 10-10
Nb-93m 13.6 a F 0.020 1.8 × 10-9 0.010 1.4 × 10-9 7.0 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.020 3.1 × 10 0.010 2.4 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.2 × 10 5.9 × 10 5.1 × 10-10
S 0.020 7.4 × 10-9 0.010 6.5 × 10-9 4.0 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9
4 -8 -8 -8 -8 -9
Nb-94 2.03 × 10 a F 0.020 3.1 × 10 0.010 2.7 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.7 × 10 5.8 × 10-9
M 0.020 4.3 × 10-8 0.010 3.7 × 10-8 2.3 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8
-7 -7 -8 -8 -8
S 0.020 1.2 × 10 0.010 1.2 × 10 8.3 × 10 5.8 × 10 5.2 × 10 4.9 × 10-8
Nb-95 35.1 d F 0.020 4.1 × 10-9 0.010 3.1 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.5 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.020 6.8 × 10 0.010 5.2 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.5 × 10-9
S 0.020 7.7 × 10-9 0.010 5.9 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
Nb-95m 3.61 d F 0.020 2.3 × 10 0.010 1.6 × 10 7.0 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.0 × 10-10
M 0.020 4.3 × 10-9 0.010 3.1 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 7.9 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 4.6 × 10 0.010 3.4 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.8 × 10-10
Nb-96 23.3 h F 0.020 3.1 × 10-9 0.010 2.4 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.3 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
M 0.020 4.7 × 10 0.010 3.6 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.8 × 10 6.3 × 10-10
S 0.020 4.9 × 10-9 0.010 3.7 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 8.3 × 10-10 6.6 × 10-10
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Nb-97 1.20 h F 0.020 2.2 × 10 0.010 1.5 × 10 6.8 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.1 × 10-11
M 0.020 3.7 × 10-10 0.010 2.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-11 5.2 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.020 3.8 × 10 0.010 2.6 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.1 × 10 5.5 × 10 4.5 × 10-11
Nb-98 0.858 h F 0.020 3.4 × 10-10 0.010 2.4 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.9 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11
235
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
M 0.020 5.2 × 10-10 0.010 3.6 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.8 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11
S 0.020 5.3 × 10-10 0.010 3.7 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.1 × 10-11 5.8 × 10-11
Molybdenum
Mo-90 5.67 h F 1.000 1.2 × 10-9 0.800 1.1 × 10-9 5.3 × 10-10 3.2 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 2.6 × 10 0.100 2.0 × 10 9.9 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.020 2.8 × 10 0.010 2.1 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.9 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.6 × 10-10
Mo-93 3.50 × 103 a F 1.000 3.1 × 10-9 0.800 2.6 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.200 2.2 × 10 0.100 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.9 × 10 6.6 × 10 5.9 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 6.0 × 10 0.010 5.8 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.3 × 10-9
Mo-93m 6.85 h F 1.000 7.3 × 10-10 0.800 6.4 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 9.6 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 1.2 × 10 0.100 9.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 1.3 × 10 0.010 1.0 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-10
Mo-99 2.75 d F 1.000 2.3 × 10-9 0.800 1.7 × 10-9 7.7 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 6.0 × 10 0.100 4.4 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.9 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 6.9 × 10 0.010 4.8 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.9 × 10-10
Mo-101 0.244 h F 1.000 1.4 × 10-10 0.800 9.7 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 2.2 × 10 0.100 1.5 × 10 7.0 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 2.3 × 10 0.010 1.6 × 10 7.2 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.6 × 10-11
Technetium
Tc-93 2.75 h F 1.000 2.4 × 10-10 0.800 2.1 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.7 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.200 2.7 × 10 0.100 2.3 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.5 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.020 2.8 × 10 0.010 2.3 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.6 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.5 × 10-11
Tc-93m 0.725 h F 1.000 1.2 × 10-10 0.800 9.8 × 10-11 4.9 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11
M 0.200 1.4 × 10-10 0.100 1.1 × 10-10 5.4 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.4 × 10 0.010 1.1 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-11
Tc-94 4.88 h F 1.000 8.9 × 10-10 0.800 7.5 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 9.8 × 10 0.100 8.1 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 9.9 × 10 0.010 8.2 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-10
Tc-94m 0.867 h F 1.000 4.8 × 10-10 0.800 3.4 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 8.6 × 10-11 5.2 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11
M 0.200 4.4 × 10-10 0.100 3.0 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.8 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.020 4.3 × 10 0.010 3.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.8 × 10 5.6 × 10 4.6 × 10-11
Tc-95 20.0 h F 1.000 7.5 × 10-10 0.800 6.3 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 9.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 8.3 × 10 0.100 6.9 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 8.5 × 10 0.010 7.0 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
Tc-95m 61.0 d F 1.000 2.4 × 10-9 0.800 1.8 × 10-9 9.3 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10
M 0.200 4.9 × 10-9 0.100 4.0 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 8.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 6.0 × 10 0.010 5.0 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
Tc-96 4.28 d F 1.000 4.2 × 10-9 0.800 3.4 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 7.0 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
M 0.200 4.7 × 10 0.100 3.9 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.6 × 10 6.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
S 0.020 4.8 × 10 0.010 3.9 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.9 × 10 7.0 × 10-10
236
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Tc-96m 0.858 h F 1.000 5.3 × 10-11 0.800 4.1 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11 7.7 × 10-12 6.2 × 10-12
M 0.200 5.6 × 10-11 0.100 4.4 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11 9.3 × 10-12 7.4 × 10-12
-11 -11 -11 -11 -12
S 0.020 5.7 × 10 0.010 4.4 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.5 × 10 7.5 × 10-12
Tc-97 2.60 × 106 a F 1.000 5.2 × 10-10 0.800 3.7 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 9.4 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 1.2 × 10 0.100 1.0 × 10 5.7 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 5.0 × 10 0.010 4.8 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.8 × 10-9
Tc-97m 87.0 d F 1.000 3.4 × 10-9 0.800 2.3 × 10-9 9.8 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10
M 0.200 1.3 × 10-8 0.100 1.0 × 10-8 6.1 × 10-9 4.4 × 10-9 4.1 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 1.6 × 10 0.010 1.3 × 10 7.8 × 10 5.7 × 10 5.2 × 10 4.1 × 10-9
Tc-98 4.20 × 106 a F 1.000 1.0 × 10-8 0.800 6.8 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 9.7 × 10-10
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
M 0.200 3.5 × 10 0.100 2.9 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.3 × 10-9
-7 -7 -8 -8 -8
S 0.020 1.1 × 10 0.010 1.1 × 10 7.6 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.8 × 10 4.5 × 10-8
Tc-99 2.13 × 105 a F 1.000 4.0 × 10-9 0.800 2.5 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 5.9 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10
M 0.200 1.7 × 10-8 0.100 1.3 × 10-8 8.0 × 10-9 5.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-9 4.0 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.020 4.1 × 10 0.010 3.7 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.3 × 10-8
Tc-99m 6.02 h F 1.000 1.2 × 10-10 0.800 8.7 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 1.3 × 10 0.100 9.9 × 10 5.1 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.3 × 10 0.010 1.0 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.0 × 10-11
Tc-101 0.237 h F 1.000 8.5 × 10-11 0.800 5.6 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 9.7 × 10-12 8.2 × 10-12
M 0.200 1.1 × 10-10 0.100 7.1 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.1 × 10 0.010 7.3 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.2 × 10-11
Tc-104 0.303 h F 1.000 2.7 × 10-10 0.800 1.8 × 10-10 8.0 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 2.9 × 10 0.100 1.9 × 10 8.6 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 2.9 × 10 0.010 1.9 × 10 8.7 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.9 × 10-11
Ruthenium
Ru-94 0.863 h F 0.100 2.5 × 10-10 0.050 1.9 × 10-10 9.0 × 10-11 5.4 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.100 3.8 × 10 0.050 2.8 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.4 × 10 5.2 × 10 4.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.020 4.0 × 10 0.010 2.9 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.7 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.4 × 10-11
Ru-97 2.90 d F 0.100 5.5 × 10-10 0.050 4.4 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-11 6.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.100 7.7 × 10 0.050 6.1 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
S 0.020 8.1 × 10-10 0.010 6.3 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
Ru-103 39.3 d F 0.100 4.2 × 10-9 0.050 3.0 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 9.3 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.100 1.1 × 10 0.050 8.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.5 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.4 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 1.3 × 10 0.010 1.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.7 × 10 3.0 × 10-9
Ru-105 4.44 h F 0.100 7.1 × 10-10 0.050 5.1 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 7.9 × 10-11 6.5 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.100 1.3 × 10 0.050 9.2 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.7 × 10-10
S 0.020 1.4 × 10-9 0.010 9.8 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10 3.2 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
Ru-106 1.01 a F 0.100 7.2 × 10-8 0.050 5.4 × 10-8 2.6 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 9.2 × 10-9 7.9 × 10-9
-7 -7 -8 -8 -8
M 0.100 1.4 × 10 0.050 1.1 × 10 6.4 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.8 × 10-8
-7 -7 -7 -8 -8
S 0.020 2.6 × 10 0.010 2.3 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.1 × 10 7.1 × 10 6.6 × 10-8
237
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Rhodium
Rh-99 16.0 d F 0.100 2.6 × 10-9 0.050 2.0 × 10-9 9.9 × 10-10 6.2 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 3.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
M 0.100 4.5 × 10 0.050 3.5 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.6 × 10 7.7 × 10-10
S 0.100 4.9 × 10-9 0.050 3.8 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 8.7 × 10-10
Rh-99m 4.70 h F 0.100 2.4 × 10-10 0.050 2.0 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 6.1 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.100 3.1 × 10 0.050 2.5 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.0 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.100 3.2 × 10 0.050 2.6 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.2 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.0 × 10-11
Rh-100 20.8 h F 0.100 2.1 × 10-9 0.050 1.8 × 10-9 9.1 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.100 2.7 × 10 0.050 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.1 × 10 4.3 × 10 3.4 × 10-10
S 0.100 2.8 × 10-9 0.050 2.2 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.3 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10
Rh-101 3.20 a F 0.100 7.4 × 10-9 0.050 6.1 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.100 9.8 × 10 0.050 8.0 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.3 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
S 0.100 1.9 × 10 0.050 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.4 × 10 6.2 × 10 5.4 × 10-9
Rh-101m 4.34 d F 0.100 8.4 × 10-10 0.050 6.6 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 9.7 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.100 1.3 × 10 0.050 9.8 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.9 × 10-10
S 0.100 1.3 × 10-9 0.050 1.0 × 10-9 5.5 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10
Rh-102 2.90 a F 0.100 3.3 × 10-8 0.050 2.8 × 10-8 1.7 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 7.9 × 10-9 7.3 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -9
M 0.100 3.0 × 10 0.050 2.5 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 7.9 × 10 6.9 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.100 5.4 × 10 0.050 5.0 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.7 × 10-8
Rh-102m 207 d F 0.100 1.2 × 10-8 0.050 8.7 × 10-9 4.4 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
M 0.100 2.0 × 10 0.050 1.6 × 10 9.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.7 × 10 4.0 × 10-9
S 0.100 3.0 × 10-8 0.050 2.5 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8 8.2 × 10-9 7.1 × 10-9
Rh-103m 0.935 h F 0.100 8.6 × 10-12 0.050 5.9 × 10-12 2.7 × 10-12 1.6 × 10-12 1.0 × 10-12 8.6 × 10-13
-11 -11 -12 -12 -12
M 0.100 1.9 × 10 0.050 1.2 × 10 6.3 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.5 × 10-12
-11 -11 -12 -12 -12
S 0.100 2.0 × 10 0.050 1.3 × 10 6.7 × 10 4.3 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.7 × 10-12
Rh-105 1.47 d F 0.100 1.0 × 10-9 0.050 6.9 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 9.6 × 10-11 8.2 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.100 2.2 × 10 0.050 1.6 × 10 7.4 × 10 5.2 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.2 × 10-10
S 0.100 2.4 × 10-9 0.050 1.7 × 10-9 8.0 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10
Rh-106m 2.20 h F 0.100 5.7 × 10-10 0.050 4.5 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.0 × 10-11 6.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.100 8.2 × 10 0.050 6.3 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.100 8.5 × 10 0.050 6.5 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
Rh-107 0.362 h F 0.100 8.9 × 10-11 0.050 5.9 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11 9.0 × 10-12
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 0.100 1.4 × 10 0.050 9.3 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.6 × 10-11
S 0.100 1.5 × 10-10 0.050 9.7 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11
Palladium
Pd-100 3.63 d F 0.050 3.9 × 10-9 0.005 3.0 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 9.7 × 10-10 5.8 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10
M 0.050 5.2 × 10-9 0.005 4.0 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 9.9 × 10-10 8.0 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.050 5.3 × 10 0.005 4.1 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.5 × 10-10
Pd-101 8.27 h F 0.050 3.6 × 10-10 0.005 2.9 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.6 × 10-11 4.9 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.050 4.8 × 10 0.005 3.8 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.5 × 10 5.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 0.050 5.0 × 10 0.005 3.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.8 × 10 6.2 × 10-11
238
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Pd-103 17.0 d F 0.050 9.7 × 10-10 0.005 6.5 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 8.9 × 10-11
M 0.050 2.3 × 10-9 0.005 1.6 × 10-9 9.0 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.050 2.5 × 10 0.005 1.8 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.8 × 10 5.3 × 10 4.5 × 10-10
Pd-107 6.50 × 106 a F 0.050 2.6 × 10-10 0.005 1.8 × 10-10 8.2 × 10-11 5.2 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.050 6.5 × 10 0.005 5.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.5 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.050 2.2 × 10 0.005 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.8 × 10 6.2 × 10 5.9 × 10-10
Pd-109 13.4 h F 0.050 1.5 × 10-9 0.005 9.9 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
M 0.050 2.6 × 10-9 0.005 1.8 × 10-9 8.8 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.050 2.7 × 10 0.005 1.9 × 10 9.3 × 10 6.3 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.7 × 10-10
Silver
Ag-102 0.215 h F 0.100 1.2 × 10-10 0.050 8.6 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.100 1.6 × 10 0.050 1.1 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-11
S 0.020 1.6 × 10-10 0.010 1.2 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11
Ag-103 1.09 h F 0.100 1.4 × 10-10 0.050 1.0 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.100 2.2 × 10 0.050 1.6 × 10 7.6 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 2.3 × 10 0.010 1.6 × 10 7.9 × 10 5.1 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.7 × 10-11
Ag-104 1.15 h F 0.100 2.3 × 10-10 0.050 1.9 × 10-10 9.8 × 10-11 5.9 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.100 2.9 × 10 0.050 2.3 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.4 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.6 × 10-11
S 0.020 2.9 × 10-10 0.010 2.4 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.6 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11
Ag-104m 0.558 h F 0.100 1.6 × 10-10 0.050 1.1 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.100 2.3 × 10 0.050 1.6 × 10 7.7 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 2.4 × 10 0.010 1.7 × 10 8.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.6 × 10-11
Ag-105 41.0 d F 0.100 3.9 × 10-9 0.050 3.4 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-10 5.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
M 0.100 4.5 × 10 0.050 3.5 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.0 × 10 7.3 × 10-10
S 0.020 4.5 × 10-9 0.010 3.6 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 8.1 × 10-10
Ag-106 0.399 h F 0.100 9.4 × 10-11 0.050 6.4 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11 9.1 × 10-12
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 0.100 1.4 × 10 0.050 9.5 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.5 × 10-11
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.5 × 10 0.010 9.9 × 10 4.5 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.6 × 10-11
Ag-106m 8.41 d F 0.100 7.7 × 10-9 0.050 6.1 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.100 7.2 × 10 0.050 5.8 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
S 0.020 7.0 × 10-9 0.010 5.7 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
Ag-108m 1.27 × 102 a F 0.100 3.5 × 10-8 0.050 2.8 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8 6.9 × 10-9 6.1 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -9
M 0.100 3.3 × 10 0.050 2.7 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.6 × 10 7.4 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.020 8.9 × 10 0.010 8.7 × 10 6.2 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.7 × 10-8
Ag-110m 250 d F 0.100 3.5 × 10-8 0.050 2.8 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 9.7 × 10-9 6.3 × 10-9 5.5 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -9
M 0.100 3.5 × 10 0.050 2.8 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.2 × 10 7.6 × 10-9
S 0.020 4.6 × 10-8 0.010 4.1 × 10-8 2.6 × 10-8 1.8 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8
Ag-111 7.45 d F 0.100 4.8 × 10-9 0.050 3.2 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 8.8 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.100 9.2 × 10 0.050 6.6 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.5 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 9.9 × 10 0.010 7.1 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-9
Ag-112 3.12 h F 0.100 9.8 × 10-10 0.050 6.4 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 9.1 × 10-11 7.6 × 10-11
239
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
M 0.100 1.7 × 10-9 0.050 1.1 × 10-9 5.1 × 10-10 3.2 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
S 0.020 1.8 × 10-9 0.010 1.2 × 10-9 5.4 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Ag-115 0.333 h F 0.100 1.6 × 10 0.050 1.0 × 10 4.6 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.5 × 10-11
M 0.100 2.5 × 10-10 0.050 1.7 × 10-10 7.6 × 10-11 4.9 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 2.7 × 10 0.010 1.7 × 10 8.0 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.9 × 10-11
Cadmium
Cd-104 0.961 h F 0.100 2.0 × 10-10 0.050 1.7 × 10-10 8.7 × 10-11 5.2 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.100 2.6 × 10 0.050 2.1 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.9 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.100 2.7 × 10 0.050 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.0 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.5 × 10-11
Cd-107 6.49 h F 0.100 2.3 × 10-10 0.050 1.7 × 10-10 7.4 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.100 5.2 × 10 0.050 3.7 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.8 × 10 8.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 0.100 5.5 × 10 0.050 3.9 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.7 × 10 7.7 × 10-11
Cd-109 1.27 a F 0.100 4.5 × 10-8 0.050 3.7 × 10-8 2.1 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 9.3 × 10-9 8.1 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
M 0.100 3.0 × 10 0.050 2.3 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.5 × 10 7.8 × 10 6.6 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
S 0.100 2.7 × 10 0.050 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.9 × 10 7.6 × 10 6.2 × 10-9
Cd-113 9.30 × 1015 a F 0.100 2.6 × 10-7 0.050 2.4 × 10-7 1.7 × 10-7 1.4 × 10-7 1.2 × 10-7 1.2 × 10-7
-7 -7 -8 -8 -8
M 0.100 1.2 × 10 0.050 1.0 × 10 7.6 × 10 6.1 × 10 5.7 × 10 5.5 × 10-8
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.100 7.8 × 10 0.050 5.8 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.6 × 10-8
Cd-113m 13.6 a F 0.100 3.0 × 10-7 0.050 2.7 × 10-7 1.8 × 10-7 1.3 × 10-7 1.1 × 10-7 1.1 × 10-7
-7 -7 -8 -8 -8
M 0.100 1.4 × 10 0.050 1.2 × 10 8.1 × 10 6.0 × 10 5.3 × 10 5.2 × 10-8
-7 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.100 1.1 × 10 0.050 8.4 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.3 × 10 3.1 × 10-8
Cd-115 2.23 d F 0.100 4.0 × 10-9 0.050 2.6 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.5 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.100 6.7 × 10 0.050 4.8 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.100 7.2 × 10 0.050 5.1 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
Cd-115m 44.6 d F 0.100 4.6 × 10-8 0.050 3.2 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8 6.4 × 10-9 5.3 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
M 0.100 4.0 × 10 0.050 2.5 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.4 × 10 7.3 × 10 6.2 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -9
S 0.100 3.9 × 10 0.050 3.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.9 × 10 7.7 × 10-9
Cd-117 2.49 h F 0.100 7.4 × 10-10 0.050 5.2 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 8.1 × 10-11 6.7 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.100 1.3 × 10 0.050 9.3 × 10 4.5 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.100 1.4 × 10 0.050 9.8 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-10
Cd-117m 3.36 h F 0.100 8.9 × 10-10 0.050 6.7 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 9.4 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.100 1.5 × 10 0.050 1.1 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.0 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.100 1.5 × 10 0.050 1.1 × 10 5.7 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10-10
Indium
In-109 4.20 h F 0.040 2.6 × 10-10 0.020 2.1 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11
M 0.040 3.3 × 10-10 0.020 2.6 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.4 × 10-11 5.3 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11
In-110 4.90 h F 0.040 8.2 × 10-10 0.020 7.1 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.040 9.9 × 10 0.020 8.3 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-10
In-110m 1.15 h F 0.040 3.0 × 10-10 0.020 2.1 × 10-10 9.9 × 10-11 6.0 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.040 4.5 × 10 0.020 3.1 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.2 × 10 5.8 × 10 4.7 × 10-11
240
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
In-111 2.83 d F 0.040 1.2 × 10-9 0.020 8.6 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10
M 0.040 1.5 × 10-9 0.020 1.2 × 10-9 6.2 × 10-10 4.1 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10
-11 -11 -11 -12 -12
In-112 0.240 h F 0.040 4.4 × 10 0.020 3.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.7 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.7 × 10-12
M 0.040 6.5 × 10-11 0.020 4.4 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11 8.7 × 10-12 7.4 × 10-12
In-113m 1.66 h F 0.040 1.0 × 10-10 0.020 7.0 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 9.7 × 10-12
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.040 1.6 × 10 0.020 1.1 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.0 × 10-11
In-114m 49.5 d F 0.040 1.2 × 10-7 0.020 7.7 × 10-8 3.4 × 10-8 1.9 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 9.3 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -9
M 0.040 4.8 × 10 0.020 3.3 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 7.8 × 10 6.1 × 10-9
In-115 5.10 × 1015 a F 0.040 8.3 × 10-7 0.020 7.8 × 10-7 5.5 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-7 4.2 × 10-7 3.9 × 10-7
-7 -7 -7 -7 -7
M 0.040 3.0 × 10 0.020 2.8 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.6 × 10-7
In-115m 4.49 h F 0.040 2.8 × 10-10 0.020 1.9 × 10-10 8.4 × 10-11 5.1 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.040 4.7 × 10 0.020 3.3 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 7.2 × 10 5.9 × 10-11
In-116m 0.902 h F 0.040 2.5 × 10-10 0.020 1.9 × 10-10 9.2 × 10-11 5.7 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.040 3.6 × 10 0.020 2.7 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.5 × 10 5.6 × 10 4.5 × 10-11
In-117 0.730 h F 0.040 1.4 × 10-10 0.020 9.7 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.040 2.3 × 10 0.020 1.6 × 10 7.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.9 × 10-11
In-117m 1.94 h F 0.040 3.4 × 10-10 0.020 2.3 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 6.2 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.040 6.0 × 10 0.020 4.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.7 × 10 7.2 × 10-11
In-119m 0.300 h F 0.040 1.2 × 10-10 0.020 7.3 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11
M 0.040 1.8 × 10-10 0.020 1.1 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11
Tin
Sn-110 4.00 h F 0.040 1.0 × 10-9 0.020 7.6 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 9.9 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.040 1.5 × 10 0.020 1.1 × 10 5.1 × 10 3.2 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.6 × 10-10
Sn-111 0.588 h F 0.040 7.7 × 10-11 0.020 5.4 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 9.4 × 10-12 7.8 × 10-12
M 0.040 1.1 × 10-10 0.020 8.0 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11
Sn-113 115 d F 0.040 5.1 × 10-9 0.020 3.7 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-10 5.4 × 10-10
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
M 0.040 1.3 × 10 0.020 1.0 × 10 5.8 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.7 × 10-9
Sn-117m 13.6 d F 0.040 3.3 × 10-9 0.020 2.2 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.1 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.040 1.0 × 10 0.020 7.7 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.4 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.4 × 10-9
Sn-119m 293 d F 0.040 3.0 × 10-9 0.020 2.2 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.0 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10
M 0.040 1.0 × 10-8 0.020 7.9 × 10-9 4.7 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Sn-121 1.13 d F 0.040 7.7 × 10 0.020 5.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.0 × 10 6.0 × 10-11
M 0.040 1.5 × 10-9 0.020 1.1 × 10-9 5.1 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10
Sn-121m 55.0 a F 0.040 6.9 × 10-9 0.020 5.4 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 9.4 × 10-10 8.0 × 10-10
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
M 0.040 1.9 × 10 0.020 1.5 × 10 9.2 × 10 6.4 × 10 5.5 × 10 4.5 × 10-9
Sn-123 129 d F 0.040 1.4 × 10-8 0.020 9.9 × 10-9 4.5 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -9
M 0.040 4.0 × 10 0.020 3.1 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.5 × 10 8.1 × 10-9
Sn-123m 0.668 h F 0.040 1.4 × 10-10 0.020 8.9 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.040 2.3 × 10 0.020 1.5 × 10 7.0 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.7 × 10-11
Sn-125 9.64 d F 0.040 1.2 × 10-8 0.020 8.0 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 8.9 × 10-10
241
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
M 0.040 2.1 × 10-8 0.020 1.5 × 10-8 7.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9
Sn-126 1.00 × 105 a F 0.040 7.3 × 10-8 0.020 5.9 × 10-8 3.2 × 10-8 2.0 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8
-7 -7 -8 -8 -8
M 0.040 1.2 × 10 0.020 1.0 × 10 6.2 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.8 × 10-8
Sn-127 2.10 h F 0.040 6.6 × 10-10 0.020 4.7 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 7.9 × 10-11 6.5 × 10-11
M 0.040 1.0 × 10-9 0.020 7.4 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10
Sn-128 0.985 h F 0.040 5.1 × 10-10 0.020 3.6 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 6.1 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.040 8.0 × 10 0.020 5.5 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.2 × 10-11
Antimony
Sb-115 0.530 h F 0.200 8.1 × 10-11 0.100 5.9 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11 8.5 × 10-12
M 0.020 1.2 × 10-10 0.010 8.3 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.2 × 10 0.010 8.6 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-11
Sb-116 0.263 h F 0.200 8.4 × 10-11 0.100 6.2 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11 9.1 × 10-12
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 0.020 1.1 × 10 0.010 8.2 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.3 × 10-11
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.2 × 10 0.010 8.5 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-1
Sb-116m 1.00 h F 0.200 2.6 × 10-10 0.100 2.1 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.6 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11
M 0.020 3.6 × 10-10 0.010 2.8 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 9.1 × 10-11 5.9 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.020 3.7 × 10 0.010 2.9 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.4 × 10 6.1 × 10 4.9 × 10-11
Sb-117 2.80 h F 0.200 7.7 × 10-11 0.100 6.0 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11 8.5 × 10-12
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 0.020 1.2 × 10 0.010 9.1 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10-11
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.3 × 10 0.010 9.5 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.7 × 10-11
Sb-118m 5.00 h F 0.200 7.3 × 10-10 0.100 6.2 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 9.3 × 10-11
M 0.020 9.3 × 10-10 0.010 7.6 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 9.5 × 10 0.010 7.8 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
Sb-119 1.59 d F 0.200 2.7 × 10-10 0.100 2.0 × 10-10 9.4 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.020 4.0 × 10 0.010 2.8 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.9 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.020 4.1 × 10 0.010 2.9 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.2 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.6 × 10-11
Sb-120 5.76 d F 0.200 4.1 × 10-9 0.100 3.3 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.7 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10
M 0.020 6.3 × 10-9 0.010 5.0 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 6.6 × 10 0.010 5.3 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
Sb-120 0.265 h F 0.200 4.6 × 10-11 0.100 3.1 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11 8.9 × 10-12 5.4 × 10-12 4.6 × 10-12
-11 -11 -11 -11 -12
M 0.020 6.6 × 10 0.010 4.4 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.3 × 10 7.0 × 10-12
-11 -11 -11 -11 -12
S 0.020 6.8 × 10 0.010 4.6 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.7 × 10 7.3 × 10-12
Sb-122 2.70 d F 0.200 4.2 × 10-9 0.100 2.8 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 8.4 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10
M 0.020 8.3 × 10-9 0.010 5.7 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 8.8 × 10 0.010 6.1 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
Sb-124 60.2 d F 0.200 1.2 × 10-8 0.100 8.8 × 10-9 4.3 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
M 0.020 3.1 × 10 0.010 2.4 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.6 × 10 7.7 × 10 6.4 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.020 3.9 × 10 0.010 3.1 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.6 × 10-9
Sb-124m 0.337 h F 0.200 2.7 × 10-11 0.100 1.9 × 10-11 9.0 × 10-12 5.6 × 10-12 3.4 × 10-12 2.8 × 10-12
M 0.020 4.3 × 10-11 0.010 3.1 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11 9.6 × 10-12 6.5 × 10-12 5.4 × 10-12
-11 -11 -11 -11 -12
S 0.020 4.6 × 10 0.010 3.3 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 7.2 × 10 5.9 × 10-12
242
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Sb-125 2.77 a F 0.200 8.7 × 10-9 0.100 6.8 × 10-9 3.7 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
M 0.020 2.0 × 10-8 0.010 1.6 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8 6.8 × 10-9 5.8 × 10-9 4.8 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.020 4.2 × 10 0.010 3.8 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.2 × 10-8
Sb-126 12.4 d F 0.200 8.8 × 10-9 0.100 6.6 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
M 0.020 1.7 × 10 0.010 1.3 × 10 7.4 × 10 5.1 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.8 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 1.9 × 10 0.010 1.5 × 10 8.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.2 × 10-9
Sb-126m 0.317 h F 0.200 1.2 × 10-10 0.100 8.2 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11
M 0.020 1.7 × 10-10 0.010 1.2 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.8 × 10 0.010 1.2 × 10 5.7 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.0 × 10-11
Sb-127 3.85 d F 0.200 5.1 × 10-9 0.100 3.5 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 9.7 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.020 1.0 × 10 0.010 7.3 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-9
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 1.1 × 10 0.010 7.9 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.9 × 10-9
Sb-128 9.01 h F 0.200 2.1 × 10-9 0.100 1.7 × 10-9 8.3 × 10-10 5.1 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10
M 0.020 3.3 × 10-9 0.010 2.5 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.9 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.020 3.4 × 10 0.010 2.6 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.3 × 10 5.2 × 10 4.2 × 10-10
Sb-128 0.173 h F 0.200 9.8 × 10-11 0.100 6.9 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 0.020 1.3 × 10 0.010 9.2 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-11
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.4 × 10 0.010 9.4 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.5 × 10-11
Sb-129 4.32 h F 0.200 1.1 × 10-9 0.100 8.2 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10
M 0.020 2.0 × 10-9 0.010 1.4 × 10-9 6.8 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 2.1 × 10 0.010 1.5 × 10 7.2 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.5 × 10-10
Sb-130 0.667 h F 0.200 3.0 × 10-10 0.100 2.2 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.6 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.020 4.5 × 10 0.010 3.2 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.8 × 10 6.3 × 10 5.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 0.020 4.6 × 10 0.010 3.3 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.5 × 10 5.3 × 10-11
Sb-131 0.383 h F 0.200 3.5 × 10-10 0.100 2.8 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11
M 0.020 3.9 × 10-10 0.010 2.6 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.0 × 10-11 5.3 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.020 3.8 × 10 0.010 2.6 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.9 × 10 5.3 × 10 4.4 × 10-11
Tellurium
Te-116 2.49 h F 0.600 5.3 × 10-10 0.300 4.2 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-11 5.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 8.6 × 10 0.100 6.4 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
S 0.020 9.1 × 10-10 0.010 6.7 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
Te-121 17.0 d F 0.600 1.7 × 10-9 0.300 1.4 × 10-9 7.2 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.200 2.3 × 10 0.100 1.9 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.8 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.020 2.4 × 10 0.010 2.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.2 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.1 × 10-10
Te-121m 154 d F 0.600 1.4 × 10-8 0.300 1.0 × 10-8 5.3 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 1.9 × 10 0.100 1.5 × 10 8.8 × 10 6.1 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.2 × 10-9
S 0.020 2.3 × 10-8 0.010 1.9 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8 8.1 × 10-9 6.9 × 10-9 5.7 × 10-9
Te-123 1.00 × 1013 a F 0.600 1.1 × 10-8 0.300 9.1 × 10-9 6.2 × 10-9 4.8 × 10-9 4.0 × 10-9 3.9 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 5.6 × 10 0.100 4.4 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.3 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.9 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 5.3 × 10 0.010 5.0 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 2.0 × 10-9
Te-123m 120 d F 0.600 9.8 × 10-9 0.300 6.8 × 10-9 3.4 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 9.5 × 10-10
243
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
M 0.200 1.8 × 10-8 0.100 1.3 × 10-8 8.0 × 10-9 5.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-9 4.0 × 10-9
S 0.020 2.0 × 10-8 0.010 1.6 × 10-8 9.8 × 10-9 7.1 × 10-9 6.3 × 10-9 5.1 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
Te-125m 58.0 d F 0.600 6.2 × 10 0.300 4.2 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.1 × 10 5.1 × 10-10
M 0.200 1.5 × 10-8 0.100 1.1 × 10-8 6.6 × 10-9 4.8 × 10-9 4.3 × 10-9 3.4 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 1.7 × 10 0.010 1.3 × 10 7.8 × 10 5.8 × 10 5.3 × 10 4.2 × 10-9
Te-127 9.35 h F 0.600 4.3 × 10-10 0.300 3.2 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 1.0 × 10 0.100 7.3 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-10
S 0.020 1.2 × 10-9 0.010 7.9 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Te-127m × 109 d F 0.600 2.1 × 10 0.300 1.4 × 10 6.5 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.5 × 10-9
M 0.200 3.5 × 10-8 0.100 2.6 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 9.2 × 10-9 7.4 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.020 4.1 × 10 0.010 3.3 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.8 × 10-9
Te-129 1.16 h F 0.600 1.8 × 10-10 0.300 1.2 × 10-10 5.1 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 3.3 × 10 0.100 2.2 × 10 9.9 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.7 × 10-11
S 0.020 3.5 × 10-10 0.010 2.3 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 6.9 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Te-129m 33.6 d F 0.600 2.0 × 10 0.300 1.3 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.1 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
M 0.200 3.5 × 10-8 0.100 2.6 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 9.8 × 10-9 8.0 × 10-9 6.6 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -9
S 0.020 3.8 × 10 0.010 2.9 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.6 × 10 7.9 × 10-9
Te-131 0.417 h F 0.600 2.3 × 10-10 0.300 2.0 × 10-10 9.9 × 10-11 5.3 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 2.6 × 10 0.100 1.7 × 10 8.1 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.8 × 10-11
S 0.020 2.4 × 10-10 0.010 1.6 × 10-10 7.4 × 10-11 4.9 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
Te-131m 1.25 d F 0.600 8.7 × 10 0.300 7.6 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.6 × 10-10
M 0.200 7.9 × 10-9 0.100 5.8 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 9.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 7.0 × 10 0.010 5.1 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.1 × 10-10
Te-132 3.26 d F 0.600 2.2 × 10-8 0.300 1.8 × 10-8 8.5 × 10-9 4.2 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 1.6 × 10 0.100 1.3 × 10 6.4 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.0 × 10-9
S 0.020 1.5 × 10-8 0.010 1.1 × 10-8 5.8 × 10-9 3.8 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Te-133 0.207 h F 0.600 2.4 × 10 0.300 2.1 × 10 9.6 × 10 4.6 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.9 × 10-11
M 0.200 2.0 × 10-10 0.100 1.3 × 10-10 6.1 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.7 × 10 0.010 1.2 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.9 × 10-11
Te-133m 0.923 h F 0.600 1.0 × 10-9 0.300 8.9 × 10-10 4.1 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 8.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 8.5 × 10 0.100 5.8 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.7 × 10-11
S 0.020 7.4 × 10-10 0.010 5.1 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 8.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Te-134 0.696 h F 0.600 4.7 × 10 0.300 3.7 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.7 × 10-11
M 0.200 5.5 × 10-10 0.100 3.9 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 8.1 × 10-11 6.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 0.020 5.6 × 10 0.010 4.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.4 × 10 6.8 × 10-11
Iodine
I-120 1.35 h F 1.000 1.3 × 10-9 1.000 1.0 × 10-9 4.8 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 1.1 × 10 0.100 7.3 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 1.0 × 10 0.010 6.9 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
I-120m 0.883 h F 1.000 8.6 × 10-10 1.000 6.9 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 8.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 8.2 × 10 0.100 5.9 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.7 × 10-11
244
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
S 0.020 8.2 × 10-10 0.010 5.8 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 8.8 × 10-11
I-121 2.12 h F 1.000 2.3 × 10-10 1.000 2.1 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 2.1 × 10 0.100 1.5 × 10 7.8 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.5 × 10-11
S 0.020 1.9 × 10-10 0.010 1.4 × 10-10 7.0 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
I-123 13.2 h F 1.000 8.7 × 10-10 1.000 7.9 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.200 5.3 × 10 0.100 3.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.2 × 10 6.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 0.020 4.3 × 10 0.010 3.2 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.6 × 10 6.0 × 10-11
I-124 4.18 d F 1.000 4.7 × 10-8 1.000 4.5 × 10-8 2.2 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 6.7 × 10-9 4.4 × 10-9
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 1.4 × 10 0.100 9.3 × 10 4.6 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
S 0.020 6.2 × 10-9 0.010 4.4 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 9.4 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-10
I-125 60.1 d F 1.000 2.0 × 10-8 1.000 2.3 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 7.2 × 10-9 5.1 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 6.9 × 10 0.100 5.6 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.4 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.020 2.4 × 10 0.010 1.8 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.7 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.8 × 10-10
I-126 13.0 d F 1.000 8.1 × 10-8 1.000 8.3 × 10-8 4.5 × 10-8 2.4 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 9.8 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 2.4 × 10 0.100 1.7 × 10 9.5 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.7 × 10-9
S 0.020 8.3 × 10-9 0.010 5.9 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
I-128 0.416 h F 1.000 1.5 × 10-10 1.000 1.1 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 1.9 × 10 0.100 1.2 × 10 5.3 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.9 × 10 0.010 1.2 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.3 × 10 2.0 × 10-11
I-129 1.57 × 107 a F 1.000 7.2 × 10-8 1.000 8.6 × 10-8 6.1 × 10-8 6.7 × 10-8 4.6 × 10-8 3.6 × 10-8
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
M 0.200 3.6 × 10 0.100 3.3 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.5 × 10-8
S 0.020 2.9 × 10-8 0.010 2.6 × 10-8 1.8 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 9.8 × 10-9
I-130 12.4 h F 1.000 8.2 × 10-9 1.000 7.4 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.7 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.200 4.3 × 10 0.100 3.1 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.2 × 10 5.8 × 10 4.5 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.020 3.3 × 10 0.010 2.4 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.9 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.1 × 10-10
I-131 8.04 d F 1.000 7.2 × 10-8 1.000 7.2 × 10-8 3.7 × 10-8 1.9 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 7.4 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 2.2 × 10 0.100 1.5 × 10 8.2 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.4 × 10-9
S 0.020 8.8 × 10-9 0.010 6.2 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9
I-132 2.30 h F 1.000 1.1 × 10-9 1.000 9.6 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 9.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 9.9 × 10 0.100 7.3 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 9.3 × 10 0.010 6.8 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
I-132m 1.39 h F 1.000 9.6 × 10-10 1.000 8.4 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 7.2 × 10 0.100 5.3 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.7 × 10-11
S 0.020 6.6 × 10-10 0.010 4.8 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-11
I-133 20.8 h F 1.000 1.9 × 10-8 1.000 1.8 × 10-8 8.3 × 10-9 3.8 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
M 0.200 6.6 × 10 0.100 4.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.4 × 10 5.5 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.020 3.8 × 10 0.010 2.9 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.0 × 10 5.3 × 10 4.3 × 10-10
I-134 0.876 h F 1.000 4.6 × 10-10 1.000 3.7 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 9.7 × 10-11 5.9 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.200 4.8 × 10 0.100 3.4 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.7 × 10 5.4 × 10-11
S 0.020 4.8 × 10-10 0.010 3.4 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.8 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11
I-135 6.61 h F 1.000 4.1 × 10-9 1.000 3.7 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 7.9 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10 3.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 2.2 × 10 0.100 1.6 × 10 7.8 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.4 × 10-10
245
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
S 0.020 1.8 × 10-9 0.010 1.3 × 10-9 6.5 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
Caesium
Cs-125 0.750 h F 1.000 1.2 × 10-10 1.000 8.3 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11
M 0.200 2.0 × 10-10 0.100 1.4 × 10-10 6.5 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 2.1 × 10 0.010 1.4 × 10 6.8 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.3 × 10-11
Cs-127 6.25 h F 1.000 1.6 × 10-10 1.000 1.3 × 10-10 6.9 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.200 2.8 × 10 0.100 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.3 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.6 × 10-11
S 0.020 3.0 × 10-10 0.010 2.3 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.6 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Cs-129 1.34 d F 1.000 3.4 × 10 1.000 2.8 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.7 × 10 5.2 × 10 4.2 × 10-11
M 0.200 5.7 × 10-10 0.100 4.6 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 9.1 × 10-11 7.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 0.020 6.3 × 10 0.010 4.9 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.7 × 10 7.7 × 10-11
Cs-130 0.498 h F 1.000 8.3 × 10-11 1.000 5.6 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 9.4 × 10-12 7.8 × 10-12
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 1.3 × 10 0.100 8.7 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.4 × 10-11
S 0.020 1.4 × 10-10 0.010 9.0 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Cs-131 9.69 d F 1.000 2.4 × 10 1.000 1.7 × 10 8.4 × 10 5.3 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.7 × 10-11
M 0.200 3.5 × 10-10 0.100 2.6 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.020 3.8 × 10 0.010 2.8 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.1 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.7 × 10-11
Cs-132 6.48 d F 1.000 1.5 × 10-9 1.000 1.2 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-10 4.1 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 1.9 × 10 0.100 1.5 × 10 8.4 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.9 × 10-10
S 0.020 2.0 × 10-9 0.010 1.6 × 10-9 8.7 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Cs-134 2.06 a F 1.000 1.1 × 10 1.000 7.3 × 10 5.2 × 10 5.3 × 10 6.3 × 10 6.6 × 10-9
M 0.200 3.2 × 10-8 0.100 2.6 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 9.1 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.020 7.0 × 10 0.010 6.3 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.3 × 10 2.0 × 10-8
Cs-134m 2.90 h F 1.000 1.3 × 10-10 1.000 8.6 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.200 3.3 × 10 0.100 2.3 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.3 × 10 6.6 × 10 5.4 × 10-11
S 0.020 3.6 × 10-10 0.010 2.5 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 9.2 × 10-11 7.4 × 10-11 6.0 × 10-11
6 -9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Cs-135 2.30 × 10 a F 1.000 1.7 × 10 1.000 9.9 × 10 6.2 × 10 6.1 × 10 6.8 × 10 6.9 × 10-10
M 0.200 1.2 × 10-8 0.100 9.3 × 10-9 5.7 × 10-9 4.1 × 10-9 3.8 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -9
S 0.020 2.7 × 10 0.010 2.4 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.5 × 10 8.6 × 10-9
Cs-135m 0.883 h F 1.000 9.2 × 10-11 1.000 7.8 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 1.2 × 10 0.100 9.9 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.2 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.5 × 10-11
S 0.020 1.2 × 10-10 0.010 1.0 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
Cs-136 13.1 d F 1.000 7.3 × 10 1.000 5.2 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
M 0.200 1.3 × 10-8 0.100 1.0 × 10-8 6.0 × 10-9 3.7 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 1.5 × 10 0.010 1.1 × 10 5.7 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.8 × 10-9
Cs-137 30.0 a F 1.000 8.8 × 10-9 1.000 5.4 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9 3.7 × 10-9 4.4 × 10-9 4.6 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
M 0.200 3.6 × 10 0.100 2.9 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.7 × 10-9
S 0.020 1.1 × 10-7 0.010 1.0 × 10-7 7.0 × 10-8 4.8 × 10-8 4.2 × 10-8 3.9 × 10-8
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
Cs-138 0.536 h F 1.000 2.6 × 10 1.000 1.8 × 10 8.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.4 × 10-11
M 0.200 4.0 × 10-10 0.100 2.7 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 7.8 × 10-11 4.9 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.020 4.2 × 10 0.010 2.8 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.2 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.3 × 10-11
246
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Barium83
Ba-126 1.61 h F 0.600 6.7 × 10-10 0.200 5.2 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 6.9 × 10-11 7.4 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 1.0 × 10 0.100 7.0 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
S 0.020 1.1 × 10-9 0.010 7.2 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
Ba-128 2.43 d F 0.600 5.9 × 10-9 0.200 5.4 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 7.4 × 10-10 7.6 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 1.1 × 10 0.100 7.8 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 1.2 × 10 0.010 8.3 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.4 × 10-9
Ba-131 11.8 d F 0.600 2.1 × 10-9 0.200 1.4 × 10-9 7.1 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
M 0.200 3.7 × 10 0.100 3.1 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.7 × 10 7.6 × 10-10
S 0.020 4.0 × 10-9 0.010 3.0 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 8.7 × 10-10
Ba-131m 0.243 h F 0.600 2.7 × 10-11 0.200 2.1 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11 6.7 × 10-12 4.7 × 10-12 4.0 × 10-12
-11 -11 -11 -11 -12
M 0.200 4.8 × 10 0.100 3.3 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.0 × 10 7.4 × 10-12
-11 -11 -11 -11 -12
S 0.020 5.0 × 10 0.010 3.5 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.5 × 10 7.8 × 10-12
Ba-133 10.7 a F 0.600 1.1 × 10-8 0.200 4.5 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 3.7 × 10-9 6.0 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 1.5 × 10 0.100 1.0 × 10 6.4 × 10 5.1 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.1 × 10-9
S 0.020 3.2 × 10-8 0.010 2.9 × 10-8 2.0 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8
Ba-133m 1.62 d F 0.600 1.4 × 10-9 0.200 1.1 × 10-9 4.9 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.200 3.0 × 10 0.100 2.2 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.9 × 10 5.2 × 10 4.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.020 3.1 × 10 0.010 2.4 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.6 × 10 5.8 × 10 4.6 × 10-10
Ba-135m 1.20 d F 0.600 1.1 × 10-9 0.200 1.0 × 10-9 4.6 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 2.4 × 10 0.100 1.8 × 10 8.9 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.3 × 10-10
S 0.020 2.7 × 10-9 0.010 1.9 × 10-9 8.6 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10
Ba-139 1.38 h F 0.600 3.3 × 10-10 0.200 2.4 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.200 5.4 × 10 0.100 3.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.6 × 10 5.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 0.020 5.7 × 10 0.010 3.6 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.0 × 10 5.9 × 10-11
Ba-140 12.7 d F 0.600 1.4 × 10-8 0.200 7.8 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
M 0.200 2.7 × 10 0.100 2.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.6 × 10 6.2 × 10 5.1 × 10-9
S 0.020 2.9 × 10-8 0.010 2.2 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8 8.6 × 10-9 7.1 × 10-9 5.8 × 10-9
Ba-141 0.305 h F 0.600 1.9 × 10-10 0.200 1.4 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 3.0 × 10 0.100 2.0 × 10 9.3 × 10 5.9 × 10 3.8 × 10 3.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 3.2 × 10 0.010 2.1 × 10 9.7 × 10 6.2 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.4 × 10-11
Ba-142 0.177 h F 0.600 1.3 × 10-10 0.200 9.6 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 1.8 × 10 0.100 1.3 × 10 6.1 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.1 × 10-11
S 0.020 1.9 × 10-10 0.010 1.3 × 10-10 6.2 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11
Lanthanum
La-131 0.983 h F 0.005 1.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 8.7 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11
M 0.005 1.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
La-132 4.80 h F 0.005 1.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.7 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
83
The f1 value for barium for 1 to 15 year olds for Type F is 0.3.
247
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
M 0.005 1.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9 5.4 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
La-135 19.5 h F 0.005 1.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 7.7 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.005 1.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-11
La-137 6.00 × 104 a F 0.005 2.5 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 8.9 × 10-9 8.7 × 10-9
M 0.005 8.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 8.1 × 10-9 5.6 × 10-9 4.0 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9
La-138 1.35 × 1011 a F 0.005 3.7 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-7 2.4 × 10-7 1.8 × 10-7 1.6 × 10-7 1.5 × 10-7
-7 -4 -7 -8 -8 -8
M 0.005 1.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.1 × 10 6.8 × 10 6.4 × 10 6.4 × 10-8
La-140 1.68 d F 0.005 5.8 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 4.2 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 6.9 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.005 8.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.3 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
La-141 3.93 h F 0.005 8.6 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 5.5 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 7.5 × 10-11 6.3 × 10-11
M 0.005 1.4 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 9.3 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10
-10 -4 -10 -10 -10 -11
La-142 1.54 h F 0.005 5.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.8 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.3 × 10 5.2 × 10-11
M 0.005 8.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 5.7 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 8.9 × 10-11
La-143 0.237 h F 0.005 1.4 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 8.6 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.005 2.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 6.0 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.1 × 10-11
Cerium
Ce-134 3.00 d F 0.005 7.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 5.3 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 7.7 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10
M 0.005 1.1 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 7.6 × 10-9 3.7 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.005 1.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.0 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
Ce-135 17.6 h F 0.005 2.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-9 8.5 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.005 3.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.9 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.8 × 10-10
S 0.005 3.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.8 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 9.4 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10
-11 -4 -11 -11 -11 -12
Ce-137 9.00 h F 0.005 7.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.6 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.6 × 10 8.7 × 10 7.0 × 10-12
M 0.005 1.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 7.6 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 9.8 × 10-12
-10 -4 -11 -11 -11 -11
S 0.005 1.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.8 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-11
Ce-137m 1.43 d F 0.005 1.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9 4.6 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.005 3.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.7 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.1 × 10-10
S 0.005 3.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 7.3 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
Ce-139 138 d F 0.005 1.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.5 × 10 4.5 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.5 × 10-9
M 0.005 7.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 6.1 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.005 7.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.3 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10-9
Ce-141 32.5 d F 0.005 1.1 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 7.3 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 9.3 × 10-10
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
M 0.005 1.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.3 × 10 4.6 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.2 × 10-9
S 0.005 1.6 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-8 7.1 × 10-9 5.3 × 10-9 4.8 × 10-9 3.8 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
Ce-143 1.38 d F 0.005 3.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.2 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.7 × 10-10
M 0.005 5.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 9.3 × 10-10 7.5 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.005 5.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.3 × 10-10
Ce-144 284 d F 0.005 3.6 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 2.7 × 10-7 1.4 × 10-7 7.8 × 10-8 4.8 × 10-8 4.0 × 10-8
-7 -4 -7 -8 -8 -8
M 0.005 1.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.6 × 10 8.8 × 10 5.5 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.6 × 10-8
S 0.005 2.1 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-7 1.1 × 10-7 7.3 × 10-8 5.8 × 10-8 5.3 × 10-8
248
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Praseodymium
Pr-136 0.218 h M 0.005 1.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 8.8 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11
-10 -4 -11 -11 -11 -11
S 0.005 1.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 9.0 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-11
Pr-137 1.28 h M 0.005 1.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-10 6.1 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11
S 0.005 1.9 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11
Pr-138m 2.10 h M 0.005 5.9 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.5 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 9.0 × 10-11 7.2 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 0.005 6.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.7 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.3 × 10 7.4 × 10-11
Pr-139 4.51 h M 0.005 1.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.005 1.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 5.7 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.0 × 10-11
Pr-142 19.1 h M 0.005 5.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.2 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10
S 0.005 5.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.7 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.6 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10
-11 -4 -11 -11 -11 -12
Pr-142m 0.243 h M 0.005 6.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.5 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.9 × 10 6.6 × 10-12
S 0.005 7.0 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 4.7 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11 8.4 × 10-12 7.0 × 10-12
Pr-143 13.6 d M 0.005 1.2 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 8.4 × 10-9 4.6 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.005 1.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 9.2 × 10 5.1 × 10 3.6 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.4 × 10-9
Pr-144 0.288 h M 0.005 1.9 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.005 1.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.8 × 10-11
Pr-145 5.98 h M 0.005 1.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-9 4.7 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.005 1.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.7 × 10-10
Pr-147 0.227 h M 0.005 1.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.005 1.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.8 × 10-11
Neodymium
Nd-136 0.844 h M 0.005 4.6 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 9.8 × 10-11 6.3 × 10-11 5.1 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 0.005 4.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.3 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.6 × 10 5.4 × 10-11
Nd-138 5.04 h M 0.005 2.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-9 7.7 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.005 2.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.8 × 10 8.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.5 × 10-10
Nd-139 0.495 h M 0.005 9.0 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 6.2 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 9.9 × 10-12
-11 -4 -11 -11 -11 -11
S 0.005 9.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.4 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-11
Nd-139m 5.50 h M 0.005 1.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 8.8 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.005 1.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 9.1 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.5 × 10-10
Nd-141 2.49 h M 0.005 4.1 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.1 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11 9.6 × 10-12 6.0 × 10-12 4.8 × 10-12
-11 -4 -11 -11 -11 -12
S 0.005 4.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.2 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.2 × 10 5.0 × 10-12
Nd-147 11.0 d M 0.005 1.1 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 8.0 × 10-9 4.5 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9
S 0.005 1.2 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 8.6 × 10-9 4.9 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9
Nd-149 1.73 h M 0.005 6.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.6 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 8.4 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.005 7.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.8 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.9 × 10-11
Nd-151 0.207 h M 0.005 1.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 9.9 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.005 1.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-11
249
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Promethium
Pm-141 0.348 h M 0.005 1.4 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 9.4 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11
-10 -4 -11 -11 -11 -11
S 0.005 1.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 9.7 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.5 × 10-11
Pm-143 265 d M 0.005 6.2 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 5.4 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9
S 0.005 5.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 4.8 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
Pm-144 363 d M 0.005 3.1 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 2.8 × 10-8 1.8 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8 9.3 × 10-9 8.2 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -8 -8 -9
S 0.005 2.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.9 × 10 7.5 × 10-9
Pm-145 17.7 a M 0.005 1.1 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 9.8 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-9 4.3 × 10-9 3.7 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.005 7.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.3 × 10-9
Pm-146 5.53 a M 0.005 6.4 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 5.9 × 10-8 3.9 × 10-8 2.6 × 10-8 2.2 × 10-8 2.1 × 10-8
S 0.005 5.3 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 4.9 × 10-8 3.3 × 10-8 2.2 × 10-8 1.9 × 10-8 1.7 × 10-8
-8 -4 -8 -8 -9 -9
Pm-147 2.62 a M 0.005 2.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.0 × 10 5.7 × 10 5.0 × 10-9
S 0.005 1.9 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8 6.8 × 10-9 5.8 × 10-9 4.9 × 10-9
Pm-148 5.37 d M 0.005 1.5 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-8 5.2 × 10-9 3.4 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
S 0.005 1.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.2 × 10-9
Pm-148m 41.3 d M 0.005 2.4 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 7.7 × 10-9 6.3 × 10-9 5.1 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -8 -9 -9
S 0.005 2.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.3 × 10 7.1 × 10 5.7 × 10-9
Pm-149 2.21 d M 0.005 5.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 8.3 × 10-10 6.7 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
S 0.005 5.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.6 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.0 × 10 7.3 × 10-10
Pm-150 2.68 h M 0.005 1.2 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 7.9 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.005 1.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.2 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-10
Pm-151 1.18 d M 0.005 3.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 8.3 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.005 3.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.9 × 10 5.7 × 10 4.6 × 10-10
Samarium
Sm-141 0.170 h M 0.005 1.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
Sm-141m 0.377 h M 0.005 3.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.1 × 10 9.7 × 10 6.1 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.2 × 10-11
Sm-142 1.21 h M 0.005 7.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.8 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-11 7.1 × 10-11
Sm-145 340 d M 0.005 8.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 6.8 × 10-9 4.0 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9
8 -5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
Sm-146 1.03 × 10 a M 0.005 2.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 1.1 × 10-5
Sm-147 1.06 × 1011 a M 0.005 2.5 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-5 1.6 × 10-5 1.1 × 10-5 9.6 × 10-6 9.6 × 10-6
Sm-151 90.0 a M 0.005 1.1 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-8 6.7 × 10-9 4.5 × 10-9 4.0 × 10-9 4.0 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
Sm-153 1.95 d M 0.005 4.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 7.9 × 10 6.3 × 10-10
Sm-155 0.368 h M 0.005 1.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 9.9 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11
Sm-156 9.40 h M 0.005 1.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9 5.8 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
Europium
Eu-145 5.94 d M 0.005 3.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.8 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10
Eu-146 4.61 d M 0.005 5.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 4.4 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 8.0 × 10-10
250
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Eu-147 24.0 d M 0.005 4.9 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.7 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
Eu-148 54.5 d M 0.005 1.4 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-8 6.8 × 10-9 4.6 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9
Eu-149 93.1 d M 0.005 1.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-9 7.3 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10
Eu-150 34.2 a M 0.005 1.1 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-7 7.8 × 10-8 5.7 × 10-8 5.3 × 10-8 5.3 × 10-8
Eu-150 12.6 h M 0.005 1.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9 5.2 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
Eu-152 13.3 a M 0.005 1.1 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-7 7.0 × 10-8 4.9 × 10-8 4.3 × 10-8 4.2 × 10-8
Eu-152m 9.32 h M 0.005 1.9 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-9 6.6 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
Eu-154 8.80 a M 0.005 1.6 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-7 9.7 × 10-8 6.5 × 10-8 5.6 × 10-8 5.3 × 10-8
Eu-155 4.96 a M 0.005 2.6 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 9.2 × 10-9 7.6 × 10-9 6.9 × 10-9
Eu-156 15.2 d M 0.005 1.9 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-8 7.7 × 10-9 5.3 × 10-9 4.2 × 10-9 3.4 × 10-9
Eu-157 15.1 h M 0.005 2.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-9 8.9 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10
Eu-158 0.765 h M 0.005 4.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11
Gadolinium
Gd-145 0.382 h F 0.005 1.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 9.6 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.005 1.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 6.2 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.0 × 10-11
Gd-146 48.3 d F 0.005 2.9 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8 7.8 × 10-9 5.1 × 10-9 4.4 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -8 -9 -9
M 0.005 2.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.3 × 10 7.9 × 10 6.4 × 10-9
Gd-147 1.59 d F 0.005 2.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-9 8.4 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10
M 0.005 2.8 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.2 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 7.5 × 10-10 5.1 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
Gd-148 93.0 a F 0.005 8.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.6 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.6 × 10-5
M 0.005 3.2 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-5 1.9 × 10-5 1.3 × 10-5 1.2 × 10-5 1.1 × 10-5
Gd-149 9.40 d F 0.005 2.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-9 8.0 × 10-10 5.1 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
M 0.005 3.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.2 × 10 7.3 × 10-10
Gd-151 120 d F 0.005 6.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 4.9 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 9.2 × 10-10 7.8 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.005 4.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.6 × 10-10
Gd-152 1.08 × 1014 a F 0.005 5.9 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 5.4 × 10-5 3.4 × 10-5 2.4 × 10-5 1.9 × 10-5 1.9 × 10-5
-5 -4 -5 -5 -6 -6
M 0.005 2.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.9 × 10 7.9 × 10 8.0 × 10-6
Gd-153 242 d F 0.005 1.5 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-8 6.5 × 10-9 3.9 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.005 9.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.9 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.1 × 10-9
Gd-159 18.6 h F 0.005 1.2 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 8.9 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.005 2.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 7.3 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.7 × 10-10
Terbium
Tb-147 1.65 h M 0.005 6.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.8 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 9.3 × 10-11 7.6 × 10-11
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
Tb-149 4.15 h M 0.005 2.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.6 × 10 6.6 × 10 5.8 × 10 4.9 × 10-9
Tb-150 3.27 h M 0.005 1.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 7.4 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
Tb-151 17.6 h M 0.005 1.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-9 6.3 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Tb-153 2.34 d M 0.005 1.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.9 × 10-10
251
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Tb-154 21.4 h M 0.005 2.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 7.1 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10
Tb-155 5.32 d M 0.005 1.4 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-9 5.6 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
Tb-156 5.34 d M 0.005 7.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 5.4 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9
Tb-156m 1.02 d M 0.005 1.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 9.4 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10
Tb-156m 5.00 h M 0.005 6.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.5 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 9.6 × 10-11
Tb-157 1.50 × 102 a M 0.005 3.2 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.0 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9
Tb-158 1.50 × 102 a M 0.005 1.1 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-7 7.0 × 10-8 5.1 × 10-8 4.7 × 10-8 4.6 × 10-8
Tb-160 72.3 d M 0.005 3.2 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8 8.6 × 10-9 7.0 × 10-9
Tb-161 6.91 d M 0.005 6.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 4.7 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9
Dysprosium
Dy-155 10.0 h M 0.005 5.6 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.4 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 9.6 × 10-11 7.7 × 10-11
Dy-157 8.10 h M 0.005 2.4 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-10 9.9 × 10-11 6.2 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11
Dy-159 144 d M 0.005 2.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-9 9.6 × 10-10 6.0 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10
Dy-165 2.33 h M 0.005 5.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-11 6.0 × 10-11
Dy-166 3.40 d M 0.005 1.2 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 8.3 × 10-9 4.4 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9
Holmium
Ho-155 0.800 h M 0.005 1.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-10 5.8 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11
Ho-157 0.210 h M 0.005 3.4 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11 8.0 × 10-12 5.1 × 10-12 4.2 × 10-12
Ho-159 0.550 h M 0.005 4.6 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.3 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11 7.5 × 10-12 6.1 × 10-12
Ho-161 2.50 h M 0.005 5.7 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 7.5 × 10-12 6.0 × 10-12
Ho-162 0.250 h M 0.005 2.1 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-11 7.2 × 10-12 4.8 × 10-12 3.4 × 10-12 2.8 × 10-12
Ho-162m 1.13 h M 0.005 1.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-10 5.8 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11
Ho-164 0.483 h M 0.005 6.8 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 4.5 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11 9.9 × 10-12 8.4 × 10-12
Ho-164m 0.625 h M 0.005 9.1 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 5.9 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11
Ho-166 1.12 d M 0.005 6.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.9 × 10-10 6.5 × 10-10
Ho-166m 1.20 × 103 a M 0.005 2.6 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-7 1.8 × 10-7 1.3 × 10-7 1.2 × 10-7 1.2 × 10-7
Ho-167 3.10 h M 0.005 5.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.6 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 8.7 × 10-11 7.1 × 10-11
Erbium
Er-161 3.24 h M 0.005 3.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 9.5 × 10-11 6.0 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11
Er-165 10.4 h M 0.005 7.2 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 5.3 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 9.6 × 10-12 7.9 × 10-12
Er-169 9.30 d M 0.005 4.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9
Er-171 7.52 h M 0.005 1.8 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-9 5.9 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
Er-172 2.05 d M 0.005 6.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 4.7 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
Thulium
252
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Tm-162 0.362 h M 0.005 1.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 9.6 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11
Tm-166 7.70 h M 0.005 1.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 9.9 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10
Tm-167 9.24 d M 0.005 5.6 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 4.1 × 10-9 2.3 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
Tm-170 129 d M 0.005 3.6 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 2.8 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 8.5 × 10-9 7.0 × 10-9
Tm-171 1.92 a M 0.005 6.8 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 5.7 × 10-9 3.4 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
Tm-172 2.65 d M 0.005 8.4 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 5.8 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
Tm-173 8.24 h M 0.005 1.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
Tm-175 0.253 h M 0.005 1.6 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11
Ytterbium
Yb-162 0.315 h M 0.005 1.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 7.9 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11
-10 -4 -11 -11 -11 -11
S 0.005 1.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.2 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-11
Yb-166 2.36 d M 0.005 4.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 9.0 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
S 0.005 4.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.6 × 10 7.7 × 10-10
Yb-167 0.292 h M 0.005 4.4 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 3.1 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11 7.9 × 10-12 6.5 × 10-12
-11 -4 -11 -11 -11 -12
S 0.005 4.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.2 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.4 × 10 6.9 × 10-12
Yb-169 32.0 d M 0.005 1.2 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 8.7 × 10-9 5.1 × 10-9 3.7 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.005 1.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 9.8 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.7 × 10 3.0 × 10-9
Yb-175 4.19 d M 0.005 3.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 9.8 × 10-10 8.3 × 10-10 6.5 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
S 0.005 3.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.2 × 10 7.3 × 10-10
Yb-177 1.90 h M 0.005 5.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.3 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.8 × 10-11 6.4 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 0.005 5.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.5 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.4 × 10 6.9 × 10-11
Yb-178 1.23 h M 0.005 5.9 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-11 7.0 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 0.005 6.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.1 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.1 × 10 7.5 × 10-11
Lutetium
Lu-169 1.42 d M 0.005 2.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-9 9.5 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.005 2.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.7 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.8 × 10-10
Lu-170 2.00 d M 0.005 4.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.4 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.8 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -10
S 0.005 4.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.5 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.2 × 10 6.6 × 10-10
Lu-171 8.22 d M 0.005 5.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.7 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 9.8 × 10-10 8.0 × 10-10
S 0.005 4.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 8.8 × 10-10
Lu-172 6.70 d M 0.005 8.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 6.7 × 10-9 3.8 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.005 9.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.1 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10-9
Lu-173 1.37 a M 0.005 1.0 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 8.5 × 10-9 5.1 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9
-8 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.005 1.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.7 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.4 × 10-9
Lu-174 3.31 a M 0.005 1.7 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-8 9.1 × 10-9 5.8 × 10-9 4.7 × 10-9 4.2 × 10-9
S 0.005 1.6 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-8 8.9 × 10-9 5.9 × 10-9 4.9 × 10-9 4.2 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
Lu-174m 142 d M 0.005 1.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.6 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.3 × 10 3.7 × 10-9
S 0.005 2.0 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-8 9.2 × 10-9 6.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-9 4.2 × 10-9
253
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Lu-176 3.60 × 1010 a M 0.005 1.8 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-7 1.1 × 10-7 7.8 × 10-8 7.1 × 10-8 7.0 × 10-8
S 0.005 1.5 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-7 9.4 × 10-8 6.5 × 10-8 5.9 × 10-8 5.6 × 10-8
-10 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
Lu-176m 3.68 h M 0.005 8.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.9 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
S 0.005 9.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 6.2 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
Lu-177 6.71 d M 0.005 5.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.8 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.005 5.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
Lu-177m 161 d M 0.005 5.8 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 4.6 × 10-8 2.8 × 10-8 1.9 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8
-8 -4 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.005 6.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.3 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.3 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10-8
Lu-178 0.473 h M 0.005 2.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-10 6.6 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.005 2.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 6.9 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.6 × 10-11
Lu-178m 0.378 h M 0.005 2.6 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-10 8.3 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.005 2.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 8.7 × 10 5.8 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.3 × 10-11
Lu-179 4.59 h M 0.005 9.9 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 6.5 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
-9 -4 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.005 1.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.8 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
Hafnium
Hf-170 16.0 h F 0.020 1.4 × 10-9 0.002 1.1 × 10-9 5.4 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.020 2.2 × 10 0.002 1.7 × 10 8.7 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.2 × 10-10
Hf-172 1.87 a F 0.020 1.5 × 10-7 0.002 1.3 × 10-7 7.8 × 10-8 4.9 × 10-8 3.5 × 10-8 3.2 × 10-8
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
M 0.020 8.1 × 10 0.002 6.9 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.3 × 10 2.0 × 10-8
Hf-173 24.0 h F 0.020 6.6 × 10-10 0.002 5.0 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 8.9 × 10-11 7.4 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.020 1.1 × 10 0.002 8.2 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10-10
Hf-175 70.0 d F 0.020 5.4 × 10-9 0.002 4.0 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 8.5 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.020 5.8 × 10 0.002 4.5 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
Hf-177m 0.856 h F 0.020 3.9 × 10-10 0.002 2.8 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-11 5.2 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11
M 0.020 6.5 × 10-10 0.002 4.7 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 9.0 × 10-11
Hf-178m 31.0 a F 0.020 6.2 × 10-7 0.002 5.8 × 10-7 4.0 × 10-7 3.1 × 10-7 2.7 × 10-7 2.6 × 10-7
-7 -7 -7 -7 -7
M 0.020 2.6 × 10 0.002 2.4 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.2 × 10-7
Hf-179m 25.1 d F 0.020 9.7 × 10-9 0.002 6.8 × 10-9 3.4 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
M 0.020 1.7 × 10 0.002 1.3 × 10 7.6 × 10 5.5 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.8 × 10-9
Hf-180m 5.50 h F 0.020 5.4 × 10-10 0.002 4.1 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-11 5.9 × 10-11
M 0.020 9.1 × 10-10 0.002 6.8 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
Hf-181 42.4 d F 0.020 1.3 × 10 0.002 9.6 × 10 4.8 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-9
M 0.020 2.2 × 10-8 0.002 1.7 × 10-8 9.9 × 10-9 7.1 × 10-9 6.3 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-9
Hf-182 9.00 × 106 a F 0.020 6.5 × 10-7 0.002 6.2 × 10-7 4.4 × 10-7 3.6 × 10-7 3.1 × 10-7 3.1 × 10-7
-7 -7 -7 -7 -7
M 0.020 2.4 × 10 0.002 2.3 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.3 × 10-7
Hf-182m 1.02 h F 0.020 1.9 × 10-10 0.002 1.4 × 10-10 6.6 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.020 3.2 × 10 0.002 2.3 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.8 × 10 5.6 × 10 4.6 × 10-11
Hf-183 1.07 h F 0.020 2.5 × 10-10 0.002 1.7 × 10-10 7.9 × 10-11 4.9 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.020 4.4 × 10 0.002 3.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.8 × 10 7.0 × 10 5.7 × 10-11
Hf-184 4.12 h F 0.020 1.4 × 10-9 0.002 9.6 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
254
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
M 0.020 2.6 × 10-9 0.002 1.8 × 10-9 8.9 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10
Tantalum
Ta-172 0.613 h M 0.010 2.8 × 10-10 0.001 1.9 × 10-10 9.3 × 10-11 6.0 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.010 2.9 × 10 0.001 2.0 × 10 9.8 × 10 6.3 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.5 × 10-11
Ta-173 3.65 h M 0.010 8.8 × 10-10 0.001 6.2 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.010 9.2 × 10 0.001 6.5 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
Ta-174 1.20 h M 0.010 3.2 × 10-10 0.001 2.2 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.1 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.010 3.4 × 10 0.001 2.3 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.5 × 10 5.3 × 10 4.3 × 10-11
Ta-175 10.5 h M 0.010 9.1 × 10-10 0.001 7.0 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
S 0.010 9.5 × 10-10 0.001 7.3 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10
Ta-176 8.08 h M 0.010 1.4 × 10-9 0.001 1.1 × 10-9 5.7 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.010 1.4 × 10 0.001 1.1 × 10 5.9 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.0 × 10-10
Ta-177 2.36 d M 0.010 6.5 × 10-10 0.001 4.7 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 9.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.010 6.9 × 10 0.001 5.0 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
Ta-178 2.20 h M 0.010 4.4 × 10-10 0.001 3.3 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 8.0 × 10-11 6.5 × 10-11
S 0.010 4.6 × 10-10 0.001 3.4 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-11 6.8 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Ta-179 1.82 a M 0.010 1.2 × 10 0.001 9.6 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.2 × 10-10
S 0.010 2.4 × 10-9 0.001 2.1 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 8.3 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10
Ta-180 1.00 × 1013 a M 0.010 2.7 × 10-8 0.001 2.2 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 9.2 × 10-9 7.9 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.010 7.0 × 10 0.001 6.5 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.6 × 10-8
Ta-180m 8.10 h M 0.010 3.1 × 10-10 0.001 2.2 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.4 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.010 3.3 × 10 0.001 2.3 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.9 × 10 5.2 × 10 4.2 × 10-11
Ta-182 115 d M 0.010 3.2 × 10-8 0.001 2.6 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 9.5 × 10-9 7.6 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.010 4.2 × 10 0.001 3.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-8
Ta-182m 0.264 h M 0.010 1.6 × 10-10 0.001 1.1 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.010 1.6 × 10 0.001 1.1 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.1 × 10-11
Ta-183 5.10 d M 0.010 1.0 × 10-8 0.001 7.4 × 10-9 4.1 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.010 1.1 × 10 0.001 8.0 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.1 × 10-9
Ta-184 8.70 h M 0.010 3.2 × 10-9 0.001 2.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 7.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 4.1 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.010 3.4 × 10 0.001 2.4 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.9 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.3 × 10-10
Ta-185 0.816 h M 0.010 3.8 × 10-10 0.001 2.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-11 5.4 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.010 4.0 × 10 0.001 2.6 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.2 × 10 5.7 × 10 4.8 × 10-11
Ta-186 0.175 h M 0.010 1.6 × 10-10 0.001 1.1 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 2.0 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11
S 0.010 1.6 × 10-10 0.001 1.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11
Tungsten
W-176 2.30 h F 0.600 3.3 × 10-10 0.300 2.7 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.6 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11
W-177 2.25 h F 0.600 2.0 × 10-10 0.300 1.6 × 10-10 8.2 × 10-11 5.1 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
W-178 21.7 d F 0.600 7.2 × 10-10 0.300 5.4 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 8.7 × 10-11 7.2 × 10-11
255
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
W-179 0.625 h F 0.600 9.3 × 10-12 0.300 6.8 × 10-12 3.3 × 10-12 2.0 × 10-12 1.2 × 10-12 9.2 × 10-13
W-181 121 d F 0.600 2.5 × 10-10 0.300 1.9 × 10-10 9.2 × 10-11 5.7 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11
W-185 75.1 d F 0.600 1.4 × 10-9 0.300 1.0 × 10-9 4.4 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
W-187 23.9 h F 0.600 2.0 × 10-9 0.300 1.5 × 10-9 7.0 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
W-188 69.4 d F 0.600 7.1 × 10-9 0.300 5.0 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 6.8 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10
Rhenium
Re-177 0.233 h F 1.000 9.4 × 10-11 0.800 6.7 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 9.7 × 10-12
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 1.000 1.1 × 10 0.800 7.9 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-11
Re-178 0.220 h F 1.000 9.9 × 10-11 0.800 6.8 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 1.000 1.3 × 10 0.800 8.5 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-11
Re-181 20.0 h F 1.000 2.0 × 10-9 0.800 1.4 × 10-9 6.7 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 1.000 2.1 × 10 0.800 1.5 × 10 7.4 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.5 × 10-10
Re-182 2.67 d F 1.000 6.5 × 10-9 0.800 4.7 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 8.0 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 1.000 8.7 × 10 0.800 6.3 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
Re-182 12.7 h F 1.000 1.3 × 10-9 0.800 1.0 × 10-9 4.9 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 1.000 1.4 × 10 0.800 1.1 × 10 5.7 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.0 × 10-10
Re-184 38.0 d F 1.000 4.1 × 10-9 0.800 2.9 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 8.6 × 10-10 5.4 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 1.000 9.1 × 10 0.800 6.8 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10-9
Re-184m 165 d F 1.000 6.6 × 10-9 0.800 4.6 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.3 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-10
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
M 1.000 2.9 × 10 0.800 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.3 × 10 8.1 × 10 6.5 × 10-9
Re-186 3.78 d F 1.000 7.3 × 10-9 0.800 4.7 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.6 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10
M 1.000 8.7 × 10-9 0.800 5.7 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
Re-186m 2.00 × 105 a F 1.000 1.2 × 10-8 0.800 7.0 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 8.3 × 10-10
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
M 1.000 5.9 × 10 0.800 4.6 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.2 × 10-8
Re-187 5.00 × 1010 a F 1.000 2.6 × 10-11 0.800 1.6 × 10-11 6.8 × 10-12 3.8 × 10-12 2.3 × 10-12 1.8 × 10-12
-11 -11 -11 -11 -12
M 1.000 5.7 × 10 0.800 4.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.5 × 10 6.3 × 10-12
Re-188 17.0 h F 1.000 6.5 × 10-9 0.800 4.4 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.1 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10
M 1.000 6.0 × 10-9 0.800 4.0 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.8 × 10-10 5.4 × 10-10
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
Re-188m 0.310 h F 1.000 1.4 × 10 0.800 9.1 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-11
M 1.000 1.3 × 10-10 0.800 8.6 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11
Re-189 1.01 d F 1.000 3.7 × 10-9 0.800 2.5 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 5.8 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 1.000 3.9 × 10 0.800 2.6 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.6 × 10 5.5 × 10 4.3 × 10-10
Osmium
Os-180 0.366 h F 0.020 7.1 × 10-11 0.010 5.3 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11 8.2 × 10-12
M 0.020 1.1 × 10-10 0.010 7.9 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.1 × 10 0.010 8.2 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.5 × 10-11
Os-181 1.75 h F 0.020 3.0 × 10-10 0.010 2.3 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.0 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.020 4.5 × 10 0.010 3.4 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.6 × 10 6.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 0.020 4.7 × 10 0.010 3.6 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.1 × 10 6.5 × 10-11
256
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Os-182 22.0 h F 0.020 1.6 × 10-9 0.010 1.2 × 10-9 6.0 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10
M 0.020 2.5 × 10-9 0.010 1.9 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.6 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.020 2.6 × 10 0.010 2.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.9 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.8 × 10-10
Os-185 94.0 d F 0.020 7.2 × 10-9 0.010 5.8 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.020 6.6 × 10 0.010 5.4 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 7.0 × 10 0.010 5.8 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.6 × 10-9
Os-189m 6.00 h F 0.020 3.8 × 10-11 0.010 2.8 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 7.0 × 10-12 3.5 × 10-12 2.5 × 10-12
M 0.020 6.5 × 10-11 0.010 4.1 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11 6.0 × 10-12 5.0 × 10-12
-11 -11 -11 -11 -12
S 0.020 6.8 × 10 0.010 4.3 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 6.3 × 10 5.3 × 10-12
Os-191 15.4 d F 0.020 2.8 × 10-9 0.010 1.9 × 10-9 8.5 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.020 8.0 × 10 0.010 5.8 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.7 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 9.0 × 10 0.010 6.5 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.9 × 10-9
Os-191m 13.0 h F 0.020 3.0 × 10-10 0.010 2.0 × 10-10 8.8 × 10-11 5.4 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
M 0.020 7.8 × 10-10 0.010 5.4 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 8.5 × 10 0.010 6.0 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10-10
Os-193 1.25 d F 0.020 1.9 × 10-9 0.010 1.2 × 10-9 5.2 × 10-10 3.2 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.020 3.8 × 10 0.010 2.6 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.4 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.020 4.0 × 10 0.010 2.7 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.0 × 10 6.4 × 10 5.2 × 10-10
Os-194 6.00 a F 0.020 8.7 × 10-8 0.010 6.8 × 10-8 3.4 × 10-8 2.1 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8
M 0.020 9.9 × 10-8 0.010 8.3 × 10-8 4.8 × 10-8 3.1 × 10-8 2.4 × 10-8 2.1 × 10-8
-7 -7 -7 -7 -8
S 0.020 2.6 × 10 0.010 2.4 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.8 × 10 8.5 × 10-8
Iridium
Ir-182 0.250 h F 0.020 1.4 × 10-10 0.010 9.8 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.020 2.1 × 10 0.010 1.4 × 10 6.7 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.3 × 10-11
S 0.020 2.2 × 10-10 0.010 1.5 × 10-10 6.9 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
Ir-184 3.02 h F 0.020 5.7 × 10-10 0.010 4.4 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 7.6 × 10-11 6.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.020 8.6 × 10 0.010 6.4 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 8.9 × 10 0.010 6.6 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
Ir-185 14.0 h F 0.020 8.0 × 10-10 0.010 6.1 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 8.2 × 10-11
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.020 1.3 × 10 0.010 9.7 × 10 4.9 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.8 × 10-10
S 0.020 1.4 × 10-9 0.010 1.0 × 10-9 5.2 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
Ir-186 15.8 h F 0.020 1.5 × 10-9 0.010 1.2 × 10-9 5.9 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.020 2.2 × 10 0.010 1.7 × 10 8.8 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.8 × 10 3.1 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 2.3 × 10 0.010 1.8 × 10 9.2 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.2 × 10-10
Ir-186 1.75 h F 0.020 2.1 × 10-10 0.010 1.6 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-11 4.8 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.020 3.3 × 10 0.010 2.4 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.7 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.2 × 10-11
S 0.020 3.4 × 10-10 0.010 2.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 8.1 × 10-11 5.4 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11
Ir-187 10.5 h F 0.020 3.6 × 10-10 0.010 2.8 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.2 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.020 5.8 × 10 0.010 4.3 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.2 × 10 7.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 0.020 6.0 × 10 0.010 4.5 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.7 × 10 7.9 × 10-11
Ir-188 1.73 d F 0.020 2.0 × 10-9 0.010 1.6 × 10-9 8.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10
257
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
M 0.020 2.7 × 10-9 0.010 2.1 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 7.5 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10
S 0.020 2.8 × 10-9 0.010 2.2 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.8 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Ir-189 13.3 d F 0.020 1.2 × 10 0.010 8.2 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
M 0.020 2.7 × 10-9 0.010 1.9 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 7.7 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.020 3.0 × 10 0.010 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.7 × 10 7.3 × 10 6.0 × 10-10
Ir-190 12.1 d F 0.020 6.2 × 10-9 0.010 4.7 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 9.1 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.020 1.1 × 10 0.010 8.6 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.1 × 10-9
S 0.020 1.1 × 10-8 0.010 9.4 × 10-9 4.8 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Ir-190m 3.10 h F 0.020 4.2 × 10 0.010 3.4 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.9 × 10-11
M 0.020 6.0 × 10-10 0.010 4.7 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 9.9 × 10-11 7.9 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 6.2 × 10 0.010 4.8 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.3 × 10-11
Ir-190m 1.20 h F 0.020 3.2 × 10-11 0.010 2.4 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 7.2 × 10-12 4.3 × 10-12 3.6 × 10-12
-11 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 0.020 5.7 × 10 0.010 4.2 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.3 × 10-12
S 0.020 5.5 × 10-11 0.010 4.5 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11
-8 -8 -9 -9 -9
Ir-192 74.0 d F 0.020 1.5 × 10 0.010 1.1 × 10 5.7 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.8 × 10-9
M 0.020 2.3 × 10-8 0.010 1.8 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 7.6 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-9 5.2 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
S 0.020 2.8 × 10 0.010 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.5 × 10 8.1 × 10 6.6 × 10-9
Ir-192m 2.41 × 102 a F 0.020 2.7 × 10-8 0.010 2.3 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 8.2 × 10-9 5.4 × 10-9 4.8 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
M 0.020 2.3 × 10 0.010 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.4 × 10 6.6 × 10 5.8 × 10-9
S 0.020 9.2 × 10-8 0.010 9.1 × 10-8 6.5 × 10-8 4.5 × 10-8 4.0 × 10-8 3.9 × 10-8
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
Ir-193m 11.9 d F 0.020 1.2 × 10 0.010 8.4 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.0 × 10-10
M 0.020 4.8 × 10-9 0.010 3.5 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.020 5.4 × 10 0.010 4.0 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-9
Ir-194 19.1 h F 0.020 2.9 × 10-9 0.010 1.9 × 10-9 8.1 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
M 0.020 5.3 × 10 0.010 3.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.3 × 10 5.2 × 10-10
S 0.020 5.5 × 10-9 0.010 3.7 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.7 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
Ir-194m 171 d F 0.020 3.4 × 10 0.010 2.7 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.5 × 10 6.2 × 10 5.4 × 10-9
M 0.020 3.9 × 10-8 0.010 3.2 × 10-8 1.9 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 9.0 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.020 5.0 × 10 0.010 4.2 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.3 × 10-8
Ir-195 2.50 h F 0.020 2.9 × 10-10 0.010 1.9 × 10-10 8.1 × 10-11 5.1 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.020 5.4 × 10 0.010 3.6 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.1 × 10 6.7 × 10-11
S 0.020 5.7 × 10-10 0.010 3.8 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 8.7 × 10-11 7.1 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
Ir-195m 3.80 h F 0.020 6.9 × 10 0.010 4.8 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 7.2 × 10 6.0 × 10-11
M 0.020 1.2 × 10-9 0.010 8.6 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 1.3 × 10 0.010 9.0 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.7 × 10-10
Platinum
Pt-186 2.00 h F 0.020 3.0 × 10-10 0.010 2.4 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Pt-188 10.2 d F 0.020 3.6 × 10 0.010 2.7 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.2 × 10-10
Pt-189 10.9 h F 0.020 3.8 × 10-10 0.010 2.9 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.4 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11
Pt-191 2.80 d F 0.020 1.1 × 10-9 0.010 7.9 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
258
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Pt-193 50.0 a F 0.020 2.2 × 10-10 0.010 1.6 × 10-10 7.2 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11
Pt-193m 4.33 d F 0.020 1.6 × 10-9 0.010 1.0 × 10-9 4.5 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
Pt-195m 4.02 d F 0.020 2.2 × 10-9 0.010 1.5 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
Pt-197 18.3 h F 0.020 1.1 × 10-9 0.010 7.3 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-11
Pt-197m 1.57 h F 0.020 2.8 × 10-10 0.010 1.8 × 10-10 7.9 × 10-11 4.9 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
Pt-199 0.513 h F 0.020 1.3 × 10-10 0.010 8.3 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11
Pt-200 12.5 h F 0.020 2.6 × 10-9 0.010 1.7 × 10-9 7.2 × 10-10 5.1 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
Gold
Au-193 17.6 h F 0.200 3.7 × 10-10 0.100 2.8 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 7.9 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11 3.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 7.5 × 10 0.100 5.6 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.200 7.9 × 10 0.100 5.9 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10-10
Au-194 1.65 d F 0.200 1.2 × 10-9 0.100 9.6 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10
M 0.200 1.7 × 10-9 0.100 1.4 × 10-9 7.1 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.200 1.7 × 10 0.100 1.4 × 10 7.3 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.4 × 10-10
Au-195 183 d F 0.200 7.2 × 10-10 0.100 5.3 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 8.1 × 10-11 6.6 × 10-11
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 5.2 × 10 0.100 4.1 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.200 8.1 × 10 0.100 6.6 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-9
Au-198 2.69 d F 0.200 2.4 × 10-9 0.100 1.7 × 10-9 7.6 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10
M 0.200 5.0 × 10-9 0.100 4.1 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 9.7 × 10-10 7.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.200 5.4 × 10 0.100 4.4 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.6 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
Au-198m 2.30 d F 0.200 3.3 × 10 0.100 2.4 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.9 × 10 3.7 × 10 3.2 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 8.7 × 10 0.100 6.5 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.8 × 10-9
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.200 9.5 × 10 0.100 7.1 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.0 × 10-9
Au-199 3.14 d F 0.200 1.1 × 10-9 0.100 7.9 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 9.8 × 10-11
M 0.200 3.4 × 10-9 0.100 2.5 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 9.0 × 10-10 7.1 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.200 3.8 × 10 0.100 2.8 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.0 × 10 7.9 × 10-10
Au-200 0.807 h F 0.200 1.9 × 10-10 0.100 1.2 × 10-10 5.2 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 3.2 × 10 0.100 2.1 × 10 9.3 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.200 3.4 × 10 0.100 2.1 × 10 9.8 × 10 6.3 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.5 × 10-11
Au-200m 18.7 h F 0.200 2.7 × 10-9 0.100 2.1 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10
M 0.200 4.8 × 10-9 0.100 3.7 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 8.4 × 10-10 6.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
S 0.200 5.1 × 10 0.100 3.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.9 × 10 7.2 × 10-10
Au-201 0.440 h F 0.200 9.0 × 10-11 0.100 5.7 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11 8.7 × 10-12
-10 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 1.5 × 10 0.100 9.6 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.7 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.200 1.5 × 10 0.100 1.0 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-11
Mercury
Hg-193 3.50 h F 0.800 2.2 × 10-10 0.400 1.8 × 10-10 8.2 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
(organic)
Hg-193 3.50 h F 0.040 2.7 × 10-10 0.020 2.0 × 10-10 8.9 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
(inorganic) M 0.040 5.3 × 10 0.020 3.8 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.2 × 10 7.5 × 10-11
259
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Hg-193m 11.1 h F 0.800 8.4 × 10-10 0.400 7.6 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10
(organic)
Hg-193m 11.1 h F 0.040 1.1 × 10-9 0.020 8.5 × 10-10 4.1 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
(inorganic) M 0.040 1.9 × 10 0.020 1.4 × 10 7.2 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.6 × 10-10
Hg-194 2.60 × 102 a F 0.800 4.9 × 10-8 0.400 3.7 × 10-8 2.4 × 10-8 1.9 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8
(organic)
Hg-194 2.60 × 102 a F 0.040 3.2 × 10-8 0.020 2.9 × 10-8 2.0 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8
(inorganic) M 0.040 2.1 × 10-8 0.020 1.9 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8 8.9 × 10-9 8.3 × 10-9
Hg-195 9.90 h F 0.800 2.0 × 10-10 0.400 1.8 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-11 5.1 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11
(organic)
Hg-195 9.90 h F 0.040 2.7 × 10-10 0.020 2.0 × 10-10 9.5 × 10-11 5.7 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
(inorganic) M 0.040 5.3 × 10 0.020 3.9 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.0 × 10 7.3 × 10-11
Hg-195m 1.73 d F 0.800 1.1 × 10-9 0.400 9.7 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
(organic)
Hg-195m 1.73 d F 0.040 1.6 × 10-9 0.020 1.1 × 10-9 5.1 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
(inorganic) M 0.040 3.7 × 10 0.020 2.6 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.5 × 10 6.7 × 10 5.3 × 10-10
Hg-197 2.67 d F 0.800 4.7 × 10-10 0.400 4.0 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 5.8 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11
(organic)
Hg-197 2.67 d F 0.040 6.8 × 10-10 0.020 4.7 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 6.8 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
(inorganic) M 0.040 1.7 × 10 0.020 1.2 × 10 6.6 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.8 × 10 3.0 × 10-10
Hg-197m 23.8 h F 0.800 9.3 × 10-10 0.400 7.8 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 9.6 × 10-11
(organic)
Hg-197m 23.8 h F 0.040 1.4 × 10-9 0.020 9.3 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -10 -10
(inorganic) M 0.040 3.5 × 10 0.020 2.5 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.2 × 10 6.7 × 10 5.3 × 10-10
Hg-199m 0.710 h F 0.800 1.4 × 10-10 0.400 9.6 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11
(organic)
Hg-199m 0.710 h F 0.040 1.4 × 10-10 0.020 9.6 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
(inorganic) M 0.040 2.5 × 10 0.020 1.7 × 10 7.9 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.8 × 10 3.2 × 10-11
Hg-203 46.6 d F 0.800 5.7 × 10-9 0.400 3.7 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.6 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10
(organic)
Hg-203 46.6 d F 0.040 4.2 × 10-9 0.020 2.9 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 9.0 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
(inorganic) M 0.040 1.0 × 10 0.020 7.9 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.4 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.4 × 10-9
Thallium
Tl-194 0.550 h F 1.000 3.6 × 10-11 1.000 3.0 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11 9.2 × 10-12 5.5 × 10-12 4.4 × 10-12
Tl-194m 0.546 h F 1.000 1.7 × 10-10 1.000 1.2 × 10-10 6.1 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11
Tl-195 1.16 h F 1.000 1.3 × 10-10 1.000 1.0 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.5 × 10-11
Tl-197 2.84 h F 1.000 1.3 × 10-10 1.000 9.7 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11
Tl-198 5.30 h F 1.000 4.7 × 10-10 1.000 4.0 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 7.5 × 10-11 6.0 × 10-11
Tl-198m 1.87 h F 1.000 3.2 × 10-10 1.000 2.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.5 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 3.7 × 10-11
Tl-199 7.42 h F 1.000 1.7 × 10-10 1.000 1.3 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11
Tl-200 1.09 d F 1.000 1.0 × 10-9 1.000 8.7 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10
260
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Tl-201 3.04 d F 1.000 4.5 × 10-10 1.000 3.3 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 9.4 × 10-11 5.4 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11
Tl-202 12.2 d F 1.000 1.5 × 10-9 1.000 1.2 × 10-9 5.9 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
Tl-204 3.78 a F 1.000 5.0 × 10-9 1.000 3.3 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9 8.8 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10
Lead84
Pb-195m 0.263 h F 0.600 1.3 × 10-10 0.200 1.0 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.200 2.0 × 10 0.100 1.5 × 10 7.1 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 2.1 × 10 0.010 1.5 × 10 7.4 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.7 × 10-11
Pb-198 2.40 h F 0.600 3.4 × 10-10 0.200 2.9 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 8.9 × 10-11 5.2 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.200 5.0 × 10 0.100 4.0 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.3 × 10 6.6 × 10-11
S 0.020 5.4 × 10-10 0.010 4.2 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 8.7 × 10-11 7.0 × 10-11
Pb-199 1.50 h F 0.600 1.9 × 10-10 0.200 1.6 × 10-10 8.2 × 10-11 4.9 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.200 2.8 × 10 0.100 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.1 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.020 2.9 × 10 0.010 2.3 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.4 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.7 × 10-11
Pb-200 21.5 h F 0.600 1.1 × 10-9 0.200 9.3 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10
M 0.200 2.2 × 10-9 0.100 1.7 × 10-9 8.6 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10 4.1 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10
S 0.020 2.4 × 10-9 0.010 1.8 × 10-9 9.2 × 10-10 6.2 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10
Pb-201 9.40 h F 0.600 4.8 × 10-10 0.200 4.1 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.1 × 10-11 6.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 8.0 × 10 0.100 6.4 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.1 × 10-10
S 0.020 8.8 × 10-10 0.010 6.7 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
Pb-202 3.00 × 105 a F 0.600 1.9 × 10-8 0.200 1.3 × 10-8 8.9 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-8 1.8 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.200 1.2 × 10 0.100 8.9 × 10 6.2 × 10 6.7 × 10 8.7 × 10 6.3 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.020 2.8 × 10 0.010 2.8 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.2 × 10-8
Pb-202m 3.62 h F 0.600 4.7 × 10-10 0.200 4.0 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 7.5 × 10-11 6.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 6.9 × 10 0.100 5.6 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.5 × 10-11
S 0.020 7.3 × 10-10 0.010 5.8 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10
Pb-203 2.17 d F 0.600 7.2 × 10-10 0.200 5.8 × 10-10 2.8 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 9.9 × 10-11 8.5 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 1.3 × 10 0.100 1.0 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.0 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.020 1.5 × 10 0.010 1.1 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.2 × 10-10
Pb-205 1.43 × 107 a F 0.600 1.1 × 10-9 0.200 6.9 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10 4.1 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10
-9 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 1.1 × 10 0.100 7.7 × 10 4.3 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.5 × 10-10
S 0.020 2.9 × 10-9 0.010 2.7 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 9.2 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-10
Pb-209 3.25 h F 0.600 1.8 × 10-10 0.200 1.2 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-11 3.4 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.7 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.200 4.0 × 10 0.100 2.7 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.2 × 10 6.9 × 10 5.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.020 4.4 × 10 0.010 2.9 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.9 × 10 7.5 × 10 6.1 × 10-11
Pb-210 22.3 a F 0.600 4.7 × 10-6 0.200 2.9 × 10-6 1.5 × 10-6 1.4 × 10-6 1.3 × 10-6 9.0 × 10-7
-6 -6 -6 -6 -6
M 0.200 5.0 × 10 0.100 3.7 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10-6
S 0.020 1.8 × 10-5 0.010 1.8 × 10-5 1.1 × 10-5 7.2 × 10-6 5.9 × 10-6 5.6 × 10-6
Pb-211 0.601 h F 0.600 2.5 × 10-8 0.200 1.7 × 10-8 8.7 × 10-9 6.1 × 10-9 4.6 × 10-9 3.9 × 10-9
84
The f1 value for lead for 1 to 15 year olds for Type F is 0.4.
261
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
M 0.200 6.2 × 10-8 0.100 4.5 × 10-8 2.5 × 10-8 1.9 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8
S 0.020 6.6 × 10-8 0.010 4.8 × 10-8 2.7 × 10-8 2.0 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8
-7 -7 -8 -8 -8
Pb-212 10.6 h F 0.600 1.9 × 10 0.200 1.2 × 10 5.4 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.8 × 10-8
M 0.200 6.2 × 10-7 0.100 4.6 × 10-7 3.0 × 10-7 2.2 × 10-7 2.2 × 10-7 1.7 × 10-7
-7 -7 -7 -7 -7
S 0.020 6.7 × 10 0.010 5.0 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.9 × 10-7
Pb-214 0.447 h F 0.600 2.2 × 10-8 0.200 1.5 × 10-8 6.9 × 10-9 4.8 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
M 0.200 6.4 × 10 0.100 4.6 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.4 × 10-8
S 0.020 6.9 × 10-8 0.010 5.0 × 10-8 2.8 × 10-8 2.1 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8
Bismuth
Bi-200 0.606 h F 0.100 1.9 × 10-10 0.050 1.5 × 10-10 7.4 × 10-11 4.5 × 10-11 2.7 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.100 2.5 × 10 0.050 1.9 × 10 9.9 × 10 6.3 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.3 × 10-11
Bi-201 1.80 h F 0.100 4.0 × 10-10 0.050 3.1 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 9.3 × 10-11 5.4 × 10-11 4.4 × 10-11
M 0.100 5.5 × 10-10 0.050 4.1 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.3 × 10-11 6.6 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
Bi-202 1.67 h F 0.100 3.4 × 10 0.050 2.8 × 10 1.5 × 10 9.0 × 10 5.3 × 10 4.3 × 10-11
M 0.100 4.2 × 10-10 0.050 3.4 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.9 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11
Bi-203 11.8 h F 0.100 1.5 × 10-9 0.050 1.2 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.100 2.0 × 10 0.050 1.6 × 10 8.2 × 10 5.3 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.6 × 10-10
Bi-205 15.3 d F 0.100 3.0 × 10-9 0.050 2.4 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 8.0 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.100 5.5 × 10 0.050 4.4 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.3 × 10-10
Bi-206 6.24 d F 0.100 6.1 × 10-9 0.050 4.8 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 9.1 × 10-10 7.4 × 10-10
-8 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.100 1.0 × 10 0.050 8.0 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-9
Bi-207 38.0 a F 0.100 4.3 × 10-9 0.050 3.3 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.0 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-10
-8 -8 -8 -9 -9
M 0.100 2.3 × 10 0.050 2.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.2 × 10 6.5 × 10 5.6 × 10-9
Bi-210 5.01 d F 0.100 1.1 × 10-8 0.050 6.9 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
-7 -7 -7 -7 -7
M 0.100 3.9 × 10 0.050 3.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.3 × 10-8
Bi-210m 3.00 × 106 a F 0.100 4.1 × 10-7 0.050 2.6 × 10-7 1.3 × 10-7 8.3 × 10-8 5.6 × 10-8 4.6 × 10-8
-5 -5 -6 -6 -6
M 0.100 1.5 × 10 0.050 1.1 × 10 7.0 × 10 4.8 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.4 × 10-6
Bi-212 1.01 h F 0.100 6.5 × 10-8 0.050 4.5 × 10-8 2.1 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8 9.1 × 10-9
-7 -7 -8 -8 -8
M 0.100 1.6 × 10 0.050 1.1 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.8 × 10 3.1 × 10-8
Bi-213 0.761 h F 0.100 7.7 × 10-8 0.050 5.3 × 10-8 2.5 × 10-8 1.7 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8
M 0.100 1.6 × 10-7 0.050 1.2 × 10-7 6.0 × 10-8 4.4 × 10-8 3.6 × 10-8 3.0 × 10-8
Bi-214 0.332 h F 0.100 5.0 × 10-8 0.050 3.5 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 8.2 × 10-9 7.1 × 10-9
-8 -8 -8 -8 -8
M 0.100 8.7 × 10 0.050 6.1 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.4 × 10-8
Polonium
Po-203 0.612 h F 0.200 1.9 × 10-10 0.100 1.5 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11 2.8 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11
M 0.200 2.7 × 10-10 0.100 2.1 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.7 × 10-11 4.3 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.020 2.8 × 10 0.010 2.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.0 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.6 × 10-11
Po-205 1.80 h F 0.200 2.6 × 10-10 0.100 2.1 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 6.6 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.200 4.0 × 10 0.100 3.1 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.1 × 10 6.5 × 10-11
262
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
S 0.020 4.2 × 10-10 0.010 3.2 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 8.5 × 10-11 6.9 × 10-11
Po-207 5.83 h F 0.200 4.8 × 10-10 0.100 4.0 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 7.3 × 10-11 5.8 × 10-11
-10 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.200 6.2 × 10 0.100 5.1 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.6 × 10 9.9 × 10 7.8 × 10-11
S 0.020 6.6 × 10-10 0.010 5.3 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 8.2 × 10-11
Po-210 138 d F 0.200 7.4 × 10-6 0.100 4.8 × 10-6 2.2 × 10-6 1.3 × 10-6 7.7 × 10-7 6.1 × 10-7
-5 -5 -6 -6 -6
M 0.200 1.5 × 10 0.100 1.1 × 10 6.7 × 10 4.6 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.3 × 10-6
-5 -5 -6 -6 -6
S 0.020 1.8 × 10 0.010 1.4 × 10 8.6 × 10 5.9 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.3 × 10-6
Astatine
At-207 1.80 h F 1.000 2.4 × 10-9 1.000 1.7 × 10-9 8.9 × 10-10 5.9 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 1.000 9.2 × 10 1.000 6.7 × 10 4.3 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.3 × 10-9
At-211 7.21 h F 1.000 1.4 × 10-7 1.000 9.7 × 10-8 4.3 × 10-8 2.8 × 10-8 1.7 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8
-7 -7 -7 -7 -7
M 1.000 5.2 × 10 1.000 3.7 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.1 × 10-7
Francium
Fr-222 0.240 h F 1.000 9.1 × 10-8 1.000 6.3 × 10-8 3.0 × 10-8 2.1 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8
Fr-223 0.363 h F 1.000 1.1 × 10-8 1.000 7.3 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 8.9 × 10-10
Radium85
Ra-223 11.4 d F 0.600 3.0 × 10-6 0.200 1.0 × 10-6 4.9 × 10-7 4.0 × 10-7 3.3 × 10-7 1.2 × 10-7
-5 -5 -5 -6 -6
M 0.200 2.8 × 10 0.100 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.9 × 10 9.4 × 10 7.4 × 10-6
S 0.020 3.2 × 10-5 0.010 2.4 × 10-5 1.5 × 10-5 1.1 × 10-5 1.1 × 10-5 8.7 × 10-6
Ra-224 3.66 d F 0.600 1.5 × 10-6 0.200 6.0 × 10-7 2.9 × 10-7 2.2 × 10-7 1.7 × 10-7 7.5 × 10-8
-5 -6 -6 -6 -6
M 0.200 1.1 × 10 0.100 8.2 × 10 5.3 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.7 × 10 3.0 × 10-6
-5 -6 -6 -6 -6
S 0.020 1.2 × 10 0.010 9.2 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.4 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.4 × 10-6
Ra-225 14.8 d F 0.600 4.0 × 10-6 0.200 1.2 × 10-6 5.6 × 10-7 4.6 × 10-7 3.8 × 10-7 1.3 × 10-7
-5 -5 -5 -6 -6
M 0.200 2.4 × 10 0.100 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.4 × 10 7.9 × 10 6.3 × 10-6
S 0.020 2.8 × 10-5 0.010 2.2 × 10-5 1.4 × 10-5 1.0 × 10-5 9.8 × 10-6 7.7 × 10-6
Ra-226 1.60 × 103 a F 0.600 2.6 × 10-6 0.200 9.4 × 10-7 5.5 × 10-7 7.2 × 10-7 1.3 × 10-6 3.6 × 10-7
-5 -5 -6 -6 -6
M 0.200 1.5 × 10 0.100 1.1 × 10 7.0 × 10 4.9 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.5 × 10-6
-5 -5 -5 -5 -5
S 0.020 3.4 × 10 0.010 2.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.0 × 10 9.5 × 10-6
Ra-227 0.703 h F 0.600 1.5 × 10-9 0.200 1.2 × 10-9 7.8 × 10-10 6.1 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.200 8.0 × 10 0.100 6.7 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.8 × 10-10
S 0.020 1.0 × 10-9 0.010 8.5 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
Ra-228 5.75 a F 0.600 1.7 × 10-5 0.200 5.7 × 10-6 3.1 × 10-6 3.6 × 10-6 4.6 × 10-6 9.0 × 10-7
-5 -5 -6 -6 -6
M 0.200 1.5 × 10 0.100 1.0 × 10 6.3 × 10 4.6 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.6 × 10-6
-5 -5 -5 -5 -5
S 0.020 4.9 × 10 0.010 4.8 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.6 × 10-5
Actinium
85
The f1 value for radium for 1 to 15 year olds for Type F is 0.3.
263
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Ac-224 2.90 h F 0.005 1.3 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 8.9 × 10-8 4.7 × 10-8 3.1 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8
M 0.005 4.2 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-7 2.0 × 10-7 1.5 × 10-7 1.4 × 10-7 1.1 × 10-7
-7 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
S 0.005 4.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-7
Ac-225 10.0 d F 0.005 1.1 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 7.7 × 10-6 4.0 × 10-6 2.6 × 10-6 1.1 × 10-6 8.8 × 10-7
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -6
M 0.005 2.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10 9.3 × 10 7.4 × 10-6
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
S 0.005 3.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.1 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.5 × 10-6
Ac-226 1.21 d F 0.005 1.5 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-6 4.0 × 10-7 2.6 × 10-7 1.2 × 10-7 9.6 × 10-8
M 0.005 4.3 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-6 2.1 × 10-6 1.5 × 10-6 1.5 × 10-6 1.2 × 10-6
-6 -4 -6 -6 -6 -6
S 0.005 4.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.5 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.3 × 10-6
Ac-227 21.8 a F 0.005 1.7 × 10-3 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-3 1.0 × 10-3 7.2 × 10-4 5.6 × 10-4 5.5 × 10-4
-4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4
M 0.005 5.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.3 × 10 2.2 × 10-4
-4 -4 -4 -4 -5 -5
S 0.005 2.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.7 × 10 7.6 × 10 7.2 × 10-5
Ac-228 6.13 h F 0.005 1.8 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-7 9.7 × 10-8 5.7 × 10-8 2.9 × 10-8 2.5 × 10-8
M 0.005 8.4 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 7.3 × 10-8 4.7 × 10-8 2.9 × 10-8 2.0 × 10-8 1.7 × 10-8
-8 -4 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.005 6.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.3 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.6 × 10-8
Thorium
Th-226 0.515 h F 0.005 1.4 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-7 4.8 × 10-8 3.4 × 10-8 2.5 × 10-8 2.2 × 10-8
-7 -4 -7 -7 -8 -8
M 0.005 3.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.3 × 10 7.0 × 10 5.8 × 10-8
S 0.005 3.1 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 2.2 × 10-7 1.2 × 10-7 8.8 × 10-8 7.5 × 10-8 6.1 × 10-8
Th-227 18.7 d F 0.005 8.4 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 5.2 × 10-6 2.6 × 10-6 1.6 × 10-6 1.0 × 10-6 6.7 × 10-7
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
M 0.005 3.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.5 × 10-6
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
S 0.005 3.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10-5
Th-228 1.91 a F 0.005 1.8 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-4 8.3 × 10-5 5.2 × 10-5 3.6 × 10-5 2.9 × 10-5
-4 -4 -4 -5 -5 -5
M 0.005 1.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.8 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.2 × 10-5
S 0.005 1.6 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-4 8.2 × 10-5 5.5 × 10-5 4.7 × 10-5 4.0 × 10-5
Th-229 7.34 × 103 a F 0.005 5.4 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 5.1 × 10-4 3.6 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-4
-4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4
M 0.005 2.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 1.1 × 10-4
-4 -4 -4 -4 -5 -5
S 0.005 2.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.7 × 10 7.6 × 10 7.1 × 10-5
Th-230 7.70 × 104 a F 0.005 2.1 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4 9.9 × 10-5 1.0 × 10-4
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
M 0.005 7.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.4 × 10 5.5 × 10 4.3 × 10 4.2 × 10 4.3 × 10-5
S 0.005 4.0 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 3.5 × 10-5 2.4 × 10-5 1.6 × 10-5 1.5 × 10-5 1.4 × 10-5
Th-231 1.06 d F 0.005 1.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 7.2 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 9.2 × 10-11 7.8 × 10-11
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.005 2.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.6 × 10 8.0 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.8 × 10 3.1 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.005 2.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 7.6 × 10 5.2 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.3 × 10-10
Th-232 1.40 × 1010 a F 0.005 2.3 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 2.2 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
M 0.005 8.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.1 × 10 6.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.7 × 10 4.5 × 10-5
S 0.005 5.4 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-5 3.7 × 10-5 2.6 × 10-5 2.5 × 10-5 2.5 × 10-5
Th-234 24.1 d F 0.005 4.0 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 2.5 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 6.1 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -8 -8 -9
M 0.005 3.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.0 × 10 7.9 × 10 6.6 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -8 -8 -9
S 0.005 4.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.1 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.1 × 10 7.7 × 10-9
264
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Protactinium
Pa-227 0.638 h M 0.005 3.6 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 2.6 × 10-7 1.4 × 10-7 1.0 × 10-7 9.0 × 10-8 7.4 × 10-8
-7 -4 -7 -7 -7 -8
S 0.005 3.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.1 × 10 8.1 × 10 8.0 × 10-8
Pa-228 22.0 h M 0.005 2.6 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 2.1 × 10-7 1.3 × 10-7 8.8 × 10-8 7.7 × 10-8 6.4 × 10-8
S 0.005 2.9 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-7 1.5 × 10-7 1.0 × 10-7 9.1 × 10-8 7.5 × 10-8
Pa-230 17.4 d M 0.005 2.4 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-6 1.1 × 10-6 8.3 × 10-7 7.6 × 10-7 6.1 × 10-7
-6 -4 -6 -6 -6 -7
S 0.005 2.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.0 × 10 9.6 × 10 7.6 × 10-7
Pa-231 3.27 × 104 a M 0.005 2.2 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-4
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
S 0.005 7.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.9 × 10 5.2 × 10 3.9 × 10 3.6 × 10 3.4 × 10-5
Pa-232 1.31 d M 0.005 1.9 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8
S 0.005 1.0 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 8.7 × 10-9 5.9 × 10-9 4.1 × 10-9 3.7 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -9 -9 -9
Pa-233 27.0 d M 0.005 1.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.7 × 10 4.1 × 10 3.3 × 10-9
S 0.005 1.7 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-8 7.5 × 10-9 5.5 × 10-9 4.9 × 10-9 3.9 × 10-9
Pa-234 6.70 h M 0.005 2.8 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 6.8 × 10-10 4.7 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.005 2.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.0 × 10-10
Uranium
U-230 20.8 d F 0.040 3.2 × 10-6 0.020 1.5 × 10-6 7.2 × 10-7 5.4 × 10-7 4.1 × 10-7 3.8 × 10-7
M 0.040 4.9 × 10-5 0.020 3.7 × 10-5 2.4 × 10-5 1.8 × 10-5 1.7 × 10-5 1.3 × 10-5
-5 -5 -5 -5 -5
S 0.020 5.8 × 10 0.002 4.4 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.6 × 10-5
U-231 4.20 d F 0.040 8.9 × 10-10 0.020 6.2 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10 6.2 × 10-11
-9 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.040 2.4 × 10 0.020 1.7 × 10 9.4 × 10 5.5 × 10 4.6 × 10 3.8 × 10-10
S 0.020 2.6 × 10-9 0.002 1.9 × 10-9 9.0 × 10-10 6.1 × 10-10 4.9 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10
-5 -5 -6 -6 -6
U-232 72.0 a F 0.040 1.6 × 10 0.020 1.0 × 10 6.9 × 10 6.8 × 10 7.5 × 10 4.0 × 10-6
M 0.040 3.0 × 10-5 0.020 2.4 × 10-5 1.6 × 10-5 1.1 × 10-5 1.0 × 10-5 7.8 × 10-6
-4 -5 -5 -5 -5
S 0.020 1.0 × 10 0.002 9.7 × 10 6.6 × 10 4.3 × 10 3.8 × 10 3.7 × 10-5
U-233 1.58 × 105 a F 0.040 2.2 × 10-6 0.020 1.4 × 10-6 9.4 × 10-7 8.4 × 10-7 8.6 × 10-7 5.8 × 10-7
-5 -5 -6 -6 -6
M 0.040 1.5 × 10 0.020 1.1 × 10 7.2 × 10 4.9 × 10 4.3 × 10 3.6 × 10-6
S 0.020 3.4 × 10-5 0.002 3.0 × 10-5 1.9 × 10-5 1.2 × 10-5 1.1 × 10-5 9.6 × 10-6
5 -6 -6 -7 -7 -7
U-234 2.44 × 10 a F 0.040 2.1 × 10 0.020 1.4 × 10 9.0 × 10 8.0 × 10 8.2 × 10 5.6 × 10-7
M 0.040 1.5 × 10-5 0.020 1.1 × 10-5 7.0 × 10-6 4.8 × 10-6 4.2 × 10-6 3.5 × 10-6
-5 -5 -5 -5 -5
S 0.020 3.3 × 10 0.002 2.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.0 × 10 9.4 × 10-6
U-235 7.04 × 108 a F 0.040 2.0 × 10-6 0.020 1.3 × 10-6 8.5 × 10-7 7.5 × 10-7 7.7 × 10-7 5.2 × 10-7
-5 -5 -6 -6 -6
M 0.040 1.3 × 10 0.020 1.0 × 10 6.3 × 10 4.3 × 10 3.7 × 10 3.1 × 10-6
S 0.020 3.0 × 10-5 0.002 2.6 × 10-5 1.7 × 10-5 1.1 × 10-5 9.2 × 10-6 8.5 × 10-6
7 -6 -6 -7 -7 -7
U-236 2.34 × 10 a F 0.040 2.0 × 10 0.020 1.3 × 10 8.5 × 10 7.5 × 10 7.8 × 10 5.3 × 10-7
M 0.040 1.4 × 10-5 0.020 1.0 × 10-5 6.5 × 10-6 4.5 × 10-6 3.9 × 10-6 3.2 × 10-6
-5 -5 -5 -5 -6
S 0.020 3.1 × 10 0.002 2.7 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.5 × 10 8.7 × 10-6
U-237 6.75 d F 0.040 1.8 × 10-9 0.020 1.5 × 10-9 6.6 × 10-10 4.2 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9
M 0.040 7.8 × 10 0.020 5.7 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-9
S 0.020 8.7 × 10-9 0.002 6.4 × 10-9 3.7 × 10-9 2.7 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9
265
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
U-238 4.47 × 109 a F 0.040 1.9 × 10-6 0.020 1.3 × 10-6 8.2 × 10-7 7.3 × 10-7 7.4 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-7
M 0.040 1.2 × 10-5 0.020 9.4 × 10-6 5.9 × 10-6 4.0 × 10-6 3.4 × 10-6 2.9 × 10-6
-5 -5 -5 -5 -6
S 0.020 2.9 × 10 0.002 2.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.7 × 10 8.0 × 10-6
U-239 0.392 h F 0.040 1.0 × 10-10 0.020 6.6 × 10-11 2.9 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.2 × 10-11 1.0 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.040 1.8 × 10 0.020 1.2 × 10 5.6 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.2 × 10-11
-10 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.020 1.9 × 10 0.002 1.2 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.4 × 10-11
U-240 14.1 h F 0.040 2.4 × 10-9 0.020 1.6 × 10-9 7.1 × 10-10 4.5 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10
M 0.040 4.6 × 10-9 0.020 3.1 × 10-9 1.7 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.5 × 10-10 5.3 × 10-10
-9 -9 -9 -9 -10
S 0.020 4.9 × 10 0.002 3.3 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.0 × 10 5.8 × 10-10
Neptunium
Np-232 0.245 h F 0.005 2.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-04 1.9 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
-11 -04 -11 -11 -11 -11
M 0.005 8.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 8.1 × 10 5.5 × 10 4.5 × 10 4.7 × 10 5.0 × 10-11
S 0.005 1.2 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-04 9.7 × 10-11 5.8 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11
Np-233 0.603 h F 0.005 1.1 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-04 8.7 × 10-12 4.2 × 10-12 2.5 × 10-12 1.4 × 10-12 1.1 × 10-12
-11 -04 -11 -12 -12 -12
M 0.005 1.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 5.5 × 10 3.3 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.6 × 10-12
-11 -04 -11 -12 -12 -12
S 0.005 1.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 5.7 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-12
Np-234 4.40 d F 0.005 2.9 × 10-09 5.0 × 10-04 2.2 × 10-09 1.1 × 10-09 7.2 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10
-09 -04 -09 -09 -09 -10
M 0.005 3.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.5 × 10 5.3 × 10-10
S 0.005 3.9 × 10-09 5.0 × 10-04 3.1 × 10-09 1.6 × 10-09 1.0 × 10-09 6.8 × 10-10 5.5 × 10-10
Np-235 1.08 a F 0.005 4.2 × 10-09 5.0 × 10-04 3.5 × 10-09 1.9 × 10-09 1.1 × 10-09 7.5 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-10
-09 -04 -09 -09 -10 -10
M 0.005 2.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.1 × 10 6.8 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.2 × 10-10
-09 -04 -09 -09 -10 -10
S 0.005 2.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.3 × 10 6.3 × 10 5.2 × 10-10
Np-236 1.15 × 105 a F 0.005 8.9 × 10-06 5.0 × 10-04 9.1 × 10-06 7.2 × 10-06 7.5 × 10-06 7.9 × 10-06 8.0 × 10-06
-06 -04 -06 -06 -06 -06
M 0.005 3.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.1 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.7 × 10 3.1 × 10 3.2 × 10-06
S 0.005 1.6 × 10-06 5.0 × 10-04 1.6 × 10-06 1.3 × 10-06 1.0 × 10-06 1.0 × 10-06 1.0 × 10-06
Np-236 22.5 h F 0.005 2.8 × 10-08 5.0 × 10-04 2.6 × 10-08 1.5 × 10-08 1.1 × 10-08 8.9 × 10-09 9.0 × 10-09
-08 -04 -08 -09 -09 -09
M 0.005 1.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.9 × 10 6.2 × 10 5.6 × 10 5.3 × 10-09
-08 -04 -08 -09 -09 -09
S 0.005 1.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.5 × 10 5.7 × 10 4.8 × 10 4.2 × 10-09
Np-237 2.14 × 106 a F 0.005 9.8 × 10-05 5.0 × 10-04 9.3 × 10-05 6.0 × 10-05 5.0 × 10-05 4.7 × 10-05 5.0 × 10-05
-05 -05 -04 -05 -05 -05 -05
M 0.0 4.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.2 × 10 2.2 × 10 2.3 × 10-05
S 0.0-05 3.7 × 10-05 5.0 × 10-04 3.2 × 10-05 2.1 × 10-05 1.4 × 10-05 1.3 × 10-05 1.2 × 10-05
Np-238 2.12 d F 0.005 9.0 × 10-09 5.0 × 10-04 7.9 × 10-09 4.8 × 10-09 3.7 × 10-09 3.3 × 10-09 3.5 × 10-09
-09 -04 -09 -09 -09 -09
M 0.005 7.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.4 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.2 × 10 2.1 × 10-09
-09 -04 -09 -09 -09 -09
S 0.005 8.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.2 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.5 × 10-09
Np-239 2.36 d F 0.005 2.6 × 10-09 5.0 × 10-04 1.4 × 10-09 6.3 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.7 × 10-10
-09 -04 -09 -09 -09 -09
M 0.005 5.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.2 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.2 × 10 9.3 × 10-10
S 0.005 5.6 × 10-09 5.0 × 10-04 4.0 × 10-09 2.2 × 10-09 1.6 × 10-09 1.3 × 10-09 1.0 × 10-09
Np-240 1.08 h F 0.005 3.6 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-04 2.6 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 7.7 × 10-11 4.7 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11
-10 -04 -10 -10 -10 -10
M 0.005 6.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.4 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.0 × 10 8.5 × 10-11
-10 -04 -10 -10 -10 -10
S 0.005 6.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.6 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.0 × 10-11
266
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Plutonium
Pu-234 8.80 h F 0.005 3.0 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-8 9.8 × 10-9 5.7 × 10-9 3.6 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -8 -8 -8
M 0.005 7.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.9 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.8 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10-8
S 1.0 × 10-4 8.7 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-5 6.6 × 10-8 4.2 × 10-8 3.1 × 10-8 3.0 × 10-8 2.4 × 10-8
Pu-235 0.422 h F 0.005 1.0 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 7.9 × 10-12 3.9 × 10-12 2.2 × 10-12 1.3 × 10-12 1.0 × 10-12
-11 -4 -11 -12 -12 -12
M 0.005 1.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.4 × 10-12
-4 -11 -5 -11 -12 -12 -12
S 1.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 1.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 5.1 × 10 3.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.5 × 10-12
Pu-236 2.85 a F 0.005 1.0 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 9.5 × 10-5 6.1 × 10-5 4.4 × 10-5 3.7 × 10-5 4.0 × 10-5
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
M 0.005 4.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.3 × 10 2.9 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.9 × 10 2.0 × 10-5
S 1.0 × 10-4 3.6 × 10-5 1.0 × 10-5 3.1 × 10-5 2.0 × 10-5 1.4 × 10-5 1.2 × 10-5 1.0 × 10-5
Pu-237 45.3 d F 0.005 2.2 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-9 7.9 × 10-10 4.8 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
M 0.005 1.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 8.2 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.3 × 10 3.5 × 10-10
-4 -9 -5 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 1.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 8.8 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.8 × 10 3.9 × 10-10
Pu-238 87.7 a F 0.005 2.0 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
M 0.005 7.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.4 × 10 5.6 × 10 4.4 × 10 4.3 × 10 4.6 × 10-5
S 1.0 × 10-4 4.5 × 10-5 1.0 × 10-5 4.0 × 10-5 2.7 × 10-5 1.9 × 10-5 1.7 × 10-5 1.6 × 10-5
Pu-239 2.41 × 104 a F 0.005 2.1 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-4
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
M 0.005 8.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.7 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.8 × 10 4.7 × 10 5.0 × 10-5
-4 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5
S 1.0 × 10 4.3 × 10 1.0 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.6 × 10-5
Pu-240 6.54 × 103 a F 0.005 2.1 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-4
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
M 0.005 8.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.7 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.8 × 10 4.7 × 10 5.0 × 10-5
S 1.0 × 10-4 4.3 × 10-5 1.0 × 10-5 3.9 × 10-5 2.7 × 10-5 1.9 × 10-5 1.7 × 10-5 1.6 × 10-5
Pu-241 14.4 a F 0.005 2.8 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 2.9 × 10-6 2.6 × 10-6 2.4 × 10-6 2.2 × 10-6 2.3 × 10-6
-7 -4 -7 -7 -7 -7
M 0.005 9.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 9.7 × 10 9.2 × 10 8.3 × 10 8.6 × 10 9.0 × 10-7
-4 -7 -5 -7 -7 -7 -7
S 1.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.0 × 10 2.3 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.7 × 10-7
Pu-242 3.76 × 105 a F 0.005 2.0 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
M 0.005 7.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.3 × 10 5.7 × 10 4.5 × 10 4.5 × 10 4.8 × 10-5
S 1.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-5 1.0 × 10-5 3.6 × 10-5 2.5 × 10-5 1.7 × 10-5 1.6 × 10-5 1.5 × 10-5
Pu-243 4.95 h F 0.005 2.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-10 8.8 × 10-11 5.7 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 3.2 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.005 5.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.9 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.7 × 10 8.3 × 10-11
-4 -10 -5 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 1.0 × 10 6.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 9.2 × 10 8.6 × 10-11
Pu-244 8.26 × 107 a F 0.005 2.0 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
M 0.005 7.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 7.2 × 10 5.6 × 10 4.5 × 10 4.4 × 10 4.7 × 10-5
S 1.0 × 10-4 3.9 × 10-5 1.0 × 10-5 3.5 × 10-5 2.4 × 10-5 1.7 × 10-5 1.5 × 10-5 1.5 × 10-5
Pu-245 10.5 h F 0.005 1.8 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-9 5.6 × 10-10 3.5 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.005 3.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.0 × 10-10
-4 -9 -5 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 1.0 × 10 3.8 × 10 1.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.5 × 10 5.4 × 10 4.3 × 10-10
Pu-246 10.9 d F 0.005 2.0 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-8 7.0 × 10-9 4.4 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 2.5 × 10-9
-8 -4 -8 -8 -8 -9
M 0.005 3.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.1 × 10 9.1 × 10 7.4 × 10-9
S 1.0 × 10-4 3.8 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-5 2.8 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8 8.0 × 10-9
Americium
267
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Am-237 1.22 h F 0.005 9.8 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-4 7.3 × 10-11 3.5 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11
M 0.005 1.7 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-10 6.2 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 2.5 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.005 1.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.3 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.6 × 10-11
Am-238 1.63 h F 0.005 4.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 3.8 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
-10 -4 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.005 3.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.6 × 10 8.8 × 10 9.0 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.005 2.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.2 × 10 6.1 × 10 5.4 × 10-11
Am-239 11.9 h F 0.005 8.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 5.8 × 10-10 2.6 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 9.1 × 10-11 7.6 × 10-11
M 0.005 1.5 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-9 5.6 × 10-10 3.7 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
S 0.005 1.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.1 × 10 5.9 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.5 × 10 2.4 × 10-10
Am-240 2.12 d F 0.005 2.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-9 8.8 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
M 0.005 2.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.7 × 10 5.3 × 10 4.3 × 10-10
-9 -4 -9 -9 -10 -10
S 0.005 3.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.3 × 10 1.2 × 10 7.8 × 10 5.3 × 10 4.3 × 10-10
Am-241 4.32 × 102 a F 0.005 1.8 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-4 9.2 × 10-5 9.6 × 10-5
M 0.005 7.3 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 6.9 × 10-5 5.1 × 10-5 4.0 × 10-5 4.0 × 10-5 4.2 × 10-5
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
S 0.005 4.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.6 × 10-5
Am-242 16.0 h F 0.005 9.2 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 7.1 × 10-8 3.5 × 10-8 2.1 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8
-8 -4 -8 -8 -8 -8
M 0.005 7.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 5.9 × 10 3.6 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.7 × 10-8
-8 -4 -8 -8 -8 -8
S 0.005 8.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.2 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.4 × 10 2.0 × 10-8
Am-242m 1.52 × 102 a F 0.005 1.6 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4 9.4 × 10-5 8.8 × 10-5 9.2 × 10-5
M 0.005 5.2 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 5.3 × 10-5 4.1 × 10-5 3.4 × 10-5 3.5 × 10-5 3.7 × 10-5
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
S 0.005 2.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.1 × 10 1.1 × 10-5
Am-243 7.38 × 103 a F 0.005 1.8 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.7 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-4 9.1 × 10-5 9.6 × 10-5
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
M 0.005 7.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.0 × 10 4.0 × 10 4.1 × 10-5
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
S 0.005 4.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.9 × 10 2.6 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.5 × 10-5
Am-244 10.1 h F 0.005 1.0 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 9.2 × 10-9 5.6 × 10-9 4.1 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9 3.7 × 10-9
M 0.005 6.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -9 -9 -9
S 0.005 6.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.8 × 10 2.4 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.4 × 10 1.2 × 10-9
Am-244m 0.433 h F 0.005 4.6 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
-10 -4 -10 -10 -11 -11
M 0.005 3.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.2 × 10 8.3 × 10 8.4 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.005 3.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.2 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.1 × 10 5.5 × 10 5.7 × 10-11
Am-245 2.05 h F 0.005 2.1 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-10 6.2 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 2.4 × 10-11 2.1 × 10-11
M 0.005 3.9 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.6 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 8.7 × 10-11 6.4 × 10-11 5.3 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -11 -11
S 0.005 4.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.8 × 10 1.3 × 10 9.2 × 10 6.8 × 10 5.6 × 10-11
Am-246 0.650 h F 0.005 3.0 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 2.0 × 10-10 9.3 × 10-11 6.1 × 10-11 3.8 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -10 -11
M 0.005 5.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.4 × 10 1.6 × 10 1.1 × 10 7.9 × 10 6.6 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -10 -10 -11
S 0.005 5.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.6 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.3 × 10 6.9 × 10-11
Am-246m 0.417 h F 0.005 1.3 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 8.9 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 1.6 × 10-11 1.4 × 10-11
M 0.005 1.9 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-10 6.1 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 2.6 × 10-11 2.2 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
S 0.005 2.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.4 × 10 6.4 × 10 4.1 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.3 × 10-11
Curium
Cm-238 2.40 h F 0.005 7.7 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 5.4 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 1.8 × 10-9 9.2 × 10-10 7.8 × 10-10
268
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
M 0.005 2.1 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-8 7.9 × 10-9 5.9 × 10-9 5.6 × 10-9 4.5 × 10-9
S 0.005 2.2 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-8 8.6 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-9 6.1 × 10-9 4.9 × 10-9
-6 -4 -6 -6 -6 -6
Cm-240 27.0 d F 0.005 8.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.3 × 10 3.2 × 10 2.0 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.3 × 10-6
M 0.005 1.2 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 9.1 × 10-6 5.8 × 10-6 4.2 × 10-6 3.8 × 10-6 3.2 × 10-6
-5 -4 -6 -6 -6 -6
S 0.005 1.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 9.9 × 10 6.4 × 10 4.6 × 10 4.3 × 10 3.5 × 10-6
Cm-241 32.8 d F 0.005 1.1 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 8.9 × 10-8 4.9 × 10-8 3.5 × 10-8 2.8 × 10-8 2.7 × 10-8
-7 -4 -7 -8 -8 -8
M 0.005 1.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.6 × 10 4.8 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.7 × 10-8
S 0.005 1.4 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-7 6.9 × 10-8 4.9 × 10-8 4.5 × 10-8 3.7 × 10-8
-5 -4 -5 -5 -6 -6
Cm-242 163 d F 0.005 2.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.1 × 10 1.0 × 10 6.1 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.3 × 10-6
M 0.005 2.2 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-5 1.1 × 10-5 7.3 × 10-6 6.4 × 10-6 5.2 × 10-6
-5 -4 -5 -5 -6 -6
S 0.005 2.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.2 × 10 7.3 × 10 5.9 × 10-
Cm-243 28.5 a F 0.005 1.6 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-4 9.5 × 10-5 7.3 × 10-5 6.5 × 10-5 6.9 × 10-5
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
M 0.005 6.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.1 × 10 4.2 × 10 3.1 × 10 3.0 × 10 3.1 × 10-5
S 0.005 4.6 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-5 2.6 × 10-5 1.8 × 10-5 1.6 × 10-5 1.5 × 10-5
-4 -4 -4 -5 -5 -5
Cm-244 18.1 a F 0.005 1.5 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.3 × 10 8.3 × 10 6.1 × 10 5.3 × 10 5.7 × 10-5
M 0.005 6.2 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 5.7 × 10-5 3.7 × 10-5 2.7 × 10-5 2.6 × 10-5 2.7 × 10-5
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
S 0.005 4.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.8 × 10 2.5 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.3 × 10-5
Cm-245 8.50 × 103 a F 0.005 1.9 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-4 9.4 × 10-5 9.9 × 10-5
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
M 0.005 7.3 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.9 × 10 5.1 × 10 4.1 × 10 4.1 × 10 4.2 × 10-5
S 0.005 4.5 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 4.0 × 10-5 2.7 × 10-5 1.9 × 10-5 1.7 × 10-5 1.6 × 10-5
3 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -5
Cm-246 4.73 × 10 a F 0.005 1.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.8 × 10 1.2 × 10 1.0 × 10 9.4 × 10 9.8 × 10-5
M 0.005 7.3 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 6.9 × 10-5 5.1 × 10-5 4.1 × 10-5 4.1 × 10-5 4.2 × 10-5
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
S 0.005 4.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.0 × 10 2.7 × 10 1.9 × 10 1.7 × 10 1.6 × 10-5
Cm-247 1.56 × 107 a F 0.005 1.7 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4 9.4 × 10-5 8.6 × 10-5 9.0 × 10-5
-5 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5
M 0.005 6.7 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.3 × 10 4.7 × 10 3.7 × 10 3.7 × 10 3.9 × 10-5
S 0.005 4.1 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 3.6 × 10-5 2.4 × 10-5 1.7 × 10-5 1.5 × 10-5 1.4 × 10-5
5 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4
Cm-248 3.39 × 10 a F 0.005 6.8 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.5 × 10 3.7 × 10 3.4 × 10 3.6 × 10-4
M 0.005 2.5 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 2.4 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-4 1.4 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-4
-4 -4 -4 -5 -5 -5
S 0.005 1.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.2 × 10 8.2 × 10 5.6 × 10 5.0 × 10 4.8 × 10-5
Cm-249 1.07 h F 0.005 1.8 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 9.8 × 10-11 5.9 × 10-11 4.6 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11 4.0 × 10-11
-10 -4 -10 -11 -11 -11
M 0.005 2.4 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.6 × 10 8.2 × 10 5.8 × 10 3.7 × 10 3.3 × 10-11
S 0.005 2.4 × 10-10 5.0 × 10-4 1.6 × 10-10 7.8 × 10-11 5.3 × 10-11 3.9 × 10-11 3.3 × 10-11
3 -3 -4 -3 -3 -3 -3
Cm-250 6.90 × 10 a F 0.005 3.9 × 10 5.0 × 10 3.7 × 10 2.6 × 10 2.1 × 10 2.0 × 10 2.1 × 10-3
M 0.005 1.4 × 10-3 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-3 9.9 × 10-4 7.9 × 10-4 7.9 × 10-4 8.4 × 10-4
-4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4
S 0.005 7.2 × 10 5.0 × 10 6.5 × 10 4.4 × 10 3.0 × 10 2.7 × 10 2.6 × 10-4
Berkelium
Bk-245 4.94 d M 0.005 8.8 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 6.6 × 10-9 4.0 × 10-9 2.9 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9
-9 -4 -9 -10 -10 -10
Bk-246 1.83 d M 0.005 2.1 × 10 5.0 × 10 1.7 × 10 9.3 × 10 6.0 × 10 4.0 × 10 3.3 × 10-10
Bk-247 1.38 × 103 a M 0.005 1.5 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4 7.9 × 10-5 7.2 × 10-5 6.9 × 10-5
Bk-249 320 d M 0.005 3.3 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 3.3 × 10-7 2.4 × 10-7 1.8 × 10-7 1.6 × 10-7 1.6 × 10-7
269
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical f1 for
Bk-250 3.22 h M 0.005 3.4 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 3.1 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9
Californium
Cf-244 0.323 h M 0.005 7.6 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-4 5.4 × 10-8 2.8 × 10-8 2.0 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8
Cf-246 1.49 d M 0.005 1.7 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-6 8.3 × 10-7 6.1 × 10-7 5.7 × 10-7 4.5 × 10-7
Cf-248 334 d M 0.005 3.8 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 3.2 × 10-5 2.1 × 10-5 1.4 × 10-5 1.0 × 10-5 8.8 × 10-6
Cf-249 3.50 × 102 a M 0.005 1.6 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4 8.0 × 10-5 7.2 × 10-5 7.0 × 10-5
Cf-250 13.1 a M 0.005 1.1 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 9.8 × 10-5 6.6 × 10-5 4.2 × 10-5 3.5 × 10-5 3.4 × 10-5
Cf-251 8.98 × 102 a M 0.005 1.6 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.5 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4 8.1 × 10-5 7.3 × 10-5 7.1 × 10-5
Cf-252 2.64 a M 0.005 9.7 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 8.7 × 10-5 5.6 × 10-5 3.2 × 10-5 2.2 × 10-5 2.0 × 10-5
Cf-253 17.8 d M 0.005 5.4 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 4.2 × 10-6 2.6 × 10-6 1.9 × 10-6 1.7 × 10-6 1.3 × 10-6
Cf-254 60.5 d M 0.005 2.5 × 10-4 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-4 1.1 × 10-4 7.0 × 10-5 4.8 × 10-5 4.1 × 10-5
Einsteinium
Es-250 2.10 h M 0.005 2.0 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 1.8 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 7.8 × 10-10 6.4 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-10
Es-251 1.38 d M 0.005 7.9 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-4 6.0 × 10-9 3.9 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 2.6 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9
Es-253 20.5 d M 0.005 1.1 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 8.0 × 10-6 5.1 × 10-6 3.7 × 10-6 3.4 × 10-6 2.7 × 10-6
Es-254 276 d M 0.005 3.7 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 3.1 × 10-5 2.0 × 10-5 1.3 × 10-5 1.0 × 10-5 8.6 × 10-6
Es-254m 1.64 d M 0.005 1.7 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 1.3 × 10-6 8.4 × 10-7 6.3 × 10-7 5.9 × 10-7 4.7 × 10-7
Fermium
Fm-252 22.7 h M 0.005 1.2 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 9.0 × 10-7 5.8 × 10-7 4.3 × 10-7 4.0 × 10-7 3.2 × 10-7
Fm-253 3.00 d M 0.005 1.5 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 1.2 × 10-6 7.3 × 10-7 5.4 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-7 4.0 × 10-7
Fm-254 3.24 h M 0.005 3.2 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 2.3 × 10-7 1.3 × 10-7 9.8 × 10-8 7.6 × 10-8 6.1 × 10-8
Fm-255 20.1 h M 0.005 1.2 × 10-6 5.0 × 10-4 7.3 × 10-7 4.7 × 10-7 3.5 × 10-7 3.4 × 10-7 2.7 × 10-7
Fm-257 101 d M 0.005 3.3 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 2.6 × 10-5 1.6 × 10-5 1.1 × 10-5 8.8 × 10-6 7.1 × 10-6
Mendelevium
Md-257 5.20 h M 0.005 1.0 × 10-7 5.0 × 10-4 8.2 × 10-8 5.1 × 10-8 3.6 × 10-8 3.1 × 10-8 2.5 × 10-8
Md-258 55.0 d M 0.005 2.4 × 10-5 5.0 × 10-4 1.9 × 10-5 1.2 × 10-5 8.6 × 10-6 7.3 × 10-6 5.9 × 10-6
270
TABLE III-2F. LUNG ABSORPTION TYPES USED TO CALCULATE COMMITTED

EFFECTIVE DOSE PER UNIT INTAKE VIA INHALATION FOR EXPOSURE TO
PARTICULATE AEROSOLS OR TO GASES AND VAPOURS FOR MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC
Element Absorption ICRP Publication No. for

type(s)a details of biokinetic model
and
absorption type(s)
Hydrogen F, Mb, S, G Publications 56, 67 and 71

Beryllium M, S Publication 30, Part 3
Carbon F, Mb, S, G Publications 56, 67 and 71
Fluorine F, M, S Publication 30, Part 2
Sodium F Publication 30, Part 2
Magnesium F, M Publication 30, Part 3
Aluminium F, M Publication 30, Part 3
Silicon F, M, S Publication 30, Part 3
Phosphorus F, M Publication 30, Part 1
Sulphur F, Mb, S, G Publications 67 and 71
Chlorine F, M Publication 30, Part 2
Potassium F Publication 30, Part 2
Calcium F, M, S Publication 71
Scandium S Publication 30, Part 3
Titanium F, M, S Publication 30, Part 3
Vanadium F, M Publication 30, Part 3
Chromium F, M, S Publication 30, Part 2
Manganese F, M Publication 30, Part 1
Iron F, Mb, S Publications 69 and 71
Cobalt F, Mb, S Publications 67 and 71
Nickel F, Mb, S, G Publications 67 and 71
Copper F, M, S Publication 30, Part 2
Zinc F, Mb, S Publications 67 and 71
Gallium F, M Publication 30, Part 3
Germanium F, M Publication 30, Part 3
271

and
absorption type(s)
Arsenic M Publication 30, Part 3

Selenium Fb, M, S Publications 69 and 71
Bromine F, M Publication 30, Part 2
Rubidium F Publication 30, Part 2
Strontium F, Mb, S Publications 67 and 71
Yttrium M, S Publication 30, Part 2
Zirconium F, Mb, S Publications 56, 67 and 71
Niobium F, Mb, S Publications 56, 67 and 71
Molybdenum F, Mb, S Publications 67 and 71
Technetium F, Mb, S Publications 67 and 71
Ruthenium F, Mb, S, G Publications 56, 67 and 71
Rhodium F, M, S Publication 30, Part 2
Palladium F, M, S Publication 30, Part 3
Silver F, Mb, S Publications 67 and 71
Cadmium F, M, S Publication 30, Part 2
Indium F, M Publication 30, Part 2
Tin F, M Publication 30, Part 3
Antimony F, Mb, S Publications 69 and 71
Tellurium F, Mb, S, G Publications 67 and 71
Iodine Fb, M, S, G Publications 56, 67 and 71
Caesium Fb, M, S Publications 56, 67 and 71
Barium F, Mb, S Publications 67 and 71
Lanthanum F, M Publication 30, Part 3
Cerium F, Mb, S Publications 56, 67 and 71
Praseodymium M, S Publication 30, Part 3
Neodymium M, S Publication 30, Part 3
Promethium M, S Publication 30, Part 3
Samarium M Publication 30, Part 3
272

and
absorption type(s)
Europium M Publication 30, Part 3

Gadolinium F, M Publication 30, Part 3
Terbium M Publication 30, Part 3
Dysprosium M Publication 30, Part 3
Holmium M Publication 30, Part 3
Erbium M Publication 30, Part 3
Thulium M Publication 30, Part 3
Ytterbium M, S Publication 30, Part 3
Lutetium M, S Publication 30, Part 3
Hafnium F, M Publication 30, Part 3
Tantalum M, S Publication 30, Part 3
Tungsten F Publication 30, Part 3
Rhenium F, M Publication 30, Part 2
Osmium F, M, S Publication 30, Part 2
Iridium F, M, S Publication 30, Part 2
Platinum F Publication 30, Part 3
Gold F, M, S Publication 30, Part 2
Mercury F, M, G Publication 30, Part 2
Thallium F Publication 30, Part 3
Lead F, Mb, S, G Publications 67 and 71
Bismuth F, M Publication 30, Part 2
Polonium F, Mb, S, G Publications 67 and 71
Astatine F, M Publication 30, Part 3
Francium F Publication 30, Part 3
Radium F, Mb, S Publications 67 and 71
Actinium F, M, S Publication 30, Part 3
Thorium F, M, Sb Publications 69 and 71
Protactinium M, S Publication 30, Part 3
273

and
absorption type(s)
Uranium F, Mb, S Publications 69 and 71

Neptunium F, Mb, S Publications 67 and 71
Plutonium F, Mb, S Publications 67 and 71
Americium F, Mb, S Publications 67 and 71
Curium F, Mb, S Publication 71
Berkelium M Publication 30, Part 4
Californium M Publication 30, Part 4
Einsteinium M Publication 30, Part 4
Fermium M Publication 30, Part 4
Mendelevium M Publication 30, Part 4
a
For particulates: F: fast: M: moderate; S: slow; G: gases and vapours.
b
Recommended default absorption type for particulate aerosol when no specific information is
available (see ICRP Publication No. 71 (1996) (see footnote 42)).
274
TABLE III-2G. INHALATION: COMMITTED EFFECTIVE DOSE PER UNIT INTAKE e(g) (Sv.Bq-1) FOR SOLUBLE OR REACTIVE GASES AND
VAPOURS
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Physical Absorp- % f1 for
Nuclide half-life tiona deposit f1 e(g) g>1a e(g) e(g) e(g) e(g) e(g)b
Tritiated water 12.3 a V 100 1.000 6.4 × 10-11 1.000 4.8 × 10-11 3.1 × 10-11 2.3 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11 1.8 × 10-11
Elemental hydrogen 12.3 a V 0.01 1.000 6.4 × 10-15 1.000 4.8 × 10-15 3.1 × 10-15 2.3 × 10-15 1.8 × 10-15 1.8 × 10-15
Tritiated methane 12.3 a V 1 1.000 6.4 × 10-13 1.000 4.8 × 10-13 3.1 × 10-13 2.3 × 10-13 1.8 × 10-13 1.8 × 10-13
Organically bound tritium 12.3 a V 100 1.000 1.1 × 10-10 1.000 1.1 × 10-10 7.0 × 10-11 5.5 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11 4.1 × 10-11
Carbon-11 vapour 0.340 h V 100 1.000 2.8 × 10-11 1.000 1.8 × 10-11 9.7 × 10-12 6.1 × 10-12 3.8 × 10-12 3.2 × 10-12
Carbon-11 dioxide 0.340 h V 100 1.000 1.8 × 10-11 1.000 1.2 × 10-11 6.5 × 10-12 4.1 × 10-12 2.5 × 10-12 2.2 × 10-12
Carbon-11 monoxide 0.340 h V 40 1.000 1.0 × 10-11 1.000 6.7 × 10-12 3.5 × 10-12 2.2 × 10-12 1.4 × 10-12 1.2 × 10-12
Carbon-14 vapour 5.73 × 103 a V 100 1.000 1.3 × 10-9 1.000 1.6 × 10-9 9.7 × 10-10 7.9 × 10-10 5.7 × 10-10 5.8 × 10-10
Carbon-14 dioxide 5.73 × 103 a V 100 1.000 1.9 × 10-11 1.000 1.9 × 10-11 1.1 × 10-11 8.9 × 10-12 6.3 × 10-12 6.2 × 10-12
Carbon-14 monoxide 5.73 × 103 a V 40 1.000 9.1 × 10-12 1.000 5.7 × 10-12 2.8 × 10-12 1.7 × 10-12 9.9 × 10-13 8.0 × 10-13
Carbon disulphide-35 87.4 d F 100 1.000 6.9 × 10-9 0.800 4.8 × 10-9 2.4 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 8.6 × 10-10 7.0 × 10-10
Sulphur-35 dioxide 87.4 d F 85 1.000 9.4 × 10-10 0.800 6.6 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.1 × 10-10 1.3 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10
c
Nickel-56 carbonyl 6.10 d 100 1.000 6.8 × 10-9 1.000 5.2 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9
c
Nickel-59 carbonyl 7.50 × 104 a c
100 1.000 4.0 × 10-9 1.000 3.3 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 9.1 × 10-10 8.3 × 10-10
a
F: fast; V: material is taken to be completely and instantaneously transferred to body fluids.
b
Applicable to both workers and adult members of the public.
c
Deposition 30%:10%:20%:40% (extrathoracic:bronchial:bronchialar:alveolar-interstitial), 0.1 day retention half-time (see ICRP Publication No. 68 (1994))
d
Deposition 10% : 20% : 40% (bronchial : bronchiolar : alveolar-interstitial), 1.7 day retention half-time (see ICRP Publication No. 68 (1994)
VAPOURS
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

c
Nickel-63 carbonyl 96.0 a 100 1.000 9.5 × 10-9 1.000 8.0 × 10-9 4.8 × 10-9 3.0 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 2.0 × 10-9
c
Nickel-65 carbonyl 2.52 h 100 1.000 2.0 × 10-9 1.000 1.4 × 10-9 8.1 × 10-10 5.6 × 10-10 4.0 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10
c
Ruthenium-94 tetroxide 0.863 h F 100 0.100 5.5 × 10-10 0.050 3.5 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.0 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11
Ruthenium-97 tetroxide 2.90 d F 100 0.100 8.7 × 10-10 0.050 6.2 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.4 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10
Ruthenium-103 tetroxide 39.3 d F 100 0.100 9.0 × 10-9 0.050 6.2 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
Ruthenium-105 tetroxide 4.44 h F 100 0.100 1.6 × 10-9 0.050 1.0 × 10-9 5.3 × 10-10 3.2 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
Ruthenium-106 tetroxide 1.01 a F 100 0.100 1.6 × 10-7 0.050 1.1 × 10-7 6.1 × 10-8 3.7 × 10-8 2.2 × 10-8 1.8 × 10-8
Tellurium-116 vapour 2.49 h F 100 0.600 5.9 × 10-10 0.300 4.4 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 8.7 × 10-11
Tellurium-121 vapour 17.0 d F 100 0.600 3.0 × 10-9 0.300 2.4 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9 9.6 × 10-10 6.7 × 10-10 5.1 × 10-10
Tellurium-121m vapour 154 d F 100 0.600 3.5 × 10-8 0.300 2.7 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 9.8 × 10-9 6.6 × 10-9 5.5 × 10-9
Tellurium-123 vapour 1.00 × 1013 a F 100 0.600 2.8 × 10-8 0.300 2.5 × 10-8 1.9 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.3 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8
Tellurium-125m vapour 58.0 d F 100 0.600 1.5 × 10-8 0.300 1.1 × 10-8 5.9 × 10-9 3.2 × 10-9 1.9 × 10-9 1.5 × 10-9
a
b
275
c
d
276
VAPOURS
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Tellurium-132 vapour 3.26 d F 100 0.600 5.4 × 10-8 0.300 4.5 × 10-8 2.4 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8 7.6 × 10-9 5.1 × 10-9
Tellurium-133m vapour 0.923 h F 100 0.600 2.3 × 10-9 0.300 2.0 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 5.0 × 10-10 3.3 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10
Elemental iodine-120 1.35 h V 100 1.000 3.0 × 10-9 1.000 2.4 × 10-9 1.3 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-10 4.3 × 10-10 3.0 × 10-1
Elemental iodine-120m 0.883 h V 100 1.000 1.5 × 10-9 1.000 1.2 × 10-9 6.4 × 10-10 3.4 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.8 × 10-10
Elemental iodine-124 4.18 d V 100 1.000 1.1 × 10-7 1.000 1.0 × 10-7 5.8 × 10-8 2.8 × 10-8 1.8 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8
a
b
c
d
VAPOURS
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Elemental iodine-129 1.57 × 107 a V 100 1.000 1.7 × 10-7 1.000 2.0 × 10-7 1.6 × 10-7 1.7 × 10-7 1.3 × 10-7 9.6 × 10-8
Elemental iodine-132m 1.39 h V 100 1.000 2.4 × 10-9 1.000 2.1 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 5.6 × 10-10 3.8 × 10-10 2.7 × 10-10
Methyl iodide-120 1.35 h V 70 1.000 2.3 × 10-9 1.000 1.9 × 10-9 1.0 × 10-9 4.8 × 10-10 3.1 × 10-10 2.0 × 10-10
Methyl iodide-120m 0.883 h V 70 1.000 1.0 × 10-9 1.000 8.7 × 10-10 4.6 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10 1.0 × 10-10
Methyl iodide-121 2.12 h V 70 1.000 4.2 × 10-10 1.000 3.8 × 10-10 2.2 × 10-10 1.2 × 10-10 8.3 × 10-11 5.6 × 10-11
Methyl iodide-123 13.2 h V 70 1.000 1.6 × 10-9 1.000 1.4 × 10-9 7.7 × 10-10 3.6 × 10-10 2.4 × 10-10 1.5 × 10-10
Methyl iodide-124 4.18 d V 70 1.000 8.5 × 10-8 1.000 8.0 × 10-8 4.5 × 10-8 2.2 × 10-8 1.4 × 10-8 9.2 × 10-9
a
b
277
c
d
278
VAPOURS
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

Methyl iodide-125 60.1 d V 70 1.000 3.7 × 10-8 1.000 4.0 × 10-8 2.9 × 10-8 2.2 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 1.1 × 10-8
Methyl iodide-126 13.0 d V 70 1.000 1.5 × 10-7 1.000 1.5 × 10-7 9.0 × 10-8 4.8 × 10-8 3.2 × 10-8 2.0 × 10-8
Methyl iodide-128 0.416 h V 70 1.000 1.5 × 10-10 1.000 1.2 × 10-10 6.3 × 10-11 3.0 × 10-11 1.9 × 10-11 1.3 × 10-11
Methyl iodide-129 1.57 × 107 a V 70 1.000 1.3 × 10-7 1.000 1.5 × 10-7 1.2 × 10-7 1.3 × 10-7 9.9 × 10-8 7.4 × 10-8
Methyl iodide-130 12.4 h V 70 1.000 1.5 × 10-8 1.000 1.3 × 10-8 7.2 × 10-9 3.3 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
Methyl iodide-131 8.04 d V 70 1.000 1.3 × 10-7 1.000 1.3 × 10-7 7.4 × 10-8 3.7 × 10-8 2.4 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8
Methyl iodide-132 2.30 h V 70 1.000 2.0 × 10-9 1.000 1.8 × 10-9 9.5 × 10-10 4.4 × 10-10 2.9 × 10-10 1.9 × 10-10
Methyl iodide-132m 1.39 h V 70 1.000 1.8 × 10-9 1.000 1.6 × 10-9 8.3 × 10-10 3.9 × 10-10 2.5 × 10-10 1.6 × 10-10
Methyl iodide-133 20.8 h V 70 1.000 3.5 × 10-8 1.000 3.2 × 10-8 1.7 × 10-8 7.6 × 10-9 4.9 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9
Methyl iodide-134 0.876 h V 70 1.000 5.1 × 10-10 1.000 4.3 × 10-10 2.3 × 10-10 1.1 × 10-10 7.4 × 10-11 5.0 × 10-11
Methyl iodide-135 6.61 h V 70 1.000 7.5 × 10-9 1.000 6.7 × 10-9 3.5 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9 6.8 × 10-10
d
Mercury-193 vapour 3.50 h 70 1.000 4.2 × 10-9 1.000 3.4 × 10-9 2.2 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.2 × 10-9 1.1 × 10-9
d
Mercury-193m vapour 11.1 h 70 1.000 1.2 × 10-8 1.000 9.4 × 10-9 6.1 × 10-9 4.5 × 10-9 3.4 × 10-9 3.1 × 10-9
Mercury-194 vapour 2.60 × 102 a d
70 1.000 9.4 × 10-8 1.000 8.3 × 10-8 6.2 × 10-8 5.0 × 10-8 4.3 × 10-8 4.0 × 10-8
d
Mercury-195 vapour 9.90 h 70 1.000 5.3 × 10-9 1.000 4.3 × 10-9 2.8 × 10-9 2.1 × 10-9 1.6 × 10-9 1.4 × 10-9
a
b
c
d
VAPOURS
Age ≤ 1 a Age 1–2 a 2–7 a 7–12 a 12–17 a >17 a

d
Mercury-195m vapour 1.73 d 70 1.000 3.0 × 10-8 1.000 2.5 × 10-8 1.6 × 10-8 1.2 × 10-8 8.8 × 10-9 8.2 × 10-9
d
Mercury-197 vapour 2.67 d 70 1.000 1.6 × 10-8 1.000 1.3 × 10-8 8.4 × 10-9 6.3 × 10-9 4.7 × 10-9 4.4 × 10-9
d
d
d
Mercury-203 vapour 46.6 d 70 1.000 3.0 × 10-8 1.000 2.3 × 10-8 1.5 × 10-8 1.0 × 10-8 7.7 × 10-9 7.0 × 10-9
a
b
279
c
d
280
TABLE III-2H. EFFECTIVE DOSE RATE FOR EXPOSURE TO INERT GASES FOR ADULTSa
Physical Effective dose rate per unit integrated

Nuclide half-life air concentration
(Sv.d-1/Bq.m-3)a
Argon
Ar-37 35.0 d 4.1 × 10-15

Ar-39 269 a 1.1 × 10-11
Ar-41 1.83 h 5.3 × 10-9
Krypton
Kr-74 11.5 m 4.5 × 10-9

Kr-76 14.8 h 1.6 × 10-9
Kr-77 74.7 m 3.9 × 10-9
Kr-79 1.46 d 9.7 × 10-10
Kr-81 2.10 × 105 a 2.1 × 10-11
Kr-83m 1.83 h 2.1 × 10-13
Kr-85 10.7 a 2.2 × 10-11
Kr-85m 4.48 h 5.9 × 10-10
Kr-87 1.27 h 3.4 × 10-9
Kr-88 2.84 h 8.4 × 10-9
Xenon
Xe-120 40.0 m 1.5 × 10-9

Xe-121 40.1 m 7.5 × 10-9
Xe-122 20.1 h 1.9 × 10-10
Xe-123 2.08 h 2.4 × 10-9
Xe-125 17.0 h 9.3 × 10-10
Xe-127 36.4 d 9.7 × 10-10
Xe-129m 8.0 d 8.1 × 10-11
Xe-131m 11.9 d 3.2 × 10-11
Xe-133m 2.19 d 1.1 × 10-10
Xe-133 5.24 d 1.2 × 10-10
Xe-135m 15.3 m 1.6 × 10-9
Xe-135 9.10 h 9.6 × 10-10
Xe-138 14.2 m 4.7 × 10-9
a
Applicable to both workers and adult members of the public
281

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282
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11-39241
Safety through international standards
“Governments, regulatory bodies and operators everywhere must

ensure that nuclear material and radiation sources are used
beneficially, safely and ethically. The IAEA safety standards are
designed to facilitate this, and I encourage all Member States to
make use of them.”
Yukiya Amano
Director General

VIENNA
ISBN 978–92–0–120910–8
ISSN 1020–525X
Safety Reports Series
No. 21
Optimization of
Radiation Protection
in the Control of
Occupational Exposure
I n t e r n a t i o n a l A t o m i c E n e r g y A g e n c y, V i e n n a , 2 0 0 2
OPTIMIZATION OF
RADIATION PROTECTION IN THE
CONTROL OF
AFGHANISTAN GERMANY PAKISTAN
ALBANIA GHANA PANAMA
ALGERIA GREECE PARAGUAY
ANGOLA GUATEMALA PERU
ARGENTINA HAITI PHILIPPINES
ARMENIA HOLY SEE POLAND
AUSTRALIA HUNGARY PORTUGAL
AUSTRIA ICELAND QATAR
AZERBAIJAN, REPUBLIC OF INDIA REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA
BANGLADESH INDONESIA REPUBLIC OF TAJIKISTAN
BELARUS IRAN, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF ROMANIA
BELGIUM IRAQ RUSSIAN FEDERATION
BENIN IRELAND SAUDI ARABIA
BOLIVIA ISRAEL SENEGAL
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA ITALY SIERRA LEONE
BRAZIL JAMAICA SINGAPORE
BULGARIA JAPAN SLOVAKIA
BURKINA FASO JORDAN SLOVENIA
CAMBODIA KAZAKHSTAN SOUTH AFRICA
CAMEROON KENYA SPAIN
CANADA KOREA, REPUBLIC OF SRI LANKA
CENTRAL AFRICAN KUWAIT SUDAN
REPUBLIC LATVIA SWEDEN
CHILE LEBANON SWITZERLAND
CHINA LIBERIA SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC
COLOMBIA LIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYA REPUBLIC OF TAJIKISTAN
COSTA RICA LIECHTENSTEIN THAILAND
COTE D’IVOIRE LITHUANIA THE FORMER YUGOSLAV
CROATIA LUXEMBOURG REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA
CUBA MADAGASCAR TUNISIA
CYPRUS MALAYSIA TURKEY
CZECH REPUBLIC MALI UGANDA
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC MALTA UKRAINE
OF THE CONGO MARSHALL ISLANDS UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
DENMARK MAURITIUS UNITED KINGDOM OF
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC MEXICO GREAT BRITAIN AND
ECUADOR MONACO NORTHERN IRELAND
EGYPT MONGOLIA UNITED REPUBLIC
EL SALVADOR MOROCCO OF TANZANIA
ESTONIA MYANMAR UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA URUGUAY
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NETHERLANDS UZBEKISTAN
YUGOSLAVIA NEW ZEALAND VENEZUELA
FINLAND NICARAGUA VIET NAM
FRANCE NIGER YEMEN
GABON NIGERIA ZAMBIA
GEORGIA NORWAY ZIMBABWE
The Agency’s Statute was approved on 23 October 1956 by the Conference on the Statute of the
IAEA held at United Nations Headquarters, New York; it entered into force on 29 July 1957. The
Headquarters of the Agency are situated in Vienna. Its principal objective is “to accelerate and enlarge the
contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world’’.
© IAEA, 2002
Permission to reproduce or translate the information contained in this publication may be
obtained by writing to the International Atomic Energy Agency, Wagramer Strasse 5, P.O. Box 100,
A-1400 Vienna, Austria.
February 2002
STI/PUB/1118
SAFETY REPORTS SERIES No. 21
OPTIMIZATION OF
RADIATION PROTECTION IN THE
CONTROL OF

VIENNA, 2002
VIC Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Optimization of radiation protection in the control of occupational exposure. —
Vienna : International Atomic Energy Agency, 2002.
p. ; 24 cm. — (Safety reports series, ISSN 1020–6450 ; no. 21)
STI/PUB/1118
ISBN 92-0-110302-6
1. Radiation—Safety measures. 2. Nuclear industry—Safety measures.
3. Radiation workers. I. International Atomic Energy Agency. II. Series.
VICL 02–00276
FOREWORD
One of the three main principles on which protection against ionizing radiation
is based is the principle of the optimization of radiological protection. The principle
of the optimization of protection was first enunciated by the International
Commission on Radiological Protection in the 1960s. A principal requirement for the
optimization of protection and safety has been incorporated into the International
Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of
Radiation Sources (Basic Safety Standards) from the first edition in 1962 up to the
current (1996) edition. The principle of optimization, that all reasonable efforts be
made to reduce doses (social and economic factors being taken into account),
necessitates considerable effort to apply in practice.
The requirement of the Basic Safety Standards to apply the principle of
optimization applies to all categories of exposure: occupational, public and medical.
The categories of public and medical exposure are rather specific and are covered in
other publications; this Safety Report concentrates on the application of the principle
to what is probably the largest category, that of occupational exposure. This Safety
Report provides practical information on how to apply the optimization of protection
in the workplace. The emphasis throughout is on the integration of radiation
protection into the more general system of work management, and on the involvement
of management and workers in setting up a system of radiation protection and in its
implementation.
This Safety Report was drafted and finalized in three consultants meetings held
in 1999 and 2000. The draft was sent for review and comment to a number of experts,
which yielded valuable comments from a number of reviewers whose names are
included in the list of contributors to drafting and review. Particular acknowledgement
is made of the contributions made to the preparation of this Safety Report by
J. Blaikie, C. Schieber and G.A.M. Webb. The IAEA officer responsible for the
preparation of this Safety Report was M. Gustafsson of the Division of Radiation and
Waste Safety.
EDITORIAL NOTE
Although great care has been taken to maintain the accuracy of information contained
in this publication, neither the IAEA nor its Member States assume any responsibility for
consequences which may arise from its use.
The use of particular designations of countries or territories does not imply any
judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of
their authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries.
The mention of names of specific companies or products (whether or not indicated as
registered) does not imply any intention to infringe proprietary rights, nor should it be
construed as an endorsement or recommendation on the part of the IAEA.
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2. Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3. Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4. Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. OPTIMIZATION PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. ASSESSMENT OF EXPOSURE SITUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1. Global evaluation of the exposure situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.1.1. Design stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1.1.1. Example 1: Individual dose constraints and
indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.1.2. Example 2: Design of a major facility . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.2. Operational stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.2.1 Example 4: Involvement of personnel in the
process of evaluating exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2. Job specific evaluation and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2.1. Prior evaluation of all radiation jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2.1.1. Example 6: Analysis of similar jobs performed
successively in different workplaces . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.2. Analysis of exposure situations for specific jobs in the
context of carrying out a detailed study for the optimization
of radiation protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3. How to obtain the data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3.1. Facility level and national level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3.1.1. Example 7: IAEA Regulatory Authority
Information System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.2. International level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3.2.1. Example 8: Information System on Occupational
Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4. MEANS OF REDUCING EXPOSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2. Global means of reducing exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2.1. Work planning and scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2.1.1. Example 9: Schedule of works according to
the evolution of dose rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2.2. General worker education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2.2.1. Example 10: A software learning program —
RADIOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2.3. Awareness and involvement of workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2.3.1. Example 11: Mobile industrial radiography . . . . . . 25
4.2.4. Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.2.4.1. Example 12: Improving communication by the
use of suggestion boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.3. Job specific means to reduce exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.3.1. Facility and equipment design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.3.1.1. Example 13: Factors for evaluation in a decision
on the need to install permanent shielding . . . . . . . 27
4.3.2. Reducing the time spent in radiation areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3.2.1. Example 14: Factors that increase exposure time . . 29
4.3.3. Reducing the number of workers necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3.4. Reducing dose rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.3.4.1. Example 15: Long handled tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3.5. Specialized training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5. DEFINING AND IMPLEMENTING AN ALARA PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.1. Global components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

5.1.1. Example 16: Creation of specific ALARA management
structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2. Analysis and selection of job specific options for dose reduction . . 34
5.2.1. Analysis of options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2.1.1. Example 17: Identification of cost savings . . . . . . . 35
5.2.2. Selection of options to be implemented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.3. Monitoring the effectiveness of an ALARA plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
REFERENCES .............................................. 39
ANNEX I: DECISION AIDING TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
I–1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
I–2. Cost–benefit analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
I–3. Extended cost–benefit analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
I–4. Multiattribute utility analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
I–5. Muliticriteria outranking analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
References to Annex I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
ANNEX II: ALARA CHECKLISTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
ANNEX III: MONETARY VALUE OF THE UNIT COLLECTIVE DOSE . . 57
III–1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
III–2. Evaluation of the reference monetary value of a man-sievert . . . . 58
III–2.1. Dose–effect relationship and the monetary value of
health effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
III–2.1.1. Example III–1: Calculation of the monetary
value of a man-sievert using the human capital approach . 59
III–2.2. How to take account of individual dose distributions . . . . 59
III–2.2.1. Example III–2: A model to determine a set of
monetary values of a man-sievert according to the level
of individual doses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
III–3. Examples of monetary values used for the unit collective dose . . . 60
References to Annex III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND
For many years optimization has been one of the three principles of radiation
protection. It is introduced in the Safety Fundamentals publication Radiation
Protection and the Safety of Radiation Sources [1] and is a basic element of the
International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for
the Safety of Radiation Sources (BSS) [2]. A Safety Guide (Safety Series No. 101),
Operational Radiation Protection: A Guide to Optimization [3], was published in
1990 and was intended to provide practical guidance on the application of the dose
limitation system to operational situations. That Safety Guide was related to the
previous version of the BSS, however, and did not cover the application of the
optimization principle to all situations, including design. It was therefore decided to
prepare this Safety Report, which supercedes Safety Series No. 101, to give more
practical advice that covers the whole range of applications to occupational exposure.
Although the requirement for optimization applies to all categories of exposure
— occupational, medical and public — the application to non-occupational exposures
in the latter two categories is rather specific and adequately covered in publications
in those fields. In the case of public exposure a major aspect is optimization in waste
management, especially for discharges to the environment and for the disposal of
solid wastes, which is treated in detail in publications in the Radioactive Waste Safety
Series. The optimization of intervention measures to protect the public in the event of
an accident has been covered in a Safety Guide (Safety Series No. 109 [4]) in which
generic optimized intervention levels are derived. Other aspects of public exposure
are exposures to natural radiation, particularly radon, which is largely covered in the
BSS. For medical exposure the relevant application of optimization is set out for
diagnostic and therapeutic procedures in a specialized Safety Guide on Radiological
Protection for Medical Exposure to Ionizing Radiation [5], and the practical aspects
will be elaborated in a series of publications jointly sponsored by the IAEA and four
other international organizations. It has therefore been decided to focus this Safety
Report on the first category: occupational exposure.
In carrying out an optimization study from the point of view of radiological
protection, other hazards that may be associated with radioactive materials
(e.g. biological and chemical hazards) or with the process operations (e.g. electrical
and mechanical hazards) also have to be borne in mind and may indeed affect the final
decision on the optimum course of action.
The development of the recommendations of the International Commission on
Radiological Protection (ICRP) have been taken into account in preparing this Safety
Report, especially the publications that relate specifically to optimization [6, 7] and
1
the more recent report [8] that deals with the radiation protection of workers. More
specific publications by the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD NEA) [9], by the
Commission of the European Communities [10] and from the United States National
Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements [11] have also provided some
valuable concepts and examples of applications.
Three related Safety Guides prepared jointly by the IAEA and the International
Labour Office provide guidance on fulfilling the requirements of the BSS with respect
to occupational exposure [12–14]. The Safety Guide that gives general advice on the
development of occupational radiation protection programmes [12] sets out the
essential elements of the optimization procedures and has formed the basis on which
this Safety Report elaborates.
1.2. OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this Safety Report is to supplement the general principles
and guidance on optimization given by the ICRP, in the BSS and in the Safety Guides
with more practical information on how to apply optimization in the workplace. It is
stated in Ref. [12] that the primary responsibility for the optimization of the
protection of workers lies with the operating management of the organizations in
which they work. The primary target audience for this Safety Report is thus the
managers who have responsibility for controlling the types of work done and the
resulting occupational exposures. This includes those directly responsible for
radiation protection, for example radiation protection officers (also called health
physics managers or health physics officers). An equally important target audience is
those managers responsible for production or other aspects of an organization such as
financial control, for whom safety should also be an integral consideration. These
persons should also be involved in the development and implementation of the results
of optimization decisions. As stated below, the successful application of the ideas in
this Safety Report also depends upon the commitment and involvement of the
workers who are being protected, so they, or their representatives, are an important
further target audience. This Safety Report should also be useful to regulatory
authority personnel in clarifying how operators can comply with a regulatory
requirement for optimization.
1.3. SCOPE
This Safety Report covers the background to, and the practical aspects of
implementation of, a programme for the optimization of radiation protection in the
control of occupational exposure. This kind of programme is often referred to as an
2
ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) programme. The term ‘occupational
exposure’ means “All exposures of workers incurred in the course of their work,
with the exception of exposures excluded from the Standards and exposures from
practices or sources exempted by the Standards” (Ref. [2], Glossary). It applies to
all aspects of facilities, including design, the carrying out of operations and
decommissioning. It covers all types of occupational exposure, including that from the
medical and industrial uses of radiation, and exposure to natural radiation at work as
well as exposure in the nuclear power industry. Although in principle it also covers the
reduction of potential exposure, and some of the examples given in this Safety Report
show measures for the reduction of probability as well as the magnitude of doses, the
more formal optimization techniques are not yet fully applicable to the trade offs
between dose and risk reduction. As noted earlier, optimization in emergency situations
is covered in other publications, and so it is not part of the scope of this Safety Report.
1.4. STRUCTURE
The general process for the optimization of radiation protection is presented in

Section 2. Carrying out this process requires several steps, which are described in
Sections 3 to 6. The starting point is an assessment of the initial situation, whether it
is a new design or a current operation, as described in Section 3. Section 4 elaborates
the various possible methods and approaches that could be taken to reduce doses. The
evaluation of the possible courses of action that lead to an ALARA plan and the
implementation of the plan is dealt with in Section 5. Some brief conclusions are
presented in Section 6. Throughout this Safety Report examples of applications of the
procedures are described. Although every effort has been made to draw these
examples from all areas of applications of radiation, most studies that have been
reported come from the nuclear power industry, so inevitably most of the examples
also come from that sector.
2. OPTIMIZATION PROCESS
The current form of the framework for radiation protection, including the
concept of the optimization of radiological protection1, can be traced back to a
1 In this Safety Report the term ‘optimization’ is taken to mean the ‘optimization of
radiological protection’.
3
publication of the ICRP in 1965, but was stated in Publication No. 26 in 1977 [15] in
a form that remained similar in Publication No. 60 from 1991 [16] and in the BSS.
This wording in the BSS is:
“In relation to exposures from any particular source within a practice, except
for therapeutic medical exposures, protection and safety shall be optimized in
order that the magnitude of individual doses, the number of people exposed and
the likelihood of incurring exposures all be kept as low as reasonably
achievable, economic and social factors being taken into account, within the
restriction that the doses to individuals delivered by the source be subject to
dose constraints” (Ref. [2], para. 2.24).
Optimization is an essential part, and in practice the most important part, of a

system of dose limitation because reliance on dose limits is not enough to achieve an
acceptable level of protection. Dose limits represent the lower boundary of a region
of unacceptable doses and risks. Doses just below the limits can therefore only be
tolerated if nothing reasonable can be done to reduce them. In most situations,
however, something can be done to reduce them, and protection then enters the
optimization regime that is the subject of this Safety Report.
As noted above, dose limits are usually too high to be a useful level for placing
an upper boundary on a particular optimization study. Indeed, in most situations of
occupational exposure the dose limit is largely irrelevant. To provide a boundary to
optimization the ICRP has introduced the concept of dose constraints, which are
expressed as individual doses, as are the dose limits, but which are a source related
constraint on the range of options considered in the optimization of protection for that
particular source. Dose constraints need to be used prospectively in optimizing
protection in planning and executing tasks, and in designing facilities or equipment.
They should therefore be set on a case by case basis that takes into account general
trends but that is consistent with the specific characteristics of the exposure situation,
and they should preferably be set by management in consultation with the workers
involved. A useful basis would be an analysis of the dose distributions in operations
of a particular type that are felt to be well managed. A dose constraint could be set
towards the upper end of such a distribution of doses. A recent study on the setting of
dose constrains [17] has concluded that there seems to be some areas of work where
constraints are unlikely to be appropriate, either owing to doses being low or because
there are problems in applying the concept itself. However, a study by the OECD
NEA found them to be useful in many situations [18]. Within the nuclear sector the
use of constraints may be most appropriate in the planning of new facilities where
there is a well defined planning stage and there is sufficient information on dose
distributions to inform the selection of constraints. This would also apply in the
medical sector in the planning of radiotherapy, including brachytherapy, nuclear
4
medicine and radiography facilities, and to some industrial operation, such as fixed
radiography facilities.
In contrast to dose constraints, which is a prospective tool, there is often a need
for some kind of indicator of performance during operations. It would not be
appropriate for this to be a limit or constraint, so the term investigation level is used.
Investigation levels need to be specific to the facility or operations concerned and will
therefore usually be set by management at the local level, taking into account the
results of the optimization study that has been performed. Investigation levels should
be set in terms of measurable quantities such as individual doses, intakes, dose rates
or contamination levels. Investigation levels will often be a component of an ALARA
plan. A review of the situation to determine the causes and, if necessary, to initiate
further measures to control exposures should be prompted if an investigation level is
exceeded.
Another type of reference for use during operations is a collective dose target.
This is similar to an investigation level in that approaching or exceeding it will trigger
an investigation, so it can be a useful indicator to management of the overall
performance of a job in comparison with the predictions of an optimization study or
comparison with best practice in other similar situations. Collective dose targets will
also often form part of an ALARA plan.
The ICRP has recognized that ‘keeping all exposures as low as reasonably
achievable, economic and social factors being taken into account’, ‘optimization of
protection’ and ‘ALARA’ are identical concepts within the ICRP system [19].
Because it is widely recognized worldwide, the acronym ALARA is used in this
Safety Report where it seems appropriate.
The optimization of protection is an idea of broad application. At the top level
it covers the organizational structure needed to enable the correct allocation of
responsibilities. It can be used for decisions at all levels, from simple day to day
operational problems to major analyses of different types of plant design, and it
should be applied in all areas of occupational radiation protection, including the
medical uses of radiation, exposure to natural radiation and in general industry as well
as in the perhaps more publicized area of the nuclear power industry. The
optimization idea should also in principle apply to procedures designed to prevent or
mitigate the consequences of incidents in the workplace that could lead to radiation
exposure. To do this it needs to take account of the probabilities of such events and of
their consequences, but as noted earlier the techniques to do this are not yet developed
so these aspects are not treated in this Safety Report.
The fundamental role of optimization is to bring about a state of thinking in
everyone responsible for the control of radiation exposures, such that they are
continuously asking themselves the question ‘Have I done everything that I
reasonably can to reduce these radiation doses?’. Clearly, the answer to this question
is a matter of judgement because it is not a question that can be answered in the same
5
sense as the corresponding question about dose limits, ‘Have I ensured compliance
with the dose limits?’. If the doses received by a worker are monitored and the sum
of these over the designated period is less than the limit, then the answer to the
question of compliance with the dose limit is ‘yes’. In the case of the optimization
question, partly because optimization is largely a prospective operation, there is no
such clear cut technical answer that does not require the application of judgement.
Demonstration of compliance with an optimization requirement in regulations must
therefore also be a matter of judgement. In this Safety Report the matters to be taken
into account in reaching such a judgement are explained.
In modern industry, economic pressures have made productivity and cost
competitiveness essential considerations. Companies have therefore adopted a global
approach to work that stresses the importance of approaching jobs from a
multidisciplinary team perspective and of following jobs completely through the
stages of conception, design, planning, preparation, implementation and follow-up.
This approach to jobs is what is broadly termed work management. It has much in
common with the systematic approach to optimization recommended in the Safety
Guide on Occupational Radiation Protection (Ref. [12], para. 4.6), which says
“Optimization of protection is a process that begins at the planning stage and

continues through the stages of scheduling, preparation, implementation and
feedback.”
In most cases optimization has to achieve a balance by taking into account the
needs for dose reduction, the needs to maintain production and the costs involved.
Ref. [12] recommends the implementation of the process of optimization through
work management. Because the reduction of doses through work management is
often accomplished by measures that improve the working conditions, the goals of
increasing efficiency and optimizing radiation protection can often be achieved
together. It may even be the case that this overall improvement in work output and
dose reduction can be achieved at no net financial cost if the savings through the
improved efficiency outweigh the cost of the protection measures.
A wide range of techniques is available to assist in optimizing radiation
protection. Some of these techniques are drawn from operational research, some from
economics and some from engineering. The techniques available include, but are not
confined to, procedures based on cost–benefit analysis; it is these procedures that
were discussed in detail in the first major ICRP report, published in 1983 [6]. The
ICRP has, however, stated the importance of recognizing that other techniques, some
quantitative, some more qualitative, may also be used in the optimization of radiation
protection. It is these techniques that were developed in a later more general report
[7], which was published in 1989, and endorsed in the most recent recommendations
in 1991 [16]. The techniques are described in Annex I.
6
The primary responsibility for optimization lies with the management of a
facility. The commitment of senior management, often expressed through a policy
statement, is an essential prerequisite for the successful introduction or continuation
of an ALARA programme. A further important early step in preparations for the
implementation of an ALARA programme through work management is to create in
the organization concerned the appropriate management structures and to allocate
responsibilities. This should be complemented by broad programmes to raise
awareness and provide the necessary basic education. Other more technical measures
to optimize protection should be subjected to analysis, for which a systematic
procedure is helpful. This approach to the organization and control of work is not
unique to optimization but is part of normal effective management. Such a procedure
is shown in Fig. 1 and consists of the following steps.
Evaluation of exposure situations to

identify the need for an optimization study
Identification and quantification of dose

reduction factors
Evaluation
and
feedback
Analysis of the performance of options with
respect to dose reduction factors and
decision making crieria
Recommended options for protection
Decision as a basis for an ALARA plan and

its implementation
FIG. 1. The optimization procedure.
7
1. The evaluation of exposure situations to identify the need for an optimization
study. To do this it is often helpful to use comparators or examples of good practice.
These may be comparisons with other similar facilities in databases such as the
Information System on Occupational Exposure (ISOE) [20] or the reviews of the
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
(UNSCEAR) [21] or they may be dose constraints for the type of work set by
management or by a regulatory authority. In general it is prudent to carry out a
systematic review of all exposure situations. For example, in design and planning
operations consideration should be given to lower dose situations if there are a
number of workers exposed frequently or for long periods. In some cases it will be
obvious that a particular high dose job is a candidate for improvement.
2. The identification and quantification of the dose reduction factors to be
considered during the optimization study. In this next step all of the means by which
doses may be reduced are identified. These factors include global means, which can
apply to all operations, and those specific to the optimization of protection in
particular jobs. Combinations of various means can be referred to as options for
improving protection.
3. The analysis, which may be qualitative or quantitative, of the performance of
the options with respect to each of the dose reduction factors and the decision making
criteria set up in advance. The overall objective of optimization deals with the
radiation exposure of the workforce. To assess this the individual dose distribution,
especially the maximum individual doses, is one of the key factors. As it is also
important to take into account the number of workers exposed to particular levels of
dose, the collective dose to the workforce is a necessary factor. Collective dose here
means the sum of the doses predicted or actually received by a specified workforce
either in a period of time, such as a year or month, or in carrying out a specific job.
The relevant criteria provide guidance, quantitative or qualitative, of what is
acceptable or desirable for one of the factors. For example, the individual dose
constraint is a criterion of one type, a specified monetary value of unit collective dose
is another criterion. These criteria can be used with other less quantified inputs in
deciding on an overall ALARA plan and in respect of specific jobs.
4. The generation of a recommended optimum protection option. With account
taken of the results of the analysis, including the costs of all types and effectiveness
of the various means of dose reduction, one or a few options are likely to emerge as
optimum.
5. The final decision, which is then the basis for an ALARA plan and its
implementation. By means of techniques to involve management, workers who may
affect the situation and those workers who will be affected in the decision making
process, the appropriate combination of general means to optimize protection and to
approach particular jobs can be identified by taking into account the proposed
optimum options. This can then be formed into an ALARA plan for implementation.
8
In one sense it is this procedure that is the important practical embodiment of
the optimization concept. The procedure, which can be applied to both design and
operational situations, is aimed at clarifying the problem under consideration so that
all available means to reduce doses are considered in identifying the main
radiological protection options, together with their costs and any other relevant
factors. The steps in the procedure are expanded in the subsequent sections of this
Safety Report.
In the carrying out of an optimization study it is necessary to involve other
groups. These include particularly the workers who have direct knowledge of the
situation being studied and can therefore make suggestions as to the relevant factors
and how they might be modified, and other management groups having control of
finances or involved in the situation from a production viewpoint who can specify
constraints of a financial or technical nature or who may be able to make suggestions
for improvement from a wider perspective.
The concrete output of an optimization study will be an ALARA plan with
both short and longer term objectives that may be termed ALARA goals. These goals
could be set, for example, in terms of maximum individual doses and collective dose
targets. The plan may also include investigation levels to be used during the
operation of the plan to trigger scrutiny if there are deviations from the predicted
dose patterns. In implementing the plan the need to communicate both the reasons
for changes and the expected benefits is important. The involvement of the groups
referred to above in the development of the plan will have the additional benefit of
involving those who have to implement it. In the implementation phase it will be
necessary also to emphasize the responsibilities for his or her own improved
protection of every individual involved and for improvements in the protection of
work colleagues.
During the implementation of the plan there should be monitoring of the
changes in the indicators and opportunity for feedback so that when there is a further
review in the future the database for that review is clear and complete.
3. ASSESSMENT OF EXPOSURE SITUATIONS
Occupational exposures situations range from simple (e.g. a medical technician

administering a chest X ray) to complex (e.g. tasks involving several hundred
workers in the refuelling and maintenance outages of a nuclear power plant). In
Ref. [12] it is noted that a radiation protection programme has to be well adapted to
the situation concerned. To ensure this the first step is to perform an initial
radiological evaluation of the practice or installation in question. The purpose of this
initial evaluation is to describe, as precisely as necessary, the situation involving
9
occupational exposures. It is recommended that this evaluation includes, for all
aspects of operations [12]:
“(a) an identification of the sources of routine and reasonably foreseeable

potential exposures;
(b) a realistic estimate of the relevant doses and probabilities;
(c) an identification of the radiological protection measures needed to
meet the optimization principle.”
This Safety Report is concerned with optimization, and the evaluation

procedures described here focus on working towards an ALARA plan within an
overall radiation protection programme.
In a generic approach, whatever the degree of complexity, there are two main
levels of assessment. The first consists of a global evaluation of the exposure to
identify the major areas for improvement and to check the overall effectiveness of an
optimization programme if one already exists. The second deals with a detailed
analysis of specific jobs in order to examine the factors that contribute to the
associated doses and determine the appropriate means that could be implemented for
the reduction of the doses.
3.1. GLOBAL EVALUATION OF THE EXPOSURE SITUATION
Before starting any optimization process it is necessary for management to

carry out an initial radiological evaluation to obtain a generic overview of the
exposure situation for which it is responsible, evaluate the evolution of the exposures
and identify the main areas for improvement.
3.1.1. Design stage
At the design stage of a new facility (e.g. a nuclear power plant, research
laboratory, radiography room in a hospital) or in preparing for a new operation
(e.g. the dismantling of a facility, a major plant modification), a global evaluation of
the exposure situation should be carried out to determine if the individual dose
constraints [17, 18] and the collective dose targets (if any have been established) are
satisfied (see the example in Section 3.1.1.1). These two elements, which are source
related, reflect in a generic sense what can be regarded to be achievable relative to the
results obtained in similar facilities or exposure situations at the national or
international level: this is described in Section 2.
At the stage of the first characterization of the future exposure situation, the
main indicators to be looked at are the level of the collective dose and the distribution
10
of individual doses (i.e. the number of workers exposed as a function of the ranges of
individual levels of dose). The data for this type of global overview is generally
collected on an annual basis. These indicators are obtained through a generic
description of the major radiological jobs that are planned to be performed in the
facility concerned. This description is based on a rough estimate of the frequency of
the jobs performed, their duration, the dose rates and the possible number of workers
exposed.
A comparison of the indicators with the individual dose constraints and
collective dose targets identifies the design modifications that have to be made before
construction in order to meet the objectives. Design modifications can also be carried
out to improve conditions at existing facilities. An evaluation must therefore be
started as early as possible in the design process in order to keep a maximum of
flexibility for potential changes in the original design. The process of the optimization
of protection is then implemented by means of a second and more detailed assessment
of all the jobs, to reduce the doses as much as reasonably achievable below these
levels of dose constraints or targets, taking into account social and economic factors
(see the example in Section 3.1.1.2). A reassessment of the situation should be
planned on a periodic basis.
3.1.1.1. Example 1: Individual dose constraints and indicators
A number of organizations have established dose constraints and indicators for

design purposes, such as for:
— Power reactors.
• Individual annual dose.
• Annual collective dose per unit installed capacity.
• Average annual individual dose in the workforce.
— Reprocessing operations.
— Radiation protection advisers.
— Research laboratory technicians.
3.1.1.2. Example 2: Design of a major facility
This example presents the main results of a detailed optimization study

performed at the design stage of a facility for the treatment and conditioning of
radioactive waste from the nuclear industry. The facility is composed of two main
units: a fusion unit (for metal wastes) and an incineration unit (for solid or liquid
11
combustible and non-combustible wastes). The different steps of the study are the
following.
(a) First evaluation of the exposure situation with rough estimates (excluding
maintenance jobs):
— Collective dose: 0.83 man·Sv/a.

— Number of individuals exposed: 63 exposed workers.
— Average individual level of dose per year: 13.2 mSv.
(b) The optimization study decided upon the following objectives:
— Individual dose constraint: 15 mSv/a, to eliminate any option that would

lead to an annual individual dose greater than this value.
— Reducing the level of individual and collective doses, with priority given to
the highest levels of individual doses.
— Eliminating all exposure situations where the use of respiratory protective
equipment would be necessary for more than two hours.
(c) Second evaluation of the exposure situation with a more realistic hypothesis
and a more precise description of the work steps; to be used as a reference for
the optimization study:

(d) Optimization study: identification of the protection options, quantification of

their effectiveness and the cost of options, and selection of the optimal options
(mainly the improvement of shielding and development of remote tools). Final
results were the following:

Table I shows the distribution of individual doses both before and after the
optimization study. The main point of this example is to show that the implementation
12
TABLE I. DISTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUAL DOSES BEFORE AND AFTER AN
OPTIMIZATION STUDY (EXCLUDING MAINTENANCE JOBS)
Number of workers per annual individual dose range
<5 mSv/a 5–10 mSv/a 10–15 mSv/a 15–20 mSv/a
Fusion unit
Before optimization 15 13 8 5
After optimization 36 7 3 0
Incineration unit
Before optimization 8 14 15 10
After optimization 9 37 1 0
of protection options enables the reduction of both the annual collective dose and the
average individual dose, even though the number of exposed individuals had to be
slightly increased in order to satisfy the individual dose constraint.
3.1.2. Operational stage
In the operation of a facility the responsible managers (including radiation

protection officers) should perform regular assessments (for example on an annual
basis) of the global exposure situation of the facility, in order to:
— Evaluate the generic tendencies;

— Check any possible deviations;
— Monitor the effectiveness of the radiation protection programme, including the
ALARA plan;
— Identify the main areas for improvement;
— Determine future goals for doses.
The main indicators used for this purpose are usually annual trends of the total
operational collective dose and distributions of annual individual doses (see the
example in Table II). When the various jobs that characterize the exposure situation
can be grouped into different categories, and when several types of workers (e.g.
labourers, technicians, engineers) are concerned, the indicators can be detailed for
each category of job and type of worker to allow a better analysis of the situation.
These can be analysed alone to evaluate the trends in occupational exposures of the
facility concerned and to compare them with trends at similar facilities (at the national
or international level) for benchmarking purposes.
13
TABLE II. EXAMPLE 3: ANALYSIS OF TRENDS IN DOSE INFORMATION
FOR OCCUPATIONALLY EXPOSED WORKERS IN INDUSTRIAL RADIO-
GRAPHY FOR THE YEARS 1990–1996
1990 1992 1994 1996

Collective dose 3.8 4.1 2.6 2.5
(man·Sv)
Mean dose 1.4 1.6 1.3 1.6
(mSv)
Number with 37 22 29 9
doses greater
than 15 mSv
Note: The data for the years 1990–1992 prompted a review of the work practices in industrial
radiography that resulted in reductions in both the individual and collective dose.
In addition to the global evaluation of trends, it is also necessary to check

whether the specific dosimetric goals, dose constraints, etc., set as part of the
optimization process, are met (e.g. the maximum annual individual doses, the
collective dose per year or per category of job).
Further evaluation of the less quantifiable indicators of the effectiveness of a
radiation protection programme is also necessary (see the example in Section
3.1.2.1). From a work management perspective, these less quantifiable indicators
include:
— The commitment towards the optimization of radiation protection of all the

persons whose functions are directly or indirectly related to the management of
radiation jobs, from the top management to the individual workers who are
exposed to the radiation;
— The level of knowledge of these individuals concerning the various dosimetric
goals (e.g. educating the workers in the field on such subjects as annual or task
related goals);
— The involvement of workers and management in the studies of radiation
protection optimization;
— The quality of the information systems and the effectiveness of information
dissemination;
— The continuing education of workers regarding changes and improvements in
optimization processes.
14
In making all these periodic evaluations, managers have to be aware that even
if the exposure situation seems satisfactory at the facility level and in comparison with
similar exposure situations in other facilities, it may still be possible (or necessary) to
reduce the doses further. The optimization process is a dynamic process, the results
of which need always to be further questioned.
3.1.2.1. Example 4: Involvement of personnel in the process of evaluating exposures
The process of evaluating exposures should include in some way all workers
who are occupationally exposed. Essential to the evaluation process is a core team of
people who provide the overall direction and planning of the exposure process. It is
likewise necessary that this core team be comprised of personnel outside the radiation
protection department. Although the chairperson (or facilitator) of this core team may
be a member of the radiation protection department, the majority of the members
should be representatives of work groups other than the radiation protection
department.
3.2. JOB SPECIFIC EVALUATION AND ANALYSIS
3.2.1. Prior evaluation of all radiation jobs
In addition to the periodic assessment of the global exposure situation, the

planning of all jobs that might lead to an occupational exposure should include, as
early as possible before the job starts, a broad evaluation of the levels of collective
and individual doses directly associated with the job. This evaluation should be
performed by the responsible work group, that is the group that will actually be
carrying out the job, in close co-operation with and with assistance from the radiation
protection group. It needs to be based on a technical description of the job and be
associated with an evaluation of the radiological conditions in which the work will be
performed.
The objectives of a prior evaluation of the exposure levels of jobs can include:
— Obtaining the elements needed to identify and elaborate on job related

dosimetric goals;
— Identification of the exposure conditions (i.e. where, when and how the workers
are exposed);
— Bringing together the appropriate individuals in both the responsible work
group and the radiation protection group;
— Identification of the jobs to be further analysed to improve radiological
protection.
15
The level of evaluation, planning and review should be commensurate with the
estimated doses associated with the jobs concerned. It may be useful to determine a
reference value in terms of the individual or collective doses such that if the exposure
estimate of a job were to exceed this predetermined value a further formal analysis
would be conducted to identify the dose reduction options, followed by a senior
management review of the evaluation and planning efforts. The categories of job and
related ALARA reviews proposed by the National Council on Radiation Protection
and Measurements for nuclear power plants is given in the example in Table III [11].
The reference value is likely to be different for each type of facility.
The selection of jobs needing further detailed analyses can also be made
through a comparison with results previously obtained for the same type of job (either
in the facility concerned or other comparable facilities), which may reveal that a
better performance can be obtained. In this case not only the collective dose trends
but also the evolution of the main parameters that contribute to exposures (i.e. the
dose rates, duration of the job and number of workers) are significant. The analysis
of the collective dose trends associated with repetitive jobs (e.g. routine annual
maintenance jobs) or similar jobs performed in different places should be
complemented by an analysis of the ambient dose rate as well as the exposure
workload (the total time spent by an entire team in a work area, measured in person-
hours) to detect the possible changes in radiological or technical conditions from one
job to another (see the example in Section 3.2.1.1). This type of analysis may show
that an increase in the collective dose is not due to the poor performance of a job but
TABLE III. EXAMPLE 5: COLLECTIVE DOSE CRITERIA TO DETERMINE

THE LEVEL OF A JOB ANALYSIS
Category Dose estimate Review

1 <10 man·mSv By a radiation protection technician as part of a
radiation work permit preparation
2 10–50 man·mSv By a radiation protection technician and radiation
protection supervisor
3 50–500 man·mSv By a radiation protection supervisor and engineer
responsible for ALARA planning
Dose estimate and planned dose reduction techniques
to be documented in a pre-job report to management
4 >500 man·mSv In addition to the above, review by the plant’s
management or an ALARA committee
16
to an increase of the ambient dose rate (and similarly a decrease in the collective dose
due only to a decrease in the ambient dose rate can be offset by an increase of the
number of workers exposed or the duration of the exposure).
3.2.1.1. Example 6: Analysis of similar jobs performed successively in different

workplaces
This example presents the type of analysis that can be done when looking at the
dose trends for a job performed several times by the same team (i.e. the same number
of workers) but in different workplaces.
The first step of evaluation usually consists of an analysis of the trend in the
collective dose. In this example (see Table IV) it appears that the collective dose for
the job is progressively decreasing, which seems to indicate a better performance of
the job and an improvement in work efficiency.
However, because the job has been performed in different workplaces, in order
to make a true interpretation of the dose trend (Table V) it is necessary to look at the
ambient dose rates as well as the exposure workload. Table V shows that, although
TABLE IV. TREND OF THE COLLECTIVE DOSE
Job sequence
1 2 3 4 5
Collective dose 36 30 24 17 15
(man·mSv)
TABLE V. INTERPRETATION OF THE DOSE TREND
Job sequence
1 2 3 4 5
Collective dose 36 30 24 17 15
(man·mSv)
Ambient dose rate 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1
(mSv/h)
Exposure workload 90 100 80 85 150
(person-hours)
17
the collective dose for the job is decreasing, the time taken to carry out the job is
increasing. The decrease in the collective dose is due to a decrease in the ambient
dose rate only. In terms of the optimization of protection, such a result should
call for a more detailed analysis of the way the job was performed in order to
check for possible mishaps or technical problems that increased the exposure
workload.
3.2.2. Analysis of exposure situations for specific jobs in the context of

carrying out a detailed study for the optimization of radiation
protection
A detailed analysis is a necessary step for performing studies for the

optimization of radiation protection (see Fig. 2). It is normally done not only for the
jobs identified by global evaluations of exposure but also for all major new work.
Moreover, a periodic analysis should be performed for all the radiation related jobs at
the facility concerned in order to determine what could be done to reduce the levels
of doses (even if the levels of occupational doses associated with these jobs seem
satisfactory).
The purpose of these analyses is to identify the possible factors that contribute
to the level of doses that could be improved or changed. It should be based on a
precise description of all the tasks performed in the job, in radiological, technical and
environmental (which equates to a description of the area) terms. This means that
detailed information concerning the time of exposure, the number of workers
involved, ambient dose rates in the work areas, the use of protective clothing,
procedures and tools, and the configuration of the work areas (including ergonomic
criteria, the possible position of shielding, scaffolding, materials and tools) need to be
obtained. The various groups of workers that interact in the preparation or
performance of these jobs and that are directly involved in the identification of the
means to reduce exposures need to participate in the collection of data and in the
analyses of the jobs.
3.3. HOW TO OBTAIN THE DATA
3.3.1. Facility level and national level
At a facility’s internal level one important means of ensuring the efficient

assessment of exposure situations is to create a complete information system that
enables the collection, analysis and storage of data. As mentioned above, these data
are not limited to dosimetric data but are also related, among other factors, to a job’s
performance and the prevalent work conditions.
18
Job description
Exposure conditions
Evaluation of the dose rates, surface contamination and aerosol activity
Working conditions
Determination of the period of exposure, temperature, place, lighting
and special support
Staff and equipment

Identification of the necessary tools and equipment, specialists and workers
Co-ordination
Identification of other jobs that may influence the work conditions
and radiation field at the workplace
Job analysis
Individual dose constraints; Knowledge from similar jobs in

collective dose targets the past and well managed practices
Dose reduction measures

Identification of the possible improvement in equipment, tools, protective clothing and
devices, shielding and measures for the reduction of the spread of the contamination
Work planning
Determination of the optimum period of exposure, number of workers,
time schedule and work organization
Doses
Assessment of the expected individual dose distribution and collective dose
Preparation of feedback
Identification of the parameters necessary to follow in job performance
for the purposes of post-job reviews or feedback
FIG. 2. Analysis of jobs.
19
The data can be collected directly, either before, during and after jobs are
carried out. In some cases the most efficient way to obtain data is to use
systematically completed records, completed either by the radiation protection staff
or by the job foremen both during and at the end of the work. These records need
not be complex: simple record cards may suffice in many cases. In collecting data
for repetitive jobs a coherence between the successive collection of data is important
for an accurate analysis. In complex exposure situations (i.e. those that involve
several sources or several types of job), computer based collection systems, most
easily associated with an electronic operational dosimetry system, can be helpful in
collecting information.
In some cases, such as at the design stage of a facility or for a new job or when
no information is available, it may be necessary to use specific software to facilitate
the following:
— Assessments of dose rates and their possible evolution in time;

— Simulations of the planned jobs in their environment;
— Combinations of data from all the planned jobs (for ambient dose rates, the
length of time of exposure and the number of workers exposed) at the facility
concerned, in order to obtain more generic indicators.
Periodic internal reviews or audits are also useful for evaluations, in particular
reviews that concern an assessment of the awareness of workers and other types of
human or organizational factors that lead to a poor performance. To obtain a more
objective evaluation it can also be useful to ask for an external audit, which can be
accomplished, for example, through alternate peer reviews in which two facilities
participate in evaluations of one another.
The use of national databases can often be helpful if there is no job related
information available to provide an indication of good practice or to identify areas for
attention (see the example in Section 3.3.1.1).
3.3.1.1. Example 7: IAEA Regulatory Authority Information System
To support the regulatory authorities in its Member States the IAEA has
developed the Regulatory Authority Information System (RAIS), which is being
introduced in about 70 countries that receive IAEA assistance. The RAIS system
consists of five modules, one of which covers individual dose monitoring. This
module provides the regulatory authority with the necessary information on
occupational exposure for its monitoring of safe operation. RAIS also provides
comparisons with reference levels, such as investigation levels, and with dose
constraints and dose limits, and reports on doses that exceed the reference
levels.
20
3.3.2. International level
For some types of exposure situations there exist international databases that
group dosimetric information by the types of radiation jobs performed in various
facilities.
International data relevant to all types of work can been obtained through the
periodically published reports of UNSCEAR on the sources and effects of ionizing
radiation [21]. These reports include detailed data on occupational exposures in
various sectors of industry and from various types of sources in different countries.
The main groups of occupational categories used in the report are nuclear fuel cycle,
the medical uses of radiation, the industrial uses of radiation, the natural sources of
radiation and defence related activities. Within each group distinctions are made
between the major types of practices. For these practices the collected data concern,
for each responding country, the number of monitored workers, the total annual
collective effective dose, the average annual individual dose and the distribution of
the number of workers and of the total collective dose per individual dose range. For
nuclear power plants a more specific system has been developed (see the example in
Section 3.3.2.1).
3.3.2.1. Example 8: Information System on Occupational Exposure
The field of occupational exposures at nuclear power plants has benefited since
1992 from an international programme called the Information System on
Occupational Exposure (ISOE). This programme was launched by the OECD NEA
to facilitate the exchange of experience in the management of occupational exposure
among utilities and regulatory authorities from around the world. Since 1993 it has
been co-sponsored by the IAEA to allow the participation of member countries not in
the OECD NEA, and in 1997 the two agencies formed a joint ISOE secretariat.
The ISOE programme includes the management of an international database on
occupational exposures and a network that allows the participants to obtain or
exchange all types of information that relates to radiation protection in nuclear power
plants. At the end of 2000 data from 92% of the world’s operating commercial nuclear
reactors were included in the ISOE database.
The ISOE provides each member utility with the database, which contains
detailed information on the individual and collective doses associated with the
major activities performed in and outside refuelling outages, a description of the
specific design features of the various reactor types and forms for the feedback of
experience from some specific jobs performed by some utilities. An annual report
contains an analysis of the data and a summary of the principal events in the
participating countries that might have influenced the trends in occupational
exposure [20].
21
4. MEANS OF REDUCING EXPOSURE
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Following the completion of an assessment it may be determined that there is a

need to reduce doses and that there is a means by which the reduction can be carried
out. The methods for reducing doses cover a broad spectrum, which ranges from
simple organizational adjustments to a modification of the design of the facility
concerned.
The ways in which exposure can be reduced are presented as singular factors
(means) and may be applicable as singular factors. However, a combination of these
factors (means) in many situations is likely to be more effective. This section
begins with basic, yet essential, means and progresses towards more technical
elements.
Not all of these means are necessarily applicable to all situations. There are
many options for using them singly or in combination. The use of a combination of
these means, and their relative order, should be delineated in an ALARA plan, which
is discussed below. The decision of which means are applicable and should be
adopted should precede the development of an action plan and is discussed in the next
section.
Checklists are useful tools for carrying out the requirements of an optimization
programme, and their uses are varied. Among other uses they can be used as an
agenda for a job planning or post-job review meeting or can be distributed to workers
to provoke thought for a process of information feedback. There are various types of
checklist; the type used will likely vary depending upon the type and size of the
facility concerned (see the examples in Annex II).
4.2. GLOBAL MEANS OF REDUCING EXPOSURE
4.2.1. Work planning and scheduling
Effective work management is necessary for the optimization and reduction of

exposure. Work needs to be managed and planned from the perspective of the specific
task, as well as its relation to all the other tasks performed, according to a common
goal and schedule. Decisions on when specific tasks are to be performed necessitate
the consideration of the radiological conditions prevailing at that given time. There
may be a better time to perform the job, in consideration of the radiological
conditions, without affecting the schedule for the completion of the job (see the
example in Section 4.2.1.1). It is useful to start with a template of the basic work plan
22
and schedule to review the plan for opportunities to adjust the specific time at which
a task is scheduled to be performed. The dose averted should be balanced against the
duration and cost of the work, with account taken of any impacts that any changes
may have on the plan to optimize radiation protection.
Resource management should be considered a part of work management in
optimizing radiation protection. Most studies have shown that an increase in the
number of workers for a specific job, in order to reduce the workers’ individual
exposure, will sometimes increase the total duration of the job and result in higher
collective exposures than if the job was performed by a small, well trained team. This
aspect of work management needs to be carefully reviewed and scrutinized to ensure
that the doses are the lowest possible. Time and motion studies and mock-up training
can help to identify proper management by determining precisely the workload
necessary to perform each step of the job and the right number of workers. These
items are discussed in Section 4.3.5.
4.2.1.1. Example 9: Schedule of works according to the evolution of dose rates
When nuclear power plants initially shut down, the dose rates in the vicinity of
the shut down cooling system piping and components increase significantly. Work on
these systems should therefore be scheduled prior to shutdown or well after shut-
down to allow for ion exchange and filtration cleanup as well as for some radioactive
decay.
4.2.2. General worker education
A knowledgeable workforce is a fundamental element in any programme for

the optimization of protection and control of exposure. Basic radiological training is
a requirement for gaining initial access to any radiation area and for performing work
in these areas. Training in optimization covers, as a minimum, the basic aspects of
time, distance and shielding, and how these basic elements relate to the optimization
of protection (see the example in Section 4.2.2.1). Requalification training at
prescribed intervals is generally a requirement. Requalification training normally
includes a reminder of the initial basic worker training and a review of new
regulations, guidance documents and work protocols relevant to the concept of
optimization.
A basic understanding of radiation protection is only the first step, however.
Workers also need to have a good working knowledge of the environment in which
they are working. They need to have an understanding of the basic practices and the
principles for radiological work that need to be employed in the specific radiological
environments in which they are working (such as radiation areas, high radiation
areas, contamination areas and areas of airborne activity). They need also to be
23
trained in practical matters, such as how to dress and undress in protective clothing,
wearing hoods and gloves, and so on. Familiarity with the physical surroundings is
another prerequisite. Workers need to have details of, for example, entry and exit
points so that time spent in radiation areas is minimized, thus reducing exposure.
An awareness of general dose rates in the area concerned as well as hot spots
and low dose waiting areas has equal importance. This is further explained in
Section 4.2.3.
4.2.2.1. Example 10: A software learning program — RADIOR
To explain the optimization of radiation protection a software learning program,

RADIOR, has been developed. It includes modules on ionizing radiation, the
management of radiological risks and the application of the optimization principle,
and a test of the acquired knowledge. While most of the content is generally
applicable, the practical example of the application of the optimization principle is
taken from the nuclear industry. The development of RADIOR was supported by the
IAEA and the European Commission Environment Directorate-General. RADIOR is
available on a diskette from the IAEA in English, French, German, Russian, Spanish
and Swedish.
4.2.3. Awareness and involvement of workers
Individuals performing tasks in radiation areas can have a large effect on their
own exposures. For this reason awareness on the part of workers has an important part
to play in reducing doses (see the example in Section 4.2.3.1). This effect on workers’
exposures starts with the planning phase of the work to be performed.
Direct involvement in the planning phase provides workers with an opportunity
to apply experience and lessons learned to the development of the plan. This allows
individuals to become more knowledgeable of the potential risks and to develop a
commitment to the plan. Knowledge of both the global and job specific ALARA plans
includes familiarity with the goals for both annual and task specific exposure. This
improves the attitude and attention to detail that the individual has in the performance
of his or her job and leads to a reduction in exposures.
Further reduction in exposures can be gained from the involvement of
workers in an in-process evaluation, post-job review and feedback process. Much
valuable information can be gained from workers by means of these processes. The
forum for the feedback and review process needs to be an open discussion. Workers
need to be assured that their input is valued and can benefit the optimization
process.
Workers’ awareness can be improved in other ways. Signs can be posted in
work areas around facilities where they can be easily seen by workers as constant
24
reminders of the potential hazard and the need to minimize exposure. Examples of
these signs include ‘Low Dose Waiting Area’, ‘Do Not Loiter In This Area’ and
other cautions concerning the potential hazard in handling radioactive material.
Information signs such as these are most effective if they are distinctive in size and
colour, are recognizably different from other information signs and are specifically
recognized as being relevant for the optimization of protection. The use of
electronic dosimeters with easy to view displays of current cumulative dose levels
and radiation levels are also effective in advising workers of the prevailing
radiological conditions. Awareness is further improved by posting the results of
radiological surveys at the entrances to rooms in which there is any type of
radiological hazard.
Workers should also be made aware that areas with high dose rates are normally
subject to some form of access control, either by the use of locks or by requiring a
designated person to accompany workers entering the high dose rate area. In addition
to the actual procedures, the reason for introducing access controls needs to be
explained so that workers are not tempted to circumvent the protection measures
through ignorance.
An additional measure that promotes workers’ awareness is the appropriate
labelling of radioactive material. While regulations may require certain types of labels
that have a minimum of information directly related to the existing radiological
conditions, additional information, such as handling instructions or details of the
necessary handling tools, further increase workers’ awareness. All labels and
signs need to be in the language(s) most familiar to the workers that they are
addressed to.
4.2.3.1. Example 11: Mobile industrial radiography
A study was carried out on 700 radiographers who work with mobile industrial
radiography equipment. It was found that about 240 of them received annual doses
that exceed 5 mSv. Detailed investigations identified the following reasons why the
radiographers received doses that were higher than necessary:
— Difficult working conditions,

— A failure to observe the operational procedures set up in compliance with the
regulations on radiation protection,
— The use of old equipment.
It was determined that one of the most effective measures to reduce doses
would be training and raising the awareness of the workers, which was done with the
involvement of both the regulatory authority and the companies employing the
radiographers.
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4.2.4. Communication
Communication is an essential part of any effort to reduce exposure. Regular

communication is necessary between all levels of management, supervisors and the
workforce. Workers need to be encouraged to communicate with management either
directly or by means of some formal process. Much of this is part of the process of
feedback, which is further elaborated in Section 5.3. Equally necessary is the
involvement of workers in the development of options for dose reduction and in the
consideration of the practicalities that concern their adoption.
4.2.4.1. Example 12: Improving communication by the use of suggestion boxes
Any worker at a facility needs to have available the means to communicate

ideas, lessons learned and good practices. One method that can be employed is the
use of a simple suggestion form. Suggestion forms and suggestion boxes can be
located at various points around a facility. Information to be given on the form should
include the concern (i.e. something causing more exposure than necessary), any
proposals for dealing with it and the name of the individual who has submitted the
form (this is optional). The person charged with responding to the concern should
evaluate the problem and any proposed solutions. Whether or not any particular
proposal can be acted upon, individuals who submit forms should be sent a written
reply that explains the outcome of the evaluation.
4.3. JOB SPECIFIC MEANS TO REDUCE EXPOSURE
4.3.1. Facility and equipment design
The most effective global means of reducing exposure is having an initial

design for a facility that takes full account of the requirement to optimize protection.
In some modern facilities this goes so far as to eliminate exposure owing to intakes
of radionuclides entirely by the use of containment and remote handling, or for a
radiotherapy suite to eliminate external exposure by the use of remote operation and
shielding. These are extreme examples, but the importance of attention to protection
at the design stage cannot be overemphasized. For this reason, those persons involved
in designing facilities need to be fully conversant with the consequences of the
requirement for optimization.
Another major means of reducing the exposure of workers is through the good
design of equipment. The design of equipment needs to take full account of the
exposure of the workers who will be using it, and a comprehensive system of quality
assurance is necessary to ensure that the construction, operation, maintenance and
26
modification of sources and equipment meet the relevant requirements. The design
and its construction needs to take full account of human capabilities.
Design modifications can be an effective permanent means of reducing
exposure. Examples include installing permanent shielding in areas where
temporary shielding is frequently used (see the example in Section 4.3.1.1). Other
types of design modification can improve many aspects of workers’ environments
by improving access, increasing efficiency and allowing for expedience in job
performance. Increased efficiency enhances safety and reduces exposure. Although
there is often a tendency to dismiss design modifications owing to their cost, they
are effective in reducing exposure at facilities that are already in operation. Design
modifications that incorporate the optimization of protection together with
improved industrial safety and increased production could both cut costs and reduce
exposure. This is an important element of optimization, as it crosses boundaries
with other programmes and can lead to improvements in more than one
programme.
Design modifications are normally included in the long range component of an
ALARA plan owing to the lead time necessary for the requisite engineering and
budgeting. Consequently, these issues are initially evaluated simply to determine
whether exposure can be reduced. Subsequently, modifications can be fully evaluated
in terms of reductions in exposure, feasibility and cost.
4.3.1.1. Example 13: Factors for evaluation in a decision on the need to install
permanent shielding
It may be that, as a result of the original design of an installation, temporary

scaffolding may frequently be needed (such as for maintenance work on components
such as steam generators). Evaluations of the need for permanent platforms instead of
temporary scaffolding readily show reductions in doses, as scaffolding does not need
to be installed in every refuelling cycle. The doses received in installing the platforms
are received only once. Permanent platforms also have other advantages: they are
inherently safer and thus represent a reduced risk in terms of industrial safety.
Workers can also perform their tasks more efficiently without the bulky safety
harnesses necessary on temporary scaffolding. Therefore, an evaluation as presented
to management would show the following:
— Reduced labour costs owing to no need to construct and remove temporary

scaffolding,
— Reduced labour costs as a result of increased work efficiency (less time means
less expenditure),
— Increased industrial safety and increased confidence in industrial safety on the
part of workers,
27
— A reduction in radiation exposure owing to there being no need to construct and
remove temporary scaffolding,
— A further reduction in radiation exposure owing to increased working
efficiency.
4.3.2. Reducing the time spent in radiation areas
Reducing the amount of time spent in a radiation area will always reduce the
exposure (see the example in Section 4.3.2.1), but the time needs to be reduced
without the quality of the desired output being compromised. Reductions in exposure
are lost if work has to be repeated. Planning is an essential element in reducing the
time spent in radiation areas. Good planning of tasks can reduce, by various means,
the time spent in radiation areas.
Ensuring that all the necessary tools, supplies and other equipment are available
at the job site will reduce delays. Ensuring that instruments are in proper repair and
working order will reduce the likelihood that work and testing will need to be
repeated. A basic consideration is that of having the proper tools for the specific task
being performed. Some tasks may need specially designed tools that can be fabricated
at the facility were the work takes place. This is especially helpful because in most
cases the individual who designs and fabricates the tool will be the person who will
perform the work. This will increase workers’ awareness of and familiarity with both
the work itself and considerations in optimization.
A workforce that is familiar with the needs of a job can also reduce the number
of person-hours spent in a radiation area. Familiarity with the work needs can be
achieved through practice tasks or mock-ups (see Section 4.3.5). Furthermore, the use
of workers who have performed a task previously will contribute to a time reduction.
In this case, however, there is a potential imbalance in doses among workers. Having
several workers familiar with the same job is of much greater value than having a
single expert. This will also aid in time reduction when the need arises for complex
tasks that need more than one or two workers.
The work environment and all the varied forms of protective equipment and
clothing can also affect the amount of time necessary to perform a specific task
(i.e. worker efficiency). Job planning includes an evaluation of the duration of a job
and the consequent dose with and without protective clothing, protective equipment
(such as respiratory protection) and engineering controls (such as portable ventilation
to reduce the ambient temperature). Consideration needs to be given to the estimated
dose associated with setting up any portable equipment as well as to the doses that
workers are expected to receive in performing a task. In general it is found that the
use of protective clothing increases the time taken to do a job and hence the dose due
to external exposure. It will, however, reduce the internal exposure or the probability
28
of internal exposure, for which the estimation of doses is less reliable. The outcome
of optimization includes an appropriate choice of protective clothing with all these
considerations taken into account.
4.3.2.1. Example 14: Factors that increase exposure time
Poor working conditions might significantly increase the time spent by workers
in radiation areas. In a study to quantify the effect on the exposure time of certain
working conditions associated with maintenance jobs in nuclear power plants, it was
shown, for example, that inadequate lighting of a work area, noisy conditions in areas
without the use of audio links between workers or congestion can increase the
exposure time by up to 20% over that for work performed with adequate lighting or
in an open area.
Analyses of routine maintenance and post-incidental operations in nuclear
power plants have shown that mishaps or poor working conditions could increase
the exposure time associated with these operations by 20 to 30% on average.
The main causes of mishaps were identified as an inadequate preparation of work
(e.g. scaffoldings not appropriate for the situation, schedule problems), wrong or
malfunctioning tools and lack of training.
The working time and the quality of work may be highly influenced by the use
of protective clothing and equipment. A study performed with mock-ups showed that
the effect of wearing protective clothing on the working time depends upon the type
of protective suit worn and may vary with the type of work to be performed. For
example, for precise work performed in a congested area the use of a rubber overall
suit with an air supplied hood can increase the working time by up to 30% over that
for the same task performed in a cotton overall. For the same task the use of rubber
overalls and an air supplied full face mask, which provides the same level of
protection against internal contamination but which is much more cumbersome, may
increase the necessary working time by up to 65%. This example shows that the
selection of protective clothing needs to take into account the ergonomic factors that
relate to the tasks to be performed (such as the level of effort, the need for precision
or the duration of the task). The use of protective clothing and the working procedure
should also be considered in designing the tools to be used.
4.3.3. Reducing the number of workers necessary
The number of personnel involved in a job can be optimized by eliminating the

use of unnecessary personnel and using only the minimum number of personnel
necessary to complete the task. As with time reduction, this needs to be done without
reducing the quality of the desired output and without compromising the safety of
personnel. Unnecessary personnel can be defined as those personnel who do not
29
perform any defined task. Personnel who perform observations or tasks that do not
necessitate physical contact or immediacy with the component concerned or area in
which the work takes place can be removed from the immediate radiation area to an
area with a lower level of radiation. These individuals can be called upon to perform
their task quickly and can then return to the lower radiation level area. The use of
remote video, audio and dosimetric telemetry, if available, can eliminate the need for
those workers assigned to observation tasks. Work planning can also help, for
example by having a person complete more than one task while in an area or while
dressed in the appropriate protective clothing.
4.3.4. Reducing dose rates
Methods for reducing dose rates differ depending upon the application and the
environment within the facility concerned. Facilities with piping systems that contain
radioactive fluids can have dose rates that change with system conditions and which
could lead to high area dose rates around the piping system in general, high dose rates
at specific locations (hot spots) or both. These high dose rates can be controlled and
minimized and possibly reduced to zero by such methods as applying controls on the
system chemistry, filtration, ion exchange and flushing.
Other methods for achieving substantial reductions in dose rates in reactor
environments are methods such as improving the water chemistry, modifying
shutdown procedures and the use of zinc injection. In the medical area changes in
procedures, such as changing from direct to afterloading brachytherapy, can
significantly reduce dose rates for workers. These methods are more related to the
running of a facility as a whole, but serve to illustrate the importance of the
involvement of senior management in the optimization process.
If a room, area or component is highly contaminated the contamination could
contribute to the dose rates in the local or general area and result in higher doses to
workers. Decontamination of the component or area concerned could reduce dose
rates. In order to ensure optimization, the doses received in the decontamination
process need to be offset against the doses averted.
Temporary shielding can effectively reduce radiation levels in various
applications. All tasks subject to high dose levels need to be evaluated for the
effectiveness of installing temporary shielding. An evaluation should be
performed to investigate the benefits of installing temporary shielding in terms of
reduced dose rates. The basis for this evaluation includes the estimated doses that
the workers will receive in performing the job both with and without shielding.
The difference between these estimated doses is compared with
the doses that would be received in installing and removing the temporary
shielding. If the reduction in the doses to be realized by installing the shielding
does not exceed the doses received in the installation of the shielding, then the
30
shielding need not be installed. This evaluation should also take into account any
possible averted doses that would otherwise have been received in the course of
other work being performed in the vicinity of the shielding proposed to be
installed.
The design of temporary shielding needs to be carefully considered in order to
adapt it as much as possible to the configuration of the work area. In some cases it
may be necessary to check that the installation of shielding does not reduce the work
space in such a way that it may significantly increase the duration of subsequent work
and thus the period of exposure of workers.
In addition to jobs in which doses are potentially high, areas with lower
radiation levels but which are frequently accessed should also be evaluated for the use
of temporary shielding. Examples of such areas include walkways and other areas of
general access where people assemble or through which people pass. These are
circumstances in which, although the installation of temporary shielding would seem
to be beneficial, it may not be possible to quantify the averted doses. The shielding
should be installed as close to the source as is practicable. The closer the shielding is
to the source, the more effective it will be at reducing dose rates. It will also minimize
the amount of shielding needed.
The use of personal protective equipment is a means of reducing doses that can
be considered when other controls cannot reduce doses reasonably. The reduction in
efficiency needs to be taken into account, as noted in Section 4.3.3. There may well
be little loss of efficiency in, for example, the use of lead aprons in diagnostic and
interventional radiology.
The orientation of a worker’s body in relation to the location and orientation of
the radiation source can result in higher dose rates for the worker than may be
necessary. The worker needs to understand the origin and direction (if applicable) of
the radiation. Provided that the radiation field is non-uniform, the individual needs to
position himself or herself in such a way that the most exposed sensitive organs are
in the areas of lowest dose rates, thus reducing doses. This is particularly applicable
in the handling of medical sources and in applications of radiography.
Long handled tools and remotely operated tools are also effective in reducing a
worker’s dose (see the example in Section 4.3.4.1). The basic measure of increasing
the distance from a radiation source can also significantly reduce doses.
4.3.4.1. Example 15: Long handled tools
Long handled tools include poles with hooks for lifting a highly radioactive
filter out of a filter housing and into a shielded cask and poles with grappling devices
for handling highly radioactive devices under water. Poles used in underwater
applications should be perforated to allow water to pass through them, which will
prevent radiation passing along the pole to the worker handling the tool.
31
4.3.5. Specialized training
In addition to general training, specialized training can also help to reduce

exposure in the optimization process. Specialized training can be conducted in
various ways. It can be conducted as a second phase of basic training that provides
greater detail and hence could allow greater responsibilities for workers. Specialized
training can also include such subjects as the handling and control of radiography
sources or medical diagnostic sources. Specialized training will be commensurate
with the workers’ risks and should be given prior to the performance of any job in
which exposure could be high.
Mock-up training and exercises are effective in that they allow workers to
practice tasks without the associated risk. Individuals can perform a walk through or
dry run that can help to find any problems. This will also help to identify any
shortcomings in either the individuals’ skills or the tools that may be used to perform
the task. This training could thus help to reduce the time needed to perform the task
as well as to prevent possible errors. The most effective mock-up training reproduces
the actual conditions, such as poor lighting, heat or poor ventilation, of the work
environment. Additionally, workers need to wear all the protective clothing and
respiratory equipment that is necessary to perform the task.
Other forms of specialized training can include time and motion studies,
which help to find any problems specific to the task to be performed. This can also
include a study of the worker’s body orientation to help to reduce the whole body
dose.
5. DEFINING AND IMPLEMENTING AN ALARA PLAN
The next step after an assessment of the programme and identification of all the
actions that could be taken to reduce exposure is to decide which means of reducing
exposure will be used, and to establish an implementation plan. There are actions that
will be obvious and that can be implemented in the short term. Some actions may
need more long term planning, however. In either case, the implementation of the plan
needs to be systematic and sustained.
The range of actions can vary from policy actions taken at a high level in a
nuclear power utility for managing large works to a specific action such as installing
temporary shielding for a particular task. In many cases, particularly for actions that
deal directly with human factors (e.g. actions for communication, awareness,
education), the decision to implement these actions is straightforward and should be
an integral part of the routine daily management of the programmes for radiation
protection and optimization.
32
Whatever the size of a facility, it is necessary to identify the individual or group
responsible for the overall co-ordination of efforts of the optimization programme.
This responsible individual or group should also be given the authority and necessary
support to carry out the duties to implement the ALARA plan.
5.1. GLOBAL COMPONENTS
Prior to discussing the detailed plans and job specific aspects of the
implementation plan, the global or common aspects of an optimization plan need to
be discussed. Elements that are common to the most basic optimization programmes
include work management, the education of workers of the basic principles of
radiation protection and optimization, raising awareness on the part of the workforce
of the optimization process and the features of an effective communication process.
Good work management includes an evaluation of the radiological conditions
at the time a specific task is scheduled to be performed. Opportunities may exist
where specific tasks can be performed at another time, when radiological conditions
are less hazardous. The general education of workers is a primary element of the
experience of radiation work on which other elements of training and experience can
be built.
Awareness on the part of workers of the optimization process and of the
existence of an effective communication process in an optimization programme
mutually reinforce one another. Without one it is unlikely that the other could exist.
Effective communication and awareness on the part of workers is accomplished
through open dialogue within and between all levels of management and the
workforce. Successful implementation of an ALARA plan is also dependent on the
level of commitment from all personnel at the facility concerned.
Support from and involvement of senior management is imperative for several
reasons. Management needs to be aware of the needs and the progress of various
exposure reduction activities in order to make informed decisions. The commitment
of workers to the optimization process will increase as the commitment of
management increases. Furthermore, involving managers in the optimization process
will raise their awareness of issues that are difficult to resolve at lower levels. Senior
managers can be involved through various means, either as part of an oversight
committee or singly, depending on the size of the facility concerned or as the situation
warrants (see the example in Section 5.1.1).
All related work groups (those receiving occupational radiation doses) need to
be involved in the optimization process. A particular work group’s level of
involvement needs to be commensurate with the level of dose received by that group.
Those groups that are able to influence the exposure conditions should also be
involved. Task assignment and accountability concerning execution of the plan at the
33
level of basic tasks will facilitate the management of the plan. Individuals should be
given task assignments in their respective area of expertise as it pertains to
optimization. Responsibility and accountability are critical in this part of the process.
Routine follow-up meetings should report the status and progress of the assigned
action items and responsibilities.
5.1.1. Example 16: Creation of specific ALARA management structures
In some facilities it may be useful to create specific ALARA management

structures to facilitate the co-ordination and implementation of actions. These
structures may include:
— An ALARA committee. This committee is responsible for approving and

reviewing the ALARA plan. It meets periodically to review the performance of
the facility concerned in relation to radiation protection, to evaluate suggestions
for reducing doses and to make recommendations to higher management.
Members are generally selected to provide a wide range of technical
backgrounds to the committee and to ensure that the various work groups are
represented.
— An ALARA co-ordinator (or ALARA group). This co-ordinator (or group)
verifies that the decisions taken by the ALARA committee are implemented. He
or she is also the designated contact person between the workforce and
management for discussing radiation protection issues. When a group is created
it is usually composed of engineers, health physicists and technicians, and is in
charge of performing a detailed analysis of jobs suitable for ALARA.
5.2. ANALYSIS AND SELECTION OF JOB SPECIFIC OPTIONS

FOR DOSE REDUCTION
5.2.1. Analysis of options
When the decisions concerning the implementation of some job specific means
to reduce exposure are not straightforward, it is necessary to assess the actions more
precisely in terms of the effectiveness of dose reduction, relative costs and feasibility
of implementation in a given time frame (short or medium term). This evaluation
needs to be done especially when several options for dose reduction are envisaged for
performing one specific job in order to select the most appropriate ones, or when
various combinations of dose reduction options are envisaged and will affect groups
of jobs.
34
An evaluation of the effectiveness of the options should be looked at in terms
of the net collective dose, taking into account dose savings and possible dose
increases when the options give rise to trade offs in doses between workers.
Depending on the exposure situations, such as the collective dose savings per job, per
group of jobs, per category of workers for a given job or group of jobs, per year or for
the lifetime of the facility, several estimations can be made. At the beginning of an
analysis those indicators are selected that are the most relevant for the optimization
study under consideration.
Depending on the conditions of exposure, it might also be necessary to analyse
the evolution of the annual individual dose distributions according to the options for
dose reduction. This factor is particularly important at the design stage of facilities or
when the options may significantly modify the annual level of individual doses for a
given category of worker (see the example in Section 3.1.1.2).
An evaluation of the options for dose reduction should include a quantification
of the investment and operational costs generated by their implementation. The level
of detail applied in the cost evaluation should, however, be commensurate with the
global cost at stake. Cost estimates should be expressed as a net cost, in consideration
not only of the cost increase engendered by the options but also of the possible
savings in terms of the reduction of operational costs (see the example in Section
5.2.1.1). Specific attention needs to be paid to including the estimations of the indirect
costs generated by the implementation of the options (for example waste management
costs induced by decontamination).
Whatever their level of detail, the cost estimates should be expressed in the
same time units as the dose savings. For example, dose savings calculated on an
annual basis need to be put into perspective with annual costs. In the same way, for
job related dose savings costs need to be calculated per job.
5.2.1.1. Example 17: Identification of cost savings
Cost savings can be obtained by means of reducing the duration of a task and
the number of workers, reducing salary costs, reducing costs due to the interruption
of the main activities of the facility concerned or reducing the purchasing and waste
costs associated with the use of protective suits.
A reduction in the levels of individual doses may allow a category of workers
to perform other jobs during the year without reaching the individual dose limit. In
such cases it would be considered that ‘replacement’ costs are saved; that is, all the
costs that would be generated by the need to train, educate and employ other workers
so that they can perform the same jobs. Another aspect is the benefit of retaining
experienced teams that know the jobs better than a new team that has not previously
performed the jobs concerned.
35
5.2.2. Selection of options to be implemented
One important element in the decision making process is to identify clearly the
framework in which the decision has to be taken; that is, the financial constraints
(i.e. the existence of a specific budget for the reduction of doses, an overall budget for
the facility), the technical or time constraints (i.e. the time available before
performing a job compared with the time necessary to implement or develop another
option) and, at the design stage, individual dose constraints. In some cases there may
be a need to consider whether specific maximum individual dose levels have been
fixed for the job. The identification of those constraints gives rise to the setting of a
defined set of clear decision criteria, which favours the coherence and openness of
decision making and efficiency in the allocation of resources for protection.
When the selection of an option is not obvious or too complex, when several
options could be implemented or when a major investment could be necessary,
decision aiding techniques can help to clarify the decision (see Annex I). When
quantifiable factors are considered, cost–benefit analysis or other quantitative
techniques can be used. These techniques rely on the use of a monetary value of the
unit of the collective dose (the so-called ‘alpha value’, or ‘monetary value of the man-
sievert’), which represents ‘how much money is it agreed to spend in order to avert
one unit of the collective dose’. This reference value is a tool that, in the decision
making process, helps to classify the options as a function of their cost effectiveness
ratio and increases the openness and reduces the subjectivity of the decision. (See
Annex III for the determination and use of the alpha value.)
In some cases it may not be possible to quantify all the factors involved or to
express them in commensurate units. It may also be difficult to make the balance
between collective and individual doses, or savings in dose and increases in amounts of
waste, or to take account of broader social factors. For such situations it may be useful
to utilize qualitative decision aiding techniques such as multicriteria analysis.
Decision makers need to keep in mind that decision aiding techniques do not
necessarily provide the definitive answer, or the only possible solution, or an
obligation to implement all of the cost effective options. These techniques need to be
seen as tools to help in approaching problems in order to compare the relative
effectiveness of the various possible options for protection, and to help identify all
relevant factors and to include them in decision making. They can also help in the
presentation of options to senior management.
5.3. MONITORING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF AN ALARA PLAN
In view of the need for continuity and the long term application of ALARA
concepts, it is necessary to monitor the effectiveness of the implementation of an
36
ALARA plan in all its aspects. ALARA plans have both global, long term
components and more job specific and directed aspects, so the monitoring and
feedback need to cover both. The effect of some elements, such as the general level
of education of the workers and the raising of awareness, are difficult to monitor in
isolation. What is needed for these elements are global indicators, such as trends in
individual doses, in collective doses and in the frequency and severity of accidents
or incidents. By contrast, the effectiveness of those parts of the plan that deal with
specific jobs can be directly checked and documented. Record keeping and
documentation will ensure that data are available for subsequent reviews and
refinements of the ALARA plan.
Since the objective of the optimization of radiological protection is to reduce
individual and collective doses, the most relevant indicator is the dose (collective or
individual). The effectiveness of an ALARA plan, in a global sense, can be graded on
the basis of the level of the reduction of individual and collective doses. While a
downward trend in doses is always desirable, it does not necessarily indicate that an
ALARA plan is successful.
There are other factors, such as water chemistry in a nuclear power plant, that
can affect doses. It is necessary, therefore, to collect and evaluate all the data to
explain any trend in exposure. Success and the need for improvement can be easily
and routinely monitored through the use of indicators, as described in Section 3.1.2.
This monitoring should include trend analysis, so that any favourable or adverse
trends can be noted and explained.
The effectiveness of an ALARA plan can be further monitored by means of
feedback from individuals or groups by any formal or informal process of
communication (i.e. post-job reviews, suggestions concerning ALARA). The
information received by means of this process can be used to monitor the overall
attitude of the workforce as well as to provide a measure of its awareness of and
commitment to the optimization process (i.e. a measure of the development of an
ALARA culture).
According to the size of the facility concerned and the amount of feedback
received from workers, these suggestions should be documented and tracked as for
the action items assigned in the plan implementation process, as discussed in Section
5.1. This will also provide an opportunity to provide information to the workforce on
the status of these suggestions, which will improve awareness and enable workers to
see the results of their efforts to reduce exposure.
The results of an ALARA plan should be addressed in reports generated by
periodic review (perhaps a quarterly status report). Reviews should include
comparisons of the exposures for repetitive jobs from one iteration to another, as well
as comparisons with the results achieved at similar facilities elsewhere in the industry
(benchmarking). Representatives from both management and the work groups should
be involved in the review process.
37
This review process should further be used to evaluate and analyse performance
such that corrective actions can be specified to address any adverse trends. Corrective
actions should be incorporated into the implementation plan and would be a part of
the developing culture of the optimization of protection. Corrective actions should be
clearly presented as the responsibility of the affected groups, and the resolution of
problems and the development of methods to improve performance should be an
expectation of senior management. This reinforces the concept of accountability. As
successful results are achieved, periodic reviews will also help to identify those
means that need to be continued or any new means that may be introduced to improve
the process of reducing exposures.
6. CONCLUSIONS
It is often stated that the main emphasis in radiation protection is on the

optimization of protection. This phrase, however, does not readily bring to mind what
actually needs to be done in the workplace to implement optimization. In this Safety
Report an attempt has been made to demystify the concept by describing in direct
terms what is to be done to carry out an optimization process and to free the way of
thinking that is the foundation of optimization from excessive reliance on analytical
techniques such as cost–benefit analysis, as these techniques are merely tools. In
order to do this the acronym ALARA has been used in this Safety Report as it brings
to mind the twin concepts of dose reduction and reasonableness.
In describing a general approach to optimization considerable attention has
been paid to the full and systematic evaluation of the radiological conditions in a
workplace. This analysis is crucial as it forms the basis for understanding what needs
to be done, what can be done and what are the available approaches to getting it done.
It also documents the starting conditions so that the effectiveness of the
implementation of an ALARA plan can be monitored.
The other main component of this Safety Report is a general review of the
means that are likely to be available in most workplaces to reduce exposure. These
are divided into global means, which can be applied throughout an organization, and
those that are more job specific. Some of these global means are no more than would
be expected in any well managed organization, such as an application of effective and
efficient procedures for the management of work and provision for the education and
training of workers. A well managed and effective organization that pays due regard
to the safety of its workers will recognize the benefits of these means without the
application of a complex decision analysis. There are, however, situations in which
the optimization of protection with respect to particular jobs is needed. In many of
these cases it will still be clear that measures to reduce doses can be taken with little
38
cost or even with savings through increased efficiency, or conversely that in other
cases the necessary allocation of resources would be disproportionate to the dose
reductions. Nevertheless, there will be some cases in which it will not be obvious how
much it is appropriate to do to reduce doses in a cost effective manner; some form of
decision aiding technique can be helpful in such cases.
The outcome of an evaluation and analysis of options for improvement results
in what has been called in this Safety Report an ALARA plan. This is a combination
of short term and long term or continuing actions. The effectiveness of an ALARA
plan depends on commitment on the part of the management and workforce, which is
fostered by the participation of both groups in the ALARA plan’s formulation.
Monitoring the effectiveness of an ALARA plan provides the necessary feedback for
sustaining appropriate attitudes to ALARA throughout an organization in the longer
term.
The approach described in this Safety Report is intended to be general and has
therefore been expressed in broad terms. The examples given are intended to show
how the approach can be and has been applied in different circumstances. The
application will be at a different level of detail for a large facility or a small company,
but in all cases the general approach set out can be adopted and applied for the benefit
of radiation workers, managers and their organizations.
REFERENCES

ORGANISATION, OECD NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY, PAN AMERICAN
HEALTH ORGANIZATION, WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, Radiation
Protection and the Safety of Radiation Sources, Safety Series No. 120, IAEA, Vienna
(1996).
HEALTH ORGANIZATION, WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, International
Radiation Sources, Safety Series No. 115, IAEA, Vienna (1996).
[3] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Operational Radiation Protection:
A Guide to Optimization, Safety Series No. 101, IAEA, Vienna (1990).
[4] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Intervention Criteria in a Nuclear or
Radiation Emergency, Safety Series No. 109, IAEA, Vienna (1994).
[5] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, PAN AMERICAN HEALTH
ORGANIZATION, WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, Radiological Protection for
39
Medical Exposure to Ionizing Radiation, Safety Standards Series No. RS-G-1.5, IAEA,
Vienna (in press).
Cost–Benefit Analysis in the Optimisation of Radiation Protection, ICRP Publica-
tion 37, Pergamon Press, Oxford and New York (1983).
Optimization and Decision-Making in Radiological Protection, Publication No. 55,
Pergamon Press, Oxford and New York (1989).
[8] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, General
Principles for the Radiation Protection of Workers, Publication 75, Pergamon Press,
Oxford and New York (1997).
[9] OECD NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY, Work Management in the Nuclear Power
Industry: A Manual prepared for the NEA Committee on Radiation Protection and
Public Health by the Information System on Occupational Exposure (ISOE) Expert
Group on the Impact of Work Management on Occupational Exposure, OECD, Paris
(1997).
[10] COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES, ALARA: From Theory
Towards Practice, Rep. EUR-13796, CEC, Luxembourg (1991).
[11] NATIONAL COUNCIL ON RADIATION PROTECTION AND MEASUREMENTS,
Dose Control at Nuclear Power Plants, NCRP Rep. No. 120, NCRP, Bethesda, MD (1994).
[12] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, INTERNATIONAL LABOUR
OFFICE, Occupational Radiation Protection, Safety Standards Series No. RS-G-1.1,
IAEA, Vienna (1999).
OFFICE, Assessment of Occupational Exposure Due to External Sources of Radiation,
Safety Standards Series No. RS-G-1.3, IAEA, Vienna (1999).
OFFICE, Assessment of Occupational Exposure Due to Intakes of Radionuclides, Safety
Standards Series No. RS-G-1.2, IAEA, Vienna (1999).
Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection, ICRP
[16] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, 1990
Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection, ICRP
[17] UNITED KINGDOM HEALTH AND SAFETY EXECUTIVE, Report on the
Development of Guidance on the Establishment of Dose Constraints for Occupational
Exposure, National Radiological Protection Board, Didcot (1997).
[18] OECD NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY, Considerations on the Concept of Dose
Constraint: Report by a Joint Group of Experts from the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency
and the European Commission, OECD, Paris (1996).
[19] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, A
Compilation of the Major Concepts and Quantities in Use by ICRP, ICRP Publica-
tion 42, Pergamon Press, Oxford and New York (1984).
40
[20] OECD NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY, INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY
AGENCY, Occupational Exposures at Nuclear Power Plants, Tenth Annual Report of the
Information System on Occupational Exposure (ISOE) Programme, 2000, OECD, Paris
(2001).
[21] UNITED NATIONS, Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation (Report to the General
Assembly), Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR), UN,
New York (2000).
41
Annex I
DECISION AIDING TECHNIQUES
I–1. INTRODUCTION
Although it is not the purpose of this Safety Report to discuss decision aiding
techniques, this short annex gives sufficient information such that the references in
the text to such techniques of different types are understandable. To apply the
techniques in practice it will be necessary to consult the references for more detail.
An essential component of the ICRP’s approach to optimization has been to
quantify the optimization studies, wherever this can be done. In earlier publications
[I–1, I–2] the technique recommended is cost–benefit analysis. In Ref. [I–3]
cost–benefit analysis is given as an example of a technique, but other techniques are
also developed and recommended for use. Practical guidance on the application of
these techniques has been given [I–4, I–5]. The result of the application of any
quantitative decision aiding technique is called the analytical solution. In reaching a
recommendation for an optimum, however, this has to be combined with a qualitative
assessment of the performance with respect to the other radiological protection factors.
The result of this combination is then fed into the final decision making process.
Of the different techniques available, four are described in Ref. [I–3]; these are
cost effectiveness analysis, cost–benefit analysis, multiattribute utility analysis and
multicriteria outranking analysis. An essential point that is not always recognized is
that it is the specification of the radiological protection factors and the criteria to be
used in the analysis that determines the outcome, not the technique chosen. If it is
decided that only two factors are relevant, for example the cost and collective dose,
then a simple technique such as cost–benefit analysis will give an analytical solution
that directly indicates the optimum. The application of a more complex technique to
such a simple problem is superfluous, but if it were done then the same analytical
solution and optimum choice would result. If, however, it is decided that a number of
factors are relevant, and especially if some are difficult to quantify, then a simple
technique will only deal with some of the factors and the analytical solution does not
indicate the optimum; it has to be combined with a qualitative assessment of the
options with respect to the remaining factors before the optimum can be found. This
combination of quantitative and qualitative inputs to the decision on an optimum is
something that has not always been clearly recognized.
Although cost effectiveness analysis has been used, it only enables the selection
of an option that either minimizes the collective dose for a fixed protection cost or
minimizes the protection cost for a specified collective dose saving. However, neither
of these cost effectiveness procedures corresponds to the optimization of protection,
43
since they do not involve the fundamental trade off between the cost of protection and
the dose.
I–2. COST–BENEFIT ANALYSIS
The next stage up from cost effectiveness analysis is cost–benefit analysis. This
is an old technique and was the first technique to be introduced by the ICRP in the
context of optimization. The focus of the technique is on aggregated monetary
measures of costs and benefits associated with options, the objective being to identify
the option having the minimum total cost. This can be carried out either by a total cost
analysis or by a differential analysis. These are only different mathematical
techniques.
In the early publications of the ICRP a simple formulation of cost–benefit
analysis was derived. In this, the only factors deemed to be directly relevant for
optimization were the financial costs of implementing protective measures and the
associated levels of collective dose. In these circumstances a simple cost–benefit
analysis can be carried out by transforming the collective dose into a monetary value
using a reference value of unit collective dose, generally denoted as the alpha value.
The derivation of this value is described in Annex III.
The analysis then proceeds by adding the cost of protection X and the derived
cost of the detriment Y (= aS) in order to obtain a total cost X + Y. The externally
specified criterion needed to obtain the figures is the value of unit collective dose, a.
The total cost for each option represents a figure of merit and the analytical solution
corresponds to the option that minimizes the total cost.
However, this analytical solution only deals with two factors, namely the
cost and collective dose, so that, in moving from this analytical solution to a
recommended optimum option any other factors have to be considered in a
qualitative fashion.
I–3. EXTENDED COST–BENEFIT ANALYSIS
The cost–benefit analysis technique considered above is strictly limited to

quantitative comparisons between protection costs and the collective dose. However,
the cost–benefit analysis framework can in principle be extended. One possible
extension is to cover the individual dose distribution. One of the radiological
protection factors regarded as relevant is whether the individual doses are high or low.
This can be expressed as a difference between a collective dose arising from a large
number of low individual doses and the same collective dose delivered to a smaller
population receiving higher doses. One method of incorporating this judgement is to
44
modify the value assigned to the unit collective dose by adding an extra term to the
cost of detriment. This new component of detriment cost has been expressed by the
ICRP in Refs [I–2, I–3] as a beta term. The detriment Y is then defined as:
Y = a S + bj Sj
where
bj is the additional value assigned to the unit collective dose,

Sj is a function of the level of the individual dose among the group of workers
concerned.
By applying this formula it is possible to assess the cost of detriment as the sum
of the alpha term, the collective dose and the beta terms, and the individual dose
distribution being taken into account. The inclusion of an allowance for the individual
dose distribution leads to an increase in the cost of the detriment Y and modifies the
total cost for each option. However, other relevant factors may still be omitted from
the quantitative analysis and need to be included in a qualitative fashion.
I–4. MULTIATTRIBUTE UTILITY ANALYSIS
Cost–benefit analysis is powerful but it is also possible to utilize a different kind

of technique, different not in its fundamentals but in the way that it deals with the
factors involved. This technique is known as multiattribute utility analysis. The
essence of the technique is to use a scoring scheme called a utility function for the
relevant factors, with the property that if the score or the utility is the same for two
options then there is no preference for one or the other. An option is preferred if it
scores higher than the other.
In Ref. [I–4] an everyday example was used to introduce the idea of
multiattribute utility analysis and how quantifiable and non-quantifiable factors are
used together with judgemental processes in reaching a decision. In buying a car we
assess such factors as the price, the cost of maintenance and the efficiency in terms of
fuel consumption. These could be included quite easily if we were to carry out a
cost–benefit analysis, possibly within an overall constraint such as how much money
we have available. However, in assessing other factors, such as the desired
acceleration or top speed, the colour of the paint or the quality of the sound system,
cost–benefit analysis is not so easy to apply. Nonetheless, we recognize all of these
as factors in the decision, we score each option — each potential car — according to
our own attitude towards the factor, and then we trade off between the factors using
our own personal criteria. The studies made by each of us would use the same
45
database — the characteristics of the different cars — but the decisions we reach may
differ because of our individual attitudes to the factors and our own criteria for trading
off one factor against another. For example, one person might attach more weight to
fuel economy and acceleration, whereas another might attach more weight to the
choice of colour or to the quality of the sound system. The final decision will, of
course, depend upon the judgement of the decision maker.
In applying multiattribute utility analysis it is necessary to specify the
radiological protection factors and to quantify the consequences of each protection
option in terms of these factors; in other words, to carry out the same initial procedure
as for a cost–benefit analysis. It is then necessary to generate for each factor a utility
function that gives the relative desirability of the possible outcomes for this factor.
Generally the best outcome or the lowest adverse consequence for each factor is
assigned a utility of 1 and the worst consequence a utility of 0.
A major advantage of this technique is that these utility functions need not
necessarily be linear. This enables variations in attitude with the magnitude of
consequence to be introduced into the quantitative decision making process. It is also
possible to use the technique of multiattribute utility analysis to include the factors
not normally regarded as quantifiable by assigning utility functions to the various
values of the factor. For example, if some options necessitate protective clothing,
those will have an impact on the ease of carrying out tasks. The maxi-mum utility
value of 1 is clearly assigned to the option not involving protective clothing, and the
minimum utility value of 0 to the option in which it is difficult to work.
I–5. MULTICRITERIA OUTRANKING ANALYSIS
All of the techniques considered so far are aggregative techniques, in that they
combine all of the attributes that represent the relevant factors that influence a
decision into a single figure of merit, whether this is a total cost, as in cost–benefit
analysis, or a total utility function, as in multiattribute utility analysis. However, in
order to carry out this aggregation there are two conditions to be satisfied. Firstly, it
is necessary for all the factors to be commensurable, so that the total value that is
finally assigned adequately expresses the contribution to the consequences for each
of the factors involved. Secondly, the decision maker needs to accept that a poor
performance on one factor can be compensated for by better performances on other
factors, and that such trade offs are acceptable over the full range of consequences
that arise from all the options for protection that are being considered.
These two conditions may give some difficulties if the factors being considered
are heterogeneous or if they can be evaluated only in a qualitative manner.
Alternatively, where some consequences of options for protection are rather extreme,
it may be judged that the trade off is not acceptable over the full range of
46
consequences. In these circumstances a technique that deals differently with the range
of consequences could be more useful. Such a technique will not be described further
here, but is included in Ref. [I–3] as an example of a different approach to the
optimization of radiological protection.
REFERENCES TO ANNEX I
[I–1] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION,

Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection,
[I–2] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, Cost-
Benefit Analysis in the Optimisation of Radiation Protection, Publication 37, Pergamon
Press, Oxford and New York (1983).
[I–3] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION,
Optimization and Decision-Making in Radiological Protection, Publication 55,
Pergamon Press, Oxford and New York (1988).
[I–4] COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES, ALARA: From Theory
Towards Practice, Rep. EUR 13796, CEC, Luxembourg (1991).
[I–5] NATIONAL COUNCIL ON RADIATION PROTECTION AND MEASUREMENTS,
Dose Control at Nuclear Power Plants, NCRP Rep. No. 120, NCRP, Bethesda, MD
(1994).
47
Annex II
ALARA CHECKLISTS
Checklists are useful tools for meeting the needs of an optimization

programme; their uses are varied. Among their uses are that they can be used as
agendas for job planning or post-job review meetings and that they can be distributed
to workers to provoke thought for a process of information feedback. There are a
variety of checklists; it is likely that they will vary depending on the type and size of
the facility concerned. Included in this annex are specific examples from a typical
nuclear power plant in the United States of America and some checklists developed
by the Centre d’étude sur l’évaluation de la protection dans le domaine nucléaire
(CEPN), France.
48
TABLE II–I. US REACTOR CHECKLIST 1: ALARA JOB PLANNING CHECK-
LIST. RADIOACTIVE WORK ORDER REVIEW
Pre-job review questions Yes No NAa Comments
1. Has the job history been reviewed? (a) If no, have

plans been made to start or improve files during this
job? (b) Will the use of photographs or videotapes
be helpful? If yes, indicate by name who will take
photographs and/or videotapes.
2. Have job interferences been identified (i.e. anything

that may hold up work progress unnecessarily)?
3. Is the job a high risk or first time evolution?
4. Will special training or mock-up training be

required? If yes, indicate schedule, location and
type.
5. Will remote handling devices or monitoring be

utilized? If yes, specify.
6. Does all the work need to be performed in a radiation

area or airborne area? Specifically, can the
component(s) be moved to a lower dose area? Has
prefabrication outside the radiation area been
considered for the new components being installed?
7. Can area dose rates be reduced through the use of

shielding or system flushing (to remove the source)?
8. Have alternate work methods been identified for

exposure reduction potential? If yes, what alternate
methods were identified?
9. Will the job necessitate a radioactive system breach?
10. Has a tool list been developed and verified to be

accurate?
11. Will special tools be needed? If yes, what type and

are they staged?
12. Will the job generate radioactive waste? If yes,

what type (e.g. liquid, dry active waste, metal)
and approximate volume?
13. Have job site communication requirements been

determined? If yes, describe.
49
TABLE II–I. (cont.)
14. Has the work area been reviewed for environmental

conditions and restrictions? Describe any limiting
conditions or restrictions.
15. Has the word order and procedure been reviewed

to identify radiation protection hold points
(i.e. work steps that could result in the radiological
conditions changing)?
16. Has a list of available, qualified members of the

work crew been reviewed to ensure distribution of
the crew’s doses?
a NA: not applicable.
TABLE II–II. US REACTOR CHECKLIST 2: RADIATION PROTECTION

REVIEW

1. Is a job planning meeting needed?
2. Is a pre-job brief required?
3. Is an exposure budget and an exposure goal
established for the job?
4. Will component or area decontamination be performed?
5. Will temporary shielding be effective in reducing the
collective dose for the job? If yes, indicate temporary
shielding ratio in ‘comments’.
6. Are engineering controls for airborne radioactive
material planned?
7. Have low dose waiting areas been identified?
8. Has the use of respiratory protective equipment been
evaluated to determine its affect on the exposure
estimate if used?
50
TABLE II–III. US REACTOR CHECKLIST 3: ALARA PRE-JOB BRIEFING
CHECKLIST
1. Describe a brief sequence of events.

2. Describe the work area from the list of concerns below:
(a) Radiological conditions at the start of the job;
(b) Potential radiological conditions and/or hazards as work progresses;
(c) Access routes to and from the work area;
(d) Identify low dose waiting areas for the staging of equipment
and/or support personnel;
(e) Environmental conditions and restrictions;
(f) Shielding concerns;
(g) Safety hazards (e.g. heat stress, confined space entry).
3. Describe the equipment and/or methods to be used to control the generation or spread
of contamination and to minimize the potential for airborne radioactive material.
4. Describe the housekeeping and system cleanness that precludes foreign materials
from entering open systems.
5. Describe the requirements, placement and use for dosimetry.
6. Describe requirements for protective clothing, equipment and respiratory protection.
7. Describe the dress and/or undress methods particular to this job.
8. Describe the techniques of volume reduction for radioactive waste and considerations
for special waste (e.g. oils, packing, filter, mixed waste) handling and generation.
9. Have all the action items identified on the ALARA job planning checklist been
completed? If no, what items remain and who has responsibility for their resolution?
10. Open the discussion to solicit comments and concerns of the work crew.
51
TABLE II–IV. US REACTOR CHECKLIST 4: ALARA POST-JOB DEBRIEFING
CHECKLIST
Post-job review questions Yes No NAa
1. Was a formal pre-job briefing conducted and documented?

2. Were necessary services ready and available when needed?
3. Did the specified tools meet the needs of the job?
4. Did the work progress as planned? If no, indicate why not.
5. Were job site communications satisfactory?
6. Was the work order and/or procedure adequate to perform
the work?
7. Were the environmental conditions conducive to smooth
progress of the work?
8. Was the amount of radioactive waste generated minimized?
9. Were controls adequate to contain contamination to the
work area?
10. If respiratory protection was used, were efforts made to
eliminate airborne radioactive material and preclude the
use of respirators?
11. Did radiological conditions reflect pre-job surveys?
12. Open the discussion for comments and offer the personnel
statement sheet. (Check all that apply.)
Was the scope of the job changed or extended?
Were difficulties encountered in scheduling and/or work
co-ordination?
Was there a failure of tools and/or equipment?
Were there wrong or unavailable parts and/or tools
and/or equipment?
Were there unplanned requirements for the preparation
of the job site?
Was there interruption and/or interference by other
work activities?
Were there inadequacies in work orders
and/or procedures?
Are the radiological conditions at the job site changed?
Was there inadequate compliance with radiological controls?
Was there inadequate consideration of good ALARA practices?
Was there inadequate shielding?
52
TABLE II–V. CEPN CHECKLIST 1: PRE-JOB REVIEW CHECKLIST
Yes No To be studied
Is there previous experience of similar operations?
Has it been taken into account?
I. Actions on sources
Before shutdown: chemical filtration?
Decontamination?
Is it possible to maintain water in circuits?
Removal of a highly radioactive material?
Other?
II. Protection
Biological shielding: is it fixed, mobile, integrated with
the machinery?
Against contamination: is a glovebox available?
Shielding?
Is shielding integrated with the tools?
Static containment?
Dynamic containment?
Sprinkling and drainage?
Adapted individual protection?
III. Volume of work under conditions of exposure
Is this an essential task?
Is the procedure optimal?
Is the task correctly scheduled?
Is the task to be executed entirely in an irradiated zone?
May some operators be moved to a distance?
Is the number of operators justified?
Is the distribution of work optimized?
Can doses be spread between operators?
Are there special tools for reducing doses?
Is there an opportunity for remote control or robotics?
Can clothing be modified to facilitate the work?
Is there an opportunity for improvement to ambient conditions
(e.g. temperature, lighting)?
Is there an opportunity for radio communications?
Is there an opportunity for televisual surveillance?
Is there an opportunity for easier access?
Is handling equipment available?
Are there adequate superstructures (e.g. scaffolding)?
Are there standing and procurement areas?
Are there procedures for packing equipment and packaging waste?
Are there procedures for the removal of material?
53
TABLE II–VI. CEPN CHECKLIST 2: FEEDBACK EXPERIENCE MEETING
GUIDE SHEET
Task:
Meeting participants:
All the questions must be answered as fully as possible so that the task might be assessed and
used as the basis for modifications during future work.
1. Were the tools and equipment required for the operation available at the right time?
2. Was the zone prepared and ready for your task on your arrival?
3. Were the protection measures suitable for the task executed in this zone?
4. How much time did you have to prepare the task? Was this long enough?
5. Did other tasks interfere with yours?
6. Was the work location kept clean and orderly so as to ease your work?
7. Was the full team aware of its exposure? Did you insist on this exposure being limited
as much as possible?
8. Was the entire team aware of the site dose targets? Was the team motivated?
9. Were there any problems of co-ordination with other specialities, other departments or
other workers?
10. What problems did you encounter that could have resulted in higher doses?
54
TABLE II–VII. CEPN CHECKLIST 3: CHECKLIST OF ACTIONS NOT TO BE
OMITTED — AUDIENCE: UTILITY AND CONTRACTOR MAINTENANCE
WORKERS
Yes No NAa
Planning
Do you know exactly what you have to do?
Do you know the route to your work?
Have you checked that your work will not interfere with
that of others?
Have you checked your tools before entering the zone?
Have you checked that no tools are missing and that all are in a
proper operating condition? Are the tools suitable for the
environment?
Environment
Are you aware of the exposure conditions of the work?
Dose rate?
Risks of contamination?
Positions of the main sources?
Doses expected?
Do you know what collective shielding is planned and how it
is to be positioned?
Do you know what respiratory protection equipment you must use?
Do you know where you are to work?
Do you know where the electrical outlets and utility connections are?
Do you know what the nearest fallback point is for studying your
work procedure sheet or waiting for another job to be completed?
If you do not know the answers to any of these questions, ask your team leader or the plant’s
radiological protection worker.
55
TABLE II–VIII. CEPN CHECKLIST 4: CHECKLIST OF ACTIONS NOT TO BE
OMITTED BEFORE OPENING A JOB SITE — AUDIENCE: TEAM LEADERS
Hold a briefing session with the team before entering the controlled zone.
In the briefing session, describe the work to be carried out.
In the briefing session, describe the place where the work is to be carried out and the best
route there in view of the radiological conditions (such as the locations of hot spots).
If necessary, describe any environmental constraints liable to complicate the use of tools and
execution of the work (e.g. space, lighting, scaffolding, biological shielding in place).
Indicate:
The provisional map
The risk of contamination
The protection provided and its location
The doses anticipated in performing the work
Indicate the fallback points.
Indicate how the work is scheduled relative to previous and
subsequent work at the same place.
If you lack any of this information, ask the job co-ordinator and/or the radiological
protection worker.
56
Annex III
MONETARY VALUE OF THE UNIT COLLECTIVE DOSE
III–1. INTRODUCTION
The optimization of radiation protection is aimed at finding an efficient

allocation of resources for protection in order to reduce doses ALARA, social
and economical factors being taken into account. An economic tool, represented
by the monetary value of the unit collective dose and the use of cost–benefit
analysis, has been developed to help decision making in the context of a limited
availability of resources for protection purposes and a decreasing efficiency of
investment in protection. The main objective of using this tool is to allow a greater
openness of decisions by introducing a certain rationality into the selection of
investments.
The attribution of a monetary value to dose savings by various options for
radiation protection is a means of defining how much money it is agreed to spend in
order to avert one unit of the collective dose, that is some potential radiation induced
health effects, given the resources available for protection purposes and the
characteristics of the exposure situations.
In using cost–benefit analysis three main data need to be distinguished:
— The monetary value of the man-sievert, which is an a priori defined reference

value.
— The protection cost associated with a specific option, which is the amount of
money that will be spent if the option is implemented.
— The implicit cost of the averted man-sievert associated with a specific option,
which is the ratio between dose savings and the cost of protection associated
with the option. This represents the cost of averting one man-sievert if the
option is implemented.
When the implicit cost of the averted man-sievert associated with an option is
well below the reference monetary value of the man-sievert, the option can be seen as
being reasonable in terms of cost effectiveness. If the implicit cost is greater than the
reference monetary value of the man-sievert, then, on the basis of the criterion of cost
effectiveness only, the option is not judged to be reasonable (since it costs more than
the amount that it has been agreed to spend to avert one unit of the collective dose).
In all cases, in the final decision on implementing the option other factors and criteria
will need to be taken into consideration.
57
It is necessary that the economic tool be used as a decision aiding tool
that allows the selection of protection options to be facilitated and structured in a
context of complex decision making. It should not be used alone in the decision
making process, but as part of a predefined set of decision criteria (e.g. technical,
political).
III–2. EVALUATION OF THE REFERENCE MONETARY VALUE

OF A MAN-SIEVERT
As mentioned above, the monetary value of a man-sievert is an a priori value

that indicates how much one is willing to pay in order to avert a collective dose of one
man-sievert. This value can be defined by various organizations. In most cases it is
defined directly by the facilities concerned as part of their decision making rules.
However, in some cases the national authorities for safety or radiation protection
make recommendations on the basic value to be used in the optimization process. In
all cases, though, the monetary value of a man-sievert is set by reference to the
potential health effects associated with the doses and resources available for the
purposes of protection in the facility or country concerned. If necessary, evaluation
can also include consideration of the level of individual doses or individual dose
distributions.
III–2.1. Dose–effect relationship and the monetary value of health effects
The main step in the determination of the monetary value of a man-sievert relies
on the consideration of the dose–effect relationship. It is thus the existence of a
potential health risk associated with any level of dose that justifies the willingness to
reduce doses ALARA. By adopting, as recommended by the ICRP [III–1], the
assumption of a non-threshold linear dose–effect relationship, the monetary value of
a man-sievert can be evaluated by multiplying the probability of developing a health
effect associated with a collective dose of one man-sievert by the monetary value of
the health effect. As health effects (cancers and hereditary effects) can be expressed
as a loss of life expectancy, their monetary value can be related to the monetary value
associated with one year of life. Two main methods can be used for the valuation of
the loss of life expectancy:
— The human capital approach, whereby the monetary value of one year of life
lost is given by an economic aggregate, usually the annual gross domestic
product per inhabitant (see the example in Section III–2.1.1);
— The willingness to pay approach, which uses contingent valuation surveys to
reveal an individuals’ preferences when a specific risk has to be reduced.
58
III–2.1.1. Example III–1: Calculation of the monetary value of a man-sievert using
the human capital approach
— Average loss of life expectancy associated with a radiation induced health effect
(fatal cancers and hereditary effects): 16 years.
— Gross domestic product per caput per year: US $22 400.
— Monetary value of a radiation induced health effect: US $22 400 × 16 =
US $358 400.
— Probability of the occurrence of a radiation induced health effect for workers:
5.6 × 10–2 Sv–1
— Monetary value of a man-sievert: US $358 400 × 5.6 × 10–2 ª US $20 000/
man·Sv.
III–2.2. How to take account of individual dose distributions
In Ref. [III–1] the ICRP emphasizes the need to take into consideration the
possible inequity in the individual dose distributions that could result from the
implementation of protection options. It follows that the objectives of the
optimization of radiation protection are to obtain a reduction of the individual and
collective doses, with priority given to the highest individual doses.
Applying these objectives to the monetary value of a man-sievert means that
one would accept paying more in order to avoid a unit of the collective dose when the
individual dose increases, and, moreover, that this increment of the monetary value of
a unit of the collective dose becomes increasingly important. Some models that allow
the determination of such an increasing value of a man-sievert have been developed
(see the example in Section III–2.2.1); these lead to a system of monetary values of a
man-sievert that depend upon the range of individual doses [III–2, III–3].
III–2.2.1. Example III–2: A model to determine a set of monetary values of a man-

sievert according to the level of individual doses
This model assumes that under a certain level of individual dose it is more
appropriate to assume a constant monetary value for the unit of the collective dose
[III–3]. Above this level the monetary value of a man-sievert increases with the level
of the individual dose, with account taken of the degree of aversion to the level of
dose.
This model is illustrated in Fig. III–1, where the ordinate is the monetary value
of the unit of the collective dose and the abscissa is the individual level of dose,
generally in terms of mean annual dose.
Proposed values for the model. In practice, in order to implement this model it
is necessary to give a value to three parameters: aBase, d0 and a:
59
Monetary value of the
unit of the collective dose
a Ref ( d ) = aBase for d < d 0
a Ref ( d ) = aBase (d/d0) a for d ≥ d 0
aBase
d0 Individual level of dose (d)
FIG. III–1. A proposed model for the monetary valuation of the radiological detriment.
— aBase represents the monetary value of the health detriment associated with one
unit of the collective dose.
— The value of d0 corresponds to the level of the individual dose below which the
aversion to the level of dose is not considered. This value depends upon the
degree of acceptance of risk for the exposed population. In the case of
occupational doses, for example, the value corresponding to the limit of the
individual dose for the public (1 mSv/a) was adopted (this value could be
adapted according to the specific situation considered).
— The a coefficient reflects the degree of aversion to the level of the individual
dose. It has been demonstrated that a must be greater than 1 to satisfy the
objectives. In the case of occupational doses a range of values between 1.2 and
1.8 seems reasonable on the basis of a review of the literature on risk aversion.
III–3. EXAMPLES OF MONETARY VALUES USED FOR THE UNIT

COLLECTIVE DOSE
A survey of practices at the international level shows that the concept of

assigning a monetary value to a man-sievert is increasingly widespread among
60
operators and regulatory authorities, although its use is only recommended, not
compulsory [III–4] (see Tables III–1 to III–3). The monetary value is primarily used
to inform important decisions (e.g. on the modification of installations or costly
repairs). It is primarily seen by users as a tool that reduces the subjectivity of choice
and that is occasionally used in discussions with subcontractors or authorities.
TABLE III–1. MONETARY VALUE OF A MAN-SIEVERT RECOMMENDED

BY DIFFERENT AUTHORITIES
Monetary value of a man- Monetary value of a man-

Country (year)
sievert in the national currency sievert in US $
Canada (1997) Can $100 000, established on the 75 000

basis of international references
Czech Republic CZK 500 000–5 000 000, depending 17 000–170 000
(1997) on the level of the individual doses
and the exposure situation
Finland (1991) US $100 000, value common to all 100 000
the Nordic countries
United Kingdom £10 000–100 000, depending on the 17 000–170 000
(1993) exposure situation (not plant specific)
and the level of the individual doses
Netherlands (1995) NLG 1 000 000 500 000
Romania (2000) US $220 000 220 000
Sweden (SSI) (1992) SEK 400 000–2 000 000 55 000–270 000
Switzerland (1994) CHF 3 000 000 3 000 000
USA (NRC) (1995) US $200 000 200 000
Note: 1 US $ = Can $1.33, CZK 30, £0.6, NLG 2, SEK 7.5, CHF 1 (as at 1998).
SSI: Swedish Radiation Protection Authority. NRC: Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
61
TABLE III–2. MONETARY VALUE OF A MAN-SIEVERT USED BY
DIFFERENT UTILITIES (SINGLE VALUE)
Monetary value of a
Monetary value of a
Country Utility Year of adoption man-sievert in the
man-sievert in US $
national currency
Canada Gentilly — Can $1 000 000 750 000
Romania Cernavoda 2000 US $220 000 220 000
Slovenia Krško 1996 US $700 000 700 000
South Africa Koeberg 1993 US $1 000 000 1 000 000
Spain Asco 1994 US $2 000 000 2 000 000
Vandellos 1982 ESP 100 000 000 700 000
Sweden Value 1992 SEK 4 000 000 550 000
common to
all the utilities
USA Value per 1990–1991 Min. value: Min. value:

utility for in general, US $500 000, 500 000,
90% of the 1993–1997 max. value: max. value:
reactors for the US $2 810 000, 2 810 000,
highest medium value: median value:
values US $1 200 000 1 200 000
average value: average value:
US $1 000 000 1 000 000
Note: 1 US $ = Can $1.33, ESP 150, SEK 7.5 (as at 1998).
62
TABLE III–III. MONETARY VALUE OF A MAN-SIEVERT USED BY
DIFFERENT UTILITIES (SYSTEM OF VALUES DEPENDING ON THE LEVEL
OF THE ANNUAL INDIVIDUAL DOSE)
Monetary value of a
Country Utility Year of man-sievert in the Monetary value of a
adoption national currency man-sievert in US $
Belgium SCK·CEN 1995 <1 mSv: B.Fr. 1 000 000 <1 mSv: 27 000
1–2 mSv: B.Fr. 2 500 000 1–2 mSv: 67 000
2–5 mSv: B.Fr. 10 000 000 2–5 mSv: 267 000
5–10 mSv: B.Fr. 25 000 000 5–10 mSv: 667 000
10–20 mSv: B.Fr. 50 000 000 10–20 mSv: 1 333 000
20–50 mSv: B.Fr. 200 000 000 20–50 mSv: 5 333 000
Canada Darlington: — From a few thousand Can $ to From a few thousand US $
system Can $2 000 000 to 1 500 000
dependent Example: workers in general: Example: workers in
on the Can $200 000, reactor general: 150 000, reactor
category maintenance teams: maintenance team:
of workers Can $1 500 000 1 130 000
France Electricité 1993 0–1 mSv: F.Fr. 100 000 0–1 mSv: 17 000
de France 1–5 mSv: F.Fr. 500 000 1–5 mSv: 83 000
5–15 mSv: F.Fr. 2 300 000 5–15 mSv: 383 000
15–30 mSv: F.Fr. 6 700 000 15–30 mSv: 1 117 000
30–50 mSv: F.Fr. 15 000 000 30–50 mSv: 2 500 000
Germany Proposal of 1996 <1 mSv: no value <1 mSv: no value
the VGB 1–10 mSv: DM 300 000 1–10 mSv: 170 000
under trial 10–20 mSv: value growing 10–20 mSv: value growing
by the linearly to reach linearly to reach
utilities DM 3 000 000 1 695 000
at 20 mSv at 20 mSv
Netherlands Borselle 1992 <15 mSv: NLG 1 000 000 <15 mSv: 500 000
>15 mSv: NLG 2 000 000 >15 mSv: 1 000 000
Spain Cofrentes: 1994 <3 man·Sv per reactor per <3 man·Sv per reactor per
system of year on average over 3 years: year on average over
values ESP 100 000 000 3 years: 667 000
dependent >3 man·Sv per reactor per year >3 man·Sv per reactor per
on the on average over 3 years: year on average over
annual ESP 150 000 000 3 years: 1 000 000
collective
dose level
UK Sizewell — NRPB set for workers: NRPB set for workers:
between £10 000 between 17 000
and £50 000 and 85 000
USA South Texas 1993 <10 mSv: US $500 000 <10 mSv: 500 000
>10 mSv: US $2 500 000 >10 mSv: 2 500 000
Note: 1 US $ = B.Fr. 37.5, Can $1.33, F.Fr. 6, DM 1.77, NLG 2, ESP 150, £0.6 (as at 1998).
SCK·CEN: Studiecentrum voor Kernenergie Centre d’étude de l’Energie Nucléaire. VGB: Technische
Vereinigung der Grosskraftwerkbetreiber. NRPB: National Radiological Protection Board.
63
REFERENCES TO ANNEX III
[III–1] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, 1990

Recommendations of the ICRP, ICRP Publication 60, Pergamon Press, Oxford and
New York (1991).
[III–2] CLARK, M.J., FLEISHMAN, A.B., WEBB, G.A.M., Optimisation of the
Radiological Protection of the Public (A Provisional Framework for the Application of
Cost–Benefit Analysis to Normal Operations), NRPB R-120, National Radiological
Protection Board, Didcot (1981).
[III–3] LOCHARD, J., LEFAURE, C., SCHIEBER, C., SCHNEIDER, T., A model for the
determination of monetary values of the man-sievert, J. Radiol. Prot. 16 (1996)
201–204.
[III–4] LEFAURE, C., Monetary Values of the Person-Sievert — From Concept to Practice:
The Findings of an International Survey, CEPN-R-254, Centre d’étude sur l’évaluation
de la protection dans le domaine nucléaire, Paris (1998).
64
Atoyan, V. Armenian Nuclear Power Plant Company, Armenia
Avetisyan, A. Armenian Nuclear Regulatory Authority, Armenia
Blaikie, J. Texas Utilities, United States of America
Boutrif, E. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations
Breznik, B. Krško Nuclear Power Plant, Slovenia
Cool, D.A. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, United States of

America
Crick, M. International Atomic Energy Agency
Deboodt, P. SCK·CEN, Belgium
Dobiš, L. Bohunice Nuclear Power Plant, Slovakia
Foster, P. Institution of Professionals, Managers and Specialists,

United Kingdom
Godås, T. Swedish Radiation Protection Institute, Sweden
Gustafsson, M. International Atomic Energy Agency
Hudson, A.P. National Radiological Protection Board,

United Kingdom
Lund, I. Swedish Radiation Protection Institute, Sweden
Massera, G. International Atomic Energy Agency
Montesinos, J.J. Consejo Seguridad Nuclear, Spain
Mrabit, K. International Atomic Energy Agency
Na, S.H. International Atomic Energy Agency
Nasim, B. Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, Pakistan
Niu, S. International Labour Office
Owen, D. British Nuclear Fuels plc, United Kingdom
Pradeep Kumar, K.S. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, India
Rodna, A. National Commission for Nuclear Activities Control,

Romania
65
Sadagopan, G. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, India
Schieber, C. Centre d’étude sur l’évaluation de la protection dans le

domaine nucléaire, France
Sharma, D.N. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, India
Sohrabi, M. International Atomic Energy Agency
Valentin, J. International Commission on Radiological Protection
Viana, R.N. Angra Nuclear Power Plant, Brazil
Viktory, D. State Health Institute of the Slovak Republic, Slovakia
Webb, G.A.M. Brighton, United Kingdom
Wrixon, A.D. International Atomic Energy Agency
Xia, Y. China Institute of Atomic Energy, China
Consultants Meetings
Vienna, Austria: 3–7 May, 13–17 December 1999, 22–24 August 2000
66
102 103 104 105
Pd n,γ Pd n,γ Pd n,γ Pd n,γ
stable 16.99 days stable stable
β+ β-
103
n,γ 104
Rh Rh
stable 42.3 sec
103
FIG. 3. Pd production chain
Low isotopic abundance of 102Pd in the natural mixture of palladium isotopes (1,02%) governs
the usage of palladium highly enriched with this isotope as a target material. A small cross-section of
102
Pd (n,γ)103Pd reaction (thermal cross-section is 3.4 barn, resonance integral 10 barn) stipulates use
of high-flux reactors, like HFIR (ORNL, Oak-Ridge, USA) or SM (RIAR, Dimitrovgrad, Russia), to
produce high-specific activity 103Pd.
Unfortunately, the enrichment of palladium with 102Pd rarely exceeds 50-80%, i.e. this material
contains other palladium isotopes, like 108Pd and 110Pd. These isotopes produce other radioactive
isotopes during neutron irradiation. For example, 108Pd gives 109Pd (T1/2 = 14 h) by (n,γ) reaction, that
can not be separated from 103Pd chemically; another nuclear reaction 110Pd (n,γ) gives 111Pd (T1/2 = 23
min) that decays to 111mAg (T1/2 = 7.5 d); thus, a radiochemical procedure should be applied to purify
103
Pd from radioactive silver impurity.
500
450
400
Pd-103 specific activity, Ci/g
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Irradiation time, days
FIG. 4. Irradiation time dependence of 103Pd specific activity
In our experiments the measured activity of palladium-103 was 980 mCi (36,3 GBq) at the end
of irradiation; that corresponds to palladium-103 specific activity of 495 Ci/g. Mass-spectrometry
measurements were applied to the irradiated sample to check the gamma-spectrometry value. The
results of this experiment proved that the content of the palladium-103 was less than 0,5%, which
corresponds to the specific activity of 640+190 Ci/g.
132
This result is in a good agreement both with the activity measurements and calculations. Figure
4 presents the calculated dependence of palladium-103 specific activity on the irradiation time in the
neutron trap of the SM reactor for actual reactor operation mode.
The target was processed for 5 days after irradiation, and gamma-spectrometry was carried out
on the 6th day. No measurable (at the level exceeding 0.01%) activity of palladium-101 and silver-111
radionuclides was detected. Probably, this is due to a low yield of these radionuclides after irradiation
of highly enriched palladium-102. Besides, these radionuclides (even their formation is most probable)
have short half-lives and they could completely (i.e. below the detection limit) decay by the moment
of the activity counting. So, a possibility was demonstrated to produce palladium-103 with specific
activity of ~500 Ci/g (~ 18.5x103 GBq) by irradiation of a highly enriched target in the high-flux
research reactor SM.
4.2. Selection of an electrolyte composition for palladium plating and cathode pre-treatment
A procedure for electrochemical plating of palladium-103 onto a metal support was worked out
under this Project that could be applied for the development of the technology of palladium-103
sources production. The development of the electrochemical procedure should also include selection
of the electrolyte composition and the support material. The criteria used for the selection were the
current palladium yield and the quality of the plated layer. Selection of electrolyte, in its turn, was
based on the following criteria:
• simplicity and ease of preparation;

• stability of the electrolyte;
• minimal losses of palladium-103;
• possibility to correct the composition;
• production of uniform and good adhesion of palladium layers.
4.2.1. Aminochloride electrolyte
This electrolyte is frequently used for palladium plating in industry and research. Taking into
account that handling of highly concentrated palladium-103 solutions (recommended concentration is
35 g/L) is not reasonable, we have focused our study on the possibility to work with a lower palladium
initial concentration (СPdo). Our results demonstrated that palladium can be successfully plated at the
concentration СPdo decreased down to 0.5 mg/ml. At СPdo = 0.4 mg/ml the layer is dark-colored and
spotty (non-homogeneous). The decreased cathode current could possibly further decrease palladium
concentration in the electrolyte. However, a number of principal disadvantages of aminochloride
electrolyte were highlighted during our research:
• solution pH drops down during the electrolysis; the pH value is required to be within the range of
8-10, decreased pH to 7 causes precipitate formation;
• preparation of the electrolyte is accompanied by formation of some precipitate that should be
filtered off and causes losses of palladium-103;
• complicated procedure for electrolyte preparation (via Vockelen salt formation) excludes
possibility to correct composition of the solution that also gives losses of palladium-103.
4.2.2. Nitrite electrolyte
Palladium precipitation on the cathode is very fast, but its layer has weak adhesion to the
support. The decrease of initial concentration of palladium improved the quality of the layer, but
attempts to produce completely non-leachable layer were failed.
133
4.2.3. Phosphate type electrolyte
Precipitation of palladium from this electrolyte gives uniform layers with a good adhesion to the
support. The phosphate type electrolyte has no disadvantages inherent to the aminochloride
electrolyte, the layer quality is good enough, and so this electrolyte is used in further experiments.
Results of the study of palladium distribution are presented below in table I and Figs.5-13.
4.2.4. Pre-treatment of cathode before palladium plating
A selection was made out of palladium and nickel wires of 0.3 mm diameter. These materials
were selected because together with palladium they are in the same group of Periodic System and have
a face-centered cubic lattice similar to the electroplated isotope. It should provide a good adhesion of
the palladium layer to the support.
TABLE I. PLATING CONDITIONS AND CATHODE PARAMETERS
А103Pd//СPd Length of
Exp. Cathode Plating А103Pd (cathode),
In electrolyte, active cathode
No. No. time, min mCi
mCi/mg (core), mm
1 1 0,91 30 31 0,52
2 2 0,87 90 28 1,09
3-1 32 1,76
3-2 32 1,61
3* 3-3 1,02 150 32 1,63
3-4 32 1,56
3-5 32 1,59
4 4 0,91 70 27 0,77
5 5 1,03 70 30 0,72
6 6 1,13 70 30 0,34
7-1 29 1,13
7-2 29 1,27
7* 7-3 2,54 60 29 1,24
7-4 29 1,24
7-5 29 1,22
8-1 30 2,53
8* 8-2 2,28 120 30 2,18
8-3 30 2,25
9 9 2,25 60 30 0,59
10 10 2,25 120 28 1,00
11 11 2,25 120 31 1,02
* cell N 2 was used in the experiment
Before palladium electroplating the support surface was treated (activated) with electrolyte of
the following composition:
• 20 ml Н2О
• 2 ml HNO3 (conc.)
• 2 ml HCl (conc.).
It was experimentally found that the nickel wire was effectively activated for 30 sec at 50oC or
1-2 min at ambient temperature. So, the nickel wire was treated at room temperature during 1-3 min in
further experiments. Palladiums wires were etched with ethanol and treated with similar electrolyte for
5 min. Supports were flushed with water and ethanol after chemical treatment.
134
4.3. Palladium distribution along the cathode
After plated with palladium-103, the cathodes were scanned using a domestically made device
equipped with a collimator (the collimator’s window was 1 mm wide) to examine the uniformity of the
plated palladium. Scanning was performed both in longitudinal and radial directions of the cathode
surface. Results for some cathodes are presented in Figs.5-12. The measured value was referred to the
average one for the cathode, in percent. The point of coordinate origin corresponds to the bottom of
the cathode. %
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40
мм
FIG. 5. Cathode N1 scanning, with and without titanium shield
140
%
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37
мм
FIG. 6. Cathode N 3-2 scanning
120
%
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37
мм
135
120
%
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37
мм
120
%
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34
мм
FIG. 9. Cathode N8-2 scanning
110
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34
мм
FIG. 10. Cathode N 10 scanning
As can be seen from the data presented in Figs.5-10 distribution of palladium-103, both in
longitudinal and radial directions, is not high. It depends on a number of factors, like:
• formation of gaseous products during electrolysis and adhesion of bubbles to the cathode surface,
• non-uniform passivity of the cathode surface.
136
Gaseous bubbles adhesion to the cathode surface can not be eliminated even in cell 2 with
forced electrolyte mixing. It was found that the quality of the cathode surface has more effect on the
uniformity of palladium distribution. Chemical pre-treatment of the cathode, even a modified one
(increased etching time, using of more effective etching solution), does not guarantee the uniformity.
More effective is a combination of sintering in vacuum before chemical treatment. Figures 11-13
demonstrate a good radial distribution of the palladium plated in the cell 2 with flat anodes.
1
120
110
8 100 2
90
80
70
60
7 50 3
6 4
FIG. 11. Radial distribution of 103Pd activity, cathode N 2;measured at 45o rotation of the cathode
1
110
100
8 2
90
80
70
60
7 50 3
6 4
FIG. 12. Radial distribution of 103Pd activity, cathode N 8-2;measured at 45o rotation of the cathode
137
1
11 0
10 0
8 2
90
80
70
60
7 50 3
6 4
3 .5 E + 0 6
A, Bk
3 .0 E + 0 6
2 .5 E + 0 6
2 .0 E + 0 6
1 .5 E + 0 6
1 .0 E + 0 6
5 .0 E + 0 5
0 .0 E + 0 0
0 .0 0 0 .0 5 0 .1 0 0 .1 5
h N i, m m
FIG. 14. Dependence of absorption of 103Pd radiation on the thickness of nickel
2 .0 0E + 04
A, Bq
1 .5 0E + 04
1 .0 0E + 04
5 .0 0E + 03
0 .0 0E + 00
0 10 20 30 40 50
P d layer thickness, m km
FIG. 15. Dependence of absorption of 103Pd radiation on the thickness of palladium
138
4.4. Evaluation of calibration factors for palladium-103 sources activity measurements
4.4.1. Absorption of palladium radiation by the wall of the source titanium capsule
Absorption of palladium radiation by the wall of the source titanium capsule was evaluated as
follows. The activity of palladium-103 plated on the cathode placed inside the titanium tube of 0.8 mm
diameter with the wall thickness 0.05 mm was compared with that one measured directly. Besides,
mock-ups of sources were prepared by cutting the cathode into pieces 3 mm long; they were placed
inside the titanium capsule, with one end pre-welded, and sealed by a stopper inserted into another
end. Activity of 3 mm cathode was measured before and after sealing. It was found that capsule wall
absorbs 34+6% of palladium radiation.
4.4.2. Absorption of palladium radiation in the cathode
A portion of palladium-103 radiation is absorbed by the cathode – the source core. To evaluate
absorption correction factor we measured dependency of 103Pd activity on the thickness of the
absorbing layer of nickel (the cathode material) as well as self-absorption in palladium (Figs.14,15).
From dependency of radiation absorption by nickel a correction factor was found to be

(calculated) К = Аfull/Аmeasured= 1,89. To check this value palladium was leached out of the cathode and
its activity was measured. The correction factor was found to be equal 1.75 that is close to the
calculated value. Notice, that in case of using a cyclotron producing carrier-free palladium-103
(specific activity of at least 6000 Ci/g) the palladium layer is at least 1.5 micrometers. In this case, the
self-absorption factor will be less than 3%.
5. CONCLUSIONS
• A possibility to produce palladium-103 of 495 Ci/g (1.8x104 GBq/g) specific activity as of

irradiation completion by irradiation of isotopically-enriched palladium-102 in the high-flux
research reactor SM is demonstrated.
• A technique for palladium-103 electrochemical deposition from phosphate electrolytes on a nickel
wire is proposed.
• A thorough preparation of the cathode surface is required for proper deposition of palladium.
• Correction factors for calculation of the activity of the produced sources with respect to
palladium-103 self-absorption in the cathode material and the source protective capsule are
determined.
REFERENCES
[1] BASIL HILARIS ET AL. The use of iodine-125 for Interstitial Implants, U.S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare Publication (FDA) 76-8022, November 1975, U.S. Pat. No.
3,351,049.
[2] L.V.VAINER, M.A.DASOYAN. «Electrochemical plating technology”: «Mashinostroyenie
Publishing», Leningrad, 1972, 464. (In Russian).
[3] J.L. RUSSELL, JR., D.N. COGGINS. X ray-emitting interstitial implants. US Patent 4,702,228,
October 27, 1987.
[4] IAEA-TECDOC-1340. Manual for Reactor Produced Radioisotopes, Vienna, January 2003.
139
Benites, M. Instituto Peruano de Energia Nuclear (IPEN),

Divisione de Radioisotopos, Quality Control Department,
San Borja, Lima, Peru
Chakrov, P. National Nuclear Centre,

Institute of Nuclear Physics,
Almaty, Kazakhstan
Cieszykowska, I. Radioisotope Centre POLATOM,

Otwock-Swierk, Poland
Dash, A. Radiopharmaceuticals Division,

Bhabha Atomic Research Center,
Trombay, Mumbai, India
Falvi, L. Institute of isotopes Co. Ltd,

Budapest, Hungary
Fan, H Department of Isotopes,

China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIAE),
Beijing, China
Ghahramani, A.R. Atomic Energy Organization of Iran,

Nuclear Research Center,
Teheran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Haji-Saeid, M. Industrial Applications and Chemistry Section

Division of Physical and Chemical Sciences
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
Vienna, Austria
Han, H.S. Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI),

Radioisotope Production & Application Division,
Yusung, Daejon, Republic of Korea
Kuznetsov, R. State Scientific Centre,

Research Institute of Atomic Reactors,
Division of Radionuclide Sources and Preparations,
Ulyanovsk region, Russian Federation
Mikhalevich, P. CJSC “Isotope Technologies”,

Minsk-Sosny, Belarus
Vera Ruiz, H. Instituto Boliviano de Ciencia y Tecnologia Nuclear,

La Paz, Bolivia
Research Coordination Meetings
Otwock-Swierk, Poland: 24–27 June 2002

Vienna, Austria: 20–24 October 2003, 13–17 June 2005
143
102 103 104 105
Pd n,γ Pd n,γ Pd n,γ Pd n,γ
stable 16.99 days stable stable
β+ β-
103
n,γ 104
Rh Rh
stable 42.3 sec
103
FIG. 3. Pd production chain
Low isotopic abundance of 102Pd in the natural mixture of palladium isotopes (1,02%) governs
the usage of palladium highly enriched with this isotope as a target material. A small cross-section of
102
Pd (n,γ)103Pd reaction (thermal cross-section is 3.4 barn, resonance integral 10 barn) stipulates use
of high-flux reactors, like HFIR (ORNL, Oak-Ridge, USA) or SM (RIAR, Dimitrovgrad, Russia), to
produce high-specific activity 103Pd.
Unfortunately, the enrichment of palladium with 102Pd rarely exceeds 50-80%, i.e. this material
contains other palladium isotopes, like 108Pd and 110Pd. These isotopes produce other radioactive
isotopes during neutron irradiation. For example, 108Pd gives 109Pd (T1/2 = 14 h) by (n,γ) reaction, that
can not be separated from 103Pd chemically; another nuclear reaction 110Pd (n,γ) gives 111Pd (T1/2 = 23
min) that decays to 111mAg (T1/2 = 7.5 d); thus, a radiochemical procedure should be applied to purify
103
Pd from radioactive silver impurity.
500
450
400
Pd-103 specific activity, Ci/g
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Irradiation time, days
FIG. 4. Irradiation time dependence of 103Pd specific activity
In our experiments the measured activity of palladium-103 was 980 mCi (36,3 GBq) at the end
of irradiation; that corresponds to palladium-103 specific activity of 495 Ci/g. Mass-spectrometry
measurements were applied to the irradiated sample to check the gamma-spectrometry value. The
results of this experiment proved that the content of the palladium-103 was less than 0,5%, which
corresponds to the specific activity of 640+190 Ci/g.
132
This result is in a good agreement both with the activity measurements and calculations. Figure
4 presents the calculated dependence of palladium-103 specific activity on the irradiation time in the
neutron trap of the SM reactor for actual reactor operation mode.
The target was processed for 5 days after irradiation, and gamma-spectrometry was carried out
on the 6th day. No measurable (at the level exceeding 0.01%) activity of palladium-101 and silver-111
radionuclides was detected. Probably, this is due to a low yield of these radionuclides after irradiation
of highly enriched palladium-102. Besides, these radionuclides (even their formation is most probable)
have short half-lives and they could completely (i.e. below the detection limit) decay by the moment
of the activity counting. So, a possibility was demonstrated to produce palladium-103 with specific
activity of ~500 Ci/g (~ 18.5x103 GBq) by irradiation of a highly enriched target in the high-flux
research reactor SM.
4.2. Selection of an electrolyte composition for palladium plating and cathode pre-treatment
A procedure for electrochemical plating of palladium-103 onto a metal support was worked out
under this Project that could be applied for the development of the technology of palladium-103
sources production. The development of the electrochemical procedure should also include selection
of the electrolyte composition and the support material. The criteria used for the selection were the
current palladium yield and the quality of the plated layer. Selection of electrolyte, in its turn, was
based on the following criteria:
• simplicity and ease of preparation;

• stability of the electrolyte;
• minimal losses of palladium-103;
• possibility to correct the composition;
• production of uniform and good adhesion of palladium layers.
4.2.1. Aminochloride electrolyte
This electrolyte is frequently used for palladium plating in industry and research. Taking into
account that handling of highly concentrated palladium-103 solutions (recommended concentration is
35 g/L) is not reasonable, we have focused our study on the possibility to work with a lower palladium
initial concentration (СPdo). Our results demonstrated that palladium can be successfully plated at the
concentration СPdo decreased down to 0.5 mg/ml. At СPdo = 0.4 mg/ml the layer is dark-colored and
spotty (non-homogeneous). The decreased cathode current could possibly further decrease palladium
concentration in the electrolyte. However, a number of principal disadvantages of aminochloride
electrolyte were highlighted during our research:
• solution pH drops down during the electrolysis; the pH value is required to be within the range of
8-10, decreased pH to 7 causes precipitate formation;
• preparation of the electrolyte is accompanied by formation of some precipitate that should be
filtered off and causes losses of palladium-103;
• complicated procedure for electrolyte preparation (via Vockelen salt formation) excludes
possibility to correct composition of the solution that also gives losses of palladium-103.
4.2.2. Nitrite electrolyte
Palladium precipitation on the cathode is very fast, but its layer has weak adhesion to the
support. The decrease of initial concentration of palladium improved the quality of the layer, but
attempts to produce completely non-leachable layer were failed.
133
4.2.3. Phosphate type electrolyte
Precipitation of palladium from this electrolyte gives uniform layers with a good adhesion to the
support. The phosphate type electrolyte has no disadvantages inherent to the aminochloride
electrolyte, the layer quality is good enough, and so this electrolyte is used in further experiments.
Results of the study of palladium distribution are presented below in table I and Figs.5-13.
4.2.4. Pre-treatment of cathode before palladium plating
A selection was made out of palladium and nickel wires of 0.3 mm diameter. These materials
were selected because together with palladium they are in the same group of Periodic System and have
a face-centered cubic lattice similar to the electroplated isotope. It should provide a good adhesion of
the palladium layer to the support.
TABLE I. PLATING CONDITIONS AND CATHODE PARAMETERS
А103Pd//СPd Length of
Exp. Cathode Plating А103Pd (cathode),
In electrolyte, active cathode
No. No. time, min mCi
mCi/mg (core), mm
1 1 0,91 30 31 0,52
2 2 0,87 90 28 1,09
3-1 32 1,76
3-2 32 1,61
3* 3-3 1,02 150 32 1,63
3-4 32 1,56
3-5 32 1,59
4 4 0,91 70 27 0,77
5 5 1,03 70 30 0,72
6 6 1,13 70 30 0,34
7-1 29 1,13
7-2 29 1,27
7* 7-3 2,54 60 29 1,24
7-4 29 1,24
7-5 29 1,22
8-1 30 2,53
8* 8-2 2,28 120 30 2,18
8-3 30 2,25
9 9 2,25 60 30 0,59
10 10 2,25 120 28 1,00
11 11 2,25 120 31 1,02
* cell N 2 was used in the experiment
Before palladium electroplating the support surface was treated (activated) with electrolyte of
the following composition:
• 20 ml Н2О
• 2 ml HNO3 (conc.)
• 2 ml HCl (conc.).
It was experimentally found that the nickel wire was effectively activated for 30 sec at 50oC or
1-2 min at ambient temperature. So, the nickel wire was treated at room temperature during 1-3 min in
further experiments. Palladiums wires were etched with ethanol and treated with similar electrolyte for
5 min. Supports were flushed with water and ethanol after chemical treatment.
134
4.3. Palladium distribution along the cathode
After plated with palladium-103, the cathodes were scanned using a domestically made device
equipped with a collimator (the collimator’s window was 1 mm wide) to examine the uniformity of the
plated palladium. Scanning was performed both in longitudinal and radial directions of the cathode
surface. Results for some cathodes are presented in Figs.5-12. The measured value was referred to the
average one for the cathode, in percent. The point of coordinate origin corresponds to the bottom of
the cathode. %
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40
мм
FIG. 5. Cathode N1 scanning, with and without titanium shield
140
%
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37
мм
120
%
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37
мм
135
120
%
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37
мм
120
%
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34
мм
FIG. 9. Cathode N8-2 scanning
110
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34
мм
FIG. 10. Cathode N 10 scanning
As can be seen from the data presented in Figs.5-10 distribution of palladium-103, both in
longitudinal and radial directions, is not high. It depends on a number of factors, like:
• formation of gaseous products during electrolysis and adhesion of bubbles to the cathode surface,
• non-uniform passivity of the cathode surface.
136
Gaseous bubbles adhesion to the cathode surface can not be eliminated even in cell 2 with
forced electrolyte mixing. It was found that the quality of the cathode surface has more effect on the
uniformity of palladium distribution. Chemical pre-treatment of the cathode, even a modified one
(increased etching time, using of more effective etching solution), does not guarantee the uniformity.
More effective is a combination of sintering in vacuum before chemical treatment. Figures 11-13
demonstrate a good radial distribution of the palladium plated in the cell 2 with flat anodes.
1
120
110
8 100 2
90
80
70
60
7 50 3
6 4
1
110
100
8 2
90
80
70
60
7 50 3
6 4
FIG. 12. Radial distribution of 103Pd activity, cathode N 8-2;measured at 45o rotation of the cathode
137
1
11 0
10 0
8 2
90
80
70
60
7 50 3
6 4
3 .5 E + 0 6
A, Bk
3 .0 E + 0 6
2 .5 E + 0 6
2 .0 E + 0 6
1 .5 E + 0 6
1 .0 E + 0 6
5 .0 E + 0 5
0 .0 E + 0 0
0 .0 0 0 .0 5 0 .1 0 0 .1 5
h N i, m m
FIG. 14. Dependence of absorption of 103Pd radiation on the thickness of nickel
2 .0 0E + 04
A, Bq
1 .5 0E + 04
1 .0 0E + 04
5 .0 0E + 03
0 .0 0E + 00
0 10 20 30 40 50
P d layer thickness, m km
FIG. 15. Dependence of absorption of 103Pd radiation on the thickness of palladium
138
4.4. Evaluation of calibration factors for palladium-103 sources activity measurements
4.4.1. Absorption of palladium radiation by the wall of the source titanium capsule
Absorption of palladium radiation by the wall of the source titanium capsule was evaluated as
follows. The activity of palladium-103 plated on the cathode placed inside the titanium tube of 0.8 mm
diameter with the wall thickness 0.05 mm was compared with that one measured directly. Besides,
mock-ups of sources were prepared by cutting the cathode into pieces 3 mm long; they were placed
inside the titanium capsule, with one end pre-welded, and sealed by a stopper inserted into another
end. Activity of 3 mm cathode was measured before and after sealing. It was found that capsule wall
absorbs 34+6% of palladium radiation.
4.4.2. Absorption of palladium radiation in the cathode
A portion of palladium-103 radiation is absorbed by the cathode – the source core. To evaluate
absorption correction factor we measured dependency of 103Pd activity on the thickness of the
absorbing layer of nickel (the cathode material) as well as self-absorption in palladium (Figs.14,15).
From dependency of radiation absorption by nickel a correction factor was found to be

(calculated) К = Аfull/Аmeasured= 1,89. To check this value palladium was leached out of the cathode and
its activity was measured. The correction factor was found to be equal 1.75 that is close to the
calculated value. Notice, that in case of using a cyclotron producing carrier-free palladium-103
(specific activity of at least 6000 Ci/g) the palladium layer is at least 1.5 micrometers. In this case, the
self-absorption factor will be less than 3%.
5. CONCLUSIONS
• A possibility to produce palladium-103 of 495 Ci/g (1.8x104 GBq/g) specific activity as of

irradiation completion by irradiation of isotopically-enriched palladium-102 in the high-flux
research reactor SM is demonstrated.
• A technique for palladium-103 electrochemical deposition from phosphate electrolytes on a nickel
wire is proposed.
• A thorough preparation of the cathode surface is required for proper deposition of palladium.
• Correction factors for calculation of the activity of the produced sources with respect to
palladium-103 self-absorption in the cathode material and the source protective capsule are
determined.
REFERENCES
[1] BASIL HILARIS ET AL. The use of iodine-125 for Interstitial Implants, U.S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare Publication (FDA) 76-8022, November 1975, U.S. Pat. No.
3,351,049.
[2] L.V.VAINER, M.A.DASOYAN. «Electrochemical plating technology”: «Mashinostroyenie
Publishing», Leningrad, 1972, 464. (In Russian).
[3] J.L. RUSSELL, JR., D.N. COGGINS. X ray-emitting interstitial implants. US Patent 4,702,228,
October 27, 1987.
[4] IAEA-TECDOC-1340. Manual for Reactor Produced Radioisotopes, Vienna, January 2003.
139
Concepts of Exemption and Clearance
name of presenter (e-mail)

training event title
dates
location, host organization, host country
IAEA
Overview
• Concept of controlling radioactive

material (regulatory framework) in the
BSS
• exemption
• clearance
• Approaches to derive exemption and
clearance levels
• Practical application
IAEA 2
Basis IAEA Publications
 IAEA Safety Guide RS-G-1.7,

Application of the concepts of
exclusion, exemption and
clearance (2004)
 IAEA Safety Report 44,
Derivation of activity
concentration values for
exclusion, exemption and
clearance (2005)
 Radiation Protection and Safety
of Radiation Sources:
International Basic Safety
Standards. Interim Edition
(BSS) (2011)
IAEA 3
Control of Contaminated Material
What needs
to be under
control?
What can be
released from
regulatory control
How to control
the release
process?
How to prevent and
handle
incidents/accidents
with uncontrolled
IAEA
material? 4
Control of Contaminated Material (cont)
Material
• Naturally occurring radioactive materials, concentrations
vary in nature and human activities can concentrate
them deliberately or adventitiously
• Artificial radionuclides are produced

• Deliberately for their use in industry, medicine and
other purposes
• As a by product of nuclear fission
IAEA 5
• High concentrations of radioactive material require safe

management
• As concentrations become lower - need for control

becomes less
• At a sufficiently low concentration controls are no longer

necessary - for health and safety reasons
• Many types of objects and materials and circumstances

of generation and use or radioactive material after
release
IAEA 6
• Stylistics approach needed to establish basis for setting
lower levels for which controls not required
• Sites and buildings need particular consideration
• Bulk quantities
• Fixed location
• Possible re-use for regulated activity
• Basic Safety Standards:
• “practice” is a planned deliberate activity which will
introduce a source of radiation, an exposure pathway
or an exposed group
• an “intervention” is an existing exposure situation
where actions are taken to reduce exposure
IAEA 7
• Material from normal operation of an authorised practice
• Mining and mineral processing facilities
• Fuel cycle facilities (NPP, etc.)
• Enrichment facilities
• Operation, maintenance
• Decommissioning of facilities
• Use of ionizing sources
• Contamination as a result of incidents or accidents
• Operational/decommissioning radiological incidents or
accidents
• Handling and long-term management of disused sealed
sources
• Management of orphan sources
IAEA 8
• Define the scope of regulatory control
• Exclusion
• Exemption
• Clearance
• Definition of release of material from regulatory control -

criteria and conditions
• Methods to control
• At the licensee site (on-site handling)
• Off-site transport, processing storage or disposal
• Transboundary movement
IAEA 9
Options for Radioactive Material Control
Authorized
Discharge
Exclusion
Radioactive Regulatory Authorized

Material Control Disposal
Clearance
Exemption
IAEA 10
Exclusion Exclusion
Authorised
Disposal
Application for Regulatory
authorization control
Clearance
Source
Exemption Authorised
Discharges
Regulatory domain of
planned exposure situations
Exclusion Exclusion
IAEA 11
Exclusion
• An exposure that is essentially unamenable to control

• Examples are exposures from:
• 40K in a (human) body
• Cosmic radiation on the surface of the earth
• Unmodified concentrations of radionuclides in most
raw materials
• Gaseous discharge, through a building ventilation
system, of radon and associated daughters arising
from the ground or construction materials
• No more in the GSR Part 3,because the new BSS are
for exposure amenable to control.
IAEA 12
Exemption
• Practices and sources within practices can be

exempted from regulatory control (notification,
registration or licensing) if the sources meet exemption
criteria:
total activity of a given nuclide present on the
premises at any one time
or
the activity concentration used in the practice
does not exceed the exemption levels
• Examples: Smoke detectors, very limited use of
radionuclides
Note: The practice must always be justified
IAEA 13
Trivial Dose
• Choose a risk level and a corresponding dose which have

no significant effect as regards to individuals
• Use the exposure to natural background, to the extent that
it is normal and unavoidable, as a relevant reference level
• Relates to a level of individual dose of some tens of
microSieverts in a year
• Because an individual may be exposed to radiation from
several exempted practices, it must be ensured that the
total dose does not exceed the trivial level
• Therefore, the IAEA recommends 10 µSv in a year
IAEA 14
Exemption: Practices
Existing Annual Dose Additional annual dose
attributable to the practice, +D E,
if +D E 10 mSv
(extreme +D E <1 mSv)
EXEMPTION
from Regulatory System
of Notification
and Authorization
Registration or Time
licensing?
IAEA 15
New
The government or the regulatory body shall determine

which practices or sources within practices are to be
exempted from some or all of the requirements of these
Standards, and shall approve which sources, including
materials and objects, within notified or authorized
practices may be cleared from regulatory control
NEW.- No EXCLUSION
IAEA Workshop on Revision of the BSS 16

Rio De Janeiro, April 2010
Exemption
3.10 The government or the regulatory body shall
determine which practices or sources within
practices are to be exempted from some or all of
the requirements of these Standards, including the
requirements for notification, registration or
licensing, using as the basis for such determination
the criteria for exemption specified in Schedule I or
any exemption levels defined by the regulatory
body on the basis of the criteria.
3.11 Exemption shall not be granted for practices

deemed not to be justified.

Clearance
3.12 The regulatory body shall approve which
sources, including materials and objects, within
notified or authorized practices may be cleared
from further regulatory control using as the
basis for such approval the criteria for clearance
specified in Schedule I or any clearance levels
defined by the regulatory body on the basis of
such criteria. This approval shall ensure that
sources that have been cleared do not again New
become subject to requirements for notification,
registration and licensing, unless otherwise
specified by the regulatory body.
New ….”and shall not be higher than the exemption levels
specified
IAEA in Schedule I.”. Workshop on Revision of the BSS 18
New
The relevant parties shall

ensure that radioactive waste
and discharges of radioactive
material to the environment
are managed in accordance
with the authorization.
Note: and with the specific regulation in force
IAEA Workshop on Revision of BSS, 19

Rio de Janeiro, April 2010
Exclusion Exclusion
Authorised
Disposal
Application for Regulatory
authorization control
Clearance
Source
Exemption Authorised
Discharges
Regulatory domain of
planned exposure situations
Exclusion Exclusion
IAEA 20
IAEA Safety Glossary (2007)
waste, radioactive
1. For legal and regulatory purposes, waste that contains, or is
contaminated with, radionuclides at concentrations or activities
greater than clearance levels as established by the regulatory
body.
2. [Radioactive material in gaseous, liquid or solid form for which

no further use is foreseen by the Contracting Party or by a
natural or legal person whose decision is accepted by the
Contracting Party, and which is controlled as radioactive waste
by a regulatory body under the legislative and regulatory
framework of the Contracting Party.] (From Ref. JC.)
IAEA 21
Basic Safety Standards
waste, radioactive (BSS 1996)
Material, whatever its physical form, remaining from
practices or Interventions and for which no further use
is foreseen (i) that contains or is contaminated with
radioactive substances and has an activity or activity
concentration higher than the level for clearance from
regulatory requirements, and (ii) exposure to which is
not excluded from the [Basic Safety] Standards.
waste, radioactive (GSR Part 3, 2011)

For legal and regulatory purposes, material for which
no further use is foreseen that contains, or is
contaminated with, radionuclides at concentrations or
activities greater than clearance levels as established
by the regulatory body.
IAEA 22
SS No. GSG-1Classification of Radioactive Waste, Vienna, September

2009
2.2. In accordance with the approach outlined in the appendix, six

classes of waste are derived and used as the basis for the
classification scheme:
(1) Exempt waste4 (EW): Waste that meets the criteria for
clearance, exemption or exclusion from regulatory control for
radiation protection purposes as described in Ref. [RS-G-1.7, IAEA,
Vienna (2004)].
4 The term ‘exempt waste’ has been retained from the

previous classification scheme (see footnote 3) for
consistency; however, once such waste has been
cleared from regulatory control, it is not considered
radioactive waste.
IAEA 23
Schedule I
I-1 The general criteria for exemption are that:
a. The radiation risks to individuals arising from the
practice or source within the practice are
sufficiently low as to not warrant regulatory
control and the exempted practice or source is
inherently safe, with no appreciable likelihood of
scenarios that could lead to a failure to meet this
criterion; or
b. Regulation of the practice or source would
provide no net benefit, in that no reasonable
control measures would achieve a worthwhile New
return in reduction of individual doses or risks.
New.-
IAEA No collective radiological impact is considered
Workshop on Revision of the BSS 24
Trivial Dose
 Choose a risk level and a corresponding dose which

have no significant effect as regards to individuals
• Annual risks of death of the order of 10-7 to 10-6 are
of no concern in the society
• Risk factor of fatal cancer 10-2 Sv-1 => 10 -100 Sv
 Use the exposure to natural background, to the extent
that it is normal and unavoidable, as a relevant
reference level
 An individual may be exposed to radiation from several
exempted practices; it must be ensured that the total
dose does not exceed the trivial level
 Therefore, the IAEA recommends 10 mSv in a year
IAEA 25
Schedule I

I.2 A practice or a source within a practice may be
exempted under para. I-1(a) without further
consideration provided that in all reasonably
foreseeable situations, the effective dose expected
to be incurred by any member of the public due to
the exempted practice or source is of the order of 10
µSv or less in a year[41]. To take account of low
probability scenarios for which the above criterion
fails, an additional criterion can be used, namely that
the effective dose due to such low probability events
does not exceed 1 mSv in a year.
New.- No collective effective dose committed is applied
[41] A decision on whether or not to exempt a practice or a source within a practice is normally made
on the basis of a safety assessment undertaken by, or on behalf of, the regulatory body.

Schedule I
I-3.Under the criteria in paras I-1 and I-2, the following sources
within justified practices are automatically exempted without
further consideration from the requirements of these
Standards, including those for notification, registration or
licensing:
a. Radioactive material in a moderate amount [42] for which
either the total activity of an individual radionuclide present
on the premises at any one time or the activity
concentration used in the practice, does not exceed the
applicable exemption level given in Table I-I of Schedule I
[43] ; except that for radionuclides of natural origin these
conditions for exemption apply only to their incorporation
into consumer products, or for their use either as a
radioactive source (e.g. 226Ra, 210Po) or for their properties
as chemical elements (e.g. thorium, uranium);

Schedule I
I-3.Under the criteria in paras I-1 and I-2, the following sources
within justified practices are automatically exempted without
further consideration from the requirements of these
Standards, including those for notification, registration or
licensing:
New
b. Radioactive material in a bulk amount [42] for which the
activity concentration of a given radionuclide of artificial
origin used in the practice does not exceed the relevant
value given in Table I-2 of Schedule I [43];
c. Radiation generators, of a type approved by the regulatory
body, or in the form of an electronic tube, such as a
cathode ray tube for the display of visual images, provided
that:
i. They do not cause in normal operating conditions an ambient dose

equivalent rate or a directional dose equivalent rate, as appropriate,
exceeding 1 mSv/h at a distance of 0.1 m from any accessible surface of
the equipment; or
ii. The maximum energy of the radiation generated is no
Rio De Janeiro, April 2010greater than 5 keV.
Schedule I

• [42] (1) The exemption values (activity concentrations) set forth
in Table I-1 have been calculated on the basis of scenarios
involving a moderate quantity of material: “The calculated
values apply to practices involving small scale usage of activity
where the quantities involved are at the most of the order of a
tonne.” (see Ref. [20]) The regulatory body will need to
establish for which quantities the concentration values in Table
I-1 may be applied, bearing in mind that for many radionuclides,
in particular those for which there is no corresponding value in
Table I-2, a restriction on the quantity is not meaningful. (2) The
application of values in Table I-1 to the exemption of natural
radionuclides is limited to their incorporation into consumer
products or their use as a radioactive source (e.g. Ra-226, Po-
210) or for their elemental properties (e.g. thorium, uranium);
for ores or for residues from industries processing materials
containing radionuclides in the uranium and thorium decay
chains or containing K-40 the corresponding activity
concentration values are given in I-9 (b).
Schedule I

[43] The exemption and clearance levels set out in Tables I-I and I-
2 of Schedule I are subject to the following considerations: (a)
They were derived using a conservative model based on (i) the
criteria of paras I-2 and I-8 respectively and (ii) a series of
limiting (bounding) use and disposal scenarios (see Ref. [20] in
the case of Table I-1 and Ref. [21] in the case of Table I-2). (b) In
the case of more than one radionuclide, the derived exemption
level or derived clearance level for the mixture is determined as
specified in para. I-11.
[20] EUROPEAN COMMISSION, Principles and Methods for Establishing Concentrations and Quantities (Exemption
Values) below which Reporting is not Required in the European Directive, Radiation Protection 65, Office for
Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg (1993).
[21] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Derivation of Activity Concentration Values for Exclusion,
Exemption and Clearance, Safety Reports Series No. 44, IAEA, Vienna (2005).

Schedule I
CRITERIA FOR EXEMPTION New
I-4. For radionuclides of natural origin, other than

when incorporated into consumer products, or
used either as a radioactive source or for their
properties as chemical elements, exemption shall
be considered on a case by case basis, by using a
dose criterion commensurate with natural
background levels. Doses to individuals as a
consequence of these activity concentrations
should be unlikely to exceed about 1 mSv in a
year,

Schedule I
New
I-5. The Regulations for the Safe Transport of

Radioactive Material [5] (the Transport Regulations)
do not apply to exempt material or exempt
consignments — that is, material in transport for
which either the activity concentration of the
material or the total activity of an individual
radionuclide in the consignment, does not exceed
the relevant ‘basic radionuclide value’ for exemption
given in the Transport Regulations[44]. In general,
such basic radionuclide values are numerically equal
to the corresponding exempt activity concentrations
or exempt activities given in Table I-1 of Schedule I.
[44] For purposes of material in transport, exemption means exemption from

the requirements of the Transport Regulations.
Schedule I

I-6. Exemptions may be granted subject to conditions specified by
the regulatory body, such as conditions relating to the
physical or chemical form and to the use or disposal of the
radioactive material. In particular, such an exemption may be
granted for an apparatus containing radioactive material not
otherwise exempted under para. I-3(a) provided that:
a. The equipment is of a type approved by the regulatory
body;
b. The radioactive material
i. Is in the form of a sealed source that effectively prevents any
contact with the radioactive material and prevents its leakage,
or
ii. Is an unsealed source of a small amount such as sources
used for radioimmunoassay;

Schedule I
CRITERIA FOR CLEARANCE New
I-7. The general criteria for clearance are that:

a. The radiation risks to individuals arising from
the cleared material are sufficiently low as to not
warrant regulatory control, with no appreciable
likelihood of scenarios that could lead to a
failure to meet this criterion; or
b. The continued regulatory control of the material
would provide no net benefit, in that no
reasonable control measures would achieve a
worthwhile return in reduction of individual
doses or risks.

Schedule I

I-8. Material may be cleared under para. I-7(a) without further
consideration provided that, in all reasonably foreseeable
situations, the effective dose expected to be incurred by any
member of the public due to the cleared material is of the
order of 10 µSv or less in a year. To take account of low
probability scenarios for which the above criterion fails, an
additional criterion can be used, namely that the effective
dose due to such low probability scenarios does not exceed 1
mSv in a year.
New.- No collective effective dose committed is applied

Schedule I
CRITERIA FOR CLEARANCE
New
I-9. Radioactive material within a notified or authorized practice
may be cleared without further consideration provided that:
a. The activity concentration of an individual radionuclide of

artificial origin does not exceed the relevant level given in
Table I-2 of Schedule I[43]; or
b. In the case of naturally occurring radionuclides, the

activity concentration of each radionuclide in the uranium
and thorium decay does not exceed 1 Bq/g and the
activity concentration of 40K does not exceed 10 Bq/g[45].
[45] The derivation of these activity concentration values does not take into account
the possible use of these materials for construction of buildings. Control of
construction materials is addressed in Section 5.
Schedule I
I-10. Clearance may be granted to subject to

conditions specified by the regulatory body, such
as conditions relating to the physical or chemical
form of the material, or to the use or disposal of the
material[46].
[46] For example, specific clearance levels may be developed for metals,
building rubble, and waste for landfill.

Schedule I
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS New
I-11. For exemption and clearance of radioactive

material containing more than one radionuclide,
using the levels given in Tables I-1 and I-2, the
condition for exemption or clearance is that the sum
of the individual radionuclide activities or activity
concentrations, as appropriate, is less than the
derived exemption or clearance level for the mixture
(Xm ), determined as follows:

Schedule I
New
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Where:
f(i) is the fraction of activity or activity concentration, as
appropriate, of radionuclide i in the mixture,
X(i) is the applicable level for radionuclide i as given in
Table I-1 or Table I-2, and
n is the number of radionuclides present.

Schedule I
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS New
I-12. For exemption and clearance of bulk quantities of

material containing a mixture of radionuclides of
both natural and artificial origin, both conditions
presented in paras I-9(b) and I-11 are to be satisfied.
New
I-13. Residual radioactive material arising from

authorized discharges is exempted from any future
requirements for notification, registration or
licensing unless otherwise specified by the
regulatory body.
Schedule I
NOTE: During the revision of the BSS, the Agency received a number of
requests for the inclusion of additional nuclides in Table I-1, primarily used
in medical applications that were not routinely used when the current
edition of the BSS was published in 1996. It was also pointed out that,
during the lifetime of the revised BSS, it is more than likely that further
applications will be developed that involve 'new' radionuclides. The
Agency was also asked to ensure that a procedure is in place to allow the
updating of Tables I-1 and I-2 without the need to review the BSS in its
entirety.
Table I-1 has been amended to include an exhaustive list of approximately
800 radionuclides and their associated exemption values. These are taken
from the NRPB report NRPB-R306 “Exempt Concentrations and Quantities
for Radionuclides not included in the European Basic Safety Standards
Directive” published in April 1999 and were calculated based on ICRP dose
conversion factors existing at the time that the calculations were made.
These dose conversion factors are currently under revision and, as soon
as revised values have been published, Table I-1 will be reviewed.
After the revised BSS is published, Schedule I may need to be updated
through an addendum.
Schedule I
TABLE I-1: Radio Activity Activity (Bq)

nuclide concentration
LEVELS FOR (Bq/g)
EXEMPTION OF
MODERATE Co-60 1 × 101 1 × 105
AMOUNTS OF Tc-99m 1 × 102 1 × 107
MATERIAL WITHOUT
FURTHER I-131 1 × 102 1 × 106
CONSIDERATION: Cs-137a 1 × 101 1 × 104
EXEMPT ACTIVITY
CONCENTRATIONS Sm-153 1 × 102 1 × 106
AND EXEMPT Tl-201 1 × 102 1 × 106
ACTIVITIES OF
RADIONUCLIDES

Schedule I
Radio Activity Activity

TABLE I-2: concentration
concentration (Bq/g)
nuclide Moderate amount
LEVELS FOR (Bq/g)
CLEARANCE AND
Co-60 1 × 10-1 1 × 101
FOR EXEMPTION OF
BULK AMOUNTS OF Tc-99m 1 1 × 102
MATERIAL WITHOUT I-131 10 1 × 102
FURTHER
CONSIDERATION: Cs-137 1 × 10-1 1 × 101
ACTIVITY
Sm-153 1 × 102 1 × 102
CONCENTRATIONS
OF RADIONUCLIDES Tl-201 1 × 102 1 × 102
OF ARTIFICIAL
ORIGIN

Importance of Clearance Levels
• Reduce the amount of material disposed as

waste, thereby reducing cost - consistent with
fundamental principles. If criteria are not
established - resources will be wasted
• In decommissioning, need criteria to determine
when decommissioning is finished
(decommissioning endpoint)
IAEA 44
Impacts on National Policy
• Impacts on the amount of material to be

disposed of have national repercussions as
well as affecting operators
• Absence of clearance criteria can affect the
ability to complete decommissioning & perform
cleanups
• Inappropriate criteria can result in previously-
cleared material becoming the focus for further
remediation
IAEA 45
Application of the Concepts
• Guidance to regulators and

operators
• Bulk material - over the order of

a 1 tonne
• Activity concentration values

(Bq/g) (details in IAEA Safety
Report 44)
• Food and drinking water out of

the scope, radon in air and
potassium in the body
IAEA 46
Application of the Concepts (cont)
Radionuclides of Natural Origin

– Levels are established for exclusion of naturally
occurring radionuclides from regulatory control
– Basis linked to radiation levels in natural environment
– Amenability to control
– Levels proposed from data on levels of naturally
occurring radionuclides reported by UNSCEAR
– Based on median natural content in soil (not counting
radon)
• K-40 - 10 Bq/g
• All other radionuclides of natural origin - 1 Bq/g
• U-238, U-235, Th-232- values for parent of decay chain
IAEA 47
Artificial Radionuclides
• Levels for considering exemption of artificial radionuclides
• Doses to individuals anticipated 10 μSv and unlikely to
exceed 1 mSv
• Collective dose associated with exemption of bulk quantities
not to exceed 1 man.Sv in a year
• Exemption for bulk quantities of material can be used for
clearance
• Levels tabulated for individual radionuclides
IAEA 48
Typical Clearance Levels
Nuclide Bq/g
H-3 100
C-14 1
Mn-54 0.1
Fe-59 1
Co-60 0.1
Ni-59 100
Sr-90 1
Tc-99 1
I-131 10
Cs-137 0.1
Eu-154 0.1
Pu-238 0.1
IAEA Am-241 0.1 49
(a) Mixture of RNs of natural origin

concentration of each radionuclide should be less than the
relevant value of the activity concentration
(b) Mixture of Artificial RNs
(c) Mixture of RNs of natural and artificial origin

Both conditions presented (a) and (b) should be satisfied.
IAEA 50
• Decisions needed on how the values will be

incorporated into national regulations
• Decisions needed on how the values will be used to
control clearance of materials
• These will depend on the

legal framework and
national regulatory
practices (e.g. France,
Ukraine)
IAEA 51
Application of graded approach:
• Commensurate with the characteristics

of the practice or source
• Commensurate with the magnitude and

likelihood of the exposures
• Conforming to any requirements

specified by the Regulatory Body
• When values are exceeded by several

times (e.g. up to ten times)
IAEA 52
Trade
International trade in materials and objects

with radioactivity levels below derived levels
should not be restricted
Authorities should ensure compliance at

source of origin of object or material (Exporting
Country)
Monitoring at borders (Importing Countries)

and important locations such as metal
recyclers should be established
Regulatory Bodies should coordinate

monitoring
IAEA strategies and programmes 53
Verification
•Values derived for large quantities and homogeneous
material
• Consideration should also be given to areas of

concentrated activity on or near the surfaces of materials
•Verification of values should be based on procedures
Dilution
Deliberate dilution in order to meet the values is should not

be permitted
IAEA 54
Monitoring for Compliance
•Draft IAEA Safety Report (DS 740)
a. Selection of a monitoring strategy

Scope of work (material)
Clearance criteria (e.g. generic,
site-specific, averaging)
Material characteristics
Management approach
Decision of optimum strategy
Stakeholders involvement
IAEA 55
Nuclide-Specific Clearance Levels
• Dose criteria are the same as for exemption but

for derivation of clearance levels different
scenarios are used: often greater amounts of
material (up to 100 000 tonnes)
• Regulatory body either directly gives or
approves clearance levels
• Clearance levels can be generic or defined
case-by-case
IAEA 56
Establishing Radionuclide-Specific
Clearance Levels
Decide on situations
of interest
Establish
exposure scenario
and calculate doses
Dose criteria
for exemption
or clearance
Radionuclide-specific
exemption or
clearance values
IAEA 57
Calculating Clearance Levels for Scrap Metal
Scrap from
nuclear facilities
Scrap Processing: Handling

Segregating
Transportation
Smelting: Dust in the workplace

Discharges to environment
Product manufacture
Use of Products: Use / Disposal of Byproducts:

At workplace At home Slag Dust
IAEA 58
Derivation of
Generic Clearance Levels (RS-G-1.7)
• For artificial radionuclides: use scenarios
representing typical exposure situations
• Using realistic parameter values and a dose
criteria of 10 Sv/a
• Using low probability parameter values and a dose
criteria of 1 mSv/a
• Dose criteria to the skin of 50 mSv in a year
• Values developed for naturally occurring
radionuclides based on worldwide distribution of
activity concentrations by UNSCEAR (2000)
• Not applicable to food and drinking water (use Codex
Alimentarius / WHO recommendations)
IAEA 59
Clearance Procedures
• Clearance using general clearance levels derived /

approved by the regulatory body.
• Competent operator: activity measurements reliable,
records kept, quality assurance in place, clearance
plans given to the regulatory body.
• Reporting (e.g. annual information of amount and
activity of cleared materials to the regulatory body)
• Case by case clearance:
• No general clearance levels in place or
• The general clearance levels are exceeded
A case/site specific assessment has to be carried out
IAEA 60
Practical Application of Clearance
• Locate clearance instruments in low-

background area
• Have process knowledge of the material (where
did it come from, and its chain of custody)
• Non-porous materials are much easier to clear
• Clearance levels are set on a volumetric and
surface contamination basis
• Material that is suspected to be alpha-
contaminated is difficult to clear
IAEA 61
Examples for Clearance
• Release of steel from nuclear installation to

general scrap metal pool
• Release of waste oil from nuclear power plant
• Separation of water and oil
• Filtering
• Send for recycling
• Release solid hospital waste contaminated by
131I
• Allowing the 131I decay

• Disposal with other hospital wastes
IAEA 62
Monitoring for Compliance with Clearance
Criteria (cont)
Implementation of Monitoring Strategy
Selection of monitoring techniques and instruments

Background
Dealing with mixture of RNs (Fingerprint)
Converting clearance criteria to field levels (units)
Measurement sensitivities
Use of multiple monitoring techniques
Uncertainties
Physical sorting techniques
IAEA 63
Criteria (cont)
Measurements
Surface contamination
Bulk material
Collection and Analysis of Samples

Sampling methods
Representative samples
Management System
Documentation
Responsibilities and supervision, etc.
IAEA 64
Criteria (cont)
Summary clearance report
Executive summary Results

Background Lessons learned
Material description
Clearance objectives Next step(s)
Clearance criteria References
Clearance strategy and
Contributors to the report
techniques
IAEA 65
Class Discussion
• Discuss the importance of clearance (or

authorized release) levels for a typical
facility (e.g. a research reactor being
decommissioned)
• Discuss some of the difficulties that

might be encountered in setting
clearance levels and getting them
accepted.
IAEA 66
Summary
• Exclusion is removal of entire types of

materials from regulatory control (based on
unamenability to control)
• Exemption / clearance of specific quantities of
materials based on trivial risk (de-minimis)
• Exemption levels (BSS) apply to small volumes
• Clearance levels for release of large volumes
from regulatory control (generic or specific)
• Exclusion, exemption and clearance provide a
fundamental basis for waste segregation
strategies
IAEA 67
Summary
• At national level it is important to define:

- concepts application
- criteria
- methods of demonstration of compliance
- control mechanisms
- coordination with neighbouring countries
• IAEA assistance:
• Development of safety reports on derivation and
monitoring for compliance with clearance levels
• Technical support to MSs in establishing their regulatory
framework
IAEA 68
IAEA Thank you!
69
2012-09-25
IAEA Nuclear Law Institute

Baden/Austria 2012
Basic Principles of
Renate Czarwinski
Federal Office for Radiation Protection
Berlin / Germany
IAEA
Introduction
• The beneficial uses of radiation in medicine, agriculture, industry and

energy production have resulted in the improvement of the quality of life
in our societies.
• However, activities involving ionizing radiation may produce harmful

effects if they are not carried out under an appropriate regulatory
control. Therefore, there is a need to establish a legal framework
supporting regulatory programs that ensure the implementation of
appropriate measures of radiation protection.
• Radiation protection is a cross-cutting discipline.
IAEA 2
1
2012-09-25
Background
• Photon emission (Gamma, X-rays)

• Particle emission (alpha, beta)
External exposure
Internal exposure
Contamination
IAEA NLI 2012 26th September 2012 3
Background
Paper Marginal
Alpha Penetration
of skin
Aluminium
Beta Absorption
Absorption
Lead Penetration,
Gamma Partly absorption
Attenuation
Ref. : BfS/Germany
2
2012-09-25
Radioactivity
Henri Becquerel 1852-1908 Marie Curie 1867-1934
In 1903, Bequerel shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre and Marie
Curie "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his
IAEA discovery of spontaneous radioactivity". NLI 2012 26th September 2012 5
X-ray
X-rays were discovered

by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen 8 Nov 1895
3
2012-09-25
X-ray
• The first medical use of x-rays was reported on

23 Jan 1896
(only 76 days later)
when x-rays were used to locate the piece of a knife in

the backbone of a drunken sailor, who was paralyzed
until the fragment was removed.*
• Radiobiology for the Radiologist (6th ed.)

• – E.J. Hall, A.J. Giaccia
A more recent x-ray of a knife
X-ray
• The first unnecessary exposure took place several

weeks earlier
4
2012-09-25
X-ray
• The first unnecessary exposure took place several

weeks earlier - soon followed by many more
Exposure pathways
Ionizing Radiation is in our daily life:

natural radiation
man made radiation
What is low?
• It can be very costly to consider
every dose level explicitly
• Dose levels below ‘regulatory
concern’?
• A potential starting point are
doses from natural background
which are inevitable and one can
assume organisms have adapted
to them
5
2012-09-25
Effects of Ionizing Radiation
What can radiation do?
Deterministic effects
death, skin burns, cataract,
infertility
Stochastic effects
cancer, genetic effects
Radiation
Energy absorbed by cells
Transformation of
cells Death of cells
Stochastic effects Deterministic effects
6
2012-09-25
Stochastic Effects Deterministic Effects

• may arise from any dose; • are the result of high doses;
• have no known threshold; • have a threshold before they
appear;
• have a long latency period;
• appear early (and/or late);
• have a probability of
occurrence depending on the • have a severity of harm
radiation dose. depending on the dose.
Deterministic Effects - Example
Elbow injury from irradiator

Severity accident
of
Effect
Threshold Burn from very high

dose interventional x-
ray procedures
Dose
7
2012-09-25
Stochastic Effects – Limits of knowledge

“For most tumour types in
experimental animals and in man a
significant increase in risk is only
detectable at doses above about
100 mGy.” UNSCEAR 2000
Doses where cancers

have been observed
Radium dial painters
Doses of relevance in
Stochastic effects
The need for protection applies to all dose

levels!!
• It is generally assumed that even very small doses

of ionizing radiation can potentially be harmful
(linear no threshold hypothesis)
• Therefore, persons must be protected from
ionizing radiation at all dose levels
8
2012-09-25
OBJECTIVES OF RADIATION PROTECTION
PREVENTION of deterministic effect
LIMITING the probability of stochastic effect
Primary aim of radiation protection
Protection for people and environment against the

detrimental effects of radiation exposure without
unduly limiting the desirable human actions that may
associated with such exposure
Model/System for
protecting humans and
environment against
radiation
9
2012-09-25
Paradigm to be maintained
Fundamental Safety
Principles Essential
principles
(moral obligation)
Safety Fundamentals
No. SF-1
103
The 2007 Recommendations of the

International Commission on Radiological
Protection
Effects of Recommendations Essential

radiation for protection requirements
(legal obligation)
The System of Radiological Protection
Biology: deterministic & stochastic effects
Units: activity, specific activity; absorbed,

equivalent and effective dose
Principles: justification, optimization, limitation

Ethics: utilitarian & deontological
Exposure situations: planned, existing, emergency
Exposure types: occupational, public, medical
Tools: limits, constraints, reference levels
10
2012-09-25
The System of Radiological Protection
Biology: deterministic & stochastic effects
Units: activity, specific activity; absorbed,

equivalent and effective dose
Principles: justification, optimization, limitation
Ethics: utilitarian & deontological
Exposure situations: planned, existing, emergency
Exposure types: occupational, public, medical
Tools: limits, constraints, reference levels

Quantities and units: Activity
The activity of a radioisotope may be described as the

number of atomic transformations per unit time within that
radioisotope.
SI unit is the becquerel (Bq)
1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second
SI = Système International d'unités

11
2012-09-25
Quantities and units: Dose
Absorbed dose
Energy deposited in tissue.
SI unit is gray (Gy) Harald Gray 1905 - 1965
measured in J/kg
Equivalent dose
Absorbed dose modified by the radiation
weighting factor.
SI unit is the sievert (Sv)
12
2012-09-25
Effective Dose
Effective dose is the total of the equivalent doses to each
organ multiplied by the appropriate tissue weighting factor.
(May be considered to be the whole-body radiation dose)
SI unit is the sievert (Sv)
Quantities and units: Summary
Quantity Unit
• Activity A becquerel
• Absorbed dose D gray
• Equivalent dose H sievert
• Effective dose E sievert
Dose rate Sv/h, Sv/a
Specific activity Bq/m², Bq/m³, Bq/g, Bq/l
13
2012-09-25
Conversion Non-SI Units to SI Units
Quantity Old unit SI unit Conversion
Activity curie (Ci) becquerel (Bq) 1 Ci=3.7 x 1010Bq
Absorbed rad gray (Gy) 1 rad = 0.01 Gy

Dose
Equivalent rem sievert (Sv) 1 rem = 0.01 Sv

Dose
Multiples & prefixes (Activity)
Multiple Prefix Abbreviation

1 – Bq
1,000.000 Mega (M) MBq
1,000,000,000 Giga (G) GBq
1,000,000,000,000 Tera (T) TBq
14
2012-09-25
Fractions & prefixes (Dose)
Fraction Prefix Abbreviation
1 - Sv
1/1000 milli (m) mSv
1/1,000,000 micro (µ) µSv
Principles of Radiation Protection
Three key principles of radiation

protection are retained!
Justification 103
Optimization The 2007 Recommendations of the

International Commission on Radiological
Protection
Dose limitation
15
2012-09-25
• Justification
Any decision that alters the radiation exposure
103
situation should do more good than harm.
The 2007 Recommendations of the
International Commission on
Radiological Protection
• Optimization of Protection
The likelihood of incurring exposures, the
number of people exposed, and the magnitude
of their individual doses should all be kept as
low as reasonably achievable, taking into
account economic and societal factors.
Dose limitation
Dose limits should be set to ensure that no
individual faces an unacceptable risk in normal
103
circumstances.
The 2007 Recommendations of
the International Commission on
Radiological Protection
Application of dose limits

The total dose to any individual from
regulated sources in planned exposure situations
other than medical exposure of patients should not
exceed the appropriate limits recommended by the
Commission
16
2012-09-25
Types of Exposure Situations
Planned exposure situations

situations involving the planned introduction and
operation of sources (including decommissioning,
disposal of radioactive waste, rehabilitation)
Emergency exposure situations

unexpected situations such as those that may occur
during of a planned situation, or from a malicious act,
requiring urgent attention

situations that already exist when a decision on control
has to be taken, such as those by natural background
radiation and residues from past practices operated
outside the system
Categories of Exposure
Occupational exposures
exposure of workers incurred as a result of
their work (with the exception of excluded
exposures and exposures from exempt activities;
medical exposure; and background)
Public exposures
all exposures of the public other than
occupational exposures and medical
exposures of patients
Medical exposures of patients

incurred by patients as part of their own medical
or dental diagnosis or treatment; volunteers
helping in the support and comfort of patients;
and biomedical research volunteers
17
2012-09-25
Summary
Exposure Situations
Planned Emergency Existing
Occupational
Exposure Category
Public
Medical n/a n/a
Dose limits vs. dose constraints/reference levels
Protection of individuals from occupational and public exposures
Dose Limits Constraints & Reference Levels

• All regulated sources • A single source
• Planned exposure • All exposure situations
situations
IAEA NLI 2012 Ref.:

26th ICRP
September 2012 36
18
2012-09-25
Dose Limits, Constraints, and Reference Levels
Exposure Situations
Planned Emergency Existing
Dose Limits Reference

Occupational n/a
Exposure Category
Dose Constraints Levels
Dose Limits Reference Reference

Public Dose Constraints Levels Levels
Diagnostic Reference
Medical Levels n/a n/a
(Dose Constraints)
Dose Limits
• Apply to planned exposure situations

• Apply to occupational and public exposures
Occupational Dose Public Dose

Limits Limits
Effective Dose (Whole Body) 20 mSv/a averaged 1 mSv/a
over 5 years
(and 50 mSv/a)
Equivalent Dose (Lens of the Eye) 20 mSv/a averaged 15 mSv/a
over 5 years
(and 50 mSv/a)
Equivalent Dose (Skin) 500 mSv/a 50 mSv/a
Equivalent Dose (Hands and Feet) 500 mSv/a -
IAEA Dose limits in ICRP = Dose

NLI 2012 limits in BSS
26th September 2012 38
19
2012-09-25
Dose constraints
• Prospective and source-related restriction on the individual dose

from a source
• an upper bound for optimization
• a basic level of protection for the most highly exposed
individuals
• Occupational: limits the range of options considered in the

process of optimisation
• Public: an upper bound on public doses from a planned

operation
Ref.: ICRP
Reference levels
• Applied in emergency and existing exposure situations
• Similar to constraints
• Level of dose (or risk):

• above which it is judged to be inappropriate to plan to allow
exposures to occur
• below which protection should be optimized
20
2012-09-25
Optimization
• Key role and is central to the system of protection

and applies to all three exposure situations
• It is a source-related process
• Optimization is a prospective and iterative process

that requires both qualitative and quantitative
judgments to be made.
Optimization
Planned exposure situations Emergency and existing

exposure situations
Limit
Optimization
Dose constraint Reference level
2 Optimization
Optimization
3 2. Averted dose
1
1. Added dose 3. Residual dose
21
2012-09-25
Applicability of the fundamental principles

according to the exposure situations
Source
Situation requiring urgent

Situation that already
Deliberate introduction action in order to avoid or
exist when a decision on
and operation of source reduce undesirable
control has to be taken
consequences
Type of Planned exposure Emergency exposure Existing exposure

exposure situation situation situation
situation
Category
of Occupational Public Medical Occupational Public Occupational Public
exposure
Justification Justification
Principles Justification Justification Justification Justification Justification
Optimisation Optimisation
which are Optimisation Optimisation Optimisation Optimisation Optimisation
(DCs) (DCs)
applicable (DRLs) (RLs) (RLs) (RLs) (RLs)
Limitation Limitation
IAEA Ref.: ICRP NLI 2012 26th September 2012 43
International Basic Safety Standards (BSS)
The IAEA Board of Governors approved the

revised Basic Safety Standards in September 2011
Jointly sponsored by
The UN agencies, with the International Atomic

Energy Agency as the lead agency, used the 2007
ICRP Recommendations as a major input to their
project of revising the International BSS
22
2012-09-25
International Basic Safety Standards (BSS) 2011
Scope
These standards apply to all situations involving

exposures that are amenable to control.
Exposures deemed to be unamenable to control
are excluded from the scope of these Standards.
(For example, it is generally accepted that it is not
feasible to control 40K in the body and cosmic
radiation at the surface of the earth.)
Applied to all facilities and activities
Objective
To establish basic requirements for protection of
people and the environment from harmful effects
of ionizing radiation and for the safety of sources
Aimed at Governments
Regulatory bodies
Principal parties
Health authorities
Professional bodies
Providers of specialized services (TSO)
23
2012-09-25
Graded approach
The application of the requirements for the system

of protection and safety shall be commensurate with
the radiation risks associated with the exposure
situation.
Justification
….justification of any type of practice and for review of the justification, as
necessary, and
….ensure that only justified practices are authorized.
Practices deemed not to be justified:

• deliberate addition of radioactive substances (or by activation) in food,
feed, beverages, cosmetics…......
• frivolous use of radioactive substances in commodities, toys, jewelry
• human imaging for art or publicity purposes
• human imaging for theft purposes
Exceptional circumstances for other

applications considered
24
2012-09-25
The application of the justification principle to medical exposures requires

a special approach.
• Overarching justification: use of radiation in medicine does

more good than harm.
• Next level: a need for generic justification of a given

radiological procedure. This applies to the justification of new
technologies and techniques as they evolve.
• Final level: the application of the radiological

procedure to a given individual has to be considered.
• The specific objectives of the exposure, the clinical circumstances

and the characteristics of the individual involved have to be taken into
account through referral criteria developed by professional bodies
and the health authority.
• Germany: referral criteria don’t replace justifying indication
The medical exposure has been justified

through consultation between the
radiological medical practitioner and the
referring medical practitioner, as appropriate,
or is part of an approved health screening
programme.
25
2012-09-25
Prevention and mitigation of accidents
The most harmful consequences arising from facilities and activities have come
from the loss of control over a nuclear reactor core, nuclear chain reaction,
radioactive source or other source of radiation.
Consequently, to ensure that the likelihood of an accident having
harmful consequences is extremely low, measures have to be taken:
• To prevent the occurrence of failures or abnormal conditions (including

breaches of security) that could lead to such a loss of control;
• To prevent the escalation of any such failures or abnormal conditions that do
occur;
• To prevent the loss of, or the loss of control over, a radioactive source or
other source of radiation.
Prevention and mitigation of accidents
• A multilevel (defence in depth) system of sequential,

independent provisions for protection and safety that is
commensurate with the likelihood and the magnitude of the
potential exposures is applied
• Structures, systems and components, including software,

that are related to protection and safety for facilities and
activities are designed, constructed, commissioned,
operated and maintained so as to prevent accidents as far
as reasonably practicable
26
2012-09-25
Protection of present and future generations

• Relevant parties shall apply the system of
protection and safety to protect members of
the public against exposure.
• Relevant parties shall ensure that

radioactive waste and discharges of
radioactive material to the environment are
managed in accordance with the
authorization.
• Establish and implement monitoring programs
Monitoring of
− external exposure from sources;
− discharges;
− radioactivity in the environment;
− other parameters important for the assessment of public exposure.
27
AND SAFETY
IN INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
AFGHANISTAN HAITI PARAGUAY
ALBANIA HOLY SEE PERU
ALGERIA HUNGARY PHILIPPINES
ARGENTINA ICELAND POLAND
ARMENIA INDIA PORTUGAL
AUSTRALIA INDONESIA QATAR
AUSTRIA IRAN, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA
BANGLADESH IRAQ ROMANIA
BELARUS IRELAND RUSSIAN FEDERATION
BELGIUM ISRAEL SAUDI ARABIA
BOLIVIA ITALY SENEGAL
BOSNIA AND JAMAICA SIERRA LEONE
HERZEGOVINA JAPAN SINGAPORE
BRAZIL JORDAN SLOVAKIA
BULGARIA KAZAKHSTAN SLOVENIA
BURKINA FASO KENYA SOUTH AFRICA
CAMBODIA KOREA, REPUBLIC OF SPAIN
CAMEROON KUWAIT SRI LANKA
CANADA LATVIA SUDAN
CHILE LEBANON SWEDEN
CHINA LIBERIA SWITZERLAND
COLOMBIA LIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYA SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC
COSTA RICA LIECHTENSTEIN THAILAND
COTE D’IVOIRE LITHUANIA THE FORMER YUGOSLAV
CROATIA LUXEMBOURG REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA
CUBA MADAGASCAR TUNISIA
CYPRUS MALAYSIA TURKEY
CZECH REPUBLIC MALI UGANDA
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC MALTA UKRAINE
OF THE CONGO MARSHALL ISLANDS UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
DENMARK MAURITIUS UNITED KINGDOM OF
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC MEXICO GREAT BRITAIN AND
ECUADOR MONACO NORTHERN IRELAND
EGYPT MONGOLIA UNITED REPUBLIC
EL SALVADOR MOROCCO OF TANZANIA
ESTONIA MYANMAR UNITED STATES
ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA OF AMERICA
FINLAND NETHERLANDS URUGUAY
FRANCE NEW ZEALAND UZBEKISTAN
GABON NICARAGUA VENEZUELA
GEORGIA NIGER VIET NAM
GERMANY NIGERIA YEMEN
GHANA NORWAY YUGOSLAVIA
GREECE PAKISTAN ZAMBIA
GUATEMALA PANAMA ZIMBABWE
© IAEA, 1999
Permission to reproduce or translate the information contained in this publication may be
obtained by writing to the International Atomic Energy Agency, Wagramer Strasse 5, P.O. Box 100,
A-1400 Vienna, Austria.
January 1999
STI/PUB/1066
SAFETY REPORTS SERIES No. 13
AND SAFETY

VIENNA, 1999
VIC Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Radiation protection and safety in industrial radiography.— Vienna :
International Atomic Energy Energy, 1999.
p. ; 24 cm. — (Safety reports series, ISSN 1020–6450; no. 13)
STI/PUB/1066
ISBN 92–0–100399–4
1. Radiography, Industrial—Safety measures. I. International Atomic
Energy Agency. II. Series.
VICL 99–00214
FOREWORD
The use of ionizing radiation, particularly in medicine and industry, is growing

throughout the world, with further expansion likely as technical developments result
from research. One of the longest established applications of ionizing radiation is
industrial radiography, which uses both X radiation and gamma radiation to
investigate the integrity of equipment and structures. Industrial radiography is
widespread in almost all Member States. It is indispensable to the quality assurance
required in modern engineering practice and features in the work of multinational
companies and small businesses alike.
Industrial radiography is extremely versatile. The equipment required is
relatively inexpensive and simple to operate. It may be highly portable and capable of
being operated by a single worker in a wide range of different conditions, such as at
remote construction sites, offshore locations and cross-country pipelines as well as in
complex fabrication facilities. The associated hazards demand that safe working
practices be developed in order to minimize the potential exposure of radiographers
and any other persons who may be in the vicinity of the work. The use of shielded
enclosures (fixed facilities), with effective safety devices, significantly reduces any
radiation exposures arising from the work.
The demands and rewards of industrial radiography, the ready availability of the
essential equipment, the wide range of working conditions and the fact that the
techniques employed usually involve the routine manipulation and exposure of
powerful gamma emitting sources and X ray machines have all been identified as
contributory to the likelihood of accidents. Even in Member States with highly
developed regulatory infrastructures, industrial radiographers, on average, receive
radiation doses that exceed those of other occupationally exposed workers, and
individual industrial radiographers are the most likely group of workers to receive
doses approaching relevant dose limits. Radiation protection and safety in industrial
radiography is thus of great importance in both developed and developing countries.
This Safety Report summarizes good and current state of the art practices in
industrial radiography and provides technical advice on radiation protection and
safety. It contains information for Regulatory Authorities, operating organizations,
workers, equipment manufacturers and client organizations, with the intention of
explaining their responsibilities and means to enhance radiation protection and safety
in industrial radiography.
EDITORIAL NOTE
Although great care has been taken to maintain the accuracy of information contained
in this publication, neither the IAEA nor its Member States assume any responsibility for
consequences which may arise from its use.
The use of particular designations of countries or territories does not imply any
judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of
their authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries.
The mention of names of specific companies or products (whether or not indicated as
registered) does not imply any intention to infringe proprietary rights, nor should it be
construed as an endorsement or recommendation on the part of the IAEA.
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2. Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3. Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4. Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. OBJECTIVES OF RADIATION PROTECTION AND SAFETY . . . . . . 2
3. ORGANIZATIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1. Regulatory Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3.2. The operating organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3. Industrial radiographer/worker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.4. The manufacturers and suppliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.5. The client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4. TYPES OF EXPOSURE DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.1. Gamma radiography sources and containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.2. X ray radiography equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3. Accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.4. Underwater radiography equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.5. Pipe crawler equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.6. Real time radiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.7. Neutron radiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5. DESIGN AND USE OF SHIELDED ENCLOSURES

(FIXED FACILITIES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.1. Enclosure design and use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

5.2. Shielding design for a shielded enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.3. Control of exposure in shielded enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.4. Operating procedures for shielded enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6. SITE RADIOGRAPHY PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.1. Boundary of controlled area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

6.2. Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.3. Administrative arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.4. Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.5. Additional precautions for gamma radiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.6. Additional precautions for X radiography including use of
accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.7. Additional precautions for underwater radiography . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.8. Additional precautions for pipeline crawlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7. STORAGE, MOVEMENT AND TRANSPORT OF RADIOGRAPHIC

SOURCES AND EXPOSURE DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.1. Storage of sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

7.2. Movement and transport of sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
8. EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLANNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
8.1. Emergencies resulting in exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

8.2. Emergency planning and preparedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
8.3. Specific emergency procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.4. Accident notification and report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
REFERENCES .............................................. 57
GLOSSARY .............................................. 59
CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND
Radiography is of vital importance in non-destructive testing. Radiography

ensures the integrity of equipment and structures such as vessels, pipes, welded joints,
castings and other devices. The integrity of this equipment affects not only the safety
and quality of the products used by workers, but also the safety and quality of the
environment for workers and the public at large.
The safety record of over 40 years of application of ionizing radiation is very
good. In particular, radiography can be performed so as to pose a negligible risk on
the public and with sufficiently low occupational radiation exposure so as to pose no
undue radiological risk on the workers.
However, experience has also shown examples of bad practice. Radiography
produces high dose rates so that a person accidentally exposed to the primary beam
or in close contact with an unshielded source might within minutes or even seconds
receive a dose that results in injury. Also, contamination can result from corroded or
damaged sources. Working under adverse conditions might result in operational
situations in which the principle of keeping doses as low as reasonably achievable is
compromised or not met. These aspects indicate the need to achieve a high degree of
professionalism in radiography, using sources and devices designed to the highest
standards and working in an environment that promotes a safety culture. This can be
accomplished by means of an appropriate national and organizational infrastructure,
effective training of workers, compliance with safety requirements, and effective
quality control, together with good design, manufacture and maintenance of sources
and devices.
1.2. OBJECTIVE
This Safety Report discusses good and current state of the art practices for the
safe control and operation of radiography equipment and facilities. It is recognized
that this equipment may be used in countries with little or no experience in its use or
without a well developed programme of radiation protection.
The purpose is to provide information on safe practices to persons intending to
use radiographic techniques and equipment and to governments and their Regulatory
Authorities responsible for regulating such use.
1
1.3. SCOPE
This Safety Report relates to all types of industrial radiography equipment and
facilities. It is only concerned with radiation protection and safety and does not deal
with how to use radiographic techniques for non-destructive testing.
1.4. STRUCTURE
Radiation protection and safety objectives and considerations are presented in

Section 2, while Section 3 describes typical organizational responsibilities for
radiation protection and safety in industrial radiography. Sections 4, 5 and 6 deal with
types of exposure devices, design and use of shielded enclosures and site radiography,
respectively. In Section 7, radiation safety in storage and transport of radiographic
sources is discussed, while Section 8 covers emergency response planning in
industrial operations.
2. OBJECTIVES OF RADIATION PROTECTION

AND SAFETY
The primary aim of radiation protection and safety is to provide appropriate

standards of protection and safety for people without unduly limiting the benefits of
practices giving rise to exposure.
This primary aim is expressed by the following objectives of radiation
protection and safety [1]:
“Protection objectives: to prevent the occurrence of deterministic effects in

individuals by keeping doses below the relevant threshold and to ensure that all
reasonable steps are taken to reduce the occurrence of stochastic effects in the
population at present and in the future.”
“Safety objectives: to protect individuals, society and the environment from
harm by establishing and maintaining effective defences against radiological hazards
from sources.”
Industrial radiography sources emit X rays and gamma radiation which produce
dose rates of the order of hundreds of milligrays per hour at one metre. These high
dose rates at close distances can cause severe injuries such as radiation burns
following exposures of a few seconds. Workers using such sources must achieve the
protection objective to prevent doses arising from acute and chronic accidental
2
exposures and unsafe work practices likely to cause injuries to develop. Safe work
practices will protect not only the individual worker but also others in the vicinity and
the public from serious consequences arising from the loss or uncontrolled use of
these sources.
These radiation protection and safety objectives apply to the design,
manufacture or construction, commissioning, operation, maintenance and
decommissioning of exposure devices, sealed sources and fixed facilities for
industrial radiography. They also apply to the development, application and review of
all operating procedures.
The Basic Safety Standards (BSS) are internationally harmonized safety
standards that establish requirements for the protection of health and the
minimization of danger to life. The BSS establish basic requirements for protection
against the risks associated with exposure to ionizing radiation and for the safety of
radiation sources that may deliver such exposure, to be fulfilled in all activities
involving radiation exposure. They indicate the different aspects that should be
covered by an effective radiation protection programme [2]. The present publication
provides information on methods that can be used to ensure radiation safety,
specifically in industrial radiography.
Adherence to the requirements of the BSS will:
(a) Ensure that during normal operation, maintenance and decommissioning, and
in emergency situations, the radiation exposure of both workers and the public
is kept as low as reasonably achievable, economic and social factors being
taken into account (ALARA principle);
(b) Ensure that during normal operation, maintenance and decommissioning, and
in emergency situations, the radiation exposure of both workers and the public
is kept below the relevant dose limits given in the BSS;
(c) Ensure that the probability of events giving rise to significant exposures and the
magnitude of such exposures are kept as low as reasonably achievable,
economic and social factors being taken into account.
Several points or concepts need to be considered in radiation protection programmes:
(a) The sources, exposure devices and facilities need to be of such a design that
faultless operation is ensured as effectively as possible. The design includes
sufficient safety systems to prevent, detect and respond to deviations from
normal operating conditions, considering good engineering practice and
concepts of redundancy, diversity, independence and quality assurance.
This requires that exposure devices and facilities be routinely reviewed and
inspected as part of a formal maintenance programme to ensure continued safe
operation. Quality assurance programmes are established to review and assess,
3
on a regular basis, the effectiveness of the overall radiation protection
programme and the implementation of the radiation safety requirements.
(b) A safety culture is fostered and maintained among all workers involved in the
industrial radiography industry, from the policy makers and managers of
operating organizations to the radiographers. This is necessary to encourage a
positive attitude towards protection and safety and to discourage complacency.
(c) Industrial radiography is performed in compliance with dose constraints.
(d) Workers have appropriate qualifications and training.
(e) There are available safe operational procedures for both routine, non-routine
and accident situations.
(f) A means is provided for detecting incidents and accidents including those in
which human errors were a contributory factor. Exchange of experience and
feedback from operational practice is important between all relevant parties
involved directly and indirectly in the safe performance of radiographic
techniques especially between operators and manufacturers. An analysis of the
causes and lessons learned will reduce as far as reasonably practicable the
contribution of human error to future accidents and other events that could give
rise to exposures. These considerations should be included in the design of
radiographic sources and devices, development and conduct of theoretical and
practical training programmes, emergency and survey equipment, and in the
development of regulatory requirements and operating procedures. The IAEA
Safety Report on Accidents in Industrial Radiography and Lessons to be
Learned reports previous accidents, the lessons learned from them and the
preventive actions [3].
3. ORGANIZATIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES
The safe performance of industrial radiography relies on the people and

organizations involved meeting certain responsibilities. These organizations are the
Regulatory Authority, the operating organization responsible for carrying out the
work, the industrial radiographers, device manufacturers, qualified experts and the
client responsible for hiring the operating organization. It is necessary for all
concerned to co-operate.
3.1. REGULATORY AUTHORITY
A regulatory system is needed to authorize an application involving sources of

radiation to conduct radiography. The consequences of poor or non-existent
4
regulatory control can be serious and may result in hazardous conditions which may
remain undetected for long periods of time.
The general functions of the Regulatory Authority include the following: the
development of radiography regulations and guidance; the assessment of applications
for permission to conduct radiography; the authorization of such practices and the use
of radiation sources associated with them, subject to certain specified conditions; the
conduct of periodic inspections to verify compliance with the conditions; and the
enforcement of any necessary actions to ensure compliance with the regulations and
standards.
3.1.1. Authorization process
Control of practices involving exposure devices for industrial radiography is

achieved by means of a system of registration or licensing. The system used will
depend on the legislation in place in any given country. The major stages of the
authorization process include control of the design, manufacture and distribution of
the exposure devices, construction of facilities for industrial radiography, operating
programme and decommissioning.
The Regulatory Authority has to assess applications for authorization to
conduct the practices. In these cases, the format and content to be submitted by the
applicant in support of an authorization application are established by the Regulatory
Authority.
Before authorizing the operation of an exposure device or a shielded enclosure
(fixed facility), the Regulatory Authority (or qualified expert as allowed by national
requirements) needs to complete the review and assessment of:
(a) the exposure device;

(b) the facility, as constructed;
(c) the results of any commissioning tests;
(d) the adequacy of operating and maintenance instructions and procedures and of
emergency arrangements;
(e) the records to be kept and the reports to be made both internally and to the
Regulatory Authority;
(f) the training and qualifications of personnel and the arrangements for periodic
training and for ensuring that adequate standards of training are maintained;
(g) the quality assurance programme for equipment and procedures;
(h) the arrangements for periodic testing, maintenance, auditing and surveillance.
It is also important to ensure at this stage that:
(a) all safety features and warning devices operate correctly;
5
(b) there is sufficient radiation protection of all persons and the environment;
(c) the operating organization is adequately supplied with information on the correct
operation, maintenance and decommissioning of the exposure device and facilities.
The Regulatory Authority gives authorization to the practices and prescribes the
conditions or requirements to be attached to the authorization. These requirements
may include:
(a) specification of sources and devices, including activity or energy as applicable;

(b) dose constraints or dose rate limitations;
(c) appointment of radiation protection personnel and authorized users;
(d) periodic tests and surveys of radiation protection and safety aspects of the
exposure devices and facilities;
(e) record keeping and regular reports to the Regulatory Authority on safety
matters such as:
— operating practices,
— radiological data, such as the results of radiation surveys, personal
dosimetry and medical surveillance,
— maintenance of exposure devices and fixed facilities,
— unusual occurrences, such as significant malfunction of a safety system;
(f) modifications to shielded enclosures;
(g) changes in the operating procedures and in the emergency plan, which may
have significant consequences for safety;
(h) notifications and reports to the Regulatory Authority on incidents with actual or
potential radiological consequences;
(i) places of use and storage; and
(j) arrangements for personnel dosimetry.
When safety related changes are indicated in operational conditions or in

equipment and procedures, the Regulatory Authority (or qualified expert as allowed)
needs to review and assess the proposed changes before authorizing their
implementation.
Whenever the Regulatory Authority becomes aware of a breach of
requirements, it may issue a notice to modify, suspend or revoke an operating
organization’s authorization for work.
Before authorizing the decommissioning of any exposure device or shielded
enclosure, the Regulatory Authority may require a review and assessment of the
proposed procedures to ensure that radiation safety is maintained.
Whenever the Regulatory Authority becomes aware of improvements in safety
related technologies it can modify the operating organization’s authorization for work
practices, equipment or facilities.
6
3.1.2. Regulatory inspection
The Regulatory Authority is responsible for ensuring the regulatory inspection

of the practices involving exposure devices, to determine whether the applicant is
fulfilling the requirements and conditions set out in the pertinent regulations and/or
in the authorization.
Inspection programmes confirm that:
(a) shielded enclosures are constructed and exposure devices are manufactured in
compliance with authorizations;
(b) all safety systems and components of shielded enclosures and exposure devices
are of the required quality;
(c) personnel are trained and competent to operate the exposure devices safely;
(d) approved operational procedures are being followed;
(e) exposure devices and shielded enclosures are appropriately surveyed and
maintained;
(f) sources are sealed and leak free;
(g) dosimetric and medical surveillance of the workers are carried out correctly;
(h) the response to incidents follows the agreed emergency plan or regulatory
requirements;
(i) exposure devices and shielded enclosures are maintained in a safe and secure
condition at the end of use or are decommissioned safely;
(j) the source inventory is properly maintained.
In addition to routine regulatory inspection activities, the Regulatory Authority

needs to ensure that inspection and immediate investigation of events and incidents
are carried out.
Regulatory inspections are not meant to take away or limit the responsibility of
the operating organization.
3.1.3. Enforcement
The Regulatory Authority has powers to enforce compliance with the relevant
regulations and authorizations, including the powers to take samples, make
measurements and require an operating organization to modify or correct any aspect
of a procedure, practice, system, structure or component as necessary to ensure safety.
The Regulatory Authority has the power to require an operating organization to cease
operation, as necessary and reasonable, to ensure safety.
The severity of the actions of the Regulatory Authority depends on the hazards
and risks caused by the deviations or violations. In many cases a written notice or
directive to the responsible organization may be sufficient. In the event of chronic or
7
extremely serious deviations, activities may be curtailed through suspension or
revocation of the authorization.
3.1.4. Emergency
The responsibilities of the Regulatory Authority in the implementation of

emergency plans [2] vary according to the type of accident and national requirements.
The primary responsibility resides with the operating organization. Simple incidents
may be resolved by this organization and only require notification to the Regulatory
Authority in routine reports or inspections, as defined by the Regulatory Authority.
In view of the diversity of the events that might occur, the Regulatory Authority
needs to draw up emergency plans which are general in nature and include the
following activities:
— assessment and projection of off-site radiological consequences;

— maintenance of close contact with the local emergency organizations;
— assisting the operating organization in carrying out the emergency response;
— identification of potential medical assistance.
The Regulatory Authority or qualified expert may provide guidance to the

operating organization on how to prepare the emergency plan, which is a prerequisite
of any licensing or authorization procedure. As a minimum, emergency plans cover
events with the greatest potential for exposure as described in Section 8.1.
Emergency notification by the operating organization is required by the
Regulatory Authority. The Regulatory Authority has to be able to receive the
emergency notification and to provide an adequate response to the emergency.
The Regulatory Authority requires that, in the emergency response, radiological
surveys of areas be carried out as appropriate and doses be assessed.
In the post-emergency phase, the Regulatory Authority requires a report of
investigation into the causes of the emergency, its consequences, including a full
assessment of the doses and corrective actions taken to prevent a recurrence. The
Regulatory Authority evaluates the extent to which the emergency plan was
implemented and its effectiveness in order to determine whether the plan requires
modification.
Much can be learned from previous experience of emergency situations and
their resolution. The Regulatory Authority may be in the best position to collate
emergency case histories. These accounts are reviewed periodically so that future
accidents may be prevented and informed responses are available to deal with future
emergencies. The publication of emergency case history reviews helps to alert the
international community to specific problems and improved solutions developed from
experience.
8
3.2. THE OPERATING ORGANIZATION
The operating organization responsible for possession and use of radiography

sources and exposure devices has to obtain from the Regulatory Authority any
authorizations necessary for their acquisition, storage and use, once the necessary
prerequisites are met. The operating organization is responsible for carrying out
industrial radiography in accordance with legislation and authorizations. Any
condition laid down in the authorization has to be complied with. The management
structure will vary with the size and complexity of the organization. However, it
establishes clear lines of responsibility and accountability for the protection and
safety of the sources throughout their operational lifetime within an organization, up
to safe disposal.
The senior management of the operating organization needs to make a
commitment to safety, to keeping doses as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA),
and has to publicize this to all personnel. This will foster the appropriate safety
culture within the operating organization. Good safety performance is a factor that
must be incorporated into the daily routine of performing radiography by all
personnel so that the job can be performed properly. Safety performance should be a
factor by which the performance of managers, supervisors and radiographers is
judged.
The operating organization has to develop and implement a quality assurance
programme, which defines the responsibilities on all levels and which details the
requirements of the organization, personnel and equipment. The quality assurance
programme is based on recognized national or international standards. Internal
inspections or audits must be performed routinely and documented.
3.2.1. Appointment of qualified experts
The operating organization may appoint one or more suitably qualified persons
as qualified experts (radiation protection advisers) to advise on matters relevant to
radiation safety. The responsibility for compliance with the regulations is not
delegated to the qualified expert and remains a responsibility of the operating
organization. The appointment can be on a part time basis or as an outside consultant;
a radiation protection adviser need not necessarily be an employee of the
organization.
The qualified expert provides information and technical assistance on matters
relating to radiation safety, including:
— equipment maintenance, calibration and repair;

— hazard assessments and emergency planning;
— commissioning;
9
— monitoring and dosimetry;
— internal inspections;
— emergency support;
— investigations of incidents, accidents and overexposures;
— training.
The qualifications of the qualified expert include :
(a) Theoretical training and practical experience to ensure the necessary

knowledge of the properties of ionizing radiations used in industrial
radiography.
(b) A knowledge of the hazards of the ionizing radiations present and the ways in
which the hazards should be controlled and minimized.
(c) A general knowledge of the working practices in other organizations of the
same type.
(d) A knowledge of all relevant regulatory provisions, codes of practice and
international and national protection standards, guidance material and other
information needed for the provision of advice in industrial radiography.
The operating organization has to provide the qualified expert with adequate
information, facilities, equipment and support services as may be needed for the
qualified expert to work effectively.
3.2.2. Appointment of radiation protection officers
The operating organization is to appoint at least one radiation protection officer

(RPO) for overseeing the implementation of the radiation safety programme and to
define the duties. These duties include:
— hazard assessment and drawing up emergency plans;

— restriction of exposure and maintenance of engineering controls and other
equipment provided for such restriction;
— identification of controlled and supervised areas;
— control of access to controlled areas;
— dosimetry and monitoring;
— adequate monitoring of workplaces;
— drawing up and reviewing written administrative procedures that define the
means of complying with regulatory or other requirements;
— drawing up and reviewing operational procedures to ensure that exposures to
radiation are ALARA;
— investigation of abnormally high exposures and overexposures;
10
— supervision of radiography;
— implementation of the maintenance schedule of all safety related equipment;
— training;
— investigation of causes, consequences, remedial actions and accident prevention
measures;
— deciding whether any special restrictions are required with respect to the
exposure of declared pregnant female employees;
— prior examination of any plans for a new fixed facility or for modifications to
an existing fixed facility from a radiation safety standpoint;
— maintaining required safety documents.
In cases where more than one RPO is assigned, the duties and responsibilities of
each are well defined. Even in small organizations consisting of only a few employees,
it is essential that someone with adequate knowledge and experience be assigned the
role of RPO. The Regulatory Authority has to be notified of these appointments.
The RPO is to assist the operating organization in complying with the
requirements of the authorization and regulations. Ideally, the RPO is a person whose
responsibilities are separate from those of production, has experience as a
radiographer and has a line management position enabling close supervision of
radiographic work. However, this may not be possible in small operating
organizations so that the owner may fulfil the role of the RPO. Even in this situation
the necessary qualifications and experience are essential for the person who serves
this role, as well as adequate time and resources to perform the duties.
The minimal requirements and qualities for appointment as an RPO are:
(a) theoretical training and practical experience as approved by the Regulatory

Authority, to ensure the necessary knowledge of the properties of ionizing
radiation and regulations used in industrial radiography;
(b) authority to command sufficient respect from the people doing the work to be
able to exercise the necessary supervision of radiation protection and to stop
unsafe practices.
The RPO may work in close association with qualified experts to ensure that all
the required duties are fulfilled.
3.2.3. Appointment of qualified radiographers
The operating organization has to designate individuals who are authorized to

operate radiography equipment. The radiographers’ training, experience, attitude and
competence as fostered and reinforced by the operating organization determine the
degree of safety associated with daily radiography operation.
11
It may be required by the Regulatory Authority in some jurisdictions that all
operators be at least 18 years of age, meet specified training and experience
requirements and pass an examination set or approved by the Regulatory Authority or
some other professional body. Whether such specified training and experience criteria
are mandatory or not, the operating organization needs to ensure that all operators
meet a minimum level in terms of knowledge of safety and radiation protection.
Training includes both formal training and supervised hands on or practical training.
Training topics include:
(a) Nature of ionizing radiation, radiobiological effects, and terminology and units
of ionizing radiation.
(b) Dose and dose rates, including calculations using the inverse square law and
decay laws, with an emphasis on the reduction of the high dose rate close to an
unshielded source and characteristics of shielding materials. Time, distance and
shielding as methods of protection.
(c) Measurement of radiation.
(d) Operating procedures to restrict radiation exposures to ALARA.
(e) Regulatory authority requirements.
(f) Safe storage and transportation requirements.
(g) Specific instruction on operation of each piece of equipment to be used
(including exposure devices, personal dose monitoring radiation, survey meters
and emergency equipment).
(h) Case histories of radiographic incidents and emergency response procedures
(including practice drills).
(i) Testing and maintenance of equipment.
3.2.4. Personnel information, instruction and training
All other personnel such as assistant radiographers, drivers and storemen who
are occupationally exposed have to receive information, instruction and training to the
extent necessary to enable them to conduct their work in accordance with the
requirements of the operating organization and the Regulatory Authority. Examples
of the topics in which these personnel are trained may include:
(a) the nature of ionizing radiation;

(b) the health hazards from exposure to such radiations;
(c) the basic principles and methods of protection (e.g. time, distance and
shielding);
(d) measurement of radiation fields and the units of measurement;
(e) the warning signs and signals and any actions to be taken;
(f) actions to be taken in emergencies.
12
Training needs to be reinforced regularly, updated when necessary and
documented. A periodic review of training is undertaken to ensure its relevance and
compliance with Regulatory Authority requirements. New personnel need to receive
the required training before working with radioactive materials.
3.2.5. Personal monitoring
Workers (for example, radiographers, assistant radiographers, RPOs, service

and maintenance personnel, emergency/accident personnel) who may receive
significant occupational doses (as defined by the Regulatory Authority) have to
wear appropriate personal dosimeters (e.g. film, thermoluminescent dosimeters
(TLDs)), provided and processed by a laboratory or company that has been
authorized by the Regulatory Authority. In addition, a direct reading dosimeter and
an audible or alarming ratemeter have to be carried by a radiographer working
with ionizing radiation. Such devices are not a substitute for radiation survey
meters.
The procedures for the monitoring of workers, including the type of dosimeter
required and the frequency of replacement, are to be chosen in consultation with the
RPO or qualified expert, and as required by the Regulatory Authority.
The results of personal monitoring measurements are to be recorded and
reported as required by the Regulatory Authority. If an overexposure occurs or is
suspected, the dosimeters have to be processed immediately. These and all reported
dosimeter overexposures and abnormal exposures have to be investigated by the
operating organization.
3.2.6. Workplace monitoring
The monitoring instrument is the single most important item of radiation safety
related equipment. As such, it will have the following characteristics:
(a) it will have a response appropriate for the type of radiation being measured;
(b) it will be in good working condition;
(c) it will be formally calibrated and tested within a specified period;
(d) it will be capable of measuring dose rates within the range of 2.5 µSv·h-1 to
2 mSv·h-1;
(e) it will continue to indicate ‘full scale’ at dose rates up to 100 mSv·h-1; and
(f) it will have readily obtainable batteries and a built-in battery check feature.
In the choice of an instrument for field site operations, consideration should be

given to durability in bad weather and poor conditions, reliability, portability and ease
of use in low light or in the dark.
13
A sufficient number of portable X ray and gamma radiation monitors need to
be provided. Surveys are to be undertaken at representative positions in controlled
and supervised areas at intervals as advised by the RPO. Records of surveys have to
be kept for a period of time prescribed by the Regulatory Authority. This monitoring
confirms the delineation of controlled and supervised areas and immediately indicates
any failure in the control of the radiation source.
3.2.7. Testing and maintenance of equipment
The operating organization is responsible for regularly testing the safety

functions of equipment as required by setting up a formal programme of maintenance
and testing.
The formal programme of maintenance and testing should include:
(a) For shielded enclosures, regular testing of safety interlock components and
emergency stop devices for correct operation, according to the instructions of
the manufacturers. These tests are carried out by appropriately qualified
persons.
(b) Radiation monitoring equipment is calibrated and tested before first use, after
repair and at intervals approved by the Regulatory Authority. The pre-use test
includes a test of the instrument’s overload performance to ensure that it
operates correctly up to the maximum credible dose rate it may encounter.
(c) Periodic examination of all safety critical components of gamma exposure
devices and ancillary equipment. Typically, this is performed at least once a year.
(d) Periodic leak tests of radiography sources are carried out in a manner and at a
frequency recommended by the source supplier or manufacturer and in
accordance with regulatory or other requirements.
(e) Periodic examination of safety critical components of X ray exposure devices
and ancillary equipment. The user generally examines equipment yearly.
(f) Any other specific preventive maintenance and testing procedures as
recommended by the manufacturer.
Test results are to be recorded, and problems brought to the attention of

appropriate persons in the operating organization. More detailed procedures for
checks can be found in the IAEA Practical Radiation Safety Manual on Gamma
Radiography [4].
Leak tests
Leak tests of radiography sources are to be generally performed at a frequency

as set by the Regulatory Authority. This frequency is based on activity, classification
14
according to ISO (International Organization for Standardization) Standards
ISO 2919 [5, 6], and on whether they are of a special form as described in Safety
Standards Series No. ST-1 [7] supplier information and operational history. Leak test
frequencies range from six months to several years. Typically, Co-60 sources of
higher than 370 GBq (10 Ci) are to be leak tested at 6 or 12 month intervals. Ir-192
sources are not normally leak tested as they are typically removed from use within a
year, owing to their short half-life. Sources in storage are not normally leak tested
unless they are to be used, moved or transferred, or have been in storage for more than
ten years.
If the test results indicate less than 200 Bq for a source wipe or 20 Bq for a wipe
on an equivalent surface, no action other than record keeping is required. Tests which
reveal the presence of contamination on the test sample are considered to be evidence
that the sealed source is leaking. In this event, the source should immediately be
withdrawn from service, and appropriate action should be taken to prevent exposure
of personnel and dispersal of radioactive material. The operating organization has to
notify the Regulatory Authority immediately.
3.2.8. Operational instructions
Operational instructions are needed to operate equipment safely and need to be

fully understood by the authorized personnel. It may be necessary to have these
instructions in local language. The instructions should as a minimum include the
following:
(a) A reminder of the nature of the hazard posed by industrial radiography and the
safety features to control the hazard.
(b) A reference to the existence and location of written emergency procedures.
(c) A description of the safety organization, including the functions, duties and
responsibilities of the RPO and workers.
(d) A description of routine operating instructions.
(e) A description of the required radiation surveys to be performed during
radiographic work.
(f) A description and schedule of internal inspections and test procedures for
ensuring that all safety systems, devices and components are functioning
properly. Each safety item is to be designated, and the appropriate test, check
and internal inspection applicable to it are to be specified.
(g) A description of proper use of personal radiation monitoring devices.
(h) Instructions covering actions to be taken in the event of equipment malfunction,
such as failure to terminate X ray emissions, or leaking or stuck radiography
sources.
(i) Procedures for proper movement, transport, storage and disposal of sources.
15
(j) Instructions for inventory control using records showing the location of each
source and the worker responsible for it at all times.
The RPO has to establish investigational levels for unusual exposures, even if
they are below the established dose limits. The radiographer is to notify the RPO of
any exposures greater than 100 µSv/day and 2 mSv/month.
Decommissioning
The operating organization is to ensure that activity and volume of any

radioactive waste for which it is responsible are kept to the minimum practicable,
monitored and managed. The waste needs to be collected, handled, treated,
conditioned, transported, stored and disposed of in accordance with the requirements
of the Regulatory Authority and other applicable standards such as the IAEA’s
Radioactive Waste Safety (RADWASS) programme [8, 9].
The operating organization has to be aware of when the exposure container and
sealed source have reached the end of their working life and when they are to be
disposed of in a safe and proper manner in accordance with national regulations.
These sources, as well as those which are no longer in use, may be transferred to the
manufacturer by agreement, or to other authorized waste managers.
3.3. INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHER/WORKER
Industrial radiographers have an important responsibility for ensuring the safe

conduct of their work. Their safety and that of other workers in the immediate vicinity
depends on their observance of a high standard of radiation safety at all times. The
public and other persons who are in the immediate vicinity when radiography is in
progress can be adversely affected if the work is not carried out to the required level
of competence.
The radiographer needs to achieve a level of competence by study and training
which is recognized and accepted by appropriate professional bodies, competent
authorities, employers and potential clients. Formal training is to be supplemented by
appropriate experience and the exchange of information, both theoretical and
practical, with peers.
The radiographer is to undergo periodic refresher training in radiation safety. It
is important for radiographers to keep up to date with the technology used in the field
and to fully understand the correct use of the radiographic and ancillary equipment
provided.
The radiographer has to maintain a professional attitude towards his or her work
and the essential safety requirements. He or she needs to be alert and fully fit during
16
working hours. Adequate supervision is to be exercised over less qualified workers
who may be called upon to assist.
Each radiographer has to receive any medical examinations as approved by the
Regulatory Authority to confirm fitness for work with ionizing radiation.
The radiographer is to wear suitable dosimeters, as directed by the RPO, during
working time, to measure the total exposure to radiation.
The radiographer should not expose him/herself or others to radiation
unnecessarily to ensure that the dose he/she receives is ALARA. No work is to be
undertaken which would place the radiographer at risk of receiving a dose greater
than any relevant national dose limit except in emergency situations.
In the often difficult and adverse conditions of industrial sites, the radiographer
also has to consider non-radiological hazards and to wear appropriate protective
equipment. The radiographer is not to take risks that might jeopardize the integrity,
safety or security of radiation equipment, particularly radioactive sources, or other
radiation sensitive equipment.
All necessary care is to be taken to maintain radiographic and ancillary
equipment in the condition necessary to operate safely. Equipment is not to be
modified, abused or used for purposes for which it was not intended.
Equipment which is not in proper working condition is not to be used. The
radiographer has to be vigilant in identifying apparent problems and to report any
defects for repair.
The radiographer is to perform all appropriate surveys to assess radiation
hazards. In particular, accidental exposures are prevented by using the radiation
survey meter when approaching the exposure device and by surveying the exposure
device following every radiographic exposure.
The radiographer has to be prepared to deal with reasonably foreseeable
incidents with the necessary equipment. Unusual events, accidents and incidents are
to be reported to the RPO.
The radiographer is to exercise appropriate care at all times and work in
accordance with instructions and defined operating and safety procedures.
3.4. THE MANUFACTURERS AND SUPPLIERS
Devices for industrial gamma radiography are to be designed for the conditions
likely to be encountered in use. All new equipment has to be manufactured and
classified according to ISO 3999 [10], an equivalent standard, or the national
requirement. Sealed sources are to be in compliance with the requirements of
ISO 2919 [5]. If sources or exposure containers are to be transported, they are to
comply with IAEA Safety Standards Series No. ST-1 [7].
17
3.4.1. Tests
Approval testing of all device prototypes is to be carried out in accordance

with ISO 9000 [11] or an equivalent national standard by a body which is
recognized by a national government as being qualified to make a full and impartial
assessment.
If an exposure container is designed for use in more than one class and/or
category, the prototype is to be subjected to the tests of each appropriate class and/or
category.
With each device, the manufacturer has to provide a certificate of conformity of
the device to identify the standards met. Test data may be requested from the
manufacturer as specified by national requirements.
3.4.2. Instructions for use and maintenance
The operations manual provides instructions for:
(a) Assembling the exposure device and ancillary equipment for safe opera-
tion.
(b) Operating the exposure device with a warning of the risk of radiation exposure
that may result from the failure to observe these instructions.
(c) Storing the exposure device in a suitable environment, with any necessary
protective coverings.
(d) The scope and frequency of routine maintenance operations and checks on
exposure devices and ancillary equipment, such as control cables, guide tubes
and exposure heads.
(e) Remote control system maintenance.
(f) Procedures in the event of foreseeable accidents with an indication of their
probable causes.
(g) Performing a gamma source exchange and preparing the decayed source for
transportation and disposal.
(h) Checking projection and source guide tubes and the exposure head for internal
cleanness, deformation, breakage or tear.
(i) Checking safety critical components of the exposure device for wear, breakage
or deformation.
(j) Limitations on use, i.e. environmental conditions.
Documentation on source classification, special form and leak testing is to be

provided by the manufacturer.
18
3.4.3. Quality assurance programme
A standard for the quality assurance programme is established according to the

ISO 9000-1 [11], an equivalent standard, or a national standard for the design,
manufacture, testing, inspection and documentation of all sources and devices.
The quality assurance programme provides assurance that the design satisfies
all appropriate standards applicable to the sources and devices. Any subsequent
discovery of problems which may compromise safety is to be brought to the attention
of all previous purchasers of similar equipment.
A documented quality assurance manual needs to be established and
maintained by each manufacturer of the sources and exposure devices for industrial
radiography. This manual documents the implementation of all aspects of the quality
assurance programme including organization; design control; procurement document
control; instructions, procedures and drawings; document control; control of
purchased material, equipment and services; identification and control of material,
parts and components; control of special processes; internal inspection and test
control; control of measuring and test equipment; corrective actions; handling,
storage and shipping control; quality assurance records; and audits.
Radiography sources and gamma exposure devices to be transported need to
meet the quality assurance programme specified in IAEA Safety Standards Series
No. ST-1 [7] and/or relevant national requirements.
3.5. THE CLIENT
The client is the organization or person responsible for hiring the operating
organization to do the work. The client should always use an operating organization
that is authorized according to national requirements.
The client needs to provide the operating organization with sufficient lead time
to plan and execute the work safely and to enable compliance with any advance
notifications required by the Regulatory Authority.
The client is not to impose contractual conditions that would hinder the
operating organization from performing safe radiography. In general, regulatory and
safety requirements take precedence.
The client is to ensure that radiography is co-ordinated with other work on site
to minimize the risk of radiation or other hazards to all workers on site, including the
radiographer. A permit-to-work system helps to ensure effective communication and
co-ordination of different jobs on site.
The client is responsible for providing a safe working environment for the
radiographers, including secure scaffolding, adequate lighting and arrangements for
working in vessels or trenches.
19
TABLE I. TYPICAL RADIONUCLIDES USED IN INDUSTRIAL
RADIOGRAPHY
Optimum steel
Gamma energies thickness
Radionuclide Half-life
(MeV) of object material
(mm)
Cobalt-60 High (1.17 and 1.33) 5.3 years 50–150
Caesium-137 High (0.662) 30 years 50–100
Iridium-192 Medium (0.2–1.4) 74 days 10–70
Selenium-75 Medium (0.12–0.97) 120 days 4–28
Ytterbium-169 Low (0.008–0.31) 32 days 2.5–15
If necessary and possible, the client provides a suitable location for the
radiography company to safely and securely store radioactive materials.
4. TYPES OF EXPOSURE DEVICES
A wide range of exposure devices are commercially available to carry out

industrial radiography. The range includes equipment for performing gamma and
X ray radiography, and a summary of their general characteristics is provided.
Neutron radiography, a specialized technique, is briefly mentioned.
4.1. GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES AND CONTAINERS
The minimum requirements for gamma ray sources for industrial radiography
are contained in ISO Standard 2919 [5] and generally satisfy the requirements for
special form radioactive material [7]. Iridium-192 is ideal for radiography, but other
radionuclides can be used, depending on the characteristics of the test object material
(Table I).
The sealed source is to be stored in a safely shielded location within the
specially designed exposure container. The sealed source is usually attached to a
control cable, source holder or source assembly and has appropriate permanent
markings. A definitive action by the radiographer is necessary to expose the source.
The source is to be exposed only to the extent that is necessary to produce a
satisfactory radiograph. After the radiographic exposure, the source is to be returned
to its safe stored position. Dummy sources or photographs of the sources will help
20
Source assembly
Location of break
Source Pigtail Connector Male Drive

connector cable
FIG. 1. A source assembly.
radiographers to recognize and identify the real ones in an emergency. A sketch of a

source assembly is shown in Fig. 1.
The manufacturer sometimes provides a recommended working lifetime
(RWL) for a source. These manufacturers recommend that work with a source stops
when the age of the source reaches the RWL. The Regulatory Authority may
recommend certain tests for continued use after the source reaches its RWL, such as
increased frequency of leak tests or assessment by a qualified expert with appropriate
facilities.
The sealed source has to be stored inside an exposure container (also called an
exposure device or ‘camera’), which is appropriate for, and compatible with, the
source, source holder or source assembly. The exposure container and ancillary
equipment have to comply with the requirements of ISO 3999 [10], an equivalent
FIG. 2. Class P portable exposure device.
21
FIG. 3. Class M mobile exposure device.
standard or national requirements. The standard satisfied by the exposure container

and the ancillary equipment is documented for review by the Regulatory Authority.
Containers are classified according to their mobility. Figures 2 and 3 show
Class P and Class M, respectively, portable and mobile exposure devices:
Class P: Portable exposure container, designed to be carried by one or more

persons. The mass of a Class P container does not exceed 50 kg.
Class M: Mobile, but not portable, exposure container designed to be moved
easily by a suitable means provided for the purpose, for example a
trolley.
Class F: Fixed, installed exposure container or one with mobility restricted to the
confines of a defined working location, such as a shielded enclosure.
The three classes of exposure container generally operate by exposing the

source in one of two ways, as depicted in Figs 4 to 6.
Category I: The source is not removed from the exposure container for an exposure.
The source is stored at the centre of a block of shielding material. A
portion of the shielding can be removed, or the shielding or source is
moved to expose the source. The solid angle of the useful beam is not
usually more than 60°. The container usually limits the beam
dimensions, but additional collimation may be used to limit the beam
further to the minimum size necessary for radiography. The movement
is controlled either directly or by remote means.
22
Working position
1 1
2 2
Secured position
A Rotating type B Shutter type
1 Exposure container
2 Radioactive sealed source
FIG. 4. Category I exposure device.
Category II: The source assembly is mechanically projected out of the container and
travels along a guide tube projection sheath to the exposure head. The
projection is hand or motor driven by the radiographer. The source
assembly is usually moved by a cable. Systems that rely on negative air
pressures or gravity to return the source to the shielded position may not
be designed to fail safe, and hence some Regulatory Authorities will not
authorize the use of such systems. Projection systems enable the
radiographer to operate the system at a safe distance from the source.
The end of the guide tube is placed in a collimator locating the source
in the desired position and limiting the beam to the minimum size
necessary for the task.
Some gamma exposure devices are designed for special applications, such as
pipe crawler equipment and underwater radiography apparatus.
Gamma exposure devices are not to be used in conditions for which they were
not designed. The effects of corrosion, moisture, mud, sand and other foreign matter
are to be considered during design and manufacture of the container.
23
1
a S-shaped model
1 Shield b Rotating model

2 Radioactive
sealed source
c Finger type model
FIG. 5. Category II exposure container.
Approved standards in place will ensure the control of dose rates to acceptable
levels close to the exposure container. For example, ISO 3999 [10] specifies the dose
rate limits for the various classes of exposure containers as shown in Table II.
Exposure containers are often designed as transport packages and are tested and
certified to Type B standards [7]. They will withstand severe impact forces, crushing
forces, immersion in liquid and heat stress without release of radioactive contents or
significant loss of shielding.
24
6
7
2 1 Exposure container
2 Radioactive sealed source
3 3 Source holder
4 Remote control
5 Control cable and sheath
6 Projection sheath
5 7 Exposure head
8 Reserve sheath
4
FIG. 6. Category II gamma radiography apparatus.
All exposure containers are to be fitted with an integral lock, which retains
the key when the source is in the exposed position. If the lock is damaged it does
not prevent the source assembly from returning from the exposed to the secure
position.
TABLE II. MAXIMUM DOSE RATES ALLOWED PER CLASSES OF

CONTAINER (ISO 3999)
Maximum dose equivalent rate

(µSv·h-1 (mrem·h-1))
Class
At 50 mm from At 1 mm from
On external surface
external surface external surface
of container
of container of container
P 2000 500 20
(200) (50) (2)
M 2000 1000 50
(200) (100) (5)
F 2000 1000 100

(200) (100) (10)
25
Each exposure container or a metallic plate fixed to the container is to be
permanently and indelibly marked by engraving, stamping or other means with
approved details including:
(a) the basic ionizing radiation symbol complying with the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO 361);
(b) the word RADIOACTIVE in letters not less than 10 mm in height;
(c) the maximum rating of the exposure container for the intended radionuclides
in becquerels (Bq);
(d) ISO 3999 [10] or equivalent standard and edition which the exposure container
and its accessories conform to;
(e) the exposure container manufacturer’s name, the model number and serial
number of the device;
(f) the class, category and total mass of the exposure container;
(g) the mass of depleted uranium shielding, if applicable, or the indication
‘Contains depleted uranium.’
In addition, the exposure container displays a durable fireproof label or tag

bearing information about the radioactive source contained in the exposure device,
including:
(a) the chemical symbol and mass number of the radionuclide;

(b) the activity and date on which it was measured in Bq (or Ci);
(c) the identification number of the sealed source; and
(d) the identity of the source manufacturer.
Whenever a new source assembly is installed in an exposure container, the

source identification tag has to be changed.
It is desirable to use modern exposure containers which incorporate safety
devices and features designed to reduce the risk of human error or equipment
malfunction. The current final draft of ISO 3999 [10] requires that Category II
exposure containers incorporate features which automatically secure the source in the
stored position after each exposure. It is then only possible to expose the source by
deliberately releasing a mechanism on the exposure container. In addition, such
exposure containers cannot be operated unless a secure attachment is made between
the control cable and the source assembly, between the remote control cable and the
exposure container and between the guide tube and the exposure container.
Equipment manufactured to this standard is currently available.
Ancillary equipment such as control cables and guide tubes are available to
maximize the distance between the radiographer and the source. Typical lengths are
7–15 m for control cables and 2–6.5 m for guide tubes.
26
FIG. 7. Panoramic radiating tube assembly with conical anode.
When the radiography source and the exposure container have reached the end of
their working lives or when use is discontinued, they have to be transferred or disposed
of in a safe and proper way. Most exposure containers contain depleted uranium
shielding which is radioactive and must be disposed of appropriately. The source and
exposure container are generally returned to the manufacturer, upon prior agreement.
A source changer is a device used to transport new sources from the
manufacturer to the operating organization. All source changes are to be performed in
a controlled area by trained and authorized workers. The source changer is to be
coupled to an exposure container, and the old source transferred from the exposure
container to an empty channel in the source changer. Then the new source is
transferred from source changer to exposure container. Upon prior agreement, the old
source is returned to the manufacturer in the source changer.
4.2. X RAY RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT
The general requirements for X ray machines for industrial radiography and
fluoroscopy are laid down in various national standards and publications [12, 13].
Two types of portable X ray tube assemblies (also called tubeheads) are common for
performing panoramic (radial beam) and directional exposures as illustrated in Figs 7
and 8. The tube assembly is connected by cable to the control panel, which provides
FIG. 8. Direct radiating portable X ray tube assembly.
27
the means for activation and operation of the X ray equipment, or for the preselection
and indication of operating parameters. The dose to the radiographer is affected by
the cable length, X ray tube parameters and the tube assembly. Where radiography
cannot be carried out in a shielded enclosure, cable lengths typically are no less than
20 m for X ray generators up to 300 kV and longer for equipment with higher tube
potentials. Cables are laid out as straight as possible to maximize the benefit of
distance between radiographer and tube assembly.
Directional X ray tube assemblies are fitted with suitable collimators (also
called cones and diaphragms) to reduce the useful beam to the minimum size
necessary for the work and to minimize the radiation scattered from the irradiated
object. Dose rates in the vicinity of the irradiated object are also reduced by the
addition of suitable beam filtration.
Electrical safety contributes indirectly to radiation safety, since electrical faults
in X ray equipment have resulted in serious accidents, some with radiological
consequences. X ray equipment needs to conform to national and international
electrical requirements [14–16]. All metallic items including casings, interconnecting
cables, power supply unit (transformer/generator), X ray control equipment, tube
assembly, warning signals, other safety devices and the irradiated object are bonded
together and grounded (connected to earth). Advice on electrical matters, as well as
inspection and testing, can be provided by a qualified expert.
X ray equipment has to comply with regulations pertaining to the standards of
design, construction and functioning required by the relevant Regulatory Authority.
Where no applicable regulations exist, the following safety features are the minimum
requirements.
The control panel is outfitted with the following:
— A label which indicates that hazardous X rays are emitted when the equipment
is operating, and a warning prohibiting unauthorized use. The international trefoil,
ISO 361, and any other relevant warning symbol are displayed.
— A key switch to prevent unauthorized use. The key is removable only when the
switch is in the ‘off’ or ‘standby’ position (no X rays can be generated) and the key
positions are clearly marked.
— Separate labelled warning lights to indicate when the machine is energized and
when X rays are being generated.
— A timer that controls the exposure duration, or an X ray ON/OFF switch that
requires continuous pressure by the radiographer to maintain X ray production.
— Indicators that show the X ray tube potential in kilovolts (kV) and the current in
milliamperes (mA) when the X ray beam is ON.
The following features of the X ray assembly are necessary:
28
— Leakage radiation penetrates the wall of the X ray tube assembly to produce
dose rates other than those in the main beam. The penetrating power of
leakage radiation depends on the tube voltage and is particularly important
when X ray tubes are operated at more than 500 kV. Data on the maximum
dose rates due to leakage radiation at the assembly’s surface and at 1 m from
the tube target are documented by the manufacturer and are available for
review by the Regulatory Authority. Typical maximum dose rate values of
leakage radiation from commercial assemblies are up to 100 µSv·h-1 at 1 m
from the target.
— The X ray tube assembly has a support that maintains the tube position without
tipping, slipping or vibrating during the operation of the machine.
4.3. ACCELERATORS
Accelerators can be used to generate high energy X rays (typically, 5 MeV) for
radiographic examinations requiring highly penetrating radiation. If the object to be
radiographed will fit into an enclosure, then the X rays can be generated by a large
accelerator. This can be a linear accelerator housed in a shielded room adjacent to the
shielded radiography enclosure. Radiographic examinations of large structures such
as bridges are done on site, and accelerators for this type of work are smaller, usually
cyclotrons. A mobile accelerator may be mounted on a large vehicle (e.g. truck) with
the accelerator head being mounted on a gantry to enable positioning of the radiation
beam. A portable accelerator (Fig. 9) can be transported in a small vehicle (e.g. car)
and carried into position by the radiographers. The portable accelerator weighs
approximately 100 kg, with the ancillary equipment (e.g. controller, control panel,
warning signals) being of similar weight.
4.4. UNDERWATER RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT
For radiography under water, exposure containers are to be provided with

additional safety features. The necessary features include:
(a) A depth rating stating the maximum depth at which the container may be safely
used.
(b) Seals that either prevent the entry of gas or water into parts that are not designed
to withstand them or, if designed to cope with water and gas, allow them to
escape during ascent to the surface.
(c) A windout (Category II containers), exposure or shutter (Category I containers)
control mechanism which can be operated outside the controlled area.
29
FIG. 9. Portable X ray betatron.
4.5. PIPE CRAWLER EQUIPMENT
Pipe crawler equipment is used to radiograph welds on pipelines. The machines

carry either an X ray tube assembly or a gamma source on a mobile carriage which
crawls along the inside of the pipe. They are powered either by batteries on the
carriage, an internal combustion engine or trailing cables from a generator. The
crawler is activated and controlled by the radiographer from outside the pipe by using
a control source which normally consists of a low activity (137Cs) sealed source
mounted in a hand-held device and collimated. Radiation from the control source is
received by a detector on the crawler. Typically, the control source is moved along the
outside of the pipe to initiate the crawler to move in the desired forward or reverse
direction. The control source is held against the outside of the pipe to make the
crawler stop and wait, and an exposure begins automatically about 10 s after the
control source is abruptly removed from the pipe’s surface. Some X ray crawlers are
fitted with a low activity ‘tell-tale’ radioactive source to help to identify the crawler’s
position in the pipeline.
30
FIG. 10. Gamma pipeline crawler.
The pipe crawler and the control source are to be prepared and transported in
accordance with the requirements of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. ST-1 [7]. A
gamma pipeliner crawler is shown in Fig. 10, and Fig. 11 shows the general
construction.
4.6. REAL TIME RADIOGRAPHY
A variety of exposure devices are in use or under development for special

applications. In order to keep pace with faster welding techniques and commercial
Film Electronics
Control isotopes
Iridium-192 Detector
Load Electric
shielding motor Batteries
Drive motor Gear box
for source
FIG. 11. Cross-section of pipeline crawler.
31
Lorry
Detector
Linear accelerator
North column South column
FIG. 12. Real time radiography (radioscopy) of a bridge.
production needs, real time radiography, which is also called fluoroscopic imaging,
uses digitally processed images displayed on a high resolution monitor instead of on
conventional X ray film. The X ray tubehead or exposure container is mounted
diametrically opposite a radiation detector. The objects to be radiographed are
brought in front of the exposed source by using a conveyor system, or the source and
the detector are rotated around the object by a computer controlled motor. Both
methods produce a digitized image on a screen. The person interpreting the
radiographic image views the meter on several monitors and must decide to accept or
reject each image before the system proceeds to the next frame. A real time system
allows radiography of large cast housings, as shown in Fig. 12.
4.7. NEUTRON RADIOGRAPHY
Although still in its infancy, neutron radiography is being steadily developed.

The range of applications includes the use of steady state and pulsed beams of
neutrons over a range of energies: subthermal, thermal, epithermal and fast. In
contrast to X and gamma rays, neutrons more easily penetrate heavy metals such as
steel, lead and uranium but neutrons are absorbed or scattered in low density
hydrogenous substances and certain materials such as hydrides, boron, plastics,
cadmium and gadolinium. Neutron sources include both radioisotopes and
accelerators.
32
5. DESIGN AND USE OF SHIELDED ENCLOSURES
(FIXED FACILITIES)
5.1. ENCLOSURE DESIGN AND USE
Experience shows that, in general, industrial radiography is most safely carried

out in a shielded enclosure. The use of an enclosure offers the benefit of allowing
other work in the vicinity to continue without interruption and allowing radiography
to be carried out as required. There is little doubt that, where it is reasonably
practicable to carry out radiography in a shielded enclosure, the radiation doses
resulting from the work will be kept ALARA. Properly designed and operated
shielded enclosures can help to keep the radiation exposure of workers to 5 mSv (or
less) per year.
A shielded enclosure is an enclosed space engineered to provide adequate
shielding from ionizing radiation to persons in the vicinity. The general design
principles are similar for all enclosures, although different characteristics are
incorporated, depending on whether the enclosure is to be suitable for X ray,
accelerator or gamma radiation equipment.
A shielded enclosure, which is designed for specific work and operated within
its design limitations, can shield ionizing radiations in such a way that no controlled
area is created outside the enclosure. A controlled area within the shielded enclosure
exists during performance of radiography and may also exist owing to the storage of
radiography sources alone.
A supervised area may need to be designated outside the shielded enclosure
where the conditions do not constitute a controlled area but where occupational
exposure conditions need to be kept under review. Specific protection measures and
safety provisions are not normally needed for a supervised area.
In establishing supervised areas associated with any shielded enclosure, the
operating organization, taking into account the nature and extent of radiation hazards,
has to
(a) delineate the supervised areas by appropriate means;

(b) display approved signs at appropriate access points to supervised areas; and
(c) periodically review the conditions to determine any need for protective
measures and safety provisions or changes to the boundaries of supervised
areas.
As applicable, the siting, location, design, construction, assembly,

commissioning, operation, maintenance and decommissioning of any shielded
enclosure are to be based on sound engineering principles and have to
33
Maze
entrance Emergency
stop(s)
Shielding
Effective Control
interlock or panel
Warning devices
equivalent
FIG. 13. Shielded enclosure.
(a) take account of regulatory requirements, approved codes and standards;

(b) ensure protection to restrict exposures; and
(c) be designed to prevent accidents.
Designs of shielded enclosures require guidance in terms of anticipated doses,

dose rates and exposure times. Designs are to be based on the ALARA principle
(Section 2) and on any additional dose constraints that may have been specified by
the Regulatory Authority. Design considerations for these installations include:
(a) shielding considerations, (b) personnel access door interlocks, (c) fixed radiation
monitors, (d) warning signs and symbols, and (e) emergency stops. An outline sketch
of a shielded enclosure is shown in Fig. 13.
5.2. SHIELDING DESIGN FOR A SHIELDED ENCLOSURE
It is important to plan the design of the shielded enclosure for immediate and
foreseeable future needs before commencing construction. Annotated drawings or
sketches are prepared of the installation and its surroundings, including dimensions
of each enclosed area, thickness, density and type of shielding material on all sides,
including above and below the exposure area. Entrances are identified, and distances
to potentially occupied areas adjacent to, above and below the exposure area are
indicated. Proper planning of the facility minimizes the cost of the installation and
avoids costly remedial work, which may be required if the degree of protection
necessary is not achieved in practice.
34
Direct radiation exposure and scatter from the operation of shielded enclosures
must be limited by appropriate shielding. A competent estimate of the thickness of the
shield needed requires transmission graphs which are published for different
radionuclides [17] and X ray machines [18]. A simplified method of estimating
shielding thickness is possible [19]. The design principles are similar for all shielded
enclosures although different shielding characteristics are incorporated, depending on
whether the shielded enclosure will be used for X rays or gamma radiation. Also, the
shielding design should consider both the primary and the scattered radiation and the
prevention of air scattering (skyshine) in facilities with minimal or no roof shielding.
The amount of shielding is to be calculated with reference to the dose rate, use factor
and occupancy factor.
Some penetrations of the shield will be necessary for personnel entry and exit,
cranes to place and remove heavy objects to be radiographed, pipework, control
cables, ventilation and other ducting. Radiation which either penetrates or scatters
around weaknesses in the shielding can cause problems. Such weaknesses might
occur after a period of wear, shielding damage, movement of shielding or building
settlement. Various design techniques can be used to prevent or minimize these
weaknesses [17, 18].
When the design of the shielded enclosure has been established, no subsequent
changes that affect radiation safety are to be made unless they are more effective and
are authorized or approved by the Regulatory Authority or a qualified expert
recognized by the Regulatory Authority to perform this function.
Shielded enclosures are to be used within the design constraints; changes in
radionuclide type, source activity, radiation energy and intensity may require a
change in the shielding provided. Documentation has to be kept, showing the results
of calculations, radiation level measurements and maximum expected radiation levels
inside the shielded enclosure and in all areas adjacent to it.
For shielded enclosures:
(a) appropriate instructions are provided at access points and other appropriate
locations inside and outside the controlled areas;
(b) occupational radiation protection and safety measures are established,
including local operating instructions and procedures that are appropriate for
the controlled areas;
(c) access to shielded enclosures is restricted by administrative procedures, such as
the use of permit-to-work systems; access doors are locked or interlocked for
gamma radiography and interlocked for X ray radiography; the degree of
restriction required is commensurate with the magnitude and likelihood of the
exposures that would be expected.
35
5.3. CONTROL OF EXPOSURE IN SHIELDED ENCLOSURES
A wide range of radionuclides, source activities and X ray devices are used in
shielded enclosures. Type P, M and F exposure containers are used as appropriate,
containing one or more radiographic sources. Sources are kept secure to prevent
unauthorized use, unauthorized removal or theft, or damage to the sources. If the
radiographic sources are stored in the shielded enclosures, it may be necessary to
designate these shielded enclosures as permanently controlled areas, even while no
radiography is being carried out.
Shielded enclosures are to be fitted with suitable safeguards to ensure that
people cannot gain unauthorized access to the radiation room while the exposure
device is in the exposed position or is energized. Access control relies heavily on the
use of interlocked systems. Suitable interlocks have to be installed to form a
mechanical or electrical link between the exposure control system and the door or
other points of entry to the shielded enclosure. Redundancy, diversity and
independence of interlocks provide additional levels of safety. The interlock either
prevents a person from entering during an exposure, immediately interrupts the
electrical power to X ray machines or automatically shields radiographic sources.
Subsequent closing of the interlock must not automatically re-energize the X ray
machines or re-expose the radiography sources. Automatic exposure devices do not
operate if the interlock is open.
For shielded enclosures for gamma radiography, a radiation monitoring system
with built-in redundancy is to be installed. The radiation monitor is integrated with
the door interlocks to prevent entry when the radiation monitor detects radiation in
excess of a pre-set level. The same installed radiation monitor also triggers visible and
audible alarm signals. Such a system does not obviate the need to use a portable
survey meter when entering a shielded enclosure.
Emergency stop buttons or pull-cords are to be installed to enable any person
within the shielded enclosure to quickly terminate or prevent the radiation exposure.
These are located so that they can be reached without passing through the primary
radiation beam and are labelled with clear instructions on their use. The emergency
control system is to be designed to allow people then to leave the shielded enclosure
or to summon assistance. The radiographer ought to be able to terminate the exposure
immediately in an emergency.
Clearly visible signs bearing the radiation symbol (international trefoil) and
warnings as required by the Regulatory Authority are to be posted at all doors to the
shielded enclosure. Warning signs are made from materials that are durable under the
prevailing environmental conditions and are replaced as necessary.
Visible warning signals have to be prominent and positioned in suitable
locations. Audible warning signals have to be distinct and loud enough to gain the
immediate attention of people in the area. The warning signals are to be
36
distinguishable and designed so as not to be confused with any other signals in use in
the area. The meanings of the signals are to be explained in posted notices.
The following illuminated or colour coded controls are to be used:
Condition Colour
Emergency (stop buttons or lights) Red

Radiation on (no access) Red and international trefoil
Warning (stand-by) Amber and international trefoil
Radiation off (safe access) Green
Information Blue
The exposure control system for exposing a radioactive source or energizing an

X ray machine is to be located outside the shielded enclosure.
5.4. OPERATING PROCEDURES FOR SHIELDED ENCLOSURES
Only authorized workers who have received the appropriate training are to
operate shielded enclosures.
If the shielded enclosure is designated as a controlled area, it is appropriate for
the authorized workers to have had medical examinations and to wear personal
dosimeters (as specified by the Regulatory Authority). These dosimeters include film
or thermoluminescent dosimeters, personal direct reading dosimeters and alarming
dosimeters. Training includes instruction to ensure that the shielded enclosure is used
within its design constraints and that all aspects of the facility are maintained to the
original specifications. Written operating procedures have to be readily available as
appropriate or required. Any changes to exposure devices or their use not considered
in the design of the shielded enclosure may result in excessive dose rates outside the
shielded enclosure. In practice, this means that different equipment or modified work
procedures are not to be used without careful safety consideration and authorization.
A suitable portable survey meter has to be kept available to measure accessible
dose rates outside the enclosure. The measurements are to be made at positions above
ground level at a distance from the shielded enclosure and, in particular, when the
radiation beam is operated at the limits of the shielded enclosure’s design parameters.
Whenever the radiographer enters the shielded enclosure, he or she has to carry
a portable survey meter. Before using the instrument, a check against a test source is
performed to ensure that the instrument is working. This procedure is necessary and
additional to any radiation measurements made by an installed monitoring system.
If it is desirable to use the shielded enclosure for purposes not originally
covered or intended under the design specification in order to keep doses ALARA,
37
such as keeping the door open or using a gamma exposure device in an X ray
radiography shielded enclosure, then site radiography procedures are to be followed.
This includes ensuring that the dose rate at the control point is less than 2 mSv·h-1,
and barriers and notices are set up to mark any controlled areas near the door or
elsewhere.
Before the radiation source is exposed or energized, the shielded enclosure is to
be checked by the radiographer to confirm that no person is inside. Exposures are to
be initiated by the radiographer only when the door is closed, all essential shielding
is in place, safety devices are in operation and warning signals are given.
6. SITE RADIOGRAPHY PROCEDURES
Most radiography is performed on-site and is influenced by a number of site

specific conditions. Planning for safe operation includes consideration of the location,
proximity of members of the general public, weather conditions, time of day, and
work at height, in confined spaces or under difficult conditions. Owing to these
conditions, site radiography needs to be performed with more than one radiographer.
A typical site radiography set-up is shown in Fig. 14.
Site radiography needs to be done in an area where specific protection measures

and safety provisions are in place, i.e. in an area designated as a controlled area. The
boundary of the controlled area is to be set at a dose rate contour which is appropriate
under the prevailing circumstances and specific exposure times and is authorized by
the Regulatory Authority. This dose rate contour has to be set at a value ensuring that
outside the controlled area the annual dose limits for the public are not exceeded,
account being taken of nature and frequency of site radiography at a specific site use
as well as occupancy factors where allowed. The boundary dose rates when
collimators are used are typically in the range of 7.5 to 20 µSv·h-1. The boundary dose
rates are typically in the range of 50 µSv·h-1 when it is not possible to use a
collimator. The transient dose rates during radiography source windout operations
will exceed these values. However, transient dose rates usually do not present a
radiation protection problem as they occur only briefly.
The boundary of the controlled area has to be demarcated; when reasonably
practicable, this is done by physical means. This may include using existing structures
such as walls, using temporary barriers, or cordoning the area with tape. A typical
set-up is illustrated in Fig. 14.
38
FIG. 14. Typical site radiography set-up.
6.1.1. Warning notices
Notices are displayed at the controlled area boundary at suitable positions. The
notices bear the international radiation trefoil symbol, warnings and appropriate
instructions in the local language.
6.1.2. Warning signals
In all cases adequate warning is to be given. Visible or audible signals or both

are used where a radiographic source is exposed or an X ray machine is energized and
surveillance is compromised. The use of visible and audible signals will help to
reduce the likelihood of accidental exposures to radiation.
6.1.3. Patrolling and monitoring the boundary
Before the start of radiographic work, the area is to be cleared of all people
except for authorized personnel.
The boundary should be clearly visible and well lit and continuously patrolled
to ensure that unauthorized people do not enter the controlled area. If the boundary is
39
large, or if it cannot be seen from one position or not secured by physical means, more
than one person will need to patrol the area.
The dose rates at representative points at the boundary are to be checked during
radiography, particularly when the position of the radiography within the area or the
direction of the radiation beam is changed.
6.2. SHIELDING
Shielding reduces both the size of the controlled area and the radiation doses
received by radiographers. Shielding in the form of collimators is designed so that the
radiation beam is primarily in the direction necessary for radiography. Collimators are
made from depleted uranium (DU), tungsten or lead and give shape to the beam;
beam shapes range from conical to panoramic-annular. Collimators are supplemented
with other forms of additional local shielding such as lead shot, sheets and bricks.
Whenever it is possible to take advantage of existing shielding, such as walls,
vehicles or shielded enclosures or similar structures to reduce radiation dose levels,
radiography personnel need to arrange the disposition of the equipment and parts
within the shielding afforded. Site radiography conditions are still applicable.
6.3. ADMINISTRATIVE ARRANGEMENTS
As the possible use of engineering means to restrict exposure during site

radiography is limited, proper management controls, operating procedures and
training are very important.
Unauthorized entry into the controlled area is not allowed when the radiation
source is exposed. If possible the control point for initiation and termination of the
radiation is outside the controlled area boundary. However, the radiographer may
have to enter the controlled area to initiate the exposure, leave the area (or move to
a shielded location, for example, where the dose rate is less than 2 mSv·h-1 and the
exposure time is short) during the exposure and enter again to terminate the
exposure.
Effective means of communication between the radiographic workers are to be
used in order to avoid unintended exposures. Such a situation can occur when the
radiographer operates the device and the radiographer changes films. In addition,
effective communication reduces the need for retaking exposures, thereby keeping
doses ALARA.
Exposure devices on site have to be secured against unauthorized removal or
theft when not under direct surveillance. The devices are to be stored in a locked area
for overnight or temporary storage, as for example during work breaks.
40
6.4. MONITORING
6.4.1. Personal dosimeters
Personal dosimeters such as thermoluminescent or film dosimeters and direct

reading dosimeters are to be worn when radiographers are working with ionizing
radiation. A personal dosimeter is worn only by the radiographer to whom it is issued,
and it is securely stored in a non-radiation environment when not being worn.
Personal dosimeters are to be regularly assessed for the radiation to which they have
been exposed, as required by the Regulatory Authority. Direct reading dosimeters
have to be periodically assessed by the radiographers to monitor doses received
during radiography.
6.4.2. Portable survey meters
For site radiography operations, at least one portable survey meter has to be
available for each working group. Before beginning the radiography, the meter is to
be tested against a check source or by placing the meter’s detector close to the
exposure container to obtain a reference reading which can be referred to during
radiography operations. This ascertains the reliability of the instrument and confirms
that the radiographic source is in the secured position. Figure 15 shows the use of an
instrument to survey the exposure device.
FIG. 15. Use of instrument to survey an exposure device.
41
During radiography, the primary survey objective is to determine that the
radiographic source has returned to the shielded position or that the X ray emission
has ceased for each radiographic exposure. Exposure devices have to be approached
with the portable survey meter switched on since there is the possibility of the
radiographic source being stuck in the exposed position or the X ray exposure control
having failed.
6.4.3. Personal alarm monitors
Radiographers need to use personal alarm monitors during the whole period
they may be exposed to ionizing radiation. The alarm provides a recognizable signal
at a suitable dose rate that may be prescribed by the Regulatory Authority. The signal
is to be audible, visible or vibratory, and recognizable in the working environment.
These alarms are used in addition to portable survey meters.
6.5. ADDITIONAL PRECAUTIONS FOR GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY
The radionuclide and the activity of the radiographic source are selected such
that the dose for all workers is kept ALARA, consistent with obtaining adequate
diagnostic information. It is possible to do most radiographic work by using
iridium-192 with an activity of up to 1850 GBq (50 Ci). Advanced techniques are
available, such as image intensifying screens or fast film and screen combinations, to
keep doses ALARA.
Procedures need to be rehearsed, and only equipment that is specifically
manufactured for gamma radiography is to be used. The radiographer needs to be
familiar with all of the equipment, its mode of operation and potential problems. An
understanding of the source, its appearance and how it is to be exposed is particularly
important.
Radiography is only to be carried out when the exposure container and
all necessary equipment are available and in good working condition. This
includes:
— portable survey meters and personal dosimeters;

— guide tubes, control cables and remote control;
— collimators and local shielding;
— temporary barriers or tapes;
— warning notices and signals;
42
— emergency kit, including remote source handling tools;
— other ancillary equipment, such as clamps and positioning aids.
Before leaving the site, the radiographer carries out a visual examination to
ensure that equipment has not been damaged. The exposure container is made ready
for transport by locking the device and putting protective coverings in place. The
exposure container and the ancillary equipment are physically secured in the vehicle
to avoid damage during transport.
The following checks are made before use, as described in the operating
procedures:
(a) Check the exposure container and exposed ends of cables for damage, wear or
dirt. A wear gauge supplied by the manufacturer can be used;
(b) Check screws and nuts for tightness and screw threads and springs for damage;
(c) Confirm that the source locking mechanism works properly;
(d) Examine the end of the pigtail for wear, damage and proper connection to
thecontrol cable; a wear gauge provided by the manufacturer can be used for
this purpose;
(e) Check connections between the exposure container and cables for secure
connection;
(f) Inspect all cables and guide tubes for cuts, breaks, kinks and broken fittings;
(g) Check the warning label and source tag details for legibility;
(h) Measure radiation levels close to the exposure container’s surface for
compliance with IAEA Safety Standards Series No. ST-1 [7] and to confirm
that the source is shielded.
If any discrepancy is noted, the equipment is not to be used until a replacement

is provided or a repair is made.
6.6. ADDITIONAL PRECAUTIONS FOR X RADIOGRAPHY INCLUDING

USE OF ACCELERATORS
The procedures discussed in this section are applicable to the use of all X ray
exposure devices and techniques, including accelerators and real time radiography.
The selection of X ray tube voltage is normally closely linked to the requirements for
the quality of the radiograph. The exposure technique (e.g. source internal or external,
single wall versus double wall) is selected with regard to good image quality and
reduction of the dose for all involved.
43
The following checks are made before use, as described in the operating
procedures:
(a) check for visible damage on all parts of equipment;

(b) check the X ray tube and all exposed ends of cable for damage, wear, dirt and
moisture;
(c) check screws and nuts for tightness and screw threads for damage;
(d) inspect all cables for cuts, breaks, kinks and broken fittings;
(e) check exposure factor settings for legibility.
If any discrepancy is noted, the equipment is not used until a replacement is

provided or a repair is made.
Accelerators generate very high energy X rays which increase the potential for
overexposures of radiographers. Therefore, higher levels of radiation protection are
required on site. The dose rate in the main beam of an accelerator is high and can
range from 4 Gy·min-1 (240 Gy·h-1) from a mobile accelerator to 50 mGy·min-1
(3 Gy·h-1) from a portable accelerator. This means that the dose rate around the
apparatus is much higher than during conventional X ray radiography, and so more
comprehensive control measures are needed to restrict the exposure of people to
ionizing radiation. In addition, appropriate portable survey meters are used that
respond accurately to the pulsed nature of the radiation field (the radiation pulse
duration and the pulse repetition frequency). Portable survey meters used for
conventional gamma and X ray radiography may not be suitable for use with
accelerators.
6.7. ADDITIONAL PRECAUTIONS FOR UNDERWATER RADIOGRAPHY
Underwater gamma radiography is a specialized technique that requires

additional considerations:
(a) Appropriate training of divers is necessary.

(b) Before being taken into the water, the control mechanism and guide tube
are to be connected to the exposure container, the connections need to be
confirmed to be secure, and the source assembly has to be in the secured
position.
(c) A short line with a buoy and an emergency location device (for example, a
strobe light) are to be securely attached to the exposure device. This will aid
recovery from the water if the exposure container is dropped.
(d) All equipment, such as survey meters to be used underwater, needs to be
specifically suited to the purpose.
44
6.8. ADDITIONAL PRECAUTIONS FOR PIPELINE CRAWLERS
General radiation safety requirements for X ray and gamma exposure devices
also apply to pipeline crawlers. With pipeline crawlers, the useful beam is restricted
so that its width is no greater than is necessary for the radiograph. When in use,
pipeline crawlers are not visible from outside the pipe; it is thus essential that suitable
warning signals are given.
The warning signals of X ray pipeline crawlers have to operate automatically.
It is desirable that gamma pipeline crawlers also operate in this way, where
practicable, because unintended movement of the control source may inadvertently
initiate an unplanned exposure. Warning signals have to be capable of alerting people
in the vicinity of the pipeline crawler under the prevailing environmental conditions.
Signals that operate automatically are to be linked with the operation of the pipeline
crawler. Audible signals are attenuated by the pipe wall and need to be loud enough
to locate the pipeline crawler accurately within the pipe. Klaxons and sirens can be
used, provided that they can be heard in a noisy environment.
Possible supplementary signals outside the pipe include:
(a) a visual signal to supplement the audible signal in noisy environments;

(b) a radiation activated warning device that will indicate the position of the
crawler equipment along the pipe.
Also, a portable survey meter is used to determine that the X ray emission has
ceased or that the source has returned to the shielded position after each exposure.
Personal alarm monitors worn by the radiographers also indicate whether the pipeline
crawler equipment is emitting radiation nearby inside the pipe.
If a pipeline crawler breaks down, it may be necessary for a radiographer to
enter the pipeline to retrieve it. Before entering, a check is to be made by the
radiographer to ensure that the pipeline crawler is not emitting radiation. As a pipeline
potentially contains welding fumes and toxic gases (e.g. from the pipeline crawler’s
internal combustion engine), checks are to be made to confirm that the atmosphere is
safe before entry into the pipeline. Respiratory protective equipment may be
necessary.
The radiographic source (if any) and the control source are to be housed in
shielded containers and, together with the ‘tell-tale’ source, should not produce
dose rates in excess of 100 µSv·h-1 on the accessible surface of the pipeline, except
during exposure. If the pipeline crawler is kept in the pipeline between
radiographic exposures, a supervised or controlled area is set up around the pipe,
as necessary. The control sequence is to be designed so that unintended exposures
are prevented.
45
7. STORAGE, MOVEMENT AND TRANSPORT OF
RADIOGRAPHIC SOURCES AND EXPOSURE DEVICES
7.1. STORAGE OF SOURCES
Storage facilities are designed to restrict exposure, keep radiographic sources,

exposure containers and control sources secure against theft or damage, and prevent
any unauthorized persons from carrying out any actions which would be dangerous
to themselves or the public. Clear warning notices are to be displayed at the storage
facilities.
A suitable storage facility for radiographic sources, exposure containers,
control sources and ancillary equipment is one that provides protection from the
prevailing environmental conditions. Resistance to fire is considered in constructing
the storage facility in order to minimize loss of shielding and containment. The
storage facility is to be located at a remote distance from corrosive and explosive
hazards.
If the outside of the storage facility is accessible to the public, shielding is
provided to reduce the dose rate in this area to less than 2.5 µSv·h-1, or as authorized
by the Regulatory Authority.
The door is to be kept locked, and the keys for the storage facility and exposure
device controls are to be held only by authorized personnel.
Physical inventory checks are to be made periodically to confirm the location
of radiographic sources, exposure containers and control sources.
7.2. MOVEMENT AND TRANSPORT OF SOURCES
When gamma exposure devices and sources are to be moved around a work
site, they are not to be removed from the storage facility until they are ready to be
used. The sources are to be moved only in appropriate containers such as transport
packages which are locked correctly and the keys of which are removed.
A vehicle or trolley is best used to move the containers. Under these
circumstances, the containers are secured to the vehicle or trolley, and are kept under
surveillance for the duration of the movement on the work site.
The requirements for transportation of radioactive materials are published in
the IAEA Safety Standards Series No. ST-1 [7] and other publications relating to
specific modes of transportation from organizations such as they International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the International Maritime Organization (IMO).
The main requirements spelled out in Ref. [7] are:
46
(a) All transport of radioactive sources should comply with the containment,
labelling and documentation requirements and any existing national legislation.
(b) Provisions should be established to ensure compliance through the appointment
of a Regulatory Authority for transport of radioactive materials. The Regulatory
Authority sets up and executes a programme for monitoring the design,
manufacturing, testing, inspection and maintenance quality assurance of
packages.
(c) Industrial radiographic exposure containers should satisfy the requirements of
Type A or Type B packages for transport. A summary of the requirements for
these types of packages is included in Schedules 9 and 10 of IAEA Safety
Series No. 80 [20].
Operating organizations are often the consignors (shippers) of exposure devices

to and from temporary work sites, and therefore the responsibilities laid down for
consignors in Ref. [7] are also applicable. They ensure that all packages are properly
prepared for transport, including the securing of all required plugs, caps and locks
before transport. All conditions of any applicable authorization for the package must
be met.
Gamma exposure devices are frequently transported by road by the operating
organizations. Drivers and vehicles must comply with the applicable requirements
of national and international roads. These requirements prescribe the necessary
safety equipment on vehicles, placarding, transport documentation and training of
drivers.
In the event of a transport accident, the vehicle driver, local emergency services
or any other person discovering the accident will contact the package consignor
and/or the consignee who are identified on the transport documentation. Both
organizations are to be fully aware of the emergency plans and provide or call for
practical advice and assistance. IAEA Safety Series No. 87 [21] gives guidance and
recommendations for dealing with transport accidents and is useful for the
preparation of the transport emergency plan.
8. EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLANNING
Accidents have occurred in industrial radiography resulting in workers and

members of the public being exposed to radiation and other health and safety hazards.
Typical situations which have led to a radiological hazard include loss of control of
the source or exposure device, damage to the source or exposure device, and direct
contact with the source.
47
8.1. EMERGENCIES RESULTING IN EXPOSURES
Experience and analysis of the kind described in Ref. [3] have shown that the
most likely events involving gamma exposure devices with the greatest potential for
significant radiation exposure to workers and the general public concern:
(a) failure to retract the source and failure to perform an adequate radiation
monitoring survey;
(b) a source stuck in the guide tube, collimator or near the entrance to the exposure
container;
(c) source disconnection from the camera cable;
(d) an exposure device stuck in the exposed position, such as a shutter remaining
open;
(e) theft of the exposure device or source assembly;
(f) malfunction or deliberate defeat of the safety control system;
(g) contamination due to leaking or damaged sources.
The most serious exposures occur when a worker remains next to, or physically
handles, the unshielded source assembly, when the source assembly is mishandled or
when it is in the possession of members of the general public. The dose rates are high
enough to cause localized overexposure in a matter of seconds or minutes and can
result in severe injury and even death.
The most likely events involving X ray exposure devices with potential for
significant exposure to workers are:
(a) an automatic exposure timer fails to terminate an exposure resulting in the tube
assembly remaining energized;
(b) the tube assembly is energized unintentionally;
(c) the operator neglects to terminate the exposure and fails to perform an adequate
radiation monitoring survey before manipulating the tube assembly;
(d) there is damaged, faulty or deliberately defeated safety equipment and systems
such as malfunctioning interlocks;
(e) physical damage affects the shielding or filtration.
8.2. EMERGENCY PLANNING AND PREPAREDNESS
Emergency planning and preparedness has four major components: assessment

of hazards; acquisition of emergency equipment; development of written procedures;
and training to deal with emergency situations, including training in handling of
48
emergency equipment and in following written procedures. The basic obligations,
responsibilities and requirements for emergency situations are established in Safety
Series No. 115 [2]. Advice and guidance on developing and implementing emergency
plans are provided in IAEA Safety Series No. 91 [22], and a step-by-step method for
developing integrated user, local and national emergency response capability is set
forth in IAEA-TECDOC-953 [23].
Accidents in radiography may result in deterministic health effects due to loss
of shielding or inadequate access control; they may also result in localized
contamination from lost or stolen sources. Emergency planning starts with
assessment of hazards, which involves analysis of normal conditions, how they may
change during an emergency, possible types of accidents and their possible
magnitudes and consequences on-site and off-site. The next step is to determine and
assign the roles and responsibilities of each individual, group or organization involved
in emergency preparedness and response. The plan describes the role and
responsibilities of all involved in the response and also contains a brief description of
the possible accidents and a concept of operation.
The responsibility for preparing the plan lies with the operating organization.
Emergency procedures are to be written to deal with each foreseeable emergency.
These have to be concise, easily followed instructions, describing what factors are
indicative of a situation requiring emergency action, specifying the immediate action
to be taken to minimize radiation exposure to persons in the vicinity of the source and
the necessity for planning a course of action.
The procedures are to include the names and telephone numbers of the people
identified in the emergency response, for example the radiation protection officer, the
Regulatory Authority, the medical doctor, the manufacturer, the emergency services,
the qualified expert and other parties, as applicable.
The operating organization is to develop capabilities needed to implement the
emergency plan. This entails training of staff to deal with emergency situations
including training in the handling of emergency equipment and in following written
procedures.
Once a response capability has been developed, drills and exercises need to be
conducted periodically. These drills and exercises provide training but also test and
validate the plan, procedures and training of emergency personnel. Following the
drills and exercises, deficiencies are identified and corrected. The periodic
assessment includes verifying that all names and telephone numbers in the
emergency procedures are still accurate and up to date and that the emergency
equipment is adequate.
The operating organization is also responsible for liaison with emergency
services (police, fire and medical), qualified experts and other bodies that are
designated in the procedures. The purpose of this liaison is to ensure that all parties
understand the hazards and are aware of the requirements of the emergency
49
procedures and any responsibilities for action. In the event of an accident, it is
co-ordinate the response of the emergency services and other bodies, as well as to
inform the Regulatory Authority.
In an emergency response, the generic response scheme designates responsible
‘persons’ under three specific titles:
Response Initiator,
Emergency Manager, and
Radiological Assessor.
Response Initiator — First responder on-scene
This is the person who initiates the response and performs immediate actions to
mitigate the accident.
Emergency Manager
The Emergency Manager (EM) is in charge of the overall emergency response

and manages the priorities and the protection of the public and emergency workers.
The EM ensures that all appropriate resources have been activated.
Radiological Assessor
The Radiological Assessor is responsible for radiation surveys, dose

assessment, contamination control, radiation protection support to emergency
workers and the formulation of protective action recommendations. The Radiological
Assessor also initiates and, in many cases, carries out source recovery, cleanup and
decontamination. This position is normally held by the Radiation Protection Officer
(RPO) or a hired qualified expert.
In industrial radiography, the Response Initiator is most likely to be the
radiographer himself, while the EM may be the operating organization manager or a
designated senior staff member. In the case of a lost source, the EM may be an
appointed member of the local government. The EM is designated to be the primary
spokesperson for the media. In small organizations, the radiographer may be the RPO
and the EM, at the same time.
The emergency equipment has to be obtained to adequately respond to an
emergency. It is suggested that the following minimum resources be made available
by the operating organization:
50
Radiation survey instruments
(a) High range gamma survey instrument measuring dose rates up to several
sieverts per hour;
(b) Low range survey instrument;
(c) Contamination monitor or probe;
(d) Check source for low range survey instruments.
Personal protective equipment
(a) Self-reading dosimeters for each team member;

(b) Permanent dosimeters for each team member;
(c) Protective overalls, overshoes and gloves;
(d) First aid kit.
Communication equipment
(a) Portable radio communications
Supplies
(a) Appropriate shielding (sufficient to attenuate the radiation significantly, for

example, at least two bags of lead shot, i.e. 2 kg each for 192Ir and 10 kg each
for 60Co);
(b) Tongs at least 1.5 m long, suitable for safely handling the source assembly;
(c) A shielded container;
(d) Appropriate hand tools;
(e) Radiation warning labels and signs;
(f) Plastic for preventing contamination of instruments;
(g) Log book.
Supporting documentation
(a) Equipment operations manuals;

(b) Response co-ordination procedures;
(c) Procedures for conducting monitoring;
(d) Procedures for personal radiation protection.
51
8.3. SPECIFIC EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
8.3.1. Radiographic sources
Most gamma radiography incidents involve a failure of the radiographic source

to return to the shielded position. In dealing with these incidents, special equipment
is necessary, and the first priority is protection of persons. In what follows, practical
guidance is provided for remedial actions. The application of each procedure will
depend on the specific details of each case. Although the steps are listed in the general
sequence in which they are to be performed, it is possible that the sequence may need
to be adapted at the time of the response.
NOTE: The operating organization authorizes and trains different workers to

implement different remedial actions within the emergency plan. Individual
workers are only to implement parts of the emergency plan for which they have
been authorized and trained and for which they have the appropriate equipment.
For guidance, the steps are classified according to designated officers’
responsibilities, i.e. radiographer, RPO or Emergency Manager.
Radiographer (Response Initiator)
(a) Recognize that an abnormal situation has occurred which might constitute an
emergency;
(b) Move away from the exposed source and remain calm;
(c) Measure the radiation dose rates;
(d) Establish controlled area barriers based on dose rate limit requirements;
(e) Prevent access to the new controlled area;
(f) Do not leave the controlled area unattended;
(g) Inform the RPO of the operating organization and the client and seek
assistance.
Radiation Protection Officer (RPO)
(h) Plan a course of action based on previously established emergency procedures,

taking into account the doses that may be received by this course of action and
keeping it ALARA.
(i) Rehearse the planned course of action before entering the controlled area.
(j) Implement the planned course of action to the extent that training, equipment
and authorizations allow; under no circumstances should the source be allowed
to come into contact with the hands or other parts of the body.
52
(k) If the planned course of action is unsuccessful, leave the controlled area and
consider the next course of action while continuing surveillance of the
controlled area.
(l) Call technical assistance, if needed, from qualified experts or manufacturers.
(m) Notify the Regulatory Authority as required.
(n) When the emergency is resolved, reconstruct the accident, assess the doses
received and prepare a report.
(o) Send out personal dosimeters for exposure assessment.
(p) Send the damaged or malfunctioning equipment to the manufacturer or
qualified expert for a detailed inspection before reuse.
8.3.2. Missing or stolen sources or exposure devices
A missing or stolen exposure device containing the radiographic source(s) can

be a significant hazard if members of the public who are not aware of the danger of
radiation find it. The first priority in this type of accident will be to identify the
location of the source as well as all the people who may have unknowingly handled
it. Information on the type of source, its activity and other physical and chemical
characteristics will be essential in assessing its potential hazard for the public. Efforts
to track the source would normally start at the last known location. Investigative work
is conducted to retrace the sequence of events. Reports from the medical community
on possible contaminated or overexposed victims, surveys by RPO and investigation
by the police are all possible sources of information on the source’s whereabouts.
Searching for a lost source with radiation monitoring equipment is effective for a high
activity unshielded, high energy gamma source, such as industrial radiography
sources. Instruments with large sodium iodide detectors are able to detect such
unshielded sources at distances of up to a few hundred metres.
If a source is missing, the following items give practical guidance for remedial
actions. The steps are classified according to designated officers, i.e. radiographer,
RPO or Emergency Manager.
Radiographer (Response Initiator)
(a) Initiate a search immediately, using a radiation monitoring instrument. If the

source has been lost in transit, retrace the planned route taken by the device
and source and search visually and with the aid of radiation monitoring
instruments.
(b) If it is concluded that the source is lost or stolen, notify the RPO and/or the
Regulatory Authority immediately.
53
Radiation Protection Officer (RPO)
(c) Initiate emergency plan;

(d) When the source is found, inspect it for evidence of tampering and monitor it
for shielding damage;
(e) Perform a wipe test for leakage of radioactive material;
(f) If the test results are satisfactory, the source is returned to the manufacturer or
qualified expert for detailed testing;
(g) If test results are not satisfactory, initiate emergency plan.
Emergency Manager
Communicate with hospitals, the media and the public, when necessary, to help
locate the missing source and, if necessary, warn of potential health effects.
Rare events have been reported involving leaking or damaged sources. If
indications are that the source is damaged, see the following item.
Radiographer
(a) Immediately inform the RPO, who may require assistance from a qualified
expert, manufacturer or Regulatory Authority;
(b) If instructed to do so, and wearing protective clothing (gloves), place the device
and ancillary equipment in strong plastic bags to prevent spread of
contamination;
(c) Place the protective clothing in a plastic bag and seal all bags used and keep the
bags in a controlled area.
8.3.3. X ray equipment
In an abnormal situation involving an X ray tube assembly, assume that it

constitutes an emergency so that the following steps are to be taken:
Radiographer
(a) Recognize that an abnormal situation has occurred which might constitute an
emergency;
(b) Turn off the electrical power;
(c) Perform a radiation survey to confirm that the tube is de-energized;
(d) Do not move the device until details such as position, beam direction, exposure
settings (tube voltage, current and time) are recorded;
(e) Inform the RPO on what has happened;
54
(f) Do not use the device until it is examined and repaired as necessary by a
qualified expert or manufacturer.
(a) Reconstruct the accident, assess the doses received and prepare a report;
(b) Send out personal dosimeters for exposure assessments;
(c) Notify the regulatory authority as required;
8.4. ACCIDENT NOTIFICATION AND REPORT
Where accident notification is required, it is important that the information

provided is complete and accurate and that notification is made as soon as possible.
Accidents are reported to the Regulatory Authority in accordance with the regulatory
requirements or authorizations and the time-scales for notification, depending on the
severity of the accident. Major radiological consequences can be avoided if actions
are initiated quickly for those accidents that have broader implications for workers,
the public and the environment. Notifications are to be followed up by a written
accident report which includes a description of the accident, methods used to render
the source of radiation safe, assessments of exposures (workers, emergency services
personnel, members of the public), the cause of the accident and corrective actions.
Accident reports are to be evaluated by the Regulatory Authority, in conjunction with
the operating organization and the manufacturer or supplier as appropriate. The
lessons learned from the accident have to be communicated to all involved, and any
necessary improvements to enhance safety carried out.
55
REFERENCES
[1] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Radiation Protection and the Safety
of Radiation Sources, Safety Series No. 120, IAEA, Vienna (1996).
Radiation Sources, Safety Series No. 115, IAEA, Vienna (1996).
[3] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Lessons Learned from Accidents in
Industrial Radiography, Safety Reports Series No. 7, IAEA, Vienna (1998).
[4] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Practical Radiation Safety Manual
on Gamma Radiography, IAEA-PRSM-1 (Rev.1), Vienna (1996).
[5] INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION, Sealed
Radioactive Sources — General Classification, ISO/TC 85/SC 2/WG 11N 31E, ISO,
Geneva (1990).
[6] INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION, Sealed
Radioactive Sources — Leakage Test Methods, ISO/TC 85/SC 2N 390, ISO, Geneva
(1988).
of Radioactive Material, 1996 Edition, Safety Standards Series No. ST-1, IAEA,Vienna
(1996).
[8] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Classification of Radioactive Waste,
Safety Series No. 111-G-1.1, IAEA, Vienna (1994).
[9] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Establishing a National System for
Radioactive Waste Management, Safety Series No. 111-S-1, IAEA, Vienna (1995).
[10] INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION, ISO 3999,
Apparatus for Industrial Gamma Radiography – Specifications for Performance, Design
and Tests, ISO/TC 85/SC 2N 78, ISO, Geneva (1994).
[11] INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION, Quality
Management and Quality Assurance Standards – Part 1, Guidelines for Selection and
Use, ISO 9000-1, ISO, Geneva (1994).
[12] CANADIAN SAFETY CODE 27, Requirements for Industrial X Ray Equipment: Use
and Installation, 87 EHD-130 (1986).
[13] AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS INSTITUTE, Radiological Safety Standards
for the Design of Radiographic and Fluoroscopic Industrial X Ray Equipment, ANSI
PB-270 970 (1977).
[14] BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, Electrical Equipment of Industrial Machines,
BS 2771, BSI, London (1986).
[15] BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, Code of Practice for Safety of Machinery,
BS 5304, BSI, London (1988).
[16] INTERNATIONAL ELECTRICAL COMMISSION, Electrical Equipment of Industrial
Machine — Part I, General Requirements, IEC 204-1 (1992).
57
[17] BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, Recommendation for Data on Shielding from
Ionizing Radiation, Part 1: 1966, Shielding from Gamma Radiation, BS 4094, BSI,
London (1988).
[18] BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, Recommendation for Data on Shielding from
Ionizing Radiation, Part 2: 1971, Shielding from X Radiation, BS 4094, BSI, London
(1988).
[19] INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON RADIATION PROTECTION AND
MEASUREMENTS, Structural Shielding Design and Evaluations for Medical Use of
X-rays and Gamma Rays of Energies up to 10 MeV, NCRP Rep. No. 49, Washington,
DC (1976).
[20] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Schedules of Requirements for the
Transport of Specified Types of Radioactive Material Consignments (As Amended
1990), Safety Series No. 80, IAEA, Vienna (1990).
[21] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Emergency Response Planning and
Preparedness for Transport Accidents Involving Radioactive Material, Safety Series
No. 87, IAEA,Vienna (1988).
[22] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Emergency Planning and
Preparedness for Accidents Involving Radioactive Materials Used in Medicine, Industry,
Research and Teaching, Safety Series No. 91, IAEA, Vienna (1989).
[23] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Method for the Development of
Emergency Response Preparedness for Nuclear or Radiological Accidents, IAEA-
TECDOC-953, Vienna (1997).
58
GLOSSARY
Radiography Terms and Common Abbreviations
This glossary contains terms as they are used in gamma radiography.
acute radiation syndrome. The medical term for radiation sickness.

ALARA. In relation to exposures from any particular source within a practice,
except for therapeutic medical exposures, protection and safety shall be
optimized in order that the magnitude of individual doses, the number of
people exposed and the likelihood of incurring exposures all be kept as low
as reasonably achievable (ALARA), economic and social factors being taken
into account, within the restriction that the dose to individuals delivered by
the source be subject to dose constraints.
camera. (See exposure device, radiographic.)
collimator. A small radiation shield of lead or other heavy metal used in radiography.
A collimator placed on the end of the guide tube has a small opening through
which a narrow cone of radiation escapes when the source is cranked into the
collimator. Use of a collimator can greatly reduce the size of the controlled
area to which access must be restricted.
control cable. (See drive cable.)
crank out cable. (See drive cable.)
direct reading dosimeter (DRD). A device worn by a person which gives
instantaneous reading of the dose absorbed. These devices may be air
ionization chambers or electronic devices, e.g. pocket dosimeters or pen
dosimeters.
drive cable. A cable used to push out and retract a source in a cable driven exposure
device. It usually operates with a crank or push–pull mechanism and is also
called a control cable.
exposure device, cable operated. A radiographic exposure device where the source
capsule assembly is cranked or pushed out of the shield by a cable to make the
radiographic exposure.
exposure device, pneumatically operated. A radiographic exposure device where
the flow of air moves the source capsule out of the shield to make the
radiographic exposure.
exposure device, radiographic. A shielded container designed to hold a radiography
source. A means is provided to move the source capsule assembly outside the
shield or to remove part of the shield to make the radiographic exposure. Also
called a radiography camera.
fixed facility. (See shielded enclosure.)
59
half-value layer. The thickness of material reducing the amount of radiation to one
half of its original activity. The thickness of the half-value layer will depend
on the material and the energy of the radiation.
lock box. The part of a radiographic exposure device that contains the mechanism
used to lock the source capsule assembly into its safe shielded position. Also
known as the ‘lock assembly’.
panoramic radiographic exposure. A radiographic exposure in which film is
exposed in a 360° angle around the source. For example, if the source is at the
centre of a pipe, a panoramic exposure will radiograph the entire
circumference of the pipe.
pigtail. The part of a radiographic source assembly that includes the short cable and
the connector, but not the source capsule.
qualified expert. An individual who, by virtue of certification by appropriate boards
or societies, professional licences or academic qualification and experience, is
duly recognized as having expertise in a relevant field of specialization, e.g.
medical physics, radiation protection, occupational health, fire safety, quality
assurance or any relevant engineering or safety speciality.
radiographic exposure device. (See exposure device, radiographic.)
shielded enclosure (fixed facility). An enclosed space engineered to provide
adequate shielding from ionizing radiation for persons in the vicinity. Its use
allows the performance of radiography in a small, easily secured controlled
area within a facility.
source assembly. The radiographic source, including the source capsule, the cable,
the locking ball and the connector. In the case of the pneumatically operated
and pipeline exposure devices used in this text, the assembly consists of only
an inner and an outer source capsule.
source changer. A shielded container with at least two holes for sources. The old
source is put into one hole of the changer, and the new source is removed from
another hole.
source guide tube. A hollow tube that guides and protects the radiographic source as
it is moved out of and retracted back into its shielded position in the exposure
device.
survey meter. A portable instrument that measures radiation dose rate.
tenth-value layer. The thickness of material reducing the amount of radiation to one
tenth of its original intensity. The thickness of the tenth-value layer will
depend on the material and the energy of the gamma radiation.
60
Bijun, H. Jiangsu Provincial Sanitary and Anti-Epidemic Station, China
Gottschalk, P.A. German Society for Industrial Radiography, Germany
Kaituri, M. Finnish Centre for Radiation and Nuclear Safety, Finland
Larsen, B. Force Institute, Denmark
McCready-Shea, S. Health and Safety Executive, United Kingdom
Oresegun, M. International Atomic Energy Agency
Ostergard, M. Amersham International plc, Denmark
Piconne, J. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, United States of America
Roughan, C. Amersham Corporation, United States of America
Velasques, S. Brazilian Nuclear Energy Commission, Brazil
Walker, R.J. Atomic Energy Control Board, Canada
Wheelton, R. National Radiological Protection Board, United Kingdom
Zamora, F. Consejo de Seguridad Nuclear, Spain
Consultants Meetings
Vienna, Austria: 24–28 July 1995, 11–15 March 1996, 23–27 September 1996,
9–13 December 1996
Technical Committee Meeting
Vienna, Austria: 8–12 July 1996
61
Factsheet for
Decision Makers

Why are they important?
Radiation sources are widely used in medicine, industry, agriculture and research and the uses of radiation
continue to increase worldwide.
People are exposed to radiation from the generation of nuclear power, from naturally occurring radiation
in the environment, and from exposure to radiation following a nuclear or radiological emergency. Any
exposure to radiation bears an associated risk to people and the environment, depending on the level of
exposure.
What do I need to know?

The protection of people from the potentially harmful effects of radiation needs to be achieved without
unnecessarily restricting the beneficial uses enjoyed by society.
The system of protection and safety outlined in the BSS aims to ASSESS, MANAGE, CONTROL exposure to
radiation.
Radiation risks, including risks to health and to the environment, should be reduced to the extent reasonably
achievable.
The BSS applies to all facilities and all activities that give rise to radiation risks, it covers three types of exposure
situations: planned, emergency and existing exposure situations, and it provides internationally agreed
standards for controlling occupational, medical and public exposure.
The International Basic Safety The BSS are based on the most recent
Standards (BSS) are the international scientific evidence on the effects
benchmark for radiation safety. The of ionizing radiation and take into
BSS are used in many countries as account practices and experiences
the basis for national legislation to from around the world in the use
protect workers, patients, the public of ionizing radiation and nuclear
and the environment from the risks techniques. Eight international
of ionizing radiation. organizations sponsor the BSS.
What actions are required?
The government The regulatory body The licensee, employer The system of radiation
is responsible for is responsible for and/or facility operator has safety needs to be fully
establishing and establishing or adopting prime responsibility for integrated into the overall
implementing a legal and regulations and guides safety and is responsible management system for
regulatory framework for for radiation safety, for establishing and safety.
radiation safety and for and for ensuring their implementing an
establishing an effectively implementation. appropriate radiation
independent regulatory safety programme.
body.
Exposure situations
Planned exposure situations arise from the deliberate introduction and operation of sources or from an activity
that results in an exposure to radiation.
Emergency exposure situations arise as a result of an accident, a malicious act, or any other unexpected event.
Such situations require prompt action in order to avoid or reduce any negative consequences.
Existing exposure situations is where the radiation exposure that is already taking place when we consider if any
action needs to be taken.
Categories of exposure
Occupational exposure is exposure of workers as part of their work.
Medical exposure is exposure of patients as a result of medical or dental diagnosis or treatment, of carers and
comforters, and of volunteers as part of a programme of biomedical research
Public exposure is exposure of members of the public from radiation sources, excluding any occupational or
medical exposure.
Resources
Radiation Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources: International Basic Safety Standards, No. GSR Part 3
http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1578_web-57265295.pdf
16-1480
Regional Workshop on the
Session 1: Dose Limits and Dose Constraints
17-19 October 2012, Kiev, Ukraine
Mikhail Balonov
IAEA
Key Principles of Radiological
Protection
Justification [source related]
• actions involving changes in exposure of individuals to be justified in
advance - positive net benefit
Optimisation [source related]
• exposures should be as low as reasonably achievable [ALARA] and
below dose constraints and reference levels
• Dose Constraints – planned exposure situations
• Reference Levels – existing & emergency exposure situations
Dose Limits [individual related]

• No change in ICRP 103 from ICRP60 except DL for lens of the eye
reduced for workers
IAEA
Conceptual basis – dose constraint
• The term Dose Constraints was first introduced in

ICRP Publication 60 in the 1990 recommendations
• The concept has evolved - in ICRP 103 dose

constraints are a much more important tool for
optimisation
• In planned exposure situations, it should be planned
that exposures will be below the selected dose
constraint (limits inequity in individual occupational
exposure, and allows for exposure from several
sources for public exposure)
• Optimisation of protection is required for all
exposures, even those below the dose constraint
IAEA
Dose Constraint
• A prospective and source-related restriction

on the individual dose from a source, which
provides a basic level of protection for the
most highly exposed individuals from a
source, and serves as an upper bound on
the dose in optimisation of protection for that
source
• Not a limit!
IAEA 4
Concepts of dose limit and dose constraint
IAEA BSS Workshop Ukraine 2012

International BSS
Requirement 11: Optimization of protection and safety: The government or regulatory

body shall establish and enforce requirements for the optimization of protection and
safety, and registrants and licensees shall ensure that protection and safety is
optimized.
Supporting requirements include the following 2 paragraphs:

3.22.The government or regulatory body:
(a) shall establish and enforce requirements for the optimization of protection and safety;
(b) shall require documentation addressing the optimization of protection and safety;
(c) shall establish or approve constraints on dose and on risk, as appropriate, or shall
establish or approve a process for establishing such constraints, to be used in the
optimization of protection and safety.
3.25.For occupational exposure and public exposure, registrants and licensees shall ensure,
as appropriate, that relevant constraints are used in the optimization of protection and
safety for any particular source within a practice
IAEA
International BSS
Requirement 12: Dose limits

The government or the regulatory body shall establish dose limits for
occupational exposure and public exposure, and registrants and
licensees shall apply these limits.
Supporting requirements are the following
• 3.26. The government or the regulatory body shall establish and the regulatory body shall
enforce compliance with the dose limits specified in Schedule III for occupational
exposures and public exposures in planned exposure situations.
• 3.27. The government or the regulatory body shall determine what additional restrictions,
if any are required to be complied with by registrants and licensees to ensure that the
dose limits specified in Schedule III are not exceeded owing to possible combinations of
doses from exposures due to different authorized practices.
• 3.28. Registrants and licensees shall ensure that the exposures of individuals due to the
practices for which the registrants and licensees are authorized are restricted so that
neither the effective dose nor the equivalent dose to tissues or organs exceeds any
relevant dose limit specified in Schedule III.26

DOSE LIMITS FOR PLANNED EXPOSURE SITUATIONS
• Dose limits apply for planned exposure situations only

• Dose limits are set by government or the regulatory body
• Dose limits are enforced by the regulatory body
• Registrants and licensees are required to ensure that the exposure of
workers and of the public is not to exceed the dose limit
• Dose limits are essentially unchanged from SS115, except that
• Dose limits for the lens of the eye have been reduced*
• For workers over the age of 18 years, an equivalent dose to the lens
of the eye of 20 mSv per year averaged over five consecutive years
(100 mSv in 5 years), and of 50 mSv in any single year;
• For apprentices, age from 16 to 18 years of age, an equivalent dose
to the lens of the eye of 20 mSv per year;
* In line with ICRP Statement on Tissue Reactions approved April 21, 2011

Dose constraints
• Dose constraints are not limits

• Dose constraints are part of the optimization process. They
are used prospectively.
Dose Limit
Dose constraint
Optimization
constraint
below
optimized level
Issues – dose limits - workers
• Compliance with dose limit / Optimization of protection and

safety
• Workers who work for employer who is not licensee for the
source (itinerant workers)
• Workers who work for more than one employer
• Pregnant workers and breast-feeding workers
• Embryo/fetus and breast fed infant – public
• Reduced dose limit for lens of the eye – Session 2
• Exposure to radon – planned exposure situations and
existing exposure situations
• The use of investigation levels
• Dose, intake, contamination levels
Issues – dose constraints - workers
• Licensees establish dose constraints

• Regulatory body reviews dose constraint as part of the
regulatory process
• Licensee involves workers in the process of optimization
• Design aspects:
• Design of equipment / new facility
• Preparing for new operation e.g. modification
• Operational aspects:
• Evaluation of trends
• Evaluation of effectiveness of RPP
• Identify areas for improvement
• Training of workers

Issues – dose limits - public
• Representative person (critical group)

• Who ensures that the dose limit for the public is not
exceeded?
• Monitoring programmes and assessment of doses to the
public
• Provision for independent monitoring – when, why

Issues – dose constraints - public
• Government or the regulatory body sets the dose constraint

for the public
• Factors to consider in setting dose constraint
• The characteristics of the source and the practice
• Good practice in the operation of similar sources
• Dose contributions from other authorized practices
• The views of interested parties


Chapter 3
RADIATION DOSIMETERS
J. IZEWSKA
Division of Human Health,
International Atomic Energy Agency,
Vienna
G. RAJAN
Medical Physics and Safety Section,
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre,
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
3.1. INTRODUCTION
A radiation dosimeter is a device, instrument or system that measures or

evaluates, either directly or indirectly, the quantities exposure, kerma,
absorbed dose or equivalent dose, or their time derivatives (rates), or related
quantities of ionizing radiation. A dosimeter along with its reader is referred to
as a dosimetry system.
Measurement of a dosimetric quantity is the process of finding the value
of the quantity experimentally using dosimetry systems. The result of a
measurement is the value of a dosimetric quantity expressed as the product of
a numerical value and an appropriate unit.
To function as a radiation dosimeter, the dosimeter must possess at least
one physical property that is a function of the measured dosimetric quantity
and that can be used for radiation dosimetry with proper calibration. In order
to be useful, radiation dosimeters must exhibit several desirable characteristics.
For example, in radiotherapy exact knowledge of both the absorbed dose to
water at a specified point and its spatial distribution are of importance, as well
as the possibility of deriving the dose to an organ of interest in the patient. In
this context, the desirable dosimeter properties will be characterized by
accuracy and precision, linearity, dose or dose rate dependence, energy
response, directional dependence and spatial resolution.
Obviously, not all dosimeters can satisfy all characteristics. The choice of
a radiation dosimeter and its reader must therefore be made judiciously, taking
into account the requirements of the measurement situation; for example, in
radiotherapy ionization chambers are recommended for beam calibrations
71
CHAPTER 3
(reference dosimetry: see Chapter 9) and other dosimeters, such as those

discussed below, are suitable for the evaluation of the dose distribution
(relative dosimetry) or dose verification.
3.2. PROPERTIES OF DOSIMETERS
3.2.1. Accuracy and precision
In radiotherapy dosimetry the uncertainty associated with the

measurement is often expressed in terms of accuracy and precision. The
precision of dosimetry measurements specifies the reproducibility of the
measurements under similar conditions and can be estimated from the data
obtained in repeated measurements. High precision is associated with a small
standard deviation of the distribution of the measurement results. The accuracy
of dosimetry measurements is the proximity of their expectation value to the
‘true value’ of the measured quantity. Results of measurements cannot be
absolutely accurate and the inaccuracy of a measurement result is charac-
terized as ‘uncertainty’.
The uncertainty is a parameter that describes the dispersion of the
measured values of a quantity; it is evaluated by statistical methods (type A) or
by other methods (type B), has no known sign and is usually assumed to be
symmetrical.
The error of measurement is the difference between the measured value
of a quantity and the true value of that quantity.
● An error has both a numerical value and a sign.

● Typically, the measurement errors are not known exactly, but they are
estimated in the best possible way, and, where possible, compensating
corrections are introduced.
● After application of all known corrections, the expectation value for
errors should be zero and the only quantities of concern are the uncer-
tainties.
3.2.1.1. Type A standard uncertainties
If a measurement of a dosimetric quantity x is repeated N times, then the

best estimate for x is x, the arithmetic mean value of all measurements xi:
72
Âx
1
x= i (3.1)
N i =1
The standard deviation sx characterizes the average uncertainty for an

individual result xi and is given by:
Â
1
sx = (x - x) 2 (3.2)
N - 1 i =1 i
The standard deviation of the mean value is given by:
Â (x
1 1
sx = sx = - x)2 (3.3)
N N ( N - 1) i =1
i
● The standard uncertainty of type A, denoted uA, is defined as the

standard deviation of the mean value, uA = s x .
● The standard uncertainty of type A is obtained by a statistical analysis of
repeated measurements and, in principle, can be reduced by increasing
the number of measurements.
3.2.1.2. Type B standard uncertainties
Type B standard uncertainties uB cannot be estimated by repeated

measurements; rather, they are intelligent guesses or scientific judgements of
non-statistical uncertainties associated with the measurement. They include
influences on the measuring process, application of correction factors or
physical data taken from the literature.
It is often assumed that type B standard uncertainties have a probability
distribution, such as a normal (Gaussian) or a rectangular distribution (equal
probability anywhere within the given limits). Type B standard uncertainties
can be derived by estimating the limit beyond which the value of the factor is
not going to lie, and a fraction of this limit is taken as uB. The fraction is chosen
according to the distribution assumed.
3.2.1.3. Combined and expanded uncertainties
The equation that determines a dosimetric quantity Q at a point P is of

the type:
73
CHAPTER 3
N
Q P = M P Fi (3.4)
i =1
where M is the reading provided by the dosimetry system and Fi is the

correction or conversion coefficient.
● The combined standard uncertainty uC associated with the quantity Q is a

quadratic summation of type A (uA) and type B (uB) uncertainties:
uC = u A
2
+ u B2 (3.5)
● The combined uncertainty is assumed to exhibit a normal distribution and

is multiplied by a coverage factor, denoted by k, to obtain the expanded
uncertainty U = kuC. The result of the measurement of the quantity Q is
then expressed by QP ± U.
● The expanded uncertainty U with the coverage factor k = 2, corre-
sponding to the 95% confidence level, is often used to represent the
overall uncertainty, which relates to the accuracy of the measurement of
the quantity Q.
3.2.2. Linearity
Ideally, the dosimeter reading M should be linearly proportional to the

dosimetric quantity Q. However, beyond a certain dose range a non-linearity
sets in. The linearity range and the non-linearity behaviour depend on the type
of dosimeter and its physical characteristics.
Two typical examples of response characteristics of dosimetry systems are
shown in Fig. 3.1. Curve A first exhibits linearity with dose, then a supralinear
behaviour, and finally saturation. Curve B first exhibits linearity and then
saturation at high doses.
In general, a non-linear behaviour should be corrected for. A dosimeter
and its reader may both exhibit non-linear characteristics, but their combined
effect could produce linearity over a wider range.
3.2.3. Dose rate dependence
Integrating systems measure the integrated response of a dosimetry

system. For such systems the measured dosimetric quantity should be
independent of the rate of that quantity.
74
Dosimeter reading A
Dose
FIG. 3.1. Response characteristics of two dosimetry systems. Curve A first exhibits
linearity with dose, then supralinear behaviour and finally saturation. Curve B first
exhibits linearity and then saturation at high doses.
Ideally, the response of a dosimetry system M/Q at two different dose

rates ((dQ/dt)1 and (dQ/dt)2) should remain constant. In reality, the dose rate
may influence the dosimeter readings and appropriate corrections are
necessary, for example recombination corrections for ionization chambers in
pulsed beams.
3.2.4. Energy dependence
The response of a dosimetry system M/Q is generally a function of

radiation beam quality (energy). Since the dosimetry systems are calibrated at
a specified radiation beam quality (or qualities) and used over a much wider
energy range, the variation of the response of a dosimetry system with
radiation quality (called energy dependence) requires correction.
Ideally, the energy response should be flat (i.e. the system calibration
should be independent of energy over a certain range of radiation qualities). In
reality, the energy correction has to be included in the determination of the
quantity Q for most measurement situations. Ιn radiotherapy, the quantity of
interest is the dose to water (or to tissue). As no dosimeter is water or tissue
equivalent for all radiation beam qualities, the energy dependence is an
important characteristic of a dosimetry system.
75
CHAPTER 3
3.2.5. Directional dependence
The variation in response of a dosimeter with the angle of incidence of

radiation is known as the directional, or angular, dependence of the dosimeter.
Dosimeters usually exhibit directional dependence, due to their constructional
details, physical size and the energy of the incident radiation. Directional
dependence is important in certain applications, for example in in vivo
dosimetry while using semiconductor dosimeters. Therapy dosimeters are
generally used in the same geometry as that in which they are calibrated.
3.2.6. Spatial resolution and physical size
Since the dose is a point quantity, the dosimeter should allow the determi-
nation of the dose from a very small volume (i.e. one needs a ‘point dosimeter’
to characterize the dose at a point). Τhe position of the point where the dose is
determined (i.e. its spatial location) should be well defined in a reference
coordinate system.
Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) come in very small dimensions
and their use, to a great extent, approximates a point measurement. Film
dosimeters have excellent 2-D and gels 3-D resolution, where the point
measurement is limited only by the resolution of the evaluation system.
Ionization chamber type dosimeters, however, are of finite size to give the
required sensitivity, although the new type of pinpoint microchambers partially
overcomes the problem.
3.2.7. Readout convenience
Direct reading dosimeters (e.g. ionization chambers) are generally more

convenient than passive dosimeters (i.e. those that are read after due
processing following the exposure, for example TLDs and films). While some
dosimeters are inherently of the integrating type (e.g. TLDs and gels), others
can measure in both integral and differential modes (ionization chambers).
3.2.8. Convenience of use
Ionization chambers are reusable, with no or little change in sensitivity

within their lifespan. Semiconductor dosimeters are reusable, but with a
gradual loss of sensitivity within their lifespan; however, some dosimeters are
not reusable (e.g. films, gels and alanine). Some dosimeters measure dose
distribution in a single exposure (e.g. films and gels) and some dosimeters are
76
quite rugged (i.e. handling will not influence sensitivity, for example ionization
chambers), while others are sensitive to handling (e.g. TLDs).
3.3. IONIZATION CHAMBER DOSIMETRY SYSTEMS
3.3.1. Chambers and electrometers
Ionization chambers are used in radiotherapy and in diagnostic radiology

for the determination of radiation dose. The dose determination in reference
irradiation conditions is also called beam calibration (see Chapter 9 for
details). Ionization chambers come in various shapes and sizes, depending upon
the specific requirements, but generally they all have the following properties:
● An ionization chamber is basically a gas filled cavity surrounded by a

conductive outer wall and having a central collecting electrode (see
Fig. 3.2). The wall and the collecting electrode are separated with a high
quality insulator to reduce the leakage current when a polarizing voltage
is applied to the chamber.
● A guard electrode is usually provided in the chamber to further reduce
chamber leakage. The guard electrode intercepts the leakage current and
allows it to flow to ground, bypassing the collecting electrode. It also
ensures improved field uniformity in the active or sensitive volume of the
chamber, with resulting advantages in charge collection.
● Measurements with open air ionization chambers require temperature
and pressure correction to account for the change in the mass of air in the
chamber volume, which changes with the ambient temperature and
pressure.
Graphite Central electrode

PTCFE Outer electrode
Insulator
Aluminium
Dural
FIG. 3.2. Basic design of a cylindrical Farmer type ionization chamber.
77
CHAPTER 3
Electrometers are devices for measuring small currents, of the order of 10–9 A
or less. An electrometer used in conjunction with an ionization chamber is a
high gain, negative feedback, operational amplifier with a standard resistor or a
standard capacitor in the feedback path to measure the chamber current or
charge collected over a fixed time interval, as shown schematically in Fig. 3.3.
3.3.2. Cylindrical (thimble type) ionization chambers
The most popular cylindrical ionization chamber is the 0.6 cm3 chamber
designed by Farmer and originally manufactured by Baldwin, but now available
from several vendors, for beam calibration in radiotherapy dosimetry. Its
chamber sensitive volume resembles a thimble, and hence the Farmer type
chamber is also known as a thimble chamber. A schematic diagram of a Farmer
type thimble ionization chamber is shown in Fig. 3.2; ionization chamber based
dosimetry systems are discussed in Section 9.2.
Cylindrical chambers are produced by various manufacturers, with active
volumes between 0.1 and 1 cm3. They typically have an internal length no
greater than 25 mm and an internal diameter no greater than 7 mm. The wall
material is of low atomic number Z (i.e. tissue or air equivalent), with the
thickness less than 0.1 g/cm2. A chamber is equipped with a buildup cap with a
thickness of about 0.5 g/cm2 for calibration free in air using 60Co radiation.
The chamber construction should be as homogeneous as possible,
although an aluminium central electrode of about 1 mm in diameter is typically
Cf
Rf
-
+
I V = II Rf (rate mode)
Rf = feedback resistor V = (II t)/Cf

(variable to vary sensitivity) (integrated mode)
Cf = feedback capacitor
(variable to vary sensitivity)
FIG. 3.3. Electrometer in feedback mode of operation.
78
used to ensure flat energy dependence. Construction details of various

commercially available cylindrical chambers are given in the IAEA Technical
Reports Series (TRS) 277 and TRS 398 codes of practice. The use of the
cylindrical chamber in electron and photon beam dosimetry is discussed in
Chapter 9.
3.3.3. Parallel-plate (plane-parallel) ionization chambers
A parallel-plate ionization chamber consists of two plane walls, one

serving as an entry window and polarizing electrode and the other as the back
wall and collecting electrode, as well as a guard ring system. The back wall is
usually a block of conducting plastic or a non-conducting material (usually
Perspex or polystyrene) with a thin conducting layer of graphite forming the
collecting electrode and the guard ring system on top. A schematic diagram of
a parallel-plate ionization chamber is shown in Fig. 3.4.
The parallel-plate chamber is recommended for dosimetry of electron
beams with energies below 10 MeV. It is also used for surface dose and depth
dose measurements in the buildup region of megavoltage photon beams. Dose
measurements in the buildup region of photon beams are discussed in
Section 6.13. The characteristics of commercially available parallel-plate
chambers and the use of these chambers in electron beam dosimetry are
explained in detail in the TRS 381 and TRS 398 codes of practice. Some
parallel-plate chambers require significant fluence perturbation correction
because they are provided with an inadequate guard width.
3.3.4. Brachytherapy chambers
Sources used in brachytherapy are low air kerma rate sources that require
chambers of sufficient volume (about 250 cm3 or more) for adequate sensitivity.
Well type chambers or re-entrant chambers are ideally suited for calibration
and standardization of brachytherapy sources. Figure 3.5 shows a schematic
diagram of a well type chamber.
Well type chambers should be designed to accommodate sources of the
typical sizes and shapes that are in clinical use in brachytherapy and are usually
calibrated in terms of the reference air kerma rate.
3.3.5. Extrapolation chambers
Extrapolation chambers are parallel-plate chambers with a variable

sensitive volume. They are used in the measurement of surface doses in ortho-
79
CHAPTER 3
Schnitt A–B
3 1 2 3
d
m
g
A B
FIG. 3.4. Parallel-plate ionization chamber. 1: the polarizing electrode. 2: the measuring
electrode. 3: the guard ring. a: the height (electrode separation) of the air cavity. d: the
diameter of the polarizing electrode. m: the diameter of the collecting electrode. g: the
width of the guard ring.
voltage and megavoltage X ray beams and in the dosimetry of b rays, and low
energy X rays. They can also be used in absolute radiation dosimetry when
directly embedded into a tissue equivalent phantom. The cavity perturbation
for electrons can be eliminated by making measurements as a function of the
cavity thickness and then extrapolating to zero thickness. Using this chamber,
the cavity perturbation for parallel-plate chambers of finite thickness can be
estimated.
80
Source holder
Collecting electrode
Outer electrode (HV)
Insulator
To electrometer
FIG. 3.5. Basic design of a brachytherapy well type chamber.
3.4. FILM DOSIMETRY
3.4.1. Radiographic film
Radiographic X ray film performs several important functions in

diagnostic radiology, radiotherapy and radiation protection. It can serve as a
radiation detector, a relative dosimeter, a display device and an archival
medium.
Unexposed X ray film consists of a base of thin plastic with a radiation
sensitive emulsion (silver bromide (AgBr) grains suspended in gelatin) coated
uniformly on one or both sides of the base.
● Ionization of AgBr grains, as a result of radiation interaction, forms a

latent image in the film. This image only becomes visible (film
blackening) and permanent subsequently to processing.
● Light transmission is a function of the film opacity and can be measured
in terms of optical density (OD) with devices called densitometers.
● The OD is defined as OD = log10 (I0/I) and is a function of dose. I0 is the
initial light intensity and I is the intensity transmitted through the film.
● Film gives excellent 2-D spatial resolution and, in a single exposure,
provides information about the spatial distribution of radiation in the
area of interest or the attenuation of radiation by intervening objects.
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CHAPTER 3
● Τhe useful dose range of film is limited and the energy dependence is
pronounced for lower energy photons. The response of the film depends
on several parameters, which are difficult to control. Consistent
processing of the film is a particular challenge in this regard.
● Typically, film is used for qualitative dosimetry, but with proper
calibration, careful use and analysis film can also be used for dose
evaluation.
● Various types of film are available for radiotherapy work (e.g. direct
exposure non-screen films for field size verification, phosphor screen
films used with simulators and metallic screen films used in portal
imaging).
● Unexposed film would exhibit a background OD called the fog density
(ODf). The density due to radiation exposure, called the net OD, can be
obtained from the measured density by subtracting the fog density.
● OD readers include film densitometers, laser densitometers and
automatic film scanners. The principle of operation of a simple film densi-
tometer is shown in Fig. 3.6.
Ideally, the relationship between the dose and OD should be linear, but
this is not always the case. Some emulsions are linear, some are linear over a
limited dose range and others are non-linear. The dose versus OD curve,
known as the sensitometric curve (also known as the characteristic or H&D
curve, in honour of Hurter and Driffield, who first investigated the
relationship) must therefore be established for each film before using it for
dosimetry work.
A typical H&D curve for a radiographic film is shown in Fig. 3.7. It has
four regions: (1) fog, at low or zero exposures; (2) toe; (3) a linear portion at
Log ratio amplifier
Isig _
2.99
Film I0 + (3½ digits DPM)

OD = log10 (I0/Isig)
FIG. 3.6. Basic film densitometer.
82
intermediate exposures; and (4) shoulder and saturation at high exposures. The
linear portion is referred to as optimum measurement conditions, the toe is the
region of underexposure and the shoulder is the region of overexposure.
Important parameters of film response to radiation are gamma, latitude
and speed:
● The slope of the straight line portion of the H&D curve is called the
gamma of the film.
● The exposure should be chosen to make all parts of the radiograph lie on
the linear portion of the H&D curve, to ensure the same contrast for all
ODs.
● The latitude is defined as the range of exposures over which the ODs will
lie in the linear region.
● The speed of a film is determined by giving the exposure required to
produce an OD of 1.0 greater than the OD of fog.
Typical applications of a radiographic film in radiotherapy are qualitative

and quantitative measurements, including electron beam dosimetry, quality
control of radiotherapy machines (e.g. congruence of light and radiation fields
and the determination of the position of a collimator axis, the so called star
4 (4) Shoulder
3
OD
(3) Linear portion
1
(1) Fog (2) Toe
0
1 10 100 1000
Exposure (arbitrary units)
FIG. 3.7. Typical sensitometric (characteristic H&D) curve for a radiographic film.
83
CHAPTER 3
test), verification of treatment techniques in various phantoms and portal

imaging.
3.4.2. Radiochromic film
Radiochromic film is a new type of film in radiotherapy dosimetry. The

most commonly used is a GafChromic film. It is a colourless film with a nearly
tissue equivalent composition (9.0% hydrogen, 60.6% carbon, 11.2% nitrogen
and 19.2% oxygen) that develops a blue colour upon radiation exposure.
Radiochromic film contains a special dye that is polymerized upon
exposure to radiation. The polymer absorbs light, and the transmission of light
through the film can be measured with a suitable densitometer. Radiochromic
film is self-developing, requiring neither developer nor fixer. Since radio-
chromic film is grainless, it has a very high resolution and can be used in high
dose gradient regions for dosimetry (e.g. measurements of dose distributions in
stereotactic fields and in the vicinity of brachytherapy sources).
Dosimetry with radiochromic films has a few advantages over radio-
graphic films, such as ease of use; elimination of the need for darkroom
facilities, film cassettes or film processing; dose rate independence; better
energy characteristics (except for low energy X rays of 25 kV or less); and
insensitivity to ambient conditions (although excessive humidity should be
avoided). Radiochromic films are generally less sensitive than radiographic
films and are useful at higher doses, although the dose response non-linearity
should be corrected for in the upper dose region.
● Radiochromic film is a relative dosimeter. If proper care is taken with

calibration and the environmental conditions, a precision better than 3%
is achievable.
● Data on the various characteristics of radiochromic films (e.g. sensitivity,
linearity, uniformity, reproducibility and post-irradiation stability) are
available in the literature.
3.5. LUMINESCENCE DOSIMETRY
Some materials, upon absorption of radiation, retain part of the absorbed

energy in metastable states. When this energy is subsequently released in the
form of ultraviolet, visible or infrared light, the phenomenon is called lumines-
cence. Two types of luminescence, fluorescence and phosphorescence, are
known, which depend on the time delay between stimulation and the emission
of light. Fluorescence occurs with a time delay of between 10–10 and 10–8 s;
84
phosphorescence occurs with a time delay exceeding 10–8 s. The process of

phosphorescence can be accelerated with a suitable excitation in the form of
heat or light.
● If the exciting agent is heat, the phenomenon is known as thermolumines-

cence and the material is called a thermoluminescent material, or a TLD
when used for purposes of dosimetry.
● If the exciting agent is light, the phenomenon is referred to as optically
stimulated luminescence (OSL).
As discussed in Section 1.4, the highly energetic secondary charged

particles, usually electrons, that are produced in the primary interactions of
photons with matter are mainly responsible for the photon energy deposition in
matter. In a crystalline solid these secondary charged particles release
numerous low energy free electrons and holes through ionizations of atoms and
ions. The free electrons and holes thus produced will either recombine or
become trapped in an electron or hole trap, respectively, somewhere in the
crystal.
The traps can be intrinsic or can be introduced in the crystal in the form of
lattice imperfections consisting of vacancies or impurities. Two types of trap are
known in general: storage traps and recombination centres.
● A storage trap merely traps free charge carriers and releases them during
the subsequent (a) heating, resulting in the thermoluminescence process,
or (b) irradiation with light, resulting in the OSL process.
● A charge carrier released from a storage trap may recombine with a
trapped charge carrier of opposite sign in a recombination centre
(luminescence centre). The recombination energy is at least partially
emitted in the form of ultraviolet, visible or infrared light that can be
measured with photodiodes or photomultiplier tubes (PMTs).
3.5.1. Thermoluminescence
Thermoluminescence is thermally activated phosphorescence; it is the

most spectacular and widely known of a number of different ionizing radiation
induced thermally activated phenomena. Its practical applications range from
archaeological pottery dating to radiation dosimetry. In 1968 Cameron,
Suntharalingam and Kenney published a book on the thermoluminescence
process that is still considered an excellent treatise on the practical aspects of
the thermoluminescence phenomenon. A useful phenomenological model of
the thermoluminescence mechanism is provided in terms of the band model for
85
CHAPTER 3
solids. The storage traps and recombination centres, each type characterized
with an activation energy (trap depth) that depends on the crystalline solid and
the nature of the trap, are located in the energy gap between the valence band
and the conduction band. The states just below the conduction band represent
electron traps, the states just above the valence band are hole traps. The
trapping levels are empty before irradiation (i.e. the hole traps contain
electrons and the electron traps do not).
During irradiation the secondary charged particles lift electrons into the
conduction band either from the valence band (leaving a free hole in the
valence band) or from an empty hole trap (filling the hole trap).
The system may approach thermal equilibrium through several means:
● Free charge carriers recombine with the recombination energy converted

into heat;
● A free charge carrier recombines with a charge carrier of opposite sign
trapped at a luminescence centre, the recombination energy being
emitted as optical fluorescence;
● The free charge carrier becomes trapped at a storage trap, and this event
is then responsible for phosphorescence or the thermoluminescence and
OSL processes.
3.5.2. Thermoluminescent dosimeter systems
The TLDs most commonly used in medical applications are LiF:Mg,Ti,

LiF:Mg,Cu,P and Li2B4O7:Mn, because of their tissue equivalence. Other
TLDs, used because of their high sensitivity, are CaSO4:Dy, Al2O3:C and
CaF2:Mn.
● TLDs are available in various forms (e.g. powder, chips, rods and
ribbons).
● Before they are used, TLDs need to be annealed to erase the residual
signal. Well established and reproducible annealing cycles, including the
heating and cooling rates, should be used.
A basic TLD reader system consists of a planchet for placing and heating
the TLD, a PMT to detect the thermoluminescence light emission and convert
it into an electrical signal linearly proportional to the detected photon fluence
and an electrometer for recording the PMT signal as a charge or current. A
basic schematic diagram of a TLD reader is shown in Fig. 3.8.
86
Electrometer
HV
Thermoluminescence ~ charge
PMT
TLD
Heater
FIG. 3.8. TLD reader.
● The thermoluminescence intensity emission is a function of the TLD

temperature T. Keeping the heating rate constant makes the temperature
T proportional to time t, and so the thermoluminescence intensity can be
plotted as a function of t if a recorder output is available with the TLD
measuring system. The resulting curve is called the TLD glow curve. In
general, if the emitted light is plotted against the crystal temperature one
obtains a thermoluminescence thermogram (Fig. 3.9).
● The peaks in the glow curve may be correlated with trap depths
responsible for thermoluminescence emission.
● The main dosimetric peak of the LiF:Mg,Ti glow curve between 180ºC
and 260ºC is used for dosimetry. The peak temperature is high enough so
as not to be affected by room temperature and still low enough so as not
to interfere with black body emission from the heating planchet.
● The total thermoluminescence signal emitted (i.e. the area under the
appropriate portion of the glow curve) can be correlated to dose through
proper calibration.
● Good reproducibility of heating cycles during the readout is important for
accurate dosimetry.
● The thermoluminescence signal decreases in time after the irradiation
due to spontaneous emission of light at room temperature. This process is
called fading. Typically, for LiF:Mg,Ti, the fading of the dosimetric peak
does not exceed a few per cent in the months after irradiation.
● The thermoluminescence dose response is linear over a wide range of
doses used in radiotherapy, although it increases in the higher dose
region, exhibiting supralinear behaviour before it saturates at even higher
doses.
87
CHAPTER 3
1.0 Time after irradiation

Normalized thermolumescence signal
1h
0.8 4d
20 d
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Temperature (˚C)
FIG. 3.9. A typical thermogram (glow curve) of LiF:Mg,Ti measured with a TLD reader
at a low heating rate.
● TLDs need to be calibrated before they are used (thus they serve as
relative dosimeters). To derive the absorbed dose from the thermolumi-
nescence reading a few correction factors have to be applied, such as
those for energy, fading and dose response non-linearity.
● Typical applications of TLDs in radiotherapy are: in vivo dosimetry on
patients (either as a routine quality assurance procedure or for dose
monitoring in special cases, for example complicated geometries, dose to
critical organs, total body irradiation (TBI), brachytherapy); verification
of treatment techniques in various phantoms (e.g. anthropomorphic
phantoms); dosimetry audits (such as the IAEA–World Health Organi-
zation (WHO) TLD postal dose audit programme); and comparisons
among hospitals.
3.5.3. Optically stimulated luminescence systems
OSL is based on a principle similar to that of thermoluminescence

dosimetry. Instead of heat, light (from a laser) is used to release the trapped
energy in the form of luminescence. OSL is a novel technique offering a
88
potential for in vivo dosimetry in radiotherapy. The integrated dose measured

during irradiation can be evaluated using OSL directly afterwards.
The optical fibre optically stimulated thermoluminescent dosimeter
consists of a small (~1 mm3) chip of carbon doped aluminium oxide (Al2O3:C)
coupled with a long optical fibre, a laser, a beam splitter and a collimator, a
PMT, electronics and software. To produce OSL, the chip is excited with laser
light through an optical fibre, and the resulting luminescence (blue light) is
carried back in the same fibre, reflected through 90º by the beam splitter and
measured in a PMT.
The optical fibre dosimeter exhibits high sensitivity over the wide range
of dose rates and doses used in radiotherapy. The OSL response is generally
linear and independent of energy as well as the dose rate, although the angular
response requires correction.
Various experimental set-ups exist, such as pulsed OSL or OSL used in
conjunction with radioluminescence. Radioluminescence is emitted promptly
at the time of dosimeter irradiation and provides information on the dose rate
during irradiation, while OSL provides the integrated dose thereafter. This
technique, although not yet used routinely in radiotherapy, may prove to be a
valuable tool for in vivo dosimetry in the future.
3.6. SEMICONDUCTOR DOSIMETRY
3.6.1. Silicon diode dosimetry systems
A silicon diode dosimeter is a p–n junction diode. The diodes are

produced by taking n type or p type silicon and counter-doping the surface to
produce the opposite type material. These diodes are referred to as n–Si or p–
Si dosimeters, depending upon the base material. Both types of diode are
commercially available, but only the p–Si type is suitable for radiotherapy
dosimetry, since it is less affected by radiation damage and has a much smaller
dark current.
Radiation produces electron–hole (e–h) pairs in the body of the
dosimeter, including the depletion layer. The charges (minority charge carriers)
produced in the body of the dosimeter, within the diffusion length, diffuse into
the depleted region. They are swept across the depletion region under the
action of the electric field due to the intrinsic potential. In this way a current is
generated in the reverse direction in the diode.
89
CHAPTER 3
● Diodes are used in the short circuit mode, since this mode exhibits a
linear relationship between the measured charge and dose. They are
usually operated without an external bias to reduce leakage current.
● Diodes are more sensitive and smaller in size than typical ionization
chambers. They are relative dosimeters and should not be used for beam
calibration, since their sensitivity changes with repeated use due to
radiation damage.
● Diodes are particularly useful for measurement in phantoms, for example
of small fields used in stereotactic radiosurgery or high dose gradient
areas such as the penumbra region. They are also often used for measure-
ments of depth doses in electron beams. For use with beam scanning
devices in water phantoms, they are packaged in a waterproof encapsu-
lation. When used in electron beam depth dose measurements, diodes
measure directly the dose distribution (in contrast to the ionization
measured by ionization chambers).
● Diodes are widely used in routine in vivo dosimetry on patients or for
bladder or rectum dose measurements. Diodes for in vivo dosimetry are
provided with buildup encapsulation and hence must be appropriately
chosen, depending on the type and quality of the clinical beams. The
encapsulation also protects the fragile diode from physical damage.
● Diodes need to be calibrated when they are used for in vivo dosimetry,
and several correction factors have to be applied for dose calculation. The
sensitivity of diodes depends on their radiation history, and hence the
calibration has to be repeated periodically.
● Diodes show a variation in dose response with temperature (this is partic-
ularly important for long radiotherapy treatments), dependence of signal
on the dose rate (care should be taken for different source to skin
distances), angular (directional) dependence and energy dependence
even for small variations in the spectral composition of radiation beams
(important for the measurement of entrance and exit doses).
3.6.2. MOSFET dosimetry systems
A metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET), a

miniature silicon transistor, possesses excellent spatial resolution and offers
very little attenuation of the beam due to its small size, which is particularly
useful for in vivo dosimetry. MOSFET dosimeters are based on the
measurement of the threshold voltage, which is a linear function of absorbed
dose. Ionizing radiation penetrating the oxide generates charge that is
permanently trapped, thus causing a change in threshold voltage. The
integrated dose may be measured during or after irradiation. MOSFETs
90
require a connection to a bias voltage during irradiation. They have a limited

lifespan.
● A single MOSFET dosimeter can cover the full energy range of photons
and electrons, although the energy response should be examined, since it
varies with radiation quality. For megavoltage beams, however,
MOSFETs do not require energy correction, and a single calibration
factor can be used.
● MOSFETs exhibit small axial anisotropy (±2% for 360º) and do not
require dose rate corrections.
● Similarly to diodes, single MOSFETs exhibit a temperature dependence,
but this effect has been overcome by specially designed double detector
MOSFET systems. In general, they show non-linearity of response with
the total absorbed dose; however, during their specified lifespan,
MOSFETs retain adequate linearity. MOSFETs are also sensitive to
changes in the bias voltage during irradiation (it must be stable), and their
response drifts slightly after the irradiation (the reading must be taken in
a specified time after exposure).
● MOSFETs have been in use for the past few years in a variety of radio-
therapy applications for in vivo and phantom dose measurements,
including routine patient dose verification, brachytherapy, TBI, intensity
modulated radiotherapy (IMRT), intraoperative radiotherapy and radio-
surgery. They are used with or without additional buildup, depending on
the application.
3.7. OTHER DOSIMETRY SYSTEMS
3.7.1. Alanine/electron paramagnetic resonance dosimetry system
Alanine, one of the amino acids, pressed in the form of rods or pellets
with an inert binding material, is typically used for high dose dosimetry. The
dosimeter can be used at a level of about 10 Gy or more with sufficient
precision for radiotherapy dosimetry. The radiation interaction results in the
formation of alanine radicals, the concentration of which can be measured
using an electron paramagnetic resonance (known also as electron spin
resonance) spectrometer. The intensity is measured as the peak to peak height
of the central line in the spectrum. The readout is non-destructive.
● Alanine is tissue equivalent and requires no energy correction within the

quality range of typical therapeutic beams. It exhibits very little fading for
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CHAPTER 3
many months after irradiation. The response depends on environmental

conditions during irradiation (temperature) and storage (humidity).
● At present, alanine’s potential application for radiotherapy is in
dosimetry comparisons among hospitals.
3.7.2. Plastic scintillator dosimetry system
Plastic scintillators are a relatively new development in radiotherapy

dosimetry. The light generated in the scintillator during its irradiation is carried
away by an optical fibre to a PMT located outside the irradiation room. A
typical set-up requires two sets of optical fibres, which are coupled to two
different PMTs, allowing subtraction of the background Cerenkov radiation
from the measured signal. The response of the scintillation dosimeter is linear
in the dose range of therapeutic interest.
Plastic scintillators are almost water equivalent in terms of electron
density and atomic composition. Typically, they match the water mass stopping
power and mass energy absorption coefficient to within ±2% for the range of
beam energies in clinical use, including the kilovoltage region. Scintillators are
nearly energy independent and can thus be used directly for relative dose
measurements.
● Plastic scintillation dosimeters can be made very small (about 1 mm3 or

less) and yet give adequate sensitivity for clinical dosimetry. Hence they
can be used in cases where high spatial resolution is required (e.g. high
dose gradient regions, buildup regions, interface regions, small field
dosimetry and doses very close to brachytherapy sources). Due to flat
energy dependence and small size, plastic scintillators are ideal
dosimeters for brachytherapy applications.
● Dosimetry based on plastic scintillators is characterized by good repro-
ducibility and long term stability. Scintillators suffer no significant
radiation damage (up to about 10 kGy), although the light yield should be
monitored when used clinically.
● Plastic scintillators are independent of dose rate and can be used from
10 mGy/min (ophthalmic plaque dosimetry) to about 10 Gy/min (external
beam dosimetry). They have no significant directional dependence and
need no ambient temperature or pressure corrections.
3.7.3. Diamond dosimeters
Diamonds change their resistance upon radiation exposure. When

applying a bias voltage, the resulting current is proportional to the dose rate of
92
radiation. Commercially available diamond dosimeters are designed to

measure relative dose distributions in high energy photon and electron beams.
The dosimeter is based on a natural diamond crystal sealed in a polystyrene
housing with a bias applied through thin golden contacts.
● Diamonds have a small sensitive volume, of the order of a few cubic milli-
metres, which allows the measurement of dose distributions with an
excellent spatial resolution.
● Diamond dosimeters are tissue equivalent and require nearly no energy
correction. Owing to their flat energy response, small physical size and
negligible directional dependence, diamonds are well suited for use in
high dose gradient regions, for example for stereotactic radiosurgery.
● In order to stabilize their dose response, diamonds should be irradiated
prior to each use to reduce the polarization effect. They exhibit some
dependence of the signal on the dose rate, which has to be corrected for
when measuring a given physical quality (e.g. depth dose). Also, they have
an insignificant temperature dependence, of the order of 0.1%/ºC or less.
● High sensitivity and resistance to radiation damage are other important
features of diamond dosimeters. They are waterproof and can be used for
measurements in a water phantom.
3.7.4. Gel dosimetry systems
Gel dosimetry systems are the only true 3-D dosimeters suitable for
relative dose measurements. The dosimeter is at the same time a phantom that
can measure absorbed dose distribution in a full 3-D geometry. Gels are nearly
tissue equivalent and can be moulded to any desired shape or form.
Gel dosimetry can be divided into two types:
● Fricke gels based on the well established Fricke dosimetry;

● Polymer gels.
In Fricke gels, Fe2+ ions in ferrous sulphate solutions are dispersed

throughout gelatin, agarose or PVA matrix. Radiation induced changes are
either due to direct absorption of radiation or via intermediate water free
radicals. Upon radiation exposure, ferrous ions Fe2+ are converted into ferric
ions Fe3+ with a corresponding change in paramagnetic properties that may be
measured using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxation rates or optical
techniques. A 3-D image of the dose distribution is created. A major limitation
of Fricke gel systems is the continual post-irradiation diffusion of ions, resulting
in a blurred dose distribution.
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CHAPTER 3
In polymer gel, monomers such as acrylamid are dispersed in a gelatin or

agarose matrix. Upon radiation exposure, monomers undergo a polymerization
reaction, resulting in a 3-D polymer gel matrix that is a function of absorbed
dose that can be evaluated using NMR, X ray computed tomography (CT),
optical tomography, vibrational spectroscopy or ultrasound.
● A number of polymer gel formulations are available, including polyacryl-

amide gels, generally referred to as PAG gels (e.g. BANG gel), and the
new normoxic gels (e.g. MAGIC gel); the latter are not sensitive to the
presence of atmospheric oxygen.
● There is a semilinear relationship between the NMR relaxation rate and
the absorbed dose at a point in the gel dosimeter. Hence, by mapping the
relaxation rates using an NMR scanner, the dose map can be derived by
computation and by proper calibration.
● Due to the large proportion of water, polymer gels are nearly water
equivalent and no energy corrections are required for photon and
electron beams used in radiotherapy.
● No significant dose rate effects in polymer gels have been observed using
NMR evaluation, although dose response depends on the temperature at
which the dosimeter is evaluated. The strength of the magnetic field
during evaluation may also influence the dose response. Care should be
taken of post-irradiation effects such as continual polymerization,
gelation and strengthening of the gel matrix, which may lead to image
distortion.
● Gel dosimetry is a highly promising relative dosimetry technique that
may prove particularly useful for dose verification in complex clinical
situations (e.g. IMRT), in anatomically shaped phantoms, and for
evaluation of doses in brachytherapy, including cardiovascular brachy-
therapy.
3.8. PRIMARY STANDARDS
Primary standards are instruments of the highest metrological quality

that permit determination of the unit of a quantity from its definition, the
accuracy of which has been verified by comparison with standards of other
institutions of the same level. Primary standards are realized by the primary
standards dosimetry laboratories (PSDLs) in about 20 countries worldwide.
Regular international comparisons between the PSDLs, and with the Bureau
international des poids et mesures (BIPM), ensure international consistency of
the dosimetry standards.
94
Ionization chambers used in hospitals for calibration of radiotherapy

beams must have a calibration traceable (directly or indirectly) to a primary
standard. Primary standards are not used for routine calibrations, since they
represent the unit for the quantity at all times. Instead, the PSDLs calibrate
secondary standard dosimeters for secondary standards dosimetry laboratories
(SSDLs) that in turn are used for calibrating the reference instruments of users,
such as therapy level ionization chambers used in hospitals.
3.8.1. Primary standard for air kerma in air
Free-air ionization chambers are the primary standard for air kerma in air
for superficial and orthovoltage X rays (up to 300 kV); they cannot function as
a primary standard for 60Co beams, since the air column surrounding the
sensitive volume (for establishing the electronic equilibrium condition in air)
would become very long. This would make the chamber very bulky and the
various required corrections and their uncertainties would become
problematic.
● At 60Co energy, graphite cavity ionization chambers with an accurately

known chamber volume are used as the primary standard.
● The use of the graphite cavity chamber is based on the Bragg–Gray cavity
theory.
3.8.2. Primary standards for absorbed dose to water
The standards for absorbed dose to water enable therapy level ionization
chambers to be calibrated directly in terms of absorbed dose to water instead of
air kerma in air. This simplifies the dose determination procedure at the
hospital level and improves the accuracy compared with the air kerma based
formalism. Standards for absorbed dose to water calibration are now available
for 60Co beams in several PSDLs, some of which have extended their
calibration services to high energy photon and electron beams from acceler-
ators.
Ideally, the primary standard for absorbed dose to water should be a
water calorimeter that would be an integral part of a water phantom and would
measure the dose under reference conditions. However, difficulties in the
establishment of this standard have led to the development of a primary
standard of absorbed dose in various different ways.
At present there are three basic methods used for the determination of
absorbed dose to water at the primary standard level: (1) the ionometric
method; (2) the total absorption method based on chemical dosimetry; and
95
CHAPTER 3
(3) calorimetry. The three methods are discussed below and in more detail in
Chapter 9.
3.8.3. Ionometric standard for absorbed dose to water
A graphite cavity ionization chamber with an accurately known active

volume, constructed as a close approximation to a Bragg–Gray cavity, is used in
a water phantom at a reference depth. Absorbed dose to water at the reference
point is derived from the cavity theory using the mean specific energy imparted
to the air in the cavity and the restricted stopping power ratio of the wall
material to the cavity gas. The BIPM maintains an ionometric standard of
absorbed dose to water.
3.8.4. Chemical dosimetry standard for absorbed dose to water
In chemical dosimetry systems the dose is determined by measuring the

chemical change produced in the medium (the sensitive volume of the
dosimeter) using a suitable measuring system.
● The most widely used chemical dosimetry standard is the Fricke

dosimeter.
● The Fricke solution has the following composition: 1mM FeSO4 or
Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2 + 0.8N H2SO4 air saturated + 1mM NaCl.
2+
● Irradiation of a Fricke solution oxidizes ferrous ions Fe into ferric ions
Fe ; the latter exhibit a strong absorption peak at l = 304 nm, whereas
3+
ferrous ions do not show any absorption at this wavelength.

● Radiation induced ferric ion concentration can be determined using spectro-
photometry, which measures the absorbance (in OD units) of the solution.
● The Fricke dosimeter response is expressed in terms of its sensitivity,
known as the radiation chemical yield, G value, and defined as the
number of moles of ferric ions produced per joule of the energy absorbed
in the solution.
● The chemical dosimetry standard is realized by the calibration of a
transfer dosimeter in a total absorption experiment and the subsequent
application of the transfer dosimeter in a water phantom, in reference
conditions.
● The response of the Fricke solution is determined first using the total
absorption of an electron beam. An accurate determination of the energy
response of the transfer instrument is necessary (i.e. knowing the electron
energy, the beam current and the absorbing mass accurately, the total
absorbed energy can be determined and related to the change in
96
absorbance of the Fricke solution). Next, the absorbed dose to water at

the reference point in a water phantom is obtained using the Fricke
dosimeter as the transfer dosimeter.
3.8.5. Calorimetric standard for absorbed dose to water
Calorimetry is the most fundamental method of realizing the primary

standard for absorbed dose, since temperature rise is the most direct
consequence of energy absorption in a medium. Graphite is in general an ideal
material for calorimetry, since it is of low atomic number Z and all the absorbed
energy reappears as heat, without any loss of heat in other mechanisms (such as
the heat defect). The graphite calorimeter is used by several PSDLs to
determine the absorbed dose to graphite in a graphite phantom. The
conversion to absorbed dose to water at the reference point in a water phantom
may be performed by an application of the photon fluence scaling theorem or
by measurements based on cavity ionization theory.
● Graphite calorimeters are electrically calibrated by depositing a known

amount of electrical energy into the core.
● Water calorimeters offer a more direct determination of the absorbed
dose to water at the reference point in a water phantom. The absorbed
dose to water is derived from the measured temperature rise at a point in
water, relying on an accurate knowledge of the specific heat capacity. No
scaling laws are required, as in the case of graphite calorimetry; however,
there are corrections that need to be introduced to compensate for
technical complications related to a heat defect due to water radiolysis
and heat transport.
● Water calorimeters are calibrated through the calibration of their
thermistors in terms of the absolute temperature difference rather than
through energy deposition, as is the case for graphite calorimeters.
3.9. SUMMARY OF SOME COMMONLY USED DOSIMETRIC

SYSTEMS
Radiation dosimeters and dosimetry systems come in many shapes and

forms, and they rely on numerous physical effects for storage and readout of
the dosimetric signal. The four most commonly used radiation dosimeters are:
● Ionization chambers;
● Radiographic films;
97
CHAPTER 3
● TLDs;
● Diodes.
The strengths and weaknesses of these four dosimeters are summarized in

Table 3.1.
TABLE 3.1. MAIN ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE

FOUR COMMONLY USED DOSIMETRIC SYSTEMS
Advantage Disadvantage
Ionization Accurate and precise Connecting cables required

chamber Recommended for beam High voltage supply required
calibration Many corrections required for
Necessary corrections well high energy beam dosimetry
understood
Instant readout
Film 2-D spatial resolution Darkroom and processing
Very thin: does not perturb facilities required
the beam Processing difficult to control
Variation between films and batches
Needs proper calibration against
ionization chamber measurements
Energy dependence problems
Cannot be used for beam calibration
TLD Small in size: point dose Signal erased during readout
measurements possible Easy to lose reading
Many TLDs can be exposed No instant readout
in a single exposure Accurate results require care
Available in various forms Readout and calibration time
Some are reasonably tissue consuming
equivalent Not recommended for beam
Not expensive calibration
Diode Small size Requires connecting cables
High sensitivity Variability of calibration with
Instant readout temperature
No external bias voltage Change in sensitivity with
Simple instrumentation accumulated dose
Special care needed to ensure
constancy of response
Cannot be used for beam calibration
98
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ATTIX, F.H., Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry, Wiley,

New York (1986).
CAMERON, J.R., SUNTHARALINGAM, N., KENNEY, G.K., Thermoluminescent

Dosimetry, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI (1968).
HORTON, J., Handbook of Radiation Therapy Physics, Prentice Hall, New York (1987).
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Absorbed Dose Determination

in Photon and Electron Beams, Technical Reports Series No. 277, IAEA, Vienna (1987).
— Calibration of Dosimeters Used in Radiotherapy, Technical Reports Series No. 374,

— The Use of Plane Parallel Ionization Chambers in High Energy Electron and Photon
Beams, Technical Reports Series No. 381, IAEA, Vienna (1997).
— Absorbed Dose Determination in External Beam Radiotherapy, Technical Reports

Series No. 398, IAEA, Vienna (2000).
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION, Guide to

Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement, ISO, Geneva (1992).
KHAN, F.M., The Physics of Radiation Therapy, Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins,
Baltimore, MD (2003).
KLEVENHAGEN, S.C., Physics and Dosimetry of Therapy Electron Beams, Medical

Physics Publishing, Madison, WI (1993).
VAN DYK, J. (Ed.), Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology: A Compendium for

Medical Physicists and Radiation Oncologists, Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI
(1999).
99
IAEA Safety Standards
for protecting people and the environment
Radiation Safety in
Specific Safety Guide

No. SSG-11
IAEA SAFETY RELATED PUBLICATIONS
IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS
Under the terms of Article III of its Statute, the IAEA is authorized to establish
or adopt standards of safety for protection of health and minimization of danger to life
and property, and to provide for the application of these standards.
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RADIATION SAFETY
AFGHANISTAN GHANA NORWAY

ALBANIA GREECE OMAN
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ANGOLA HAITI PALAU
ARGENTINA HOLY SEE PANAMA
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TUNISIA
CUBA MALTA
TURKEY
CYPRUS MARSHALL ISLANDS
UGANDA
CZECH REPUBLIC MAURITANIA
UKRAINE
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC  MAURITIUS
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
OF THE CONGO MEXICO
DENMARK MONACO UNITED KINGDOM OF 
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC MONGOLIA GREAT BRITAIN AND 
ECUADOR MONTENEGRO NORTHERN IRELAND
EGYPT MOROCCO UNITED REPUBLIC 
EL SALVADOR MOZAMBIQUE OF TANZANIA
ERITREA MYANMAR UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
ESTONIA NAMIBIA URUGUAY
ETHIOPIA NEPAL UZBEKISTAN
FINLAND NETHERLANDS VENEZUELA
FRANCE NEW ZEALAND VIETNAM
GABON NICARAGUA YEMEN
GEORGIA NIGER ZAMBIA
GERMANY NIGERIA ZIMBABWE
IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS SERIES No. SSG-11
RADIATION SAFETY
SPECIFIC SAFETY GUIDE

VIENNA, 2011
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Radiation safety in industrial radiography : specific safety guide. — Vienna :

International Atomic Energy Agency, 2011.
p. ; 24 cm. — (IAEA safety standards series, ISSN 1020–525X ;
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ISBN 978–92–0–107210–8
1. Radiation — Safety measures — Standards. 2. Radiography, industrial

— Safety regulations — Standards. 3. Radiation doses. 4. Radiation
protection. I. International Atomic Energy Agency. II. Series.
IAEAL 10–00659
FOREWORD
by Yukiya Amano
Director General
The IAEA’s Statute authorizes the Agency to “establish or adopt…

standards of safety for protection of health and minimization of danger to life and
property” — standards that the IAEA must use in its own operations, and which
States can apply by means of their regulatory provisions for nuclear and radiation
safety. The IAEA does this in consultation with the competent organs of the
United Nations and with the specialized agencies concerned. A comprehensive
set of high quality standards under regular review is a key element of a stable and
sustainable global safety regime, as is the IAEA’s assistance in their application.
The IAEA commenced its safety standards programme in 1958. The
emphasis placed on quality, fitness for purpose and continuous improvement has
led to the widespread use of the IAEA standards throughout the world. The Safety
Standards Series now includes unified Fundamental Safety Principles, which
represent an international consensus on what must constitute a high level of
protection and safety. With the strong support of the Commission on Safety
Standards, the IAEA is working to promote the global acceptance and use of its
standards.
Standards are only effective if they are properly applied in practice. The
IAEA’s safety services encompass design, siting and engineering safety,
operational safety, radiation safety, safe transport of radioactive material and safe
management of radioactive waste, as well as governmental organization,
regulatory matters and safety culture in organizations. These safety services assist
Member States in the application of the standards and enable valuable experience
and insights to be shared.
Regulating safety is a national responsibility, and many States have decided
to adopt the IAEA’s standards for use in their national regulations. For parties to
the various international safety conventions, IAEA standards provide a
consistent, reliable means of ensuring the effective fulfilment of obligations
under the conventions. The standards are also applied by regulatory bodies and
operators around the world to enhance safety in nuclear power generation and in
nuclear applications in medicine, industry, agriculture and research.
Safety is not an end in itself but a prerequisite for the purpose of the
protection of people in all States and of the environment — now and in the future.
The risks associated with ionizing radiation must be assessed and controlled
without unduly limiting the contribution of nuclear energy to equitable and
sustainable development. Governments, regulatory bodies and operators
everywhere must ensure that nuclear material and radiation sources are used
beneficially, safely and ethically. The IAEA safety standards are designed to
facilitate this, and I encourage all Member States to make use of them.
.
BACKGROUND
Radioactivity is a natural phenomenon and natural sources of radiation

are features of the environment. Radiation and radioactive substances have
many beneficial applications, ranging from power generation to uses in
medicine, industry and agriculture. The radiation risks to workers and the
public and to the environment that may arise from these applications have to
be assessed and, if necessary, controlled.
Activities such as the medical uses of radiation, the operation of nuclear
installations, the production, transport and use of radioactive material, and the
management of radioactive waste must therefore be subject to standards of
safety.
Regulating safety is a national responsibility. However, radiation risks
may transcend national borders, and international cooperation serves to
promote and enhance safety globally by exchanging experience and by
improving capabilities to control hazards, to prevent accidents, to respond to
emergencies and to mitigate any harmful consequences.
States have an obligation of diligence and duty of care, and are expected
to fulfil their national and international undertakings and obligations.
International safety standards provide support for States in meeting their
obligations under general principles of international law, such as those relating
to environmental protection. International safety standards also promote and
assure confidence in safety and facilitate international commerce and trade.
A global nuclear safety regime is in place and is being continuously
improved. IAEA safety standards, which support the implementation of
binding international instruments and national safety infrastructures, are a
cornerstone of this global regime. The IAEA safety standards constitute
a useful tool for contracting parties to assess their performance under these
international conventions.
The status of the IAEA safety standards derives from the IAEA’s Statute,
which authorizes the IAEA to establish or adopt, in consultation and, where
appropriate, in collaboration with the competent organs of the United Nations
and with the specialized agencies concerned, standards of safety for protection
of health and minimization of danger to life and property, and to provide for
their application.
With a view to ensuring the protection of people and the environment
from harmful effects of ionizing radiation, the IAEA safety standards establish
fundamental safety principles, requirements and measures to control the
radiation exposure of people and the release of radioactive material to the
environment, to restrict the likelihood of events that might lead to a loss of
control over a nuclear reactor core, nuclear chain reaction, radioactive source
or any other source of radiation, and to mitigate the consequences of such
events if they were to occur. The standards apply to facilities and activities that
give rise to radiation risks, including nuclear installations, the use of radiation
and radioactive sources, the transport of radioactive material and the
management of radioactive waste.
Safety measures and security measures1 have in common the aim of
protecting human life and health and the environment. Safety measures and
security measures must be designed and implemented in an integrated manner
so that security measures do not compromise safety and safety measures do not
compromise security.
The IAEA safety standards reflect an international consensus on what
constitutes a high level of safety for protecting people and the environment
from harmful effects of ionizing radiation. They are issued in the IAEA Safety
Standards Series, which has three categories (see Fig. 1).
Safety Fundamentals
Safety Fundamentals present the fundamental safety objective and
principles of protection and safety, and provide the basis for the safety
requirements.
Safety Requirements
An integrated and consistent set of Safety Requirements establishes the
requirements that must be met to ensure the protection of people and the
environment, both now and in the future. The requirements are governed by
the objective and principles of the Safety Fundamentals. If the requirements
are not met, measures must be taken to reach or restore the required level of
safety. The format and style of the requirements facilitate their use for the
establishment, in a harmonized manner, of a national regulatory framework.
Requirements, including numbered ‘overarching’ requirements, are expressed
1
See also publications issued in the IAEA Nuclear Security Series.
Safety Fundamentals
Fundamental Safety Principles
General Safety Requirements Specific Safety Requirements
Part 1. Governmental, Legal and 1. Site Evaluation for

Regulatory Framework for Safety Nuclear Installations
Part 2. Leadership and Management

2. Safety of Nuclear Power Plants
for Safety
2.1. Design and Construction
Part 3. Radiation Protection and the 2.2. Commissioning and Operation
Safety of Radiation Sources
Part 4. Safety Assessment for 3. Safety of Research Reactors

Facilities and Activities
Part 5. Predisposal Management 4. Safety of Nuclear Fuel

of Radioactive Waste Cycle Facilities
Part 6. Decommissioning and 5. Safety of Radioactive Waste

Termination of Activities Disposal Facilities
Part 7. Emergency Preparedness 6. Safe Transport of

and Response Radioactive Material
Collection of Safety Guides
FIG. 1. The long term structure of the IAEA Safety Standards Series.
as ‘shall’ statements. Many requirements are not addressed to a specific party,

the implication being that the appropriate parties are responsible for fulfilling
them.
Safety Guides
Safety Guides provide recommendations and guidance on how to comply
with the safety requirements, indicating an international consensus that it is
necessary to take the measures recommended (or equivalent alternative
measures). The Safety Guides present international good practices, and
increasingly they reflect best practices, to help users striving to achieve high
levels of safety. The recommendations provided in Safety Guides are expressed
as ‘should’ statements.
APPLICATION OF THE IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS
The principal users of safety standards in IAEA Member States are

regulatory bodies and other relevant national authorities. The IAEA safety
standards are also used by co-sponsoring organizations and by many
organizations that design, construct and operate nuclear facilities, as well as
organizations involved in the use of radiation and radioactive sources.
The IAEA safety standards are applicable, as relevant, throughout the
entire lifetime of all facilities and activities — existing and new — utilized for
peaceful purposes and to protective actions to reduce existing radiation risks.
They can be used by States as a reference for their national regulations in
respect of facilities and activities.
The IAEA’s Statute makes the safety standards binding on the IAEA in
relation to its own operations and also on States in relation to IAEA assisted
operations.
The IAEA safety standards also form the basis for the IAEA’s safety
review services, and they are used by the IAEA in support of competence
building, including the development of educational curricula and training
courses.
International conventions contain requirements similar to those in the
IAEA safety standards and make them binding on contracting parties.
The IAEA safety standards, supplemented by international conventions,
industry standards and detailed national requirements, establish a consistent
basis for protecting people and the environment. There will also be some
special aspects of safety that need to be assessed at the national level. For
example, many of the IAEA safety standards, in particular those addressing
aspects of safety in planning or design, are intended to apply primarily to new
facilities and activities. The requirements established in the IAEA safety
standards might not be fully met at some existing facilities that were built to
earlier standards. The way in which IAEA safety standards are to be applied
to such facilities is a decision for individual States.
The scientific considerations underlying the IAEA safety standards
provide an objective basis for decisions concerning safety; however, decision
makers must also make informed judgements and must determine how best to
balance the benefits of an action or an activity against the associated radiation
risks and any other detrimental impacts to which it gives rise.
DEVELOPMENT PROCESS FOR THE IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS
The preparation and review of the safety standards involves the IAEA
Secretariat and four safety standards committees, for nuclear safety (NUSSC),
radiation safety (RASSC), the safety of radioactive waste (WASSC) and the
safe transport of radioactive material (TRANSSC), and a Commission on
Safety Standards (CSS) which oversees the IAEA safety standards programme
(see Fig. 2).
Outline and work plan
prepared by the Secretariat;
review by the safety standards
committees and the CSS
Secretariat and
consultants:
drafting of new or revision
of existing safety standard
Draft
Review by Draft
safety standards Member States
committee(s)
Comments
Final draft
Endorsement
by the CSS
FIG. 2. The process for developing a new safety standard or revising an existing standard.
All IAEA Member States may nominate experts for the safety standards
committees and may provide comments on draft standards. The membership of
the Commission on Safety Standards is appointed by the Director General and
includes senior governmental officials having responsibility for establishing
national standards.
A management system has been established for the processes of planning,
developing, reviewing, revising and establishing the IAEA safety standards.
It articulates the mandate of the IAEA, the vision for the future application of
the safety standards, policies and strategies, and corresponding functions and
responsibilities.
INTERACTION WITH OTHER INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
The findings of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of

Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) and the recommendations of international
expert bodies, notably the International Commission on Radiological
Protection (ICRP), are taken into account in developing the IAEA safety
standards. Some safety standards are developed in cooperation with other
bodies in the United Nations system or other specialized agencies, including
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the United
Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organization, the
OECD Nuclear Energy Agency, the Pan American Health Organization and
the World Health Organization.
INTERPRETATION OF THE TEXT
Safety related terms are to be understood as defined in the IAEA Safety

Glossary (see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/safety-glossary.htm). Otherwise,
words are used with the spellings and meanings assigned to them in the latest
edition of The Concise Oxford Dictionary. For Safety Guides, the English
version of the text is the authoritative version.
The background and context of each standard in the IAEA Safety
Standards Series and its objective, scope and structure are explained in
Section 1, Introduction, of each publication.
Material for which there is no appropriate place in the body text
(e.g. material that is subsidiary to or separate from the body text, is included in
support of statements in the body text, or describes methods of calculation,
procedures or limits and conditions) may be presented in appendices or
annexes.
An appendix, if included, is considered to form an integral part of the
safety standard. Material in an appendix has the same status as the body text,
and the IAEA assumes authorship of it. Annexes and footnotes to the main
text, if included, are used to provide practical examples or additional
information or explanation. Annexes and footnotes are not integral parts of the
main text. Annex material published by the IAEA is not necessarily issued
under its authorship; material under other authorship may be presented in
annexes to the safety standards. Extraneous material presented in annexes is
excerpted and adapted as necessary to be generally useful.
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Background (1.1–1.5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Objective (1.6–1.7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Scope (1.8–1.11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Structure (1.12–1.14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
General (2.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The operating organization (2.2–2.12). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Radiation protection officers (2.13–2.15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Qualified experts (2.16–2.18) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Workers (2.19–2.25) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
The client (2.26–2.30) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3. SAFETY ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
General (3.1–3.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Methodology for the safety assessment (3.4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Outcomes of the safety assessment (3.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Reviews of the safety assessment (3.6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4. RADIATION PROTECTION PROGRAMME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Objectives and scope (4.1–4.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Structure and content (4.4–4.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Management structure and policies (4.6–4.27) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Record of the safety assessment (4.28) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Radiation safety committee (4.29) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5. TRAINING AND QUALIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
General (5.1–5.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Design of a training programme (5.3–5.5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Structure and content of the training course (5.6–5.7). . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Refresher training (5.8–5.9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6. INDIVIDUAL MONITORING OF WORKERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Individual dose assessment (6.1–6.5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Personal alarm monitors (6.6–6.9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Direct reading dosimeters (6.10–6.14). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Record keeping (6.15–6.18). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Investigation of doses (6.19) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Health surveillance (6.20) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7. WORKPLACE MONITORING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Programme of monitoring (7.1–7.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Selection, maintenance and calibration of survey meters (7.3–7.7) . . . 28
8. CONTROL OF RADIOACTIVE SOURCES (8.1–8.6) . . . . . . . . . . . 30
9. SAFETY OF INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES

AND EXPOSURE DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
General (9.1–9.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Gamma radiography sources and exposure devices (9.4–9.36). . . . . . 32
X ray generators (9.37–9.50) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
10. RADIOGRAPHY IN SHIELDED ENCLOSURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
General (10.1–10.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Design and shielding (10.4–10.12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Controlled and supervised areas (10.13–10.14). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Safety systems and warning systems for 
gamma radiography (10.15–10.24) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Safety systems and warning systems for
X ray generators (10.25–10.33) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Procedures for radiography (10.34–10.44) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Decommissioning (10.45) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
11. SITE RADIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
General (11.1–11.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Preparation for site radiography (11.5–11.6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Cooperation with the client (11.7–11.10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Demarcating the boundary of the controlled area (11.11–11.15) . . . . 54
Warning signals (11.16–11.17) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Notices (11.18). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Patrolling and monitoring the boundary (11.19–11.21). . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Monitoring (11.22–11.26) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Additional precautions for site gamma radiography (11.27–11.39) . . . 57
Additional precautions for site X ray radiography, including
the use of accelerators (11.40–11.44) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
12. TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Movement within the worksite (12.1–12.2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Transport to another site (12.3–12.9). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
13. EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
General (13.1–13.6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Development of emergency plans (13.7–13.10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Types of emergency (13.11–13.13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Content of a basic emergency plan (13.14–13.16). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Emergency equipment (13.17–13.19) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Specific emergency procedures (13.20–13.21) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Training and exercises (13.22–13.24) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Periodic reviews of plans and equipment (13.25–13.26). . . . . . . . . . . 70
Reporting (13.27–13.30) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
APPENDIX: IAEA CATEGORIZATION OF RADIOACTIVE

SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
ANNEX I: EXAMPLE OF A SAFETY ASSESSMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
ANNEX II: OVERVIEW OF INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

SOURCES AND EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
ANNEX III: EXAMPLES OF ACCIDENTS IN INDUSTRIAL

RADIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
BODIES FOR THE ENDORSEMENT
OF IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
1. INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
1.1. The applications of ionizing radiation bring many benefits to humankind,

ranging from power generation to uses in medicine, industry and agriculture. One
of the longest established industrial applications of radiation is the use of
radiography for the non-destructive testing of items of equipment. Industrial
radiography provides a means of verifying the physical integrity of equipment
and structures such as vessels, pipes, welded joints, castings and other devices.
The structural integrity of such equipment and structures affects not only the
safety and quality of the products but also the protection of workers, the public
and the environment.
1.2. Industrial radiography work poses a negligible risk if it is performed in a

safe manner. However, experience shows that incidents involving industrial
radiography sources have sometimes resulted in high doses to workers, causing
severe health consequences such as radiation burns and, in a few cases, death.
Members of the public have also suffered radiation overexposures when
radioactive sources used for industrial radiography were not properly controlled
or regulated. Contamination of people and the environment has also resulted from
incidents involving corroded or damaged sources. Industrial radiography work by
its nature is often carried out under difficult working conditions, such as in
confined spaces or extreme cold or heat. Working under such adverse conditions
might result in operational situations in which the principle of keeping doses as
low as reasonably achievable is challenged. All of these aspects demonstrate the
necessity for senior management to promote a safety culture within their
organizations to ensure that safety comes first.
1.3. It is assumed in this Safety Guide that the State has in place an effective
governmental, legal and regulatory infrastructure for radiation safety that covers
industrial radiography1 [1–4].
1
The term ‘industrial radiography’ is used in this Safety Guide to mean industrial
radiography involving radiation sources. ‘Radiation’ as used here means ionizing radiation.
The terminology used in this publication is defined and explained in the IAEA Safety Glossary,
2007 Edition [5] (see also http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/safety-glossary.htm).
1
1.4. This Safety Guide supersedes Safety Reports Series No. 13 on Radiation
Protection and Safety in Industrial Radiography2.
1.5. Unless otherwise stated, terms are used with the meanings ascribed to them
in the IAEA Safety Glossary (2007 Edition) [5].
OBJECTIVE
1.6. The International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing
Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources (the BSS) [2] specify the basic
requirements for protection of people against exposure to radiation and for the
safety of radiation sources. The implementation of these requirements helps to
ensure that the number of people exposed to radiation and their doses are kept as
low as reasonably achievable, and helps to prevent incidents or to mitigate their
consequences. This Safety Guide recommends how industrial radiography work
should be carried out within the framework of the BSS and other IAEA safety
standards.
1.7. The guidance in this publication is based on the BSS and other IAEA safety
standards which are referenced in the text. The guidance in this publication is
aimed primarily at managers of operating organizations that are authorized to
carry out industrial radiography work, radiographers, radiation protection officers
and regulators. The guidance may also be of interest to designers and
manufacturers of industrial radiography equipment and facilities.
SCOPE
1.8. This Safety Guide provides recommendations for ensuring radiation safety
in industrial radiography used for purposes of non-destructive testing. This
includes industrial radiography work that utilizes X ray and gamma sources, both
in fixed shielded facilities that have effective engineering controls and outside
shielded facilities using mobile sources (i.e. site radiography).
2
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Radiation Protection and Safety
in Industrial Radiography, Safety Reports Series No. 13, IAEA, Vienna (1999).
2
1.9. Recommendations and guidance relating to techniques of industrial
radiography, such as techniques for obtaining a good image, are provided in
another IAEA publication [6].
1.10. The use of gamma radiography underwater and the use of neutron
radiography are relatively rare. These techniques will require the development of
specialized safety assessments and specific procedures. The technical guidance
for these radiography techniques are not specifically addressed in this
publication, although the general safety principles apply, such as provision of
adequate shielding and ensuring that radiation doses are kept as low as reasonably
achievable.
1.11. The use of radiation for security screening of people and of baggage, mail,
cargo and vehicles and for other such detection purposes is planned to be covered
in a separate IAEA Safety Guide.
STRUCTURE
1.12. The various duties and responsibilities of organizations and individuals are
described in Section 2. The preparation of a safety assessment and its relationship
to the radiation protection programme are covered in Sections 3 and 4,
respectively. The necessity for operating organizations to employ trained and
qualified personnel is described in Section 5. Sections 6 and 7, respectively,
describe how radiation monitoring of workers and the workplace should be
carried out.
1.13. Subsequent sections detail the practicalities of properly controlling gamma

sources (Section 8), the physical safety of gamma and X ray sources and ancillary
equipment (Section 9), the safe use of X ray and gamma sources in fixed facilities
and under conditions for site radiography (Sections 10 and 11, respectively), and
the safe transport of radioactive sources (Section 12). Preparedness for, and
response to, emergencies involving industrial radiography sources are described
in Section 13.
1.14. A summary of the IAEA categorization of radioactive sources is given in

the Appendix. An example of safety assessment for industrial radiography is
given in Annex I. An overview of industrial radiography sources and equipment
is provided in Annex II. Finally, a short overview of examples of accidents is
given in Annex III.
3
2. DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
GENERAL
2.1. The overall responsibility for radiation safety lies with the operating
organization that is authorized to carry out industrial radiography work. Specific
duties and the day to day responsibilities for safe operation of the equipment will,
however, lie with a range of people, including senior management, the radiation
protection officer, industrial radiographers and assistants, qualified experts and,
for site radiography work, the client responsible for the premises where the site
radiography work is being carried out and any relevant subcontractors. All
responsibilities and duties should be agreed to by all relevant parties and should
be identified in writing.
THE OPERATING ORGANIZATION
Management of radiation safety and safety culture
2.2. The operating organization, through its managers, is responsible for the
establishment and implementation of the technical and organizational measures
necessary to ensure protection and safety and for compliance with the relevant
legal and regulatory requirements. In some cases, it may be appropriate to appoint
people from outside the organization to carry out tasks or actions in relation to
these responsibilities, but the operating organization retains the prime
responsibility for radiation safety and regulatory compliance.
2.3. A senior manager should be designated as having overall responsibility for

overseeing radiation safety and verifying that industrial radiography work is
carried out in accordance with regulatory requirements. Responsibilities for
radiation safety are required to be established, and they should be agreed to by all
relevant parties and recorded in written form. Managers should ensure that
procedures are in place for the protection of workers, the public and the
environment, and for ensuring that doses are kept as low as reasonably achievable
(the principle of optimization). All policies and procedures should be
documented, and should be made available to all staff and the regulatory body as
appropriate.
4
2.4. Managers are required to foster a safety culture within their organization, to
encourage a questioning and learning attitude to protection and safety and to
discourage complacency [2]. A good safety culture is promoted by management
arrangements and workers’ attitudes, which interact to foster a safe approach to
the performance of work. Safety culture is not confined to radiation protection; it
should also extend to conventional safety.
2.5. Operating organizations with a good safety culture do not assign blame
when incidents occur; they learn from their mistakes, foster a questioning attitude
and seek continuous improvement in the safety of work processes. In
investigating incidents, consideration may be given to what is acceptable
behaviour; however, in some cases, disciplinary measures may be taken.
Radiation protection programme
2.6. The operating organization should develop, document and implement a

radiation protection programme [7]. This should include information on the
radiation protection arrangements, the safety assessment, the measures for
implementing the arrangements, and the mechanism for the review and updating
of the arrangements. Further details on the safety assessment and the radiation
protection programme are given in Sections 3 and 4, respectively.
Management system
2.7. The operating organization should develop, implement, assess and

continually improve a management system that defines the responsibilities of all
relevant persons and details the requirements for the organization, personnel and
equipment. The management system should be based on national or international
standards [8–10]. It should incorporate mechanisms for routine internal
inspections and audits, as well as third party audits, as appropriate. The radiation
protection programme should be integrated into the management system.
Facilities and resources
2.8. The operating organization should ensure that suitable facilities and
equipment are available, to enable radiography work to be carried out safely and
in accordance with regulatory requirements. In particular, radiography equipment
should incorporate all the relevant safety features and warning features. An
adequate number of radiographers, assistants and radiation protection officers
should be available to perform each job safely. They should be provided with
5
appropriate equipment (such as radiation monitors) to enable the work to be
carried out safely and effectively.
Notification to the regulatory body
2.9. The operating organization intending to carry out industrial radiography

work should submit a notification to the regulatory body of its intention to carry
out work of this type. This notification should be made prior to the
commencement by the operating organization of work with radiation, and the
details of the notification should be in accordance with regulatory requirements.
Some regulatory bodies may require additional information to be provided on a
regular basis or on a case by case basis (e.g. for site radiography work).
Authorization from the regulatory body
2.10. The operating organization is required to apply to the regulatory body for an
authorization to acquire, store, use, distribute or transfer radiography sources.
Some States may also require an authorization for the import or export of
radiography sources. Radiography work should not commence until the
appropriate authorization, which may impose certain restrictions or limitations,
has been received by the operating organization.
2.11. When applying for an authorization, the operating organization should

provide the regulatory body with the appropriate documentary evidence to
demonstrate that an adequate level of radiation safety will be afforded and
maintained. Regulatory bodies, if not accepting an implicit justification, should
require a formal justification from the operating organization for the use of
ionizing radiation rather than alternative technologies for purposes of non-
destructive testing.
2.12. The documentary evidence necessary to support an authorization request

should include, as a minimum:
(a) Information about the applicant for authorization;

(b) The operating organization’s requirements for the training and qualification
of all relevant staff;
(c) Technical information about the type(s) of radiation source(s) and
equipment to be used;
(d) A safety assessment covering the use and storage of sources;
(e) Details of the safety system and facilities in which the radiation sources will
be stored or used (e.g. shielding, interlock systems and warning systems);
6
(f) A radiation protection programme;
(g) Emergency plans and procedures.
RADIATION PROTECTION OFFICERS
2.13. The operating organization should appoint in-house at least one employee
as a radiation protection officer to oversee the day to day implementation of the
radiation protection programme and to carry out the duties required by the
programme. The duties of the radiation protection officer, depending on the
regulatory requirements, may include:
(a) Oversight of industrial radiography operations, to assist the operating

organization to comply with regulatory requirements, including
requirements for the safe transport of sources for site radiography work;
(b) Maintenance of source accountancy records;
(c) Inspection and maintenance of engineering controls, safety features and
warning features;
(d) Oversight of access control for controlled areas;
(e) Establishment and periodic review of arrangements for personal dosimetry,
including maintenance and review of occupational dose records;
(f) Ensuring that radiographers are suitably trained in the use of equipment and
in radiation protection, and that they receive regular refresher training;
(g) Ensuring that emergency plans are established and that they are practised
regularly;
(h) Supervision of workplace monitoring arrangements;
(i) Establishment, issue and periodic review of local rules (including work
permits where appropriate);
(j) Investigation of higher than usual exposures and overexposures;
(k) Investigation and reporting of incidents, including accidents.
2.14. The number of radiation protection officers to be appointed will depend on

the size of the operating organization, the number of radiography sources, and the
frequency and nature of the radiography work to be carried out. In cases where
more than one radiation protection officer has been appointed, the duties and
responsibilities of each should be well defined. Even in small organizations
consisting of only a few employees, someone with adequate knowledge, training
and experience should be appointed as the radiation protection officer.
2.15. The radiation protection officer should be an employee of the company,

should be appropriately qualified, should have experience of radiography and
7
should have a role that permits close oversight of radiography work. The
operating organization should ensure that the radiation protection officer is
afforded sufficient time, authority and resources to carry out their duties
effectively. The radiation protection officer should also be given the authority to
stop unsafe work and to interact effectively throughout the organization,
especially with senior managers, to ensure that decisions that may affect radiation
safety have high level support.
QUALIFIED EXPERTS
2.16. The operating organization may consult with one or more qualified experts
on matters relevant to radiation safety, such as the design of radiography
facilities, radiation shielding calculations, and testing and maintenance of
radiation survey meters. The responsibility for compliance with regulatory
requirements cannot be delegated to the qualified expert and always remains with
the operating organization.
2.17. Qualified experts do not have to be employees of the operating

organization: they may be appointed on a part-time basis or for specific projects.
The primary necessity is that the qualified expert should satisfy any appropriate
national qualification or certification criteria.
2.18. The qualified expert should work in close cooperation with the radiation
protection officer to ensure that all the necessary duties and tasks are performed.
WORKERS
Radiographers
2.19. While the primary responsibility for radiation safety lies with the operating
organization, radiographers (including assistants and trainees) have a
responsibility to work safely and to take all reasonable actions to restrict their
own exposure and those of other workers and members of the public.
Radiographers should:
(a) Follow the local rules (see Section 4) and any relevant procedures;
(b) Wear their individual dosimeters in the correct place at all times during
radiography work and source manipulation (see Section 6);
8
(c) Use radiation monitors properly and in a systematic manner (see Section 7);
(d) Cooperate with the radiation protection officer and qualified experts on all
radiation safety issues;
(e) Participate in any training concerning radiation safety;
(f) Abstain from any wilful action that could put themselves or others in
contravention of regulatory requirements or of the operating organization’s
own requirements.
2.20. The radiographer should promptly inform the radiation protection officer of
any incident or circumstances that could result in higher than usual radiation
doses to themselves or to other persons. This could include failures or observed
deficiencies in safety systems and warning systems, errors in following
procedures, or inappropriate behaviour. A written report should be made to the
radiation protection officer as soon as practicable after the incident or
observation.
2.21. Radiation safety should be incorporated into the daily routine of

radiography work by all personnel. This is a factor by which the overall safety
culture of the operating organization should be judged.
Radiographers on short term contracts (itinerant workers)
2.22. Operating organizations that hire self-employed radiographers on a short

term basis should ensure that the radiographers have the same level of protection
and safety as radiographers employed on a full-time basis. These short term
radiographers (sometimes called itinerant workers) work for only a short period
of time (e.g. several weeks) with the operating organization before leaving to
work for another employer.
2.23. Such working practices can create particular difficulties in relation to

regulatory compliance. The relevant responsibilities of the operating organization
and the itinerant radiographer should be clearly specified in the contractual
arrangements. To enable them to comply with regulatory requirements, operating
organizations should be aware of itinerant workers’ current annual cumulative
effective dose prior to their commencing work.
2.24. The responsibilities of the operating organization and the itinerant

radiographer will depend on the specific regulatory requirements. The operating
organization should clarify with the radiographer the allocation of responsibilities
for subjects such as:
9
— The provision of individual dosimetry and dose record keeping (see
Section 6);
— Health assessment arrangements (see Section 6);
— Workplace monitoring arrangements (see Section 7);
— Local rules (see Section 4).
2.25. The operating organization should verify that the radiographer has the
appropriate qualifications and has received the necessary training in both
radiation safety and industrial radiography techniques. It should verify that all
procedures and other relevant documents are provided in a language known to the
radiographer.
THE CLIENT
2.26. The client is the organization or person responsible for hiring the operating
organization to perform industrial radiography work. The client should always
use an operating organization that is authorized by the regulatory body in
accordance with regulatory requirements for industrial radiography.
2.27. The client should give the operating organization sufficient lead time to
plan the work and to carry it out safely, and to enable compliance with any
advance notifications required by the regulatory body.
2.28. The client should not impose contractual conditions or limitations that
would hinder the operating organization from performing radiography work in a
safe manner. Regulatory requirements and safety requirements take precedence
over commercial requirements. The client should ensure that radiography work is
coordinated with other work on-site, to minimize the risks to radiographers
arising from site specific hazards and to minimize radiation exposures to other
workers. There should be special coordination if more than one radiography
organization is working on the client’s site at one time. A permit-to-work system
can facilitate communication and coordination of different jobs on the same site.
2.29. The client is responsible for ensuring a safe working environment for the
radiographers, including the provision of scaffolding, adequate lighting and safe
arrangements for working in vessels, confined spaces, trenches or other places
where access might be necessary. The client is also responsible for informing
visiting radiographers about safety issues that are site specific and/or providing
them with any necessary training thereon.
10
2.30. If radioactive sources are to be stored temporarily on the client’s site, both
the client and the operating organization should ensure that such stores are safe
and secure, and that any necessary authorizations are obtained from the
regulatory body. Procedures for gaining access to the source store should be
clearly defined in relation to the client and the operating organization. (See also
Section 7.)
3. SAFETY ASSESSMENT
GENERAL
3.1. The operating organization should conduct and document a safety

assessment for each type of radiation source for which they are authorized. For
sources and devices of an identical type, it may be acceptable to make one generic
safety assessment. The initial safety assessment, sometimes called a ‘prior
radiological evaluation’, is the primary tool for determining which protection
measures should be taken, and for confirming that all parameters that have a
bearing on protection and safety are considered. The safety assessment should be
documented and independently reviewed within the operating organization’s
management system.
3.2. A safety assessment should be carried out before the source is first received
at the site or before it is used for the first time. The operating organization should
plan ahead, to ensure that there is sufficient time for the required protection and
safety measures to be put into place. A new safety assessment may not be
necessary for the replacement of one source with an identical one.
3.3. In the event of work already being carried out where no safety assessment
has previously been made, the operating organization should carry out a
retrospective safety assessment. The retrospective safety assessment should
either confirm that all the relevant protective measures are in place or identify any
additional measures that should be put in place.
11
METHODOLOGY FOR THE SAFETY ASSESSMENT
3.4. Industrial radiography sources produce high dose rates and hence should be
subject to a comprehensive safety assessment. The radiation risks arising from
routine use of the radiation source(s) together with the probability and magnitude
of potential exposures arising from incidents should be taken into account in the
safety assessment. An example of a safety assessment for industrial radiography
is given in Annex I. The safety assessment should include:
(a) Consideration of the dose rates from both shielded and unshielded
radioactive sources and X ray generators;
(b) Potential exposures of radiographers, other workers and the public, for a
range of scenarios representing normal use and reasonably foreseeable
incidents;
(c) Limits and technical conditions for operation of sources;
(d) Ways in which structures, systems and components, as well as procedures
relating to protection and safety, might fail or might otherwise lead to
potential exposures, and the consequences of such failures;
(e) Ways in which external factors could affect protection and safety;
(f) Ways in which operating errors and human factors could affect protection
and safety;
(g) Evaluation of the implications of any proposed modifications for protection
and safety.
OUTCOMES OF THE SAFETY ASSESSMENT
3.5. The safety assessment should provide a basis for decision making in
relation to:
(a) The engineered control measures that are required for safety;
(b) The development of procedures to be followed by the radiographers (the
local rules);
(c) Requirements and procedures for designating controlled areas and
supervised areas;
(d) Any requirements for protection of the public;
(e) Information on reasonably foreseeable incidents, including the measures
required to minimize the likelihood of these incidents occurring and the
necessary emergency equipment;
12
(f) Information on actions to be taken to restrict exposures of people and for
protection of the environment in an incident (including emergency
preparedness plans).
REVIEWS OF THE SAFETY ASSESSMENT
3.6. The safety assessment should be reviewed whenever any of the following
factors apply:
(a) Safety may be compromised or affected as a result of modifications to

facilities or to procedures, or the acquisition of a new radiation source or a
source with different radiation characteristics.
(b) Operating experience or investigation of emergencies or incidents, failures
or errors indicates that current safety measures are invalid or are not fully
effective.
(c) Any significant changes to relevant guidelines, standards or regulations
have been made or are envisaged.
4. RADIATION PROTECTION PROGRAMME
OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE
4.1. The radiation protection programme is a key factor in relation to the

development and maintenance of safety culture within an organization [7], and it
should meet the regulatory requirements. The radiation protection programme
should cover the operating organization’s management structure, policies,
responsibilities, procedures and organizational arrangements. All of these are in
place to control radiation hazards, to optimize radiation protection measures, to
prevent or reduce exposures, and to mitigate the consequences of incidents.
4.2. The radiation protection programme should be customized and scaled to

meet the needs of the operating organization. The programme should reflect the
complexities and hazards associated with the activities planned to be conducted
for radiography purposes. The programme should be based on the operating
organization’s safety assessment, and it should address both planned exposure
situations and potential exposures.
13
4.3. The elements of a radiation protection programme described here are
representative of routine radiography operations with X ray and gamma sources.
Operating organizations should take into account any additional measures and
programmes necessary to address unique or unusual workplace hazards.
STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
4.4. The radiation protection programme should cover the main elements
contributing to protection and safety. The structure and contents of the radiation
protection programme should be documented to an appropriate level of detail.
The radiation protection programme should include as essential elements:
(a) Management structure and policies;

(b) Assignment of individual responsibilities for radiation safety;
(c) Education and training programme on the nature of the radiation hazards,
and protection and safety;
(d) Local rules and supervision;
(e) Designation of controlled or supervised areas;
(f) Arrangements for monitoring workers and the workplace, including the
acquisition and maintenance of instruments for radiation protection
purposes;
(g) A health surveillance programme;
(h) A system for recording and reporting all relevant information relating to the
control of exposures, decisions regarding measures for occupational
radiation protection and safety, and monitoring of individuals;
(i) Emergency preparedness plans;
(j) Methods for periodically reviewing and auditing the performance of the
radiation protection programme;
(k) Quality assurance and process improvement.
4.5. These elements of a radiation protection programme, which are more fully
described in the following, may be incorporated into a single document or a series
of documents, depending on the scale and complexity of operations.
MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE AND POLICIES
4.6. The radiation protection programme should include a description of the

management structure as it relates to radiation safety. This structure, which may
be presented in the form of an organizational chart, should show the names of the
14
senior managers responsible for radiation safety and of the various duty holders
(e.g. the radiation protection officer). The chart should clearly show the line of
reporting, from the radiographer through to the senior manager with overall
responsibility. If the operating organization has more than one location of
operations, the management structure should clearly specify the responsible
persons at each location.
4.7. The radiation protection programme should include the company policies
on radiation safety, and should include a commitment by the management to
keeping radiation doses as low as reasonably achievable and to fostering a safety
culture.
Assignment of responsibilities for radiation safety
4.8. Responsibilities for radiation safety should be assigned to cover the entire
lifetime of sources, from ordering and receipt, use and storage, to their eventual
return to the supplier (or other possible end-of-life considerations). The posts for
which responsibilities are allocated should include the senior managers of the
operating organization (which has the prime responsibility for safety), the
radiation protection officer, the qualified expert, radiographers and other workers,
as described in Section 2.
4.9. For operating organizations performing radiography work on a client’s

premises, complying with some safety requirements (e.g. for the provision of
information in relation to site specific hazards and safety requirements) should,
where appropriate, be the responsibility of the client company rather than of the
operating organization. At least one person from the industrial radiography
organization should be given the responsibility to liaise with the client. This
liaison process should include the identification of any hazards on the site,
discussion of local rules, and exchange of safety related information.
Programme of education and training
4.10. The radiation protection programme should describe the full scope of the
training programme in protection and safety for all employees directly involved
in routine radiography activities and emergency operations (see Section 5). It
should include a radiation ‘awareness’ programme, where appropriate, for other
staff. Other staff includes managers, radiographers, trainees, workers such as
cleaners and maintenance staff who may be inadvertently exposed, and
contractors. The radiation protection programme should also specify the
minimum educational and professional qualifications for all relevant staff,
15
especially the radiation protection officer, radiographers and their assistants, in
accordance with regulatory requirements.
4.11. The requirements for keeping training records should be consistent with
regulatory requirements and recommendations, and they should be specified in
the radiation protection programme.
Local rules and supervision
4.12. Local rules that describe the procedures for carrying out radiography work
should be developed and written in a language known by the people who will
follow them. These local rules should cover all procedures associated with
radiography work where there is the potential for radiation exposure, such as
routine operations, source exchanges and transport (see Sections 10 and 11). The
local rules are an important tool in the restriction of radiation doses. They should
include sufficient information and guidance to allow radiographers and other
workers to carry out their duties safely and in compliance with regulatory
requirements.
4.13. Management should ensure that all relevant persons have read and
understood the local rules. A copy should be provided to all radiographers and
other relevant persons, and additional copies should be available in the work area.
In smaller organizations with a limited amount of radiography work, it may be
appropriate to have one set of local rules covering all procedures.
4.14. In larger organizations, it might be appropriate to have several sets of

specific local rules. Such sets might comprise procedures for carrying out
radiography work in shielded radiography enclosures3, procedures for carrying
out site radiography work and procedures for exchanging gamma sources. Some
client organizations might also require specific local rules to be drawn up to cover
radiography work on their premises.
4.15. The operating organization should appoint at least one employee as a

radiation protection officer to oversee the day to day implementation of the
radiation protection programme and to carry out duties as required by the
programme. Details of the duties of the radiation protection officer are given in
Section 2.
3
‘Shielded radiography enclosures’ are hereinafter referred to as ‘shielded enclosures’.
16
Designation of controlled areas or supervised areas
4.16. The radiation protection programme should describe how controlled areas4
and supervised areas5 are to be designated for the conduct of industrial
radiography work. Controlled areas should be used to restrict exposures in
industrial radiography work. Supervised areas should sometimes be used,
particularly around fixed radiography facilities. The designation of such areas
should be based on the safety assessment and the measured dose rates. Guidance
should be provided on setting up controlled areas, especially for site radiography
work (see Sections 10 and 11).
Programme of workplace monitoring
4.17. The radiation protection programme should describe the programme for the
selection, calibration, maintenance and testing of equipment to measure radiation
dose rates. A programme for the routine use of the monitoring equipment should
be specified. The programme should provide information on the necessary
frequency of dose rate measurements around fixed facilities, the monitoring
procedures to be followed in carrying out site radiography work, the details to be
recorded and the length of time for which the records should be kept.
4.18. The radiation protection programme should specify that an adequate

number of suitable radiation monitors will be made available to the
radiographers. For site radiography work, the minimum number of radiation
monitors is one operational dose rate meter for each source in use, although one
dose rate meter per radiographer is preferable (see Section 7).
4.19. The radiation protection programme should include dose rate reference
levels. These reference levels are the maximum dose rates that are acceptable
during the performance of specific tasks, such as at controlled area barriers during
site radiography work and at the operator’s position. Such dose rate reference
levels should be consistent with regulatory requirements and guidance.
4
A controlled area is a defined area in which specific protection measures and safety
provisions are or could be required for: (a) controlling normal exposures or preventing the
spread of contamination during normal working conditions; and (b) preventing or limiting the
extent of potential exposures.
5
A supervised area is a defined area not designated a controlled area but for which
occupational exposure conditions are kept under review, even though no specific protective
measures or safety provisions are normally needed.
17
Arrangements for individual dose monitoring
4.20. The radiation protection programme should specify the types of dosimeters
to be used by workers, the period of wearing, and arrangements for the
assessment of dosimeters and dose record keeping. The radiation protection
programme should also specify that the dosimetry service provider should be
appropriately approved or accredited. The radiation protection officer should
review the dose records periodically to identify doses that may be higher than
usual (see Section 6), and to review whether doses are as low as reasonably
achievable.
Health surveillance programme
4.21. The radiation protection programme should include details of a programme

for periodic health surveillance of radiographers and other employees as
appropriate. This should include a requirement to assess the initial and continuing
fitness of workers for their intended tasks. A qualified expert and/or an
appropriately qualified medical doctor should be consulted in the drawing up of
the programme for health surveillance, and it should be consistent with regulatory
requirements.
Emergency preparedness plans
4.22. The radiation protection programme should include emergency

preparedness and response plans that are to be implemented in the event of an
emergency. Plans should be provided to cover all reasonably foreseeable
emergencies. Guidance on emergency preparedness is provided in Section 13.
Periodic reviews and audits of the performance of the radiation protection

programme
4.23. As an integral part of the operating organization’s management system, the

radiation protection programme and its implementation should be assessed on a
regular basis. This periodic review should identify problems to be addressed and
any modifications that could improve the effectiveness of the radiation protection
programme.
4.24. A key part of this periodic review process is a routine series of workplace
audits, including the designation and qualifications of the persons who will
conduct them, their frequency, the expectations of the audit team, and the
reporting of results and their follow-up.
18
Quality assurance and process improvement
4.25. Industrial radiography work and its associated activities should be carried
out in accordance with the established management system. This management
system should be designed to ensure that all equipment and safety systems are
regularly checked and tested, and that any faults or deficiencies are brought to the
attention of the management and are promptly remedied.
4.26. The management should also ensure that the correct operational procedures
are being followed, and that the quality assurance programme specifies the
relevant checks and audits to be made and the records to be kept. The relevant
regulatory requirements should be taken into account and reflected in the content
and details of the quality assurance programme.
4.27. The management system should include a mechanism for the collection and
feedback of lessons learned from emergencies and incidents (including those
reported both within the organization and in external reports), and how these
lessons can be used to enhance safety.
RECORD OF THE SAFETY ASSESSMENT
4.28. The main basis for the radiation protection programme is the safety
assessment, which identifies the nature and extent of the radiation hazards that
may be encountered in the course of industrial radiography operations. The report
of the safety assessment should form an integral part of the documentation of the
radiation protection programme.
RADIATION SAFETY COMMITTEE
4.29. In medium to large sized radiography companies, a radiation safety

committee should be established for the purpose of regularly reviewing the
performance of the radiation protection programme. This committee may be
dedicated to radiation safety or it may have other (conventional) safety related
responsibilities. The committee should include the senior manager(s) responsible
for radiation safety, the radiation protection officer(s), radiographer(s) and
representatives of the workforce. The responsibilities of the radiation safety
committee should include, but not be limited to:
19
(a) Regular reviews of all aspects of the radiation protection programme;
(b) Reviews of occupational radiation doses and any accident reports prepared
by the radiation protection officer;
(c) Making recommendations for improvements in the radiation protection
programme;
(d) Provision of guidance and direction on the performance of the radiation
protection officer’s duties;
(e) Preparation and dissemination of regular reports to all staff about relevant
radiation safety issues.
5. TRAINING AND QUALIFICATION
GENERAL
5.1. Persons performing industrial radiography work are responsible for

ensuring that their work is carried out safely and in compliance with all relevant
regulations and safety standards. Operating organizations should, therefore,
ensure that radiography work is carried out only by radiographers and assistants
who are qualified or certified, and who are competent and trained in protection
and safety.
5.2. There are internationally recognized schemes for the training and
qualification of radiographers utilizing techniques of non-destructive testing.
Some of these schemes may include only a limited amount of training in radiation
safety. In this case, they should be supplemented with additional training
specifically in protection and safety. Such additional training may be provided by
specialized training organizations rather than by the operating organization.
DESIGN OF A TRAINING PROGRAMME
5.3. Training courses in protection and safety may be provided by a range of

training providers, including colleges, universities, radiation protection
institutions and training consultants [11, 12]. Some States also have access to a
centralized training facility, which may be a national or regional training centre
that is supported by the IAEA. These training centres may offer training courses
in radiation safety that are specially developed for industrial radiographers.
20
5.4. Radiography personnel should be classified into different levels of
competence on the basis of their training and experience. In some States, for
example, these levels are designated as assistant radiographer (i.e. trainee) and
radiographer (i.e. a person who is fully qualified), or as Level 1 radiographer and
Level 2 radiographer. Some States also have Level 3 radiographers, who can
carry out training, set examinations and carry out assessments of other
radiographers.
5.5. Programmes should be established for the different levels of training

corresponding to the responsibilities of the radiographer. The training programme
should establish the criteria for passing written and practical examinations, as
well as the procedures to be followed if an applicant fails an examination. The
details of the training programme should be incorporated into the radiation
protection programme. Further details about training are given in the following.
STRUCTURE AND CONTENT OF THE TRAINING COURSE
5.6. Each training course should be structured around specific aims and
objectives and should be customized to the needs of the target audience.
Information on the structure and content of training courses in radiation
protection for industrial radiographers can be found in Refs [11, 12]. A summary
of the essential elements for basic training in radiation safety for industrial
radiographers is given in the following.
Fundamental concepts and measurements
— Basic radiation concepts;

— Radiation quantities and units;
— Radiation detecting instruments;
— Biological effects of radiation.
Principles of radiation protection
— System of radiation protection (justification, optimization and dose

limitation);
— Regulatory requirements;
— Designation of controlled areas and of supervised areas;
— Dose limits and investigation levels.
21
Practical radiation protection
— Source outputs;
— Effects of time, distance and shielding;
— Individual monitoring;
— Working practices to limit doses and maintain them as low as reasonably
achievable;
— Storage of radioactive sources;
— Correct operation and maintenance of radiography equipment;
— Radiation protection programme;
— Local rules;
— Emergency plans;
— Management of radiation protection;
— Transport of radioactive sources;
— End-of-life considerations for sources following decay;
— Accidents and other incidents involving radiography sources, their
consequences and lessons learned;
— Emergency preparedness and response.
5.7. The training should provide practical exercises, including the rehearsal of
emergency plans (see Section 13) such as plans for retrieving a jammed source.
However, radioactive sources should never be used in such rehearsals. Training
devices are available that use radiofrequency transmissions to simulate
radioactive sources and can be detected by using radiofrequency detectors that
are specially designed to look like a dose rate meter. An alternative is to use
‘dummy’ sources that look like a radiography source ‘pigtail’ but are not
radioactive.
REFRESHER TRAINING
5.8. Radiography personnel should ensure that their knowledge and skills are
kept up to date through a programme of refresher training. Such training should
include a review of the fundamentals of protection and safety, and information on
changes to equipment, policies and procedures, and possible changes in
regulatory requirements.
5.9. The frequency of refresher training should be consistent with regulatory

requirements. Refresher training is typically given at intervals of less than two
years but not exceeding five years. Such training could be combined with other
refresher training on radiography techniques, and it may be certified. However,
22
changes in regulations or notifications of safety issues should be disseminated as
written instructions as soon as practicable, and then followed up by inclusion in
refresher training.
6. INDIVIDUAL MONITORING OF WORKERS
INDIVIDUAL DOSE ASSESSMENT
6.1. Operating organizations should ensure that radiation doses to radiography

personnel are assessed on a regular basis to ensure that doses are kept as low as
reasonably achievable and are below the dose limits. An assessment of the doses
could also highlight good or bad working practices, faulty equipment, or the
degradation of shielding or engineered safety systems.
6.2. Operating organizations should make arrangements with a dosimetry

service for the provision of suitable dosimeters to workers for the purpose of
formal record keeping of doses. The dosimeters should be worn by all
radiographers, assistants and any other workers who may regularly be required to
enter controlled areas; and also supervised areas where this is required by
national regulations. Dosimeters can also provide useful data in the event of an
emergency or incident.
6.3. Thermoluminescent dosimeters and film dosimeters are commonly used.

Both types incorporate a passive element to record radiation exposure which is
subsequently processed by a specialized dosimetry laboratory to assess the dose.
Another type of dosimeter is the electronic personal dosimeter, which utilizes a
solid state detector to give an immediate readout of radiation dose (and
sometimes also dose rate). In some States, and in some situations, the electronic
personal dosimeter is an approved replacement for the thermoluminescent
dosimeter or film dosimeter.
6.4. The ultimate choice of type of dosimeter to be used by industrial

radiographers should be evaluated by the radiation protection officer, possibly in
conjunction with a qualified expert in radiation dosimetry. In addition to the need
to fulfil various technical requirements, the choice of dosimeter may also be
influenced by considerations of availability, cost and robustness, as well as
regulatory requirements.
23
6.5. To ensure that the dosimeter provides an accurate assessment of the dose to
the radiographer, the following guidelines should be followed:
(a) Dosimeters should be worn by radiography personnel at all times when

carrying out any work with radiation. Additional dosimeters are likely to be
necessary if radiography is performed at facilities where there is exposure
to additional sources of radiation, such as at nuclear power plants.
(b) Dosimeters should be worn in accordance with recommendations from the
dosimetry service provider.
(c) For thermoluminescent dosimeters and film dosimeters, the measuring
element should be correctly positioned in the dosimeter holder.
(d) The dosimeter should be worn only by the person to whom it is issued.
(e) Dosimeters can be sensitive, and care should be taken to avoid damaging
the measuring element of the dosimeter (e.g., dosimeters can be damaged
by water, high temperature, high pressure and physical impact).
(f) Dosimeters should not be exposed to radiation when not being worn by the
radiographer (the dosimeter should be stored in an area away from radiation
sources).
(g) Thermoluminescent dosimeters and film dosimeters should be promptly
processed by the dosimetry service at the end of the period of wear.
(h) The dosimetry service should be informed if the operating organization
suspects that the dosimeter has been damaged or has been exposed to
radiation while not being worn.
PERSONAL ALARM MONITORS
6.6. Personal alarm monitors are small electronic radiation detectors that emit a
warning signal when a preset dose and/or dose rate is exceeded. Such monitors
may be dedicated devices, or in the case of an electronic personal dosimeter, a
warning signal is usually built in to the ‘legal’ dosimeter. The warning signal is
normally an audible alarm, although this may be supplemented by a vibration or
a visible signal (which may be useful if the ambient noise level is high and/or if
ear protectors or other safety equipment is being worn).
6.7. Such additional information can be useful in keeping radiation doses as low
as reasonably achievable. It may also help to alert radiographers to problems,
hence preventing or mitigating emergencies and incidents. Operating
organizations should therefore provide personal alarm monitors to all
radiographers and assistants, especially if gamma radiography work is to be
carried out.
24
6.8. Important considerations in relation to the use of personal alarm monitors
include the following:
(a) Personal alarm monitors should be used only to supplement, but not to
replace, thermoluminescent dosimeters or film dosimeters.
(b) Personal alarm monitors should not be used as a replacement for dose rate
survey meters (see para. 6.14).
(c) Personal alarm monitors should be tested periodically in accordance with
national recommendations and/or guidance from the manufacturer.
6.9. Some personal alarm monitors also give a numerical readout of dose and/or
dose rate, in addition to giving an audible or visible alarm.
DIRECT READING DOSIMETERS
6.10. Direct reading dosimeters give an instantaneous reading of the dose

received. These can be a very useful tool in restricting exposures in industrial
radiography work, especially for specific tasks. Direct reading dosimeters should
be provided by the operating organization, and they should be tested in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
6.11. The quartz fibre electroscope, which is a device that shows accumulated
dose via the deflection of an electrically charged fibre on a scale, is a simple type
of direct reading dosimeter. Quartz fibre electroscopes have been used widely for
many years, but they have now been largely superseded by more modern
electronic direct reading dosimeters.
6.12. Electronic direct reading dosimeters may incorporate an audible and/or

visible alarm feature, to warn if a preset dose or dose rate has been exceeded. This
also enables them to be used as personal alarm monitors.
6.13. Some specific electronic direct reading dosimeters (e.g. electronic personal
dosimeters) can also be used to replace thermoluminescent dosimeters or film
dosimeters as the main ‘recording keeping’ dosimeter for legal purposes,
although this depends on regulatory requirements.
25
6.14. As with personal alarm monitors, electronic personal dosimeters are
designed and calibrated to measure personal doses rather than workplace dose
rates, and so they should not be used as a replacement for workplace radiation
survey meters.
RECORD KEEPING
6.15. The operating organization should keep records of doses received by

radiographers and any other persons who regularly enter controlled areas, and
also for supervised areas where so required by national regulations. These records
should contain details of the doses recorded by the dosimeters worn by workers.
They should clearly identify any doses received in incidents or in following
emergency procedures, as distinct from those received during routine work.
These dose records are usually concerned with the doses recorded on the
worker’s primary individual dosimeter, and are not usually also used to record
measured doses derived from additional devices such as quartz fibre
electroscopes and direct reading dosimeters.
6.16. Radiographers and other workers subject to individual monitoring should

be informed of their personal doses. The operating organization should also make
arrangements for the records to be made available to the radiation protection
officer, and also when required to the physician responsible for the health
surveillance programme and to the regulatory body.
6.17. When a worker changes or leaves employment, the operating organization

should provide the worker and the new employer with a summary of the worker’s
dose records. When a worker stops carrying out radiography work, or leaves the
organization and does not commence radiography work with another employer,
the operating organization should make arrangements for the retention of the
worker’s dose records, either by the operating organization itself or by another
body as specified in national regulations.
6.18. Regulatory requirements may specify a duration over which dose records
for each worker are to be kept; for example, until a worker attains or would have
attained the age of 75 years, and for not less than 30 years after termination of the
work with radiation. In satisfying the record keeping requirements, the operating
organization should ensure that appropriate confidentiality of the records is
maintained.
26
INVESTIGATION OF DOSES
6.19. The operating organization should carry out an investigation if a dose to a

radiographer, other worker or member of the public exceeds any dose limit or
investigation level specified by the regulatory body or operating organization.
The investigation should focus on the causes of the incident that resulted in the
overexposure, and on any failures in procedures or safety systems that
contributed to the incident. The investigation report should identify any
improvements to procedures or facilities to optimize protection and to reduce the
likelihood of a similar event occurring, and/or to mitigate the consequences.
HEALTH SURVEILLANCE
6.20. The operating organization should make arrangements for the health
surveillance of relevant employees in accordance with regulatory requirements.
Initial health surveillance should be carried out to assess whether a worker has an
adequate level of fitness for the intended tasks and also to assess the worker’s
psychological suitability for work with radiation sources. Periodic health
assessments should also be made to ensure that the worker’s health remains
satisfactory.
7. WORKPLACE MONITORING
PROGRAMME OF MONITORING
7.1. The operating organization should establish a programme of monitoring of

radiation levels in and around the workplace [13]. The adequacy of the
arrangements in place for protection in radiography work should be assessed in
the programme, which should include measurements of radiation levels at the
following positions:
(a) For radiography in shielded enclosures:

(i) Around the walls and doors (and other openings) of the enclosure under
a range of operating conditions, to ensure that an adequate level of
shielding is maintained;
27
(ii) At the entrance to the enclosure after completion of each gamma
radiography exposure, to confirm that the gamma source has been
satisfactorily returned to the exposure device or that X ray emission has
stopped;
(iii) Around the gamma source store, to ensure that an adequate level of
shielding is provided.
(b) For site radiography work:
(i) Around barriers during a test exposure (or first exposure, depending
on the circumstances) to confirm that the barriers are correctly
positioned;
(ii) At the operator position during wind-out of a gamma source or when
an X ray generator is energized, to confirm that radiation levels are
not unacceptable;
(iii) Around the barriers during routine exposures, to confirm that dose
rates remain below any values specified in national regulations or
guidance or by the operating organization;
(iv) At the operator position during wind-in of a gamma source or
termination of exposure of an X ray generator;
(v) Around the exposure device after each exposure, to ensure that the
source has been fully returned to the shielded position;
(vi) Around any source store used on-site, to ensure that an adequate level
of shielding is provided;
(vii) Around the site on completion of the radiography work, to confirm
that no gamma sources have been left on the site;
(viii) Around vehicles used to transport gamma sources prior to departure
to and from the site.
7.2. The monitoring programme should describe the locations to be monitored,

the frequency of monitoring and the records to be kept. This information should
be included in the local rules and should also be described in the radiation
protection programme. Reference levels for each measurement location should be
given, and the actions to be taken if these values are exceeded should be
described. Records of the workplace monitoring programme should be made
available to appropriate persons, including workers and the regulatory body.
SELECTION, MAINTENANCE AND CALIBRATION OF SURVEY METERS
7.3. Operating organizations should ensure that a sufficient number of suitable

dose rate monitors are made available to the radiographers. While many types of
monitors are suitable for measuring gamma radiation levels, some may not be
28
suitable for accurately measuring low energy X rays, which could result in a
significant underestimation of the true dose rate. Information and guidance on the
suitability of monitors should be obtained from manufacturers’ literature and
qualified experts.
7.4. The operating organization should arrange for radiation monitors to be

formally tested or calibrated at periodic intervals by a specialized testing
laboratory. A number of operating characteristics of the radiation monitor should
be assessed in these tests or in the calibration. These operating characteristics
include the response to known dose rates at specific energies, the linearity and the
behaviour of the monitor at very high dose rates. The frequency and the type of
tests or calibration, together with appropriate records, should comply with any
requirements specified either in national legislation and/or regulations or by the
regulatory body. They should also follow any recommendations of the
manufacturer.
7.5. Routine operational checks of the radiation monitors should be carried out
by the radiographers and the radiation protection officer. These may include
physical checks of whether the monitor is damaged, battery checks and zeroing of
the scale. The response of the monitor to radiation should be checked before use
in accordance with the regulatory requirements. This may be done, for example,
by using a low activity test source, or by placing the monitor close to the surface
of an exposure device when the source is in its shielded position. Some regulatory
bodies may require that such checks be done in accordance with formal
procedures and the results recorded.
7.6. Account should also be taken of the environmental conditions in which the
monitors are to be used. Some monitors are unsuitable for use in very wet or very
hot locations, and some are not robust enough to withstand heavy use on-site. On
some industrial sites where site radiography work is carried out, special types of
radiation monitors may have to be used. For example, in some chemical factories,
radiographers may have to use radiation monitors that minimize the likelihood of
accidental ignition of flammable fumes or vapours in areas of the plant (these are
often called intrinsically safe monitors).
7.7. Some radiation monitors are affected by radiofrequency transmissions. If

radiography is to be carried out close to radiofrequency generating equipment,
then the use of specially designed radiofrequency shielded radiation monitors
should be considered. Account should also be taken of noise where these devices
are being used. Audible warnings should be loud enough to be heard and/or they
should be supplemented by vibration or visible signals.
29
8. CONTROL OF RADIOACTIVE SOURCES
8.1. Radioactive sources used for industrial radiography can, and have, caused
serious accidents [14–18]. Gamma sources used in industrial radiography are
generally considered to be Category 2 sources under the IAEA Categorization of
Radioactive Sources [19] (see the Appendix). Operating organizations should
ensure that gamma radiography sources are kept under proper control. This
should apply from the time they are first acquired until they are finally returned to
their original supplier or safely dealt with at the end of their lifetime.
Internationally endorsed recommendations to States on the safety and security of
Category 1, 2 and 3 sources are given in the Code of Conduct on the Safety and
Security of Radioactive Sources [20].
8.2. In relation to the security of radioactive sources, the BSS (Ref. [2],
para. 2.34) require that:
“Sources shall be kept secure so as to prevent theft or damage and to

prevent any unauthorized legal person from carrying out any of the actions
specified in the General Obligations for practices of the [Basic Safety]
Standards (see paras 2.7–2.9), by ensuring that:
“(a) control of a source not be relinquished without compliance with all

relevant requirements specified in the registration or licence and
without immediate communication to the [regulatory authority], and
when applicable to the relevant Sponsoring Organization, of
information regarding any decontrolled, lost, stolen or missing source;
“(b) a source not be transferred unless the receiver possesses a valid
authorization; and
“(c) a periodic inventory of movable sources be conducted at appropriate
intervals to confirm that they are in their assigned locations and are
secure.”
8.3. Operating organizations should ensure that they obtain radioactive sources
only from authorized suppliers, and that disused sources are returned to the
original supplier or transferred to another authorized body. The import and export
of radioactive sources should be consistent with the recommendations in the
Code of Conduct on the Safety and Security of Radioactive Sources [20] and its
supplementary guidance on import and export controls [21].
30
8.4. Operating organizations are required to conduct a periodic inventory of
sources, to confirm that they are in their assigned locations and are secure [2].
Sources should be removed from a source store or moved to another location only
by authorized and trained radiographers. The radiographers should log their
name, the date and time, and the exact new location of the source(s). These
records should be audited by the radiation protection officer at least once per
month, to ensure that all radioactive sources are where they are supposed to be.
Exposure devices that incorporate depleted uranium shielding should be included
in the accountancy procedures.
8.5. Any suspected loss of control over a radioactive source should be promptly
investigated by the operating organization and notified to the regulatory body
(and any other authority considered to be relevant) within 24 hours or as
otherwise specified in regulatory requirements.
8.6. Guidance on the security of radioactive sources and the prevention of

malicious acts has been issued by the IAEA [22].
9. SAFETY OF INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES

AND EXPOSURE DEVICES
GENERAL
9.1. A wide variety and range of types of radiation sources, exposure devices
and ancillary equipment are commercially available for carrying out industrial
radiography work. Equipment used for radiography should be obtained from an
authorized manufacturer with an established management system such as
ISO 9001 [9] or equivalent national standard, to ensure that the design safety
features are reproduced consistently. The operating organization should ensure
that information on the safe use of the equipment is provided by the supplier. The
operating organization should also ensure that this information is made available
to users in a language that they know.
9.2. Operating organizations should ensure that equipment used for industrial
radiography purposes is not modified without prior assessment of the
implications of the modification for the original design and the safety assessment.
The prior assessment should be reviewed by a qualified expert or by the supplier,
31
and it should be discussed with the regulatory body, to determine whether
additional authorization or approval is required.
9.3. Descriptive information on the various types of radiography systems is

provided in Annex II. Guidance on safety issues in relation to equipment is given
in the following.
GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES AND EXPOSURE DEVICES
9.4. Gamma radiography equipment utilizes a high activity sealed source

housed in a shielded exposure device. The source remains in the shielded
exposure device when not in use. The source is exposed by remotely moving it
from the shielded exposure device (e.g. by using push–pull wires) directly into an
attached guide tube. It remains in the guide tube for the desired exposure time,
after which it is wound back into the shielded exposure device.
9.5. Equipment used for gamma radiography typically consists of several

components such as a remote wind-out mechanism (often called a ‘crank’),
connected to the radiography source (often called a ‘pigtail’) inside a shielded
exposure device, which is connected to the guide tube. The design and operation
of these various components are interrelated. Safety should not be compromised
by using components that do not meet the original design specifications.
Sealed radioactive sources
9.6. When carrying out gamma radiography work, operators should use only
sealed sources that meet international or equivalent national standards, as
described below. These standards set out the normal operating conditions that a
sealed source should withstand. Only sealed sources that meet the following
criteria should be used for industrial radiography purposes. Sources should be:
(a) Certified as meeting the requirements for ‘special form’ radioactive

material as established in the IAEA Transport Regulations [23];
(b) Designed, manufactured and tested to meet the requirements of the
appropriate ISO standard [24] or an equivalent national standard;
(c) Leak tested in accordance with the appropriate ISO standard [25] or an
equivalent national standard and with a valid leak test certificate that is
traceable to each individual source.
32
9.7. Sealed sources used for industrial radiography purposes are normally part
of a source assembly (the ‘pigtail’) that is connected to the drive cable in source
projection type systems. Source assemblies should be:
(a) Designed, manufactured and tested to ensure that they meet the
requirements of the appropriate ISO Standard [26] or an equivalent national
standard;
(b) Compatible with the exposure container, ancillary equipment (such as guide
tubes) and any source changer with which they are used;
(c) Marked in accordance with ISO 361 [27] or an equivalent national standard,
or, as a minimum, marked with the radiation symbol (trefoil) and the legend
‘RADIOACTIVE’. They should also be durably marked with the
manufacturer’s serial number.
9.8. The source assembly should be compatible with the specific exposure
device in which it is intended to be used. It should also have undergone proven
testing in accordance with ISO 3999 [26] or an equivalent national standard.
9.9. Some manufacturers give a recommended working life for a sealed source.
The recommended working life is based on a number of factors, including the
half-life of the source and the construction of the source encapsulation. It is an
indication of the period of time over which the source should retain its integrity.
The manufacturers concerned recommend that work with a source stop when the
age of the source reaches the recommended working life.
9.10. Alternatively, a physical assessment of the condition of the source by a

suitably experienced body or expert may be carried out to support its continued
use. The regulatory body may recommend certain tests for continued use of a
source after the source reaches its recommended working life, such as an
increased frequency of leak tests or assessment by a qualified expert with access
to the appropriate facilities.
Exposure devices
Projection type exposure devices
9.11. The sealed source is stored and used within a specifically designed
exposure device that incorporates safety devices and features designed to reduce
the risk of human error or equipment malfunction. A description of the various
types of exposure device is provided in Annex II.
33
9.12. The exposure device should comply with the requirements of ISO 3999
[26], an equivalent standard or national requirements. Meeting this standard
ensures that a minimum safety standard has been met and that the device and
source combination is suitable for use for industrial radiography purposes.
9.13. Most exposure devices also meet the requirements for a Type B(U)
transport package as prescribed in the IAEA Transport Regulations [23]. Further
guidance on safe transport of sources is given in Section 12.
Other types of exposure device
9.14. There are some types of exposure device still in use that do not meet
ISO 3999 [26], owing to either old design or unique or unusual applications.
Operating organizations should ensure that such devices are not further used until
a safety assessment has been performed to determine whether any additional
safety precautions should be taken.
9.15. Such devices should also have a specific authorization where necessary
from the regulatory body prior to use. Some examples of this include air actuated
devices that expose the source by projecting it out into a guide tube using
compressed air (with no control cable connected to the source). Although this
results in low doses to the operator, it is possible to project the source out of the
exposure device even if the guide tube is not in place. Such systems can also be
prone to problems associated with the return of the source to the shielded
position.
9.16. Another type of exposure system that has been used historically is the
‘torch’ system. The use of such equipment is not justified, as radiographers using
this type of equipment were subjected to unacceptably high radiation levels, but a
short description is given here for completeness. In a torch system, the
radioactive source was mounted at the end of a short rod that was stored inside an
exposure device. To expose the source, it was manually removed from its
exposure device (on the end of the rod or torch) and inserted into a collimator
attached to the workpiece.
Marking and labelling
9.17. Each exposure device should be permanently and clearly labelled with the
following details:
34
(a) The international ionizing radiation symbol (trefoil) [27];
(b) The word “RADIOACTIVE” in letters not less than 10 mm in height,
together with a brief warning in a language appropriate to the country of
use;
(c) The chemical symbol(s) and mass number of the radionuclide(s) for which
the exposure device is suitable (e.g. “192Ir” or “60Co”);
(d) The maximum source activity permitted in the exposure device, quoted for
each radionuclide for which the exposure device is suitable;
(e) The international standard (ISO 3999 [26]) or equivalent national standard
to which the exposure device and its accessories conform;
(f) The name of the manufacturer, the model number and the serial number of
the exposure device;
(g) The mass of the depleted uranium shielding, where relevant, or the
indication “Contains depleted uranium”;
(h) The operator’s name, address and telephone number.
9.18. In addition, the exposure device should display a durable fireproof label or
tag bearing information about the radioactive source that it currently contains,
including:
— The chemical symbol and mass number of the radionuclide;

— The activity on a stated date;
— The identification number of the sealed source;
— The identity of the source manufacturer.
Second-hand equipment
9.19. Operating organizations that acquire used or second-hand radiography

equipment should ensure that the equipment, together with any ancillary
equipment, meets current international standards [26] or an equivalent national
standard. This should be accomplished by having an assessment performed by the
manufacturer or another competent body.
Depleted uranium shielding
9.20. The shielding of many exposure devices (and some collimators)

incorporates depleted uranium as this is denser than lead. This enables exposure
devices to be made physically smaller than would be possible with lead shielding
alone. It also allows the package to meet the requirements for Type B(U)
packages under the Transport Regulations [23] where relevant. Depleted uranium
is radioactive, which means that even when ‘empty’ (i.e. not containing a
35
radiography source) exposure devices of this type should be stored safely, and
they should be subject to accountancy procedures.
9.21. Operators should establish which, if any, of their exposure devices and
collimators incorporate depleted uranium. Operators should also ensure that any
exposure devices and collimators that do incorporate depleted uranium are
durably marked as such. Some regulatory bodies may also require a separate
authorization for such exposure devices and collimators. Their eventual disposal
should be in a manner authorized by the regulatory body.
Ancillary equipment
9.22. Ancillary equipment used with an exposure device includes the control
housings, guide tubes and collimators. The minimum performance standards for
the ancillary equipment are given in ISO 3999 [26]. The equipment should meet
the requirements of this standard or an equivalent national standard.
9.23. Each model of exposure device will have its own specific ancillary
equipment. The ancillary equipment should be compatible with the specific
exposure device and source assembly with which it is intended to be used, to
avoid incidents. Any uncertainties about compatibility should be checked with
the relevant manufacturer(s).
9.24. Ancillary equipment such as control cables and guide tubes are available, to
maximize the distance between the radiographer and the source. Typical lengths
are 7–15 m for control cables and 2–6.5 m for guide tubes. The devices should
not be operated with control cables and guide tubes that are longer than the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
Collimators
9.25. Collimators are used to reduce the radiation beam in some directions. They
should be used whenever possible, to reduce radiation levels and subsequent
doses. Collimators are usually manufactured from lead, tungsten or depleted
uranium, and they may provide either panoramic or directional beams. The
operating organization should ensure that the collimators are compatible with the
source assembly, so as not to cause the source to jam.
36
Source changers and storage containers
9.26. Source changers should be used for the safe exchange of old and new
industrial radiography sources between the operator’s exposure device and the
source changer (normally the shipment container) used by the source supplier
(which should normally be returned to the supplier after the exchange of a
source). Storage containers should allow for the safe storage of sealed sources
when not in use, and should prevent unauthorized access.
9.27. Although there are no specific standards for source changers or storage
containers, when possible, they should meet the applicable sections of ISO 3999
[26] or equivalent national standards for dose levels and labelling. Source
changers should incorporate a system for ensuring that the source is not
accidentally withdrawn from the source changer when connecting or
disconnecting. They should include a lock or should have an outer locked
container designed to prevent unauthorized or accidental removal of the sealed
source from its shielded position. Storage containers and source changers should
be kept locked (with the key removed at all times) when they contain sealed
sources, unless they are under the direct surveillance of an authorized worker.
9.28. Operators should ensure that source changers that incorporate depleted
uranium are treated as radioactive sources even when ‘empty’ (i.e. when not
containing a radiography source), and that they are disposed of only in a manner
authorized by the regulatory body.
Storage of radioactive sources
9.29. On-site storage facilities for sources and exposure devices should consist of
a lockable room or a purpose-built store that provides an adequate level of
protection and safety. The room or store should be designated as a controlled area
or supervised area, where appropriate, and should be:
(a) Resistant to fire, to minimize the potential for loss of shielding and
containment in the event of a fire in the vicinity;
(b) Located at a remote distance from any corrosion and explosion hazards;
(c) Made of materials that provide sufficient shielding to reduce dose rates
outside the room or store to below the relevant levels specified by the
regulatory body.
37
The door to the storage facility should be kept locked and the keys should be held
only by authorized personnel. A notice incorporating the radiation symbol
(trefoil) should be displayed on the door.
Inspection and maintenance
General good practice
9.30. To ensure continued good operation, gamma radiography equipment

(including all ancillary equipment) should be subject to routine inspection and
periodic maintenance.
9.31. Periodic maintenance should be performed only by the manufacturer or by

specially trained personnel in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
Any replacement parts should be obtained only from the manufacturer, in order to
comply with the original safety specifications. Any modifications should be
subject to approval by the manufacturer or the regulatory body if required.
9.32. General good practices should include keeping equipment clean so that it
functions properly. Mud and dirt should be cleaned off after use of the source, as
it could hinder the movement of the source.
Routine inspection
9.33. Radiographers should carry out routine inspection before the start of
radiography work, to detect conditions that could lead to an incident if left
uncorrected. Some typical checks should include:
(a) Inspection of the exposure device to ensure that:

(i) Fittings and fasteners are tight.
(ii) The locking mechanism functions properly.
(iii) Radiation levels are normal.
(iv) The connections of the guide tube and the control mechanism are
secure.
(v) The source assembly connection to the drive cable is verified to be
secure using a wear gauge, such as a ‘go/no-go’ type check gauge
supplied by the manufacturer to check for excessive wear.
(b) Inspection of the remote controls to ensure that:
(i) Fittings are tight.
(ii) There are no indications of crushing, kinks or dents.
(iii) The drive cable can move freely.
38
(c) Inspection of the source guide tubes to ensure that:
(i) Fittings are tight.
(ii) There are no indications of crushing, kinks or dents.
(iii) Source tips are not worn through.
9.34. Radiographers should inspect any additional ancillary equipment being

used (such as magnetic stands, vice grip clamps and collimator attachments) for
the following:
— Freedom of movement;
— Good working condition;
— Appropriateness for use.
When performing a source exchange, radiographers should perform the following

pre-operational checks to ensure that:
— Lock assemblies function properly.

— Guide tube and transfer tube connections are secure.
— There are no obstructions in the guide tubes or transfer tubes.
Maintenance programme
9.35. The operating organization should set up a programme of maintenance of

all the equipment used for gamma radiography. The programme should indicate
that only the supplier or specially trained operators should perform this
maintenance. The maintenance should be performed at the required intervals,
with account taken of any use of equipment in severe environments, such as in the
presence of sand, dirt or water.
9.36. The maintenance consists of the complete disassembly of the equipment

and a detailed inspection of all the components. Where required, worn or
damaged parts should be replaced and suitable lubricant should be applied.
Records should be kept of all maintenance, including the replacement of parts.
X RAY GENERATORS
9.37. The most common type of X ray generator used for industrial radiography
is the conventional X ray tube, although, in a few specialized applications, linear
accelerators and cyclotrons are also used. The following recommendations apply
39
to X ray tubes, although a similar standard of safety should be applied to linear
accelerators and cyclotrons.
9.38. X ray generators are used for performing panoramic (radial beam)
exposures and directional exposures. The X ray tube is connected by cable to the
control panel, which provides the means for the preselection and indication of
operating parameters. The dose to the radiographer can be affected by the cable
length, operating parameters (kilovoltage and current) and the local shielding
around the device. Operating organizations should use only X ray generators that
comply with the minimum standards set out in the following.
Electrical safety
9.39. Electrical safety contributes indirectly to radiation safety, since electrical

faults in X ray generators can result in serious accidents, some with radiological
consequences. X ray generators should conform to national and international
electrical safety requirements [28]. In particular, metallic items including casings,
interconnecting cables, power supply units (transformers and generators), control
equipment, tube assemblies, warning signal devices and other safety devices
should be electrically bonded together (‘earth bonding’) and connected to earth
(grounded). Advice on electrical matters should be provided, and inspection and
testing should be performed by a qualified electrical engineer or by a specialized
service engineer.
Cable length
9.40. Where radiography cannot be carried out in a shielded enclosure, cable

lengths should typically be not less than 20 m for X ray generators up to 300 kV
and longer for higher energy equipment.
Collimators and beam filters
9.41. X ray generators used for directional radiography should, wherever

practicable, be fitted with collimators (sometimes called cones or diaphragms), to
limit the beam size to the minimum compatible with the radiographic technique.
The equipment should incorporate beam filters, to enable the filtration to be
matched to the work being undertaken.
Control panel
9.42. The control panel should include the following features:
40
(a) A label incorporating the radiation symbol (trefoil), a legend indicating that
X rays are emitted when the equipment is operating and a warning label
(in a language known locally) prohibiting unauthorized use.
(b) A key switch to prevent unauthorized use. The key should be removable
only when the switch is in the ‘off’ or ‘standby’ position (i.e. it should not
be possible to lock the system in the ‘on’ condition). Key positions should
be clearly marked.
(c) A labelled warning light (‘fail-to-safe’) that indicates when the equipment
is enabled (i.e. ready to emit X rays).
(d) A separate labelled warning light (fail-to-safe) that indicates when the
equipment is actually emitting X rays.
(e) A timer that controls the exposure duration, or an ‘on’ switch that requires
continuous pressure by the radiographer to maintain the generation of
X rays.
(f) Indicators that show the kilovolts (kV) and the current in milliamperes
(mA) when the X ray beam is ‘on’.
(g) A clearly labelled means of immediately terminating the generation of
radiation.
X ray tube head
9.43. The X ray tube head should, wherever practicable, be supported in a

suitable stand or clamped into position, to prevent inadvertent movement.
Leakage radiation (i.e. radiation that passes through the sides of the device rather
than forward from the beam aperture) should be restricted by good design and
construction. Its level should be specified by the manufacturer of the device.
9.44. The penetrating power of leakage radiation depends on the kilovoltage and
is particularly significant above 500 kV. Data on the maximum dose rates due to
leakage radiation at the surface of the device and at 1 m from the X ray target
should be documented by the manufacturer. Typical maximum dose rate values
for leakage radiation from commercial X ray tubes are up to 100 μSv·h–1 at 1 m
from the target.
Flash X ray units
9.45. Some X ray generators emit very short pulses of X ray radiation, and the
exposure duration is set in terms of the number of pulses required for the
exposure. Such flash X ray units are often small, portable, battery driven units
used for the radiography of items of low density or very low wall thickness. Large
flash X ray units are sometimes used in shielded facilities where a high output
41
and extremely short exposure time are required. The same precautions that are
used for regular X ray equipment should be used, together with any additional
safety precautions as determined by the safety assessment.
9.46. It should be noted that most dose rate meters are unsuitable for the
measurement of dose rates near flash X ray units, owing to the extremely short
pulse time of the units and the relatively slow response time of the meters.
Instead, suitable integrating dosimeters should be used.
Inspection and maintenance of X ray equipment
General good practice
9.47. To ensure continued good operation, X ray equipment (including all

ancillary equipment) should be subject to both routine checks by the operating
organization and formal inspections and maintenance by the manufacturer or a
qualified expert. Any replacement parts should be obtained only from the
manufacturer, in order to comply with the original safety specifications.
9.48. Periodic tasks that can be carried out by the operating organization should
include:
(a) Checks for electrical safety, including earth grounding and tests of electrical
insulation of cables;
(b) Cleaning or replacement of any filters in cooling systems;
(c) Checks for X ray leakage from the tube;
(d) Checks to ensure that all cables are in good condition, with no fraying or
bare wires;
(e) Other routine checks and maintenance as recommended by the
manufacturer;
(f) Tests on all interlocks and emergency cut-out switches;
(g) Tests on all permanently installed radiation detectors inside shielded
enclosures, and ensuring that this is done while no one is inside the
enclosure.
Routine inspection
9.49. The routine inspection should be performed at the start of the work. This is
carried out to detect conditions that could lead to an incident if left uncorrected.
Inspection should typically include checks of the following:
42
— There is no visible damage to the equipment.
— Cables have no cuts, breaks, kinks or broken fittings.
— Any liquid cooling systems are not leaking.
— All interlocks are operational.
— All warning indicators and lights are functioning properly.
— Fasteners are tight, and threaded connections are secure.
Maintenance
9.50. The operating organization should institute a programme of maintenance of

X ray equipment. The programme should indicate that only the supplier or
specially trained operators should perform this maintenance. The maintenance
should be performed at least annually, and more frequently if the equipment is
used in severe environments such as in excessively dirty or humid conditions, or
if the equipment is frequently moved. The maintenance consists of a complete
inspection and testing of the equipment, and a detailed inspection of all the
components. Where required, non-functioning or damaged parts should be
replaced and tested as necessary. Records should be kept of all maintenance,
including replacement of parts.
10. RADIOGRAPHY IN SHIELDED ENCLOSURES
GENERAL
10.1. A shielded enclosure is an enclosed space designed and engineered to

provide adequate shielding from ionizing radiation to persons in the vicinity. It
incorporates engineering controls to prevent or to minimize the potential
exposure of persons who might enter the enclosure when the sources are exposed
or energized.
10.2. Industrial radiography should be carried out inside shielded enclosures

whenever this is reasonably practicable. The use of a shielded enclosure provides
the benefit of allowing other work in the vicinity (but outside the enclosure) to
continue without interruption and allowing radiography work to be carried out as
required. A correctly designed and constructed enclosure should be used for
radiography work, with appropriate safety systems and warning systems, which
are regularly tested and maintained. Such an enclosure can be very effective in
43
preventing accidents and keeping radiation doses as low as reasonably
achievable.
10.3. Prior to the use of an enclosure, commissioning tests should be performed

by the operating organization, if necessary with the support of the manufacturer,
to confirm that the enclosure as built meets its design criteria.
DESIGN AND SHIELDING
10.4. A shielded enclosure should be designed to take account of the radiation

sources that are to be used and the specific work that is to be carried out. The
enclosure should be designed so that the exposure controls for the gamma source
or radiation generator are located outside the shielded enclosure. The design
should be planned for immediate and foreseeable future needs before the
commencement of construction.
10.5. The design of the shielded enclosure should include a drawing of the
installation and its surroundings, including any adjacent offices or buildings. The
drawing should include dimensions, as well as the thicknesses, densities and
types of shielding materials on all sides of, above and below the exposure area.
Entrances should be marked and distances to potentially occupied areas adjacent
to, above and below the exposure area should be indicated, including information
on the occupancy factor (i.e. the frequency of occupation and the average
duration that a person stays in an area). The facility should be properly planned to
minimize the cost of the installation and to avoid costly remedial work, which
may be required if the necessary degree of protection is not achieved.
10.6. Direct radiation exposure and radiation scattering arising from the
operation of shielded enclosures should be limited by means of appropriate
shielding. A comprehensive calculation of the required thicknesses of shielding
requires the use of detailed transmission data for the relevant shielding material.
The assistance of a qualified expert will be necessary to carry out these
calculations. Guidance on the use of radiation transmission data and the
necessary calculations is beyond the scope of this publication.
10.7. Enclosures should preferably have a shielded roof. In designs with minimal
or no roof, special attention should be given to air scattering of radiation (or ‘sky
shine’) and to scattering from objects outside the enclosure, such as higher
ceilings or walls in the vicinity of the enclosure if it is to be constructed inside
another building.
44
10.8. The regulatory body may specify the criteria to apply in designing an
enclosure, including reference levels of dose or dose rate.
10.9. There will be some openings or penetrations of the shielding for personnel
entry and exit points; for cranes to emplace and remove the heavy objects to be
radiographed; for pipework; for control cables; and for ventilation and other
ducting. These penetration points should be designed with great care to avoid, or
at least to minimize, the penetration or scattering of radiation.
10.10. Weaknesses in the shielding can occur after a period of wear, damage to
the shielding, movement of the shielding or settlement of the building. Various
design techniques, such as maze entrances, should be used to prevent or to
minimize these weaknesses.
10.11. The outcomes of the safety assessment6 should be taken into account in
the design. When the design of the shielded enclosure has been established, no
subsequent changes should be made unless they maintain or enhance the level of
safety. Changes to the original design may also require commissioning tests, and
they may require authorization or approval by the regulatory body or a qualified
expert.
10.12. All documents relating to the design of the enclosure should be kept for
future reference. The regulatory body may also require copies of the plans and
documentation prior to authorizing use of the facility.
CONTROLLED AND SUPERVISED AREAS
10.13. Dose rates will be very high inside an enclosure during radiography work,
and the enclosure should be designated as a controlled area. However, an
enclosure may not need to be designated as a controlled area when it is not in use.
The approach adopted will depend on national or local regulations and
requirements.
10.14. The shielded enclosure should be designed in such a way that there is no
need to designate a controlled area outside the enclosure. Depending on the
6
In the case of facilities where high energy radiation generators such as accelerators and
cyclotrons are to be used, possible non-radiation hazards from noxious gases such as ozone
may also need to be considered.
45
situation, the area surrounding the shielded enclosure might be designated as a
supervised area.
SAFETY SYSTEMS AND WARNING SYSTEMS FOR GAMMA

RADIOGRAPHY
Door interlocks
10.15. Shielded enclosures should be fitted with suitable safety systems on the
access doors to ensure that people cannot enter while a radiation source is
exposed. A mechanical or electrical interlock system should be installed to ensure
that the source cannot be exposed unless the door is closed.
10.16. Likewise, the system should either prevent the door from being opened
when the source is in the exposed position, or should automatically retract or
shield the source in the event of the door being opened. With some manually
operated gamma exposure devices, it may not always be possible to install
interlock systems of this nature. In this case, the door should be locked closed by
the radiographer immediately prior to exposing the source.
10.17. A radiation monitoring system with built-in ‘fail-to-safe’ features should

be installed. Ideally, the radiation monitor should be integrated with the door
interlocks to prevent entry to the shielded enclosure when the radiation monitor
detects radiation in excess of a preset level. This may not be possible, however,
with some manually operated gamma exposure devices with wind-out equipment.
10.18. The same installed radiation monitor should trigger visible and audible
signals when the source is exposed. Even when such automatic systems are used,
persons entering the shielded enclosure should always use a correctly functioning
portable radiation meter to confirm that the source is fully shielded.
Warning signals and notices
10.19. A pre-warning signal, which may be either visible or audible, should be

given immediately prior to exposing a source. This signal should be clear to any
person inside or at the entrance to the shielded enclosure. It should last
sufficiently long to enable persons to vacate the inside of the enclosure.
10.20. A second visible or audible warning signal should be given while the
source is in the exposed position. The pre-warning signal and the ‘source
46
exposed’ warning signal should be clearly distinguishable from one another, and
both should be visible and/or audible from within the shielded enclosure.
10.21. Preferably, both signals should be installed so that they operate

automatically when a source exposure is made. However, depending on
regulatory requirements, it may be acceptable for the pre-warning signal to be
manually generated by the radiographer immediately prior to making the
exposure. In cases where there is more than one radiation source, the exposure
controls and the warnings should be distinct and unambiguous.
10.22. Visible notices that clearly explain the significance of the pre-warning and
‘source exposed’ signals should be posted at appropriate locations in and around
the facility. The notices should incorporate the radiation trefoil and other
information as required by the regulatory body. The text of the notice should be
written in a language known by persons likely to be in the areas around the
shielded enclosure.
10.23. The notices should be made from materials that are durable under the
prevailing environmental conditions. Damaged or unreadable notices should be
replaced as necessary.
Emergency stop buttons or pull-cords
10.24. Emergency stop buttons or pull-cords with manual resets should be

installed to enable any person within the shielded enclosure to trigger an alarm
immediately and to terminate or prevent radiation exposure, either automatically
or by attracting the attention of the radiographer. The buttons and pull-cords
should be so located that they can be reached without passing through the primary
radiation beam. They should be labelled with clear instructions on their use.
Persons inside the enclosure should be able either to leave rapidly or to shelter
behind suitable shielding. The radiographer should be able to terminate the
exposure immediately in an emergency.
SAFETY SYSTEMS AND WARNING SYSTEMS FOR X RAY

GENERATORS
10.25. X ray generators are used for carrying out radiography work in shielded
enclosures. The radiation output of X ray generators is generally several orders of
magnitude higher than that of gamma sources. The safety systems should be
carefully and correctly installed to prevent inadvertent exposure of radiographers
47
and other workers. X ray generators should normally be integrated into the safety
systems and warning systems of an enclosure, so that it is not possible to operate
the X ray generator without the safety systems being in operation.
Door interlocks
10.26. Shielded enclosures should be fitted with suitable interlocks on the access
doors, to ensure that no one can access an enclosure while an X ray generator is
generating radiation. An interlock system should be installed to provide a
mechanical or electrical link between the exposure control system and the door or
other points of entry to the shielded enclosure. The interlock should prevent the
generation of X rays until the door is closed, and it should immediately terminate
the production of X rays if the door is opened. Subsequent closing of the door
should not automatically re-energize the X ray generator.
10.27. Door interlocks should not hinder people who may be in the enclosure
from leaving in an emergency. Common interlock systems incorporate electrical
switches or captive key systems. Interlock systems should be fail-to-safe, so that
X rays cannot be generated if any component of the interlock system has failed or
is broken. Redundancy, diversity and independence of interlock systems should
be used as necessary to provide additional levels of safety.
Warning signals and notices
10.28. A pre-warning signal, which may be either visible or audible, should be

given immediately prior to the generation of X rays. This signal should be clear to
any person inside or at the entrance to the shielded enclosure. It should last
sufficiently long to enable persons to vacate the inside of the enclosure7.
10.29. A second visible or audible warning signal should be given while X rays
are being generated. The pre-warning signal and the ‘X rays on’ warning signal
should be clearly distinguishable from one another, and both should be visible
and/or audible from within the shielded enclosure. They should also be selected
so as not to be confused with any other warning signals in use in the area.
7
In facilities with high energy radiation generators such as linear accelerators,
additional safety measures such as ‘search and lock up’ systems can be installed to ‘force’ the
operator to check physically that the room is empty before initiating the exposure.
48
10.30. The signals should be installed so that they operate automatically when an
X ray exposure is initiated. The warning signal system should be designed and/or
installed so that X rays cannot be generated in the event of the failure of any
component of the system (e.g. failure of a light bulb). In cases where there is
more than one radiation source, the exposure controls and the warnings should be
distinct and unambiguous.
10.31. Visible notices that clearly explain the significance of the pre-warning and
‘source exposed’ signals should be posted at appropriate locations in and around
the facility. The notices should incorporate the radiation trefoil and other
information as required by the regulatory body. The text of the notice should be
written in a language known by the persons likely to be in the areas around the
shielded enclosure.
10.32. The notices should be made from materials that are durable under the
prevailing environmental conditions. Damaged or unreadable notices should be
replaced as necessary.
Emergency stop buttons or pull-cords
10.33. Emergency stop buttons or pull-cords with manual resets should be

incorporated into the interlock system, to enable any person within the shielded
enclosure to trigger an alarm immediately and to automatically prevent or
terminate radiation exposure. The buttons and pull-cords should be so located
that they can be reached without passing through the primary radiation beam.
They should be labelled with clear instructions on their use. Persons inside the
enclosure should be able either to leave rapidly or to shelter behind suitable
shielding. The radiographer should be able to terminate the exposure immediately
in an emergency.
PROCEDURES FOR RADIOGRAPHY
10.34. Radiography work in a shielded enclosure should be performed only by

competent radiographers who have received appropriate training. Training should
include instruction to ensure that the shielded enclosure is used within its design
constraints and that all systems and components of the facility are maintained to
the original specifications. The radiographers should also have an understanding
of the installed safety systems and warning systems and of the ways in which they
should be operated.
49
10.35. Operating organizations should ensure that written operating procedures
and emergency procedures for radiography work performed in the shielded
enclosure are readily available in a language known to the radiographers.
10.36. No radiography work should be performed in a shielded enclosure other

than that for which it was designed and for which a safety assessment has been
carried out. Radiography work that was not considered in the original design and
safety assessment should be performed only after a new safety assessment has
been performed and any necessary modifications have been approved and made.
10.37. Radiographers should always wear personal dosimeters as required by the

regulatory body. Personal dosimeters include thermoluminescent dosimeters,
personal direct reading dosimeters and personal alarm dosimeters.
10.38. Radiographers should not rely on the installed safety systems to restrict
their radiation exposures. They should carry a suitable radiation survey meter
whenever they enter the shielded enclosure. In the event of dose rates above a
preset level being measured, the radiographer should immediately vacate the
enclosure, prevent access by others and seek advice from the radiation protection
officer.
10.39. A suitable portable survey meter should be available for measuring dose
rates outside the shielded enclosure (see also Section 7). The measurements
should be made at a range of positions around the enclosure, including the
operator’s position and adjacent occupied areas. The measured dose rates should
be compared with reference levels. In the event of dose rates being higher than
the reference levels, the work should be terminated and advice should be sought
from the radiation protection officer.
10.40. The functionality of the survey meter should be checked at the beginning
of each shift, and should preferably be checked during each shift. A check should
be performed in accordance with the operating manual of the meter. The check
should include a test of the battery voltage and of the response of the meter to a
test source. If a check fails, radiography work should not commence or proceed
until a good working survey meter is available.
10.41. Collimators and additional shielding should be used as appropriate to

minimize potential exposure.
10.42. Before every exposure the radiographer should verify that no one is inside
the shielded enclosure and should close the door. Exposures should be initiated
50
by the radiographer only when the door is closed, all shielding is in place, and the
safety systems and warning features are operational.
10.43. If it is necessary to use the shielded enclosure for purposes not originally
considered in the design specification, such as radiographing unusually long
vessels by keeping the door open, or using a gamma exposure device in an X ray
radiography shielded enclosure, then site radiography work procedures should be
followed. This may require authorization by the regulatory body.
10.44. Barriers and notices should be used to define the controlled area, dose
rates should be monitored around the barriers, and continuous supervision should
be provided to ensure that no one enters the controlled area. If interlocks have to
be temporarily disabled, this should be clearly specified and considered in a
specific safety assessment. The return to normal use should be checked before the
next use of the enclosure.
DECOMMISSIONING
10.45.When an industrial radiography facility is no longer used, and there are no

plans to use it again in the foreseeable future, the facility should be formally
decommissioned [29, 30]. All sources of radiation should be dealt with in a
manner that is consistent with the national regulatory framework and, if required,
is subject to approval by the regulatory body. This should include the following:
(a) Gamma sources should, subject to approval by the regulatory body, be

transferred to another authorized organization. Alternatively, the operating
organization should return the source to the original supplier or should take
other action as authorized by the regulatory body. Comprehensive records
should be kept by the operating organization of all authorizations for the
storage, transfer or disposal of radioactive sources (including any
certificates provided by recipients or by disposal facilities for radioactive
waste).
(b) Exposure devices incorporating depleted uranium should be treated in the
same manner as gamma sources.
(c) X ray generators should be made inoperable or, subject to approval by the
regulatory body, should be transferred to another authorized organization.
(d) X ray pipeline crawlers may incorporate low activity gamma sources,
which should also be considered.
(e) Operating organizations should inform the relevant authorities when all
sources of radiation have been removed from the site.
51
(f) All radiation trefoils and notices should be removed.
(g) A comprehensive radiation survey should be made, to confirm that no
radioactive sources have been left on the site and that there is no
contamination.
(h) A final decommissioning report should be prepared that includes the final
radiation survey and details of the storage, transfer or disposal of sources of
radiation. The final decommissioning report should be submitted to the
regulatory body [29, 30].
11. SITE RADIOGRAPHY
GENERAL
11.1. When objects to be radiographed cannot be physically moved into a

shielded enclosure, the work should be carried out under ‘site radiography’
conditions. This method of radiography is very common, but it is potentially
hazardous because of the absence of engineered safety measures.
11.2. The location for site radiography work may be, for example, at the premises
of the client (e.g. in a refinery, an offshore location or a construction workshop),
in an urban area (e.g. at a gas pipeline or a building construction site) or in an
open field (e.g. a pipeline through a rural or an uninhabited area).
11.3. Site radiography work should be carried out only when it is not practicable
to perform radiography in a shielded enclosure. This might be the case because
the objects to be radiographed are permanently fixed in location or are too large
or heavy to be moved. Where it is practicable to move workpieces, they should be
radiographed in a shielded enclosure with all safety provisions as described in
Section 10.
11.4. Site radiography work can be performed with gamma radiography devices,
X ray equipment or mobile accelerators.
52
PREPARATION FOR SITE RADIOGRAPHY
11.5. Site radiography work is influenced by a number of site specific conditions.

Planning for safe operation includes consideration of the location, the proximity
of workers and members of the public, weather conditions, the time of day, and
whether work is necessary at a height, in confined spaces or under other difficult
conditions. Prior to radiography work, a thorough assessment of the working
environment should be made by the operating organization to identify any site
specific issues that should be addressed.
11.6. Operating organizations carrying out site radiography work should ensure
that at least two radiographers, one of whom should be a radiation protection
officer (unless otherwise stated in the regulatory requirements), are available for
each source of radiation.
COOPERATION WITH THE CLIENT
11.7. Where radiography work is to be carried out on the premises of a client

rather than on the premises of the operating organization, the client should be
consulted on the preparation and planning. This should include the selection of a
suitable location and time for the radiography work to be carried out. The notices,
warning signals and alarms to be used in the radiography work should be
discussed between the parties, to avoid possible confusion on the site, while
remaining consistent with regulatory requirements.
11.8. The client should provide information on any radiation detection systems
(such as some types of smoke detector) on the premises, as these may be affected
by the radiography work. The radiographers should be aware of any site specific
hazards. Any work permit system of the client should be followed. The client
should be provided with a copy of the operating organization’s local rules and
emergency plans.
11.9. The operating organization and the client should agree on the planned
timescale of the work and the duration of the period over which radiography work
will be performed. The client should allow the radiographers sufficient time for
the radiography work to be performed safely and for all the required safety
measures to be taken.
11.10. The operating organization should inform the client about the type of
radiation source that it is planning to use on the site. It should ensure that proper
53
storage is available for any radioactive sources that are intended to be stored on the
site overnight (this may require separate authorization by the regulatory body).
DEMARCATING THE BOUNDARY OF THE CONTROLLED AREA
11.11. Site radiography work should be carried out in an area designated as a

controlled area. No other work should be permitted in this area until the
radiography work has been finished and the controlled area is no longer so
designated. The boundary of the controlled area should be set to ensure that
possible doses to people outside the controlled area are below the relevant
reference dose levels.
11.12. The regulatory body may specify maximum permitted dose rates at the
barriers during site radiography work, typical values being 2.5–20 µSv·h–1.
To limit the extent of the controlled area, collimators should be used where
practicable on both X ray generators and gamma radiography sources. Additional
local shielding should also be used as appropriate (e.g. lead sheets).
11.13. The boundary of the controlled area should be demarcated. When

reasonably practicable, this should be done by physical means. This should
include using existing structures such as walls, using temporary barriers or
cordoning off the area with tape. Care should be taken to ensure that unauthorized
access to the controlled area is prevented.
11.14. Particular care should be taken where radiography work is being

performed in an industrial plant or on a construction site with several floors that
can be occupied by people and where there are ladders, stairways, etc.
Radiographers should ensure that access is prevented to any controlled areas on
floors above and below the work area.
11.15. Radiographers should place the radiation generator control panel or the
gamma wind-out in such a position as to minimize doses to themselves when
initiating and ending an exposure.
WARNING SIGNALS
11.16. Adequate warning signals should be given that a radiation exposure is

about to be made, and that radiation is being generated or a gamma source is
exposed. These signals should be distinguishable from each other. They should be
54
either audible or visible. In general, pre-warning signals are audible (a siren,
whistle or bell) while ‘exposure in progress’ signals are visible lights (e.g.
flashing beacons). These signals can be operated manually when radioactive
sources are being used. They should operate automatically with X ray equipment.
11.17. The signals should be clearly audible and/or visible from all points around
the barrier of the controlled area. Supplementary slave signals may need to be
incorporated into the warning system.
NOTICES
11.18. Notices should be displayed at suitable positions on the boundary of the

controlled area. The notices should bear the radiation symbol (trefoil), warnings
and appropriate instructions in a language known locally. They should also
explain the meaning of the ‘exposure pre-warning’ and ‘exposure warning’
signals. In some cases, it may be appropriate to post additional notices at the
entrance to the premises, to inform persons entering the site that radiography
work is due to take place.
PATROLLING AND MONITORING THE BOUNDARY
11.19. Before the start of radiography work, the area should be cleared of all
persons except for the radiographers who will be performing the radiography
work. Prior to initiating an exposure, the radiographers should confirm that there
are no persons within the controlled area and that access to the area is prevented.
11.20. The boundary of the controlled area should be clearly visible, well lit and
constantly patrolled during radiography work, to ensure that no unauthorized
persons enter the area. More than one person should patrol the boundary if the
area is large or if from certain positions it cannot all be seen.
11.21. Dose rates should be measured around the barriers during a test exposure
(or during the first exposure, depending on the circumstances) to confirm that the
barriers are correctly positioned. The boundary and the demarcation of the
controlled area should be adjusted if necessary.
55
MONITORING
Portable survey meters
11.22. For site radiography operations, there should be at least one portable
survey meter available for each radiography source. Prior to the commencement
of radiography work, the meter should be tested, either against a test source or
against an exposure device, to obtain a reference reading. The test against an
exposure device containing a radioactive source should show that the meter is
working correctly and should also confirm that the gamma source is in the
shielded position.
11.23. During radiography work, the primary objective of monitoring is to

determine that a gamma source is in its shielded position or that X ray emission
has ceased after each exposure. Radiography devices should always be
approached with the portable survey meter switched on, since there is a
possibility that the gamma source has become stuck in the exposed position or
that the termination of the X ray exposure has failed.
Personal dosimeters and alarm monitors
11.24. Personal dosimeters such as thermoluminescent dosimeters and direct

reading dosimeters should be worn by radiographers at all times when they are
performing site radiography work. Direct reading dosimeters (see Section 6)
should be periodically assessed by the radiographers to monitor the doses
received during the work.
11.25. Personal alarm monitors (see Section 6) are particularly useful in site
radiography work. They should be recognized as a major aid in identifying
possible incidents. These alarms can be preset to trigger above a specified dose
rate. They can provide an audible, visible or vibrating signal when a radiographer
enters an area of high dose rate.
11.26. Radiographers should wear a personal alarm monitor during the entire
period for which they may be exposed to ionizing radiation. Personal alarm
monitors should not, however, be considered alternatives to portable survey
meters, which should also be used.
56
ADDITIONAL PRECAUTIONS FOR SITE GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY
Equipment
11.27. Only equipment that is specifically manufactured for gamma radiography

should be used for site gamma radiography. The radiographer should be familiar
with all the equipment, its mode of operation and its potential problems. The
radiographer should also have an understanding of the source, its appearance and
the manner in which it is exposed, which is particularly important.
11.28. The selection of which radionuclide to use for gamma radiography should
normally be determined in accordance with the type and physical size of the
object to be radiographed. For operating organizations that have several gamma
sources, the lowest activity source consistent with obtaining the desired
radiograph should be used. If there is a choice between using, for example, a
370 GBq or a 3700 GBq 192Ir source, and if either would produce the desired
radiograph, then the 370 GBq source should be used.
11.29. Using lower activity sources can have several benefits, such as:
— Smaller controlled areas which are easier to manage;

— Lower dose rates at the barriers and at the operator’s position;
— Less difficulty if the source becomes jammed.
The use of advanced techniques should be considered, such as image

intensification or fast film and screen combinations. Such techniques should be
used, where possible, to help reduce doses to the operators.
11.30. Radiography work should only be performed when the exposure device
and all the necessary items of equipment are available and in good working order.
These items should include:
(a) Portable survey meters (including spare batteries) and personal dosimeters;
(b) Guide tubes, control cables and remote controls;
(c) Collimators and local shielding;
(d) Temporary barriers or tapes;
(e) Notices and warning signals;
(f) Emergency kits, including remote source handling tools and a spare
shielded container for emergency use;
(g) Other ancillary equipment, such as clamps to ensure that the exposure
device or guide tube is securely positioned, and positioning aids.
57
11.31. The following checks should be made before use of gamma radiography
equipment, and should be described in the operating procedures:
(a) Check the exposure device and ends of cables for damage, wear or dirt. A
wear gauge such as a ‘go/no-go’ type check gauge supplied by the
manufacturer should be used for this purpose.
(b) Check screws and nuts for tightness and screw threads and springs for
damage.
(c) Confirm that the source locking mechanism is working properly.
(d) Examine the end of the source pigtail for wear, damage and proper
connection to the control cable. A wear gauge provided by the manufacturer
should be used for this purpose.
(e) Check connections between the exposure device and cables for secure
connection.
(f) Inspect all cables and guide tubes for cuts, breaks, kinks and broken fittings.
(g) Check the warning label and source tag details for legibility.
(h) Measure radiation levels close to the surface of the exposure device and
confirm that the source is shielded.
(i) Check the functionality of the survey meter in accordance with the
operating manual.
11.32. If any faults are found, the equipment should not be used until a
replacement is provided or a repair is made.
Transient dose rates
11.33. Transient dose rates outside the boundary during wind-out and wind-in
operations for the radiography source will be much higher than the dose rates
during actual exposure when the source is in its collimator. Additional care
should be taken during these operations, especially to confirm that there are no
persons standing at the boundary of the controlled area, and wind-out and wind-in
operations should be conducted quickly.
Storage of radioactive sources at remote locations
11.34. Exposure devices containing radioactive sources should if necessary be

stored on-site overnight or between radiography sessions. The need for such
storage should be identified in the planning phase, and arrangements should be
made with the site operator for the provision of suitable storage facilities that
comply with the regulatory requirements.
58
11.35. On-site storage facilities should consist of a lockable room, purpose-built
store or storage pit. They should provide the same level of protection as storage
facilities at the operating organization’s main base. A suitable storage facility
should provide protection of exposure devices from the prevailing environmental
conditions and should also provide an adequate level of safety. The store should
be resistant to fire, to minimize the potential for loss of shielding and loss of
containment in the event of a fire in the vicinity. The store should be located at a
remote distance from any corrosion and explosion hazards.
11.36. The store should be built of materials that provide sufficient shielding to
reduce dose rates outside the store to below the relevant levels specified by the
regulatory body. The store should be designated as a controlled area or supervised
area as necessary.
11.37. The door to the storage facility should be kept locked and the keys should
be held only by authorized personnel. A warning notice incorporating the
radiation symbol (trefoil) should be displayed on the door.
Completion of work and removal of sources from site
11.38. On completion of the radiography work, radiographers should use a

radiation monitor to ensure that all gamma sources have been fully retracted into
the exposure device and that no sources have been left in the exposed position or
have become detached.
11.39. Before leaving the site, the radiographer should carry out a visual
examination to ensure that equipment has not been damaged. Exposure devices
should be made ready for transport by locking the devices and putting the
protective covers in place. The exposure device and the ancillary equipment
should be physically secured in the vehicle to avoid damage during transport.
ADDITIONAL PRECAUTIONS FOR SITE X RAY RADIOGRAPHY,

INCLUDING THE USE OF ACCELERATORS
11.40. The procedures discussed in this section are applicable to the use of X ray
equipment and techniques, including the use of accelerators and real time
radiography. Selection of the voltage of the X ray tube is normally closely linked
to the requirements for the quality of the radiograph. The exposure technique
(e.g. with the source internal or external to the workpiece, with single wall or
59
double wall radiographs) should be selected with regard to both good image
quality and minimization of doses to persons in the vicinity.
11.41. The following checks should be made before use and should be described
in the operating procedures:
(a) Check all parts of the equipment for visible damage.

(b) Check the X ray tube and all bare ends of the cable for damage, wear, dirt
and moisture.
(c) Check screws and nuts for tightness and screw threads for damage.
(d) Inspect all cables for cuts, breaks, kinks and broken fittings.
(e) Check exposure factor settings for legibility.
11.42. If any faults are found, the equipment should not be used until a
replacement has been provided or a repair has been made.
11.43. Accelerators generate very high energy X rays. The dose rate in the main
beam of an accelerator can range from 50 mGy/min (3 Gy/h) from a portable
accelerator to 4 Gy/min (240 Gy/h) from a mobile accelerator. The dose rate
around the apparatus is much higher than for conventional X ray radiography.
More comprehensive control measures should be taken to restrict the exposure to
radiation of radiographers and others in the vicinity.
11.44. In addition, appropriate portable survey meters should be used that

respond accurately to the pulsed nature of the radiation field. Portable survey
meters used for conventional gamma and X ray radiography should be confirmed
to be suitable prior to use with accelerators.
12. TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE SOURCES
MOVEMENT WITHIN THE WORKSITE
12.1. When gamma exposure devices and sources are to be moved within a site
for radiography work, they should be kept in the storage facility until they are to
be moved to the new location. Ancillary equipment should be disconnected from
the devices, and all required plugs and caps should be installed prior to
movement.
60
12.2. The sources should be moved only in exposure devices, and these should
be locked and the keys should be removed. If a vehicle or trolley is used to move
the exposure device, the device should be securely fastened to the vehicle or
trolley. The exposure devices should be kept under surveillance for the duration
of the movement on the worksite.
TRANSPORT TO ANOTHER SITE
12.3. When gamma radiography sources are to be transported to another worksite

for site radiography purposes, they should be kept in the storage facility until they
are to be moved to the new site. As described above, ancillary equipment should
be disconnected from the devices, and all required plugs and caps should be
installed prior to transport.
12.4. The sources should be moved only in packages, and these should be locked
and the keys should be removed. The operating organizations should ensure that
the transport and the transport packages comply with the IAEA Regulations for
the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material [23] or equivalent national
regulations.
12.5. Where applicable, consideration should also be given to binding

international instruments for specific modes of transport, such as the Technical
Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air [31] of the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), and the International Maritime
Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code [32] of the International Maritime Organization
(IMO).
12.6. Regional agreements such as the European Agreement Concerning the

International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR) [33], the Agreement
of Partial Reach to Facilitate the Transport of Dangerous Goods, Signed by the
Governments of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay
(MERCOSUR/MERCOSUL) [34], and the European Agreement Concerning the
International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Inland Waterways (ADN) [35]
may also apply.
12.7. The IAEA Transport Regulations [23] assign responsibilities for

individuals involved in the transport of radioactive material: the consignor
(a person, organization or government that prepares a consignment for transport),
the carrier (the person, organization or government that undertakes transport of
radioactive material) and the consignee (the person, organization or government
61
that receives a consignment). In many cases, for site radiography work, the
operating organization will perform all three functions and is required to
discharge the responsibilities associated with each function.
12.8. Transport of radioactive material is a complex activity, and a

comprehensive overview of the relevant requirements is outside the scope of this
Safety Guide. Guidance on how to meet transport related requirements is
provided in Advisory Material for the IAEA Regulations for the Safe Transport of
Radioactive Material [36].
12.9. Guidance on security in the transport of radioactive material has been

issued by the IAEA [37].
13. EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE
GENERAL
13.1. Radiation sources used for industrial radiography purposes have high
radiation outputs and are potentially very hazardous. Incidents have occurred
mainly as a result of operator error or equipment failure, and have resulted in
workers and members of the public receiving high radiation doses [14–18].
13.2. Typical situations that have led to incidents include damage being caused to
the radioactive source or the exposure device, leading to a source becoming
jammed in the exposed position, and separation of the source pigtail from the
wind-out cable, leading to the source being inadvertently left on-site.
13.3. Serious radiation overexposures have occurred when workers have

physically handled an unshielded source, or when a lost radioactive source has
been found and taken by a member of the public. The dose rates in these
situations are high enough to injure people in a matter of seconds or minutes. In
some cases, severe radiation burns have resulted, necessitating amputation or
leading to other serious health consequences.
13.4. In many cases, incidents involving industrial radiography sources could

have been prevented or their consequences could have been mitigated if the
following precautions had been taken:
62
(a) Radiographers:
— Should be properly trained and qualified, and they should be competent;
— Should follow the local rules and other relevant procedures;
— Should use survey meters before, after and during every exposure;
— Should make regular and appropriate inspections of equipment and
survey meters prior to use;
— Should make proper use of emergency equipment;
— Should make a final survey of the work area before leaving the site.
(b) Radiography equipment (including ancillary equipment) should meet
current standards.
13.5. Although prevention of incidents is the first defence, emergencies still

occur. Operating organizations should have emergency plans prepared in
advance, so as to be able to respond quickly and safely to mitigate an incident.
Once an emergency is over, a report should be prepared. The report should
include a critical review of how the procedures were implemented, what lessons
can be learned to prevent similar incidents in the future, and how the response
plans could be improved.
13.6. This section describes potential incidents and emergencies in industrial

radiography and provides recommendations for the development of emergency
plans to mitigate the consequences of incidents and emergencies.
DEVELOPMENT OF EMERGENCY PLANS
13.7. Requirements on obligations and responsibilities for emergency

preparedness and response are given in the BSS [2] and in two IAEA safety
standards [38, 39]. Guidance on developing and implementing emergency plans
and on a step by step method for developing an integrated capability for
emergency response at the organizational, local and national levels is also
available from the IAEA [40]. When site radiography work is carried out on a
client’s premises, the emergency plans should be discussed with the client.
13.8. Potential incidents that could affect workers, members of the public or the
environment should be identified in the operating organization’s safety
assessment. This should be used as a basis for preparing emergency plans and
procedures for responding to such events. A qualified expert should be consulted,
where possible, when drawing up emergency plans and procedures.
63
13.9. Emergency preparedness arrangements can be regarded as comprising
several stages, each of which should be addressed by the operator:
(a) Identification of potential incidents during industrial radiography work,

followed by an evaluation of the associated risks;
(b) Development of emergency plans and procedures for dealing with the risks
identified;
(c) Specification and acquisition of emergency equipment;
(d) Training in implementing the emergency plan and procedures, including
training as necessary in the use of emergency equipment;
(e) Exercises at appropriate intervals to test and evaluate the implementation of
the emergency plan;
(f) Periodic reviews and updates of emergency plans;
(g) Reports and notifications of incidents and emergencies.
13.10. Implementation of the emergency plan may involve response by external

organizations and specialist consultants. The plan should clearly give details of
any external response, and it should be ensured that the responders are fully
aware of and accept their responsibilities. In particular, arrangements should be
made for a system for immediate and efficient communication between all the
parties involved. Operating organizations should submit their emergency plans
and associated arrangements to the regulatory body, as required, when applying
for an authorization.
TYPES OF EMERGENCY
13.11. A review of emergencies in radiography shows that there are several types
of incident that have historically occurred commonly with industrial radiography
sources. Operating organizations should consider the types of incident listed in
paras 13.12 and 13.13 below in their emergency plans, as appropriate.
13.12. For gamma radiography equipment, the operating organization should

consider incidents in which:
(a) A source becomes stuck in the guide tube or the collimator, or near the
entrance to the exposure device.
(b) Physical damage is caused that affects the shielding.
(c) A source becomes disconnected from its drive cable and remains in the
guide tube.
(d) A source is projected out of the end of the guide tube.
64
(e) A pipeline crawler becomes stuck in a pipe with the source exposed.
(f) A source is lost.
(g) There is a fire.
(h) Unauthorized persons are present in the controlled area during an exposure.
13.13. For X ray generators, the operating organization should consider incidents
in which:
(a) Generation of radiation fails to terminate after the intended time period.
(b) An X ray generator is unintentionally energized.
(c) A radiographer fails to terminate a manually controlled generation of
radiation.
(d) A safety system or warning system malfunctions, including deliberate
action to override a system.
(e) Another malfunction causes X rays to be generated other than in a
controlled manner.
(f) Physical damage is caused that affects the shielding or filtration.
(g) Unauthorized persons are present in the controlled area during an exposure.
CONTENT OF A BASIC EMERGENCY PLAN
13.14. Operators should ensure that emergency plans address reasonably

foreseeable emergencies as identified in the safety assessment. For emergencies
in industrial radiography, the specific response will be dependent on the type of
event and may vary depending on the local conditions, such as when radiography
is carried out from scaffolding or on a pipeline in a ditch.
13.15. The emergency plan should allow for flexibility in the response, with
rehearsal of the specific elements of the response prior to implementation of the
plan. The plans should aim to restrict, as far as is reasonably achievable, any
exposures that could result from the incident. The emergency plan should include
the following:
(a) Advice on when to implement the emergency plan.

(b) Prior training as necessary for workers who will be implementing the
procedures.
(c) Description of, and information on, the availability of emergency response
equipment.
(d) Technical data and data relevant to radiological protection for each
situation.
65
(e) Procedures to be followed at various stages, specific to each type of
emergency identified:
(i) Initial stage, to contain the situation;
(ii) Planning stage, to plan and rehearse the recovery stage;
(iii) Recovery stage, to regain control of the situation;
(iv) Post-emergency stage, to return the situation to normal;
(v) Reporting stage: preparation of a report, including an assessment of
doses;
(vi) Referral to medical experts following overexposure, if indicated.
(f) Identification of persons authorized to implement the various stages of the
plan.
(g) Identification of all persons and organizations who should be contacted as
necessary at the various stages of the plan, as well as the relevant telephone
numbers, fax numbers and email addresses.
13.16. To minimize exposures and to allow for a proper response, the operating
organization should as a minimum do the following:
(a) Restrict access to the vicinity of the source — ensure that controlled area
barriers are in the correct place for a given situation;
(b) Ensure that the radiation protection officer is notified (and a qualified
expert as necessary);
(c) Remain calm, move to a safe distance, plan subsequent actions, rehearse the
actions without the source and then implement the plan;
(d) Never enter areas of potentially high, but unknown, dose rates unless
carrying a functional survey meter and, preferably, wearing a personal
alarm monitor and/or direct reading dosimeter;
(e) Never touch a radioactive source or allow the hands to come close to it;
(f) Do not exceed authority or personal expertise;
(g) Seek assistance from a qualified expert or from the source supplier if
necessary.
EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT
13.17. Operators should ensure that all necessary emergency equipment for
dealing with all reasonably foreseeable emergencies is readily available. Regular
audits should be made to ensure that all necessary emergency equipment is
available and that it all functions correctly.
66
13.18. For emergencies involving gamma radiography sources, the following
equipment should be available:
— Appropriate and functional survey meters to measure both high and low
dose rates;
— Personal alarm dosimeters and direct reading dosimeters (preferably
electronic personal dosimeters rather than quartz fibre electroscopes);
— Additional personal dosimeters (thermoluminescent dosimeters and/or film
badges);
— Barrier materials and notices;
— Bags of lead shot, and extra lead sheet;
— Suitable tool kit and source recovery equipment (long handling tongs,
pliers, screwdrivers, bolt cutters, adjustable spanner, hacksaw and torch);
— Spare shielded container for emergency use;
— Communication equipment (e.g. mobile phones, radio transmitters and
receivers);
— Spare batteries for survey meters, electronic personal dosimeters, mobile
phones and torches;
— Pens, paper, calculator and an incident log book;
— Equipment manuals.
13.19. If it is suspected that the source capsule might have been damaged, extra
care should be taken, as radioactive material could leak out of the source and
there could be a risk of contaminating people and objects in the vicinity. The
detection and measurement of radioactive contamination needs specialized
monitoring equipment and expertise, to which most companies performing
radiography work are unlikely to have ready access. If it is known or suspected
that a source capsule has been ruptured, the operating organization should
promptly seek advice from a qualified expert.
SPECIFIC EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Gamma sources
13.20. This section provides practical guidance for emergencies involving

gamma sources used for industrial radiography purposes. Although the steps are
listed in the sequence in which they should generally be performed, the sequence
should if necessary be adapted at the time of the response. As with any
radiological emergency, the first priority should be the protection of persons.
67
The radiographer (response initiator) should:
(a) Recognize that an abnormal situation has arisen that might constitute an
emergency.
(b) Remain calm and move away from the exposed source. Ensure that any
other radiographers in the vicinity are aware that there may be a problem.
(c) Measure the radiation dose rates and record any doses measured by direct
reading dosimeters.
(d) Establish or re-establish controlled area barriers on the basis of dose rate
reference levels consistent with regulatory requirements and guidance.
(e) Prevent access to the new controlled area.
(f) Do not leave the controlled area unattended.
(g) Inform the radiation protection officer of the operating organization and the
radiography client, and seek assistance.
The radiation protection officer should:
(a) Plan a specific course of action on the basis of previously established

emergency procedures, taking care to minimize doses that may be received
as a result of this course of action.
(b) Move to an area away from the controlled area and rehearse the planned
course of action before entering the controlled area to implement the
emergency plan.
(c) Implement the planned course of action to the extent that training,
equipment and authorizations allow; under no circumstances allow the
source to come into contact with the hands or other parts of the body.
(d) If the course of action taken is unsuccessful, leave the controlled area and
consider the next course of action while maintaining surveillance of the
controlled area.
(e) Call for technical assistance, if necessary, from a qualified expert or from
the manufacturer.
(f) When the emergency is over and the source has been made safe, assess the
doses received and prepare a report.
(g) Return personal dosimeters to the dosimetry service for the purpose of
accurate assessment of exposures.
(h) Send damaged or malfunctioning equipment to the manufacturer or to a
qualified expert for detailed examination and repair prior to any reuse.
(i) Prepare an accident report and notify the regulatory body as required.
68
X ray generators
13.21. The following steps should be taken in an abnormal situation involving an

X ray generator.
The radiographer (response initiator) should:
(a) Recognize that an abnormal situation has arisen that might constitute an
emergency.
(b) Turn off the electrical power to the radiography equipment.
(c) Perform a radiation survey to confirm that the tube is de-energized.
(d) Do not move the radiography equipment until details such as position, beam
direction and exposure settings (tube voltage, current and time) have been
recorded.
(e) Inform the radiation protection officer of what has happened.
(f) Do not use the X ray generator until it has been examined and repaired by
the manufacturer or by a qualified expert.
The radiation protection officer should:
(a) Assess the possible doses that could have been received and prepare a
report.
(b) Return personal dosimeters to the dosimetry service for the purpose of
accurate assessment of exposures.
(c) Prepare an accident report and notify the regulatory body as required.
TRAINING AND EXERCISES
13.22. All persons who will participate in implementing the emergency plans
should be adequately trained for the effective fulfilment of their roles. This
should include both familiarization with and understanding of the plans, together
with specific training on source recovery procedures and on the use of the
emergency equipment.
13.23. Individual workers should implement only those parts of the emergency
plans for which they have been authorized and trained and for which they have
the appropriate equipment. Provisions for training should be reviewed
periodically to ensure the continued proficiency of workers.
69
13.24. Emergency exercises should be held to test critical components of the
emergency plans, at intervals that are commensurate with the potential hazard.
Any lessons learned should be fed back into reviews of the emergency plans.
PERIODIC REVIEWS OF PLANS AND EQUIPMENT
13.25. Formal reviews of emergency plans should be undertaken every year to

ensure that:
(a) All persons and organizations have been identified that should be contacted
as necessary at the various stages of the plans, and the relevant telephone
numbers, fax numbers and email addresses are up to date.
(b) Emergency equipment is readily available and is maintained.
13.26. The periodic reviews should include provision to update any relevant
aspects of the emergency plans in response to lessons learned from exercises or
from incidents and emergencies.
REPORTING
13.27. The primary objective of emergency preparedness and response should be

to mitigate the consequences of emergencies. However, it should be of similar
importance to critically review situations that have occurred so that the lessons
learned can provide feedback for improving equipment, maintenance procedures,
operating procedures and emergency plans. To this end, a comprehensive report
should be made of any emergency or incident.
13.28. Reports of any emergencies or incidents should be prepared by the

radiation protection officer with the assistance of qualified experts if necessary.
The reports should be submitted to senior management and to the regulatory body
as required. If the emergency could have been caused by an equipment
malfunction, the supplier should be notified so that the equipment can be
evaluated and appropriate action taken.
13.29. A report of an incident or an emergency should include the following:
(a) A description of the incident or emergency, with as much detail as possible

of the specific equipment involved. The details should include model
numbers and serial numbers wherever possible.
70
(b) Environmental conditions at the time of the incident or emergency, with
particular reference to whether or not these conditions played any
significant part in causing the emergency or incident or affecting the
outcome.
(c) The specific cause of the incident or emergency.
(d) Details of actions taken to regain control of the situation and to restore
conditions to normal, with special reference to any actions that were
notably beneficial or detrimental.
(e) The training and experience of the personnel involved.
(f) An assessment and summary of the doses received by all affected persons.
(g) Recommendations made with the aim of preventing similar incidents and
emergencies in the future, and mitigating the consequences if a similar or
related incident or emergency were to occur.
13.30. A copy of the report should be sent to the regulatory body, especially
where this is required by the conditions of the authorization or by national
regulations. The lessons learned should be communicated to all involved,
including the manufacturer if relevant, and any necessary improvements to
enhance safety should be carried out.
71
.
Appendix
IAEA CATEGORIZATION OF RADIOACTIVE SOURCES
A.1. The IAEA Safety Guide on Categorization of Radioactive Sources [19]

provides a system of categorization, in particular for radioactive sources used in
industry, medicine, agriculture, research and education. Its system can also be
applied, where appropriate in the national context, to radioactive sources within
military programmes.
A.2. The Safety Guide [19] provides an internationally harmonized basis for risk
informed decision making. It is based on a logical and transparent method that
provides the flexibility for it to be applied in a wide range of circumstances. Risk
informed decisions can be made in a graded approach to the regulatory control of
radioactive sources for the purposes of safety and security.
A.3. The categorization system is based on the concept of ‘dangerous sources’

— which are quantified in terms of ‘D values’ [41]. The D value is the
radionuclide specific activity of a source which, if not under control, could cause
severe deterministic effects for a range of scenarios that include both external
exposure from an unshielded source and internal exposure following dispersal of
the source material.
TABLE A.1. ACTIVITY OF RADIONUCLIDES USED IN INDUSTRIAL

RADIOGRAPHY, CORRESPONDING TO THRESHOLDS OF CATEGORIES
Radionuclide Category 1 Category 2 Category 3
1000 × D 10 × D D
(TBq) (Ci)a (TBq) (Ci)a (TBq) (Ci)a
Cobalt-60 3.0 × 101 8.0 × 102 3.0 × 10–1 8.0 3.0 × 10–2 8.0 × 10–1
Caesium-137 1.0 × 102 3.0 × 103 1.0 3.0 × 101 1.0 × 10–1 3.0
1 3 –1 1 –2
Iridium-192 8.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 8.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 8.0 × 10 2.0
2 3 1 –1
Selenium-75 2.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.0 5.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 5.0
4 5 2 3 1
Thulium-170 2.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 5.0 × 10 2.0 × 10 5.0 × 102
Ytterbium-169 3.0 × 102 8.0 × 103 3.0 8.0 × 101 3.0 × 10–1 8.0
a
The primary values to be used are given in TBq. The values in curies are provided for
practical usefulness and are rounded after conversion.
73
TABLE A.2. RECOMMENDED CATEGORIES FOR SOURCES USED IN
COMMON PRACTICES FOR RADIOGRAPHY PURPOSES
Category Source A/Da,b
1 Radioisotope thermoelectric generators

Irradiators
A/D ≥ 1000
Teletherapy sources
Fixed multibeam teletherapy (gamma knife) sources
2 Industrial gamma radiography sources

1000 > A/D ≥ 10
High/medium dose rate brachytherapy sources
3 Fixed industrial gauges that incorporate high activity sourcesc

10 > A/D ≥ 1
Well logging gauges
4 Low dose rate brachytherapy sources (except eye plaques and

permanent implant sources)
Industrial gauges that do not incorporate high activity sources 1 > A/D ≥ 0.01
Bone densitometers
Static eliminators
5 Low dose rate brachytherapy sources (eye plaques) and

permanent implant sources
X ray fluorescence devices 0.01 > A/D
and
Electron capture devices
A > exemptd
Mössbauer spectrometry sources
Positron emission tomography test sources
a
A is the activity of the source in TBq. Factors other than A/D have also been taken into
consideration in assigning the sources to a category (see Annex I of Ref. [19]).
b
This column for A/D can be used to determine the category of a source solely on the basis of
the value of A/D. This may be appropriate, for example, if the facilities and activities are not
known or are not listed, if sources have a short half-life and/or are unsealed, or if sources are
aggregated [19].
c
Examples are given in the Safety Guide on categorization [19].
d
Exempt quantities are given in Schedule I of the BSS [2].
DECAYED SOURCES
A.4. If a source decays to a radioactivity level below the appropriate threshold in

Table A.1 or below the level that is normally used in common practice (as shown
in Table A.2), the regulatory body may allow the operator to re-categorize the
source and to reassign it to a lower security level on the basis of the A/D ratio.
74
AGGREGATION OF SOURCES
A.5. There will be situations in which several radioactive sources are in close
proximity, such as in manufacturing processes (e.g. in the same room or building)
or in storage facilities (e.g. in the same enclosure). In such circumstances, the
regulatory body can aggregate the activity in the sources to determine a situation
specific categorization for the purposes of implementing regulatory control
measures.
A.6. In situations of this type, the summed activity of the radionuclide should be
divided by the appropriate D value and the calculated ratio A/D should be
compared with the ratios A/D given in Table A.2. This allows the set of sources to
be categorized on the basis of activity. If sources containing various different
radionuclides are aggregated, then the sum of the ratios A/D should be used in
assigning the category, in accordance with the following formula:
ÂA
aggregate A/D =
Â n
i
Dn
i,n
where
Ai,n is the activity of each individual source i of radionuclide n; and

Dn is the D value for radionuclide n.
A.7. This calculated aggregate value for A/D should then be compared with the
ratios A/D given in Table A.2 to determine the appropriate security level for the
co-located sources. Additional guidance on the aggregation of the activity of
radioactive sources can be found in Ref. [19].
75
.
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78
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79
.
Annex I
EXAMPLE OF A SAFETY ASSESSMENT
INTRODUCTION
I–1. The operating organization carries out a safety assessment for any source of
radiation under its control, to determine what steps are necessary to restrict the
exposure of its employees. Both normal working conditions and the potential for
accidents are considered in the safety assessment.
I–2. The example safety assessment in the following covers the use of X rays
and gamma rays in a purpose-built shielded enclosure for a hypothetical company
performing non-destructive testing. The following are considered in the
assessment:
(a) Normal operations for the purposes of radiography work within the
enclosure;
(b) Possible accident situations and steps to prevent accidents and to limit their
consequences;
(c) Control measures to restrict exposures;
(d) Potential exposures and possible doses during normal radiography
operations.
Radiography sources
I–3. The operating organization is authorized to use X ray and gamma ray
radiography sources in a shielded enclosure. Authorized sources include:
(a) One X ray generator (directional) operated at 250 kV and 4 mA — with a

radiation output at 1 m of 4 Sv·h–1;
(b) One 60Co source up to a maximum of 925 GBq;
(c) One 192Ir source up to a maximum of 3.7 TBq.
Persons at risk
I–4. Persons at risk include radiographers and other employees working nearby.
81
Existing measures to control exposures
I–5. The shielded enclosure is fitted with high quality safety systems so that
opening the enclosure door during an exposure automatically terminates the
X ray exposure or retracts the gamma source to the shielded position. An
exposure cannot commence if the enclosure door is open.
I–6. Safety systems and procedures ensure that only one radiation source can be
used at any one time. Radiation symbols (trefoils) are displayed on all doors to
indicate a possible radiation hazard. The shielded enclosure is fitted with a fixed
area radiation monitor plus warning lights and signals to indicate when the
exposure is due to commence and when exposure is under way.
I–7. Emergency stop switches are provided in the shielded enclosure. These
switches can be operated by anyone inside the radiography enclosure and will
stop the X ray generator and retract the gamma source to the shielded position.
I–8. The enclosure is shielded so that maximum dose rates outside at ground
level are less than 1 Sv·h–1. This means that the maximum annual dose to a
person outside the enclosure will be less than 0.25 mSv, assuming a maximum
occupancy in the area of 250 hours per year. This estimated dose is considered to
be acceptable.
I–9. Safety systems and procedures are in place to prevent access to the roof
during radiography work.
POSSIBLE DOSES DUE TO ACCIDENTS
I–10. The following are considered to be foreseeable accident scenarios:
(a) A gamma source failing to retract correctly to its shielded position;

(b) A dropped or detached source (location known);
(c) A missing or stolen source;
(d) Failure of a warning system or safety system, leading to entry to the
enclosure during an exposure;
(e) Fire or mechanical damage impairing the shielding of an exposure device or
breaching the integrity of a sealed source.
82
I–11. In each of the above scenarios, the worst foreseeable case is that an
individual is exposed close to an unshielded source or an energized X ray
generator. Table I–1 gives an indication of the whole body doses that could result.
I–12. Dose rates very close to the radiation sources will be very high:
(a) For the gamma source, the dose to the hands if they were placed at a
distance of 5 cm from the source for 5 min would be approximately 11 Gy
(for the 60Co source) or 16 Gy (for the 192Ir source). This level of dose
would result in severe deterministic effects to the hands.
(b) For the X ray generator, the dose to the hands if they were held close to the
window of the X ray generator for 5 min would be approximately 8 Gy
(assuming a focus–skin distance of 20 cm). This would result in severe
deterministic effects to the hands (radiation burns).
I–13. The operating organization has put in place a number of measures to reduce
the likelihood of accidents occurring and to mitigate the consequences if an
accident does occur. These measures include:
(a) Periodic training in radiation safety for all relevant staff;

(b) Provision of written procedures to minimize the risk of human error;
(c) Regular maintenance of the X ray generator, exposure device and wind-out
equipment;
(d) Frequent checks to confirm the location of radioactive sources;
TABLE I–1. DOSE RATE AT 1 m AND TIME FOR EXPOSURE AT 1 m TO

EXCEED A WHOLE BODY DOSE OF 20 mSv FOR THREE DIFFERENT
SOURCES
Dose rate at 1 m Time for exposure at 1 m to exceed

Source (activity)
(mSv·h–1) a whole body dose of 20 mSv
Co-60
325 3.7 min
(925 GBq)
Ir-192
480 2.5 min
(3.7 TBq)
X ray generator operating

4000 18 s
at 250 kV and 4 mA
83
(e) Regular maintenance of all safety and warning systems, as well as routine
checks on their operation;
(f) Provision of permanently installed radiation detectors in the shielded
enclosure;
(g) Provision of portable radiation monitoring equipment;
(h) Fire prevention measures;
(i) Provision of detailed emergency plans, regular emergency training and
emergency exercises.
CONTROL MEASURES
I–14. The safety assessment described here shows that measures for protection
are necessary to restrict exposures. The provision of shielding, the use of safety
systems and warning systems, and the following of written procedures are
necessary measures for protection in a controlled area. The interior of the
enclosure is designated as a controlled area.
I–15. The measures specified in the following will ensure that radiation doses to
the radiographers and other persons in the area of the radiography facility will be
satisfactorily controlled.
Designated areas
Controlled areas
I–16. The inside of the shielded facility is designated as a controlled area on the
basis that special procedures are necessary for controlling exposures and for
preventing or limiting the extent of potential exposures. Entry into the controlled
area is restricted to authorized persons wearing personal dosimeters.
Supervised areas
I–17. The area immediately outside the enclosure and the corridors are
designated as supervised areas. This designation is made on the basis that,
although the potential for exposures in these areas is minimal, this situation could
change (e.g. in the event of changes in working practices or degradation of the
shielding). It is therefore appropriate to keep the situation in these areas under
review.
84
Provisions necessary to restrict exposures
I–18. Detailed local rules are available that specify the procedures to be followed
to restrict exposures when carrying out radiography work. Restriction of exposures
is also achieved by the use of radiography equipment with fail-to-safe warning
systems. Provided that the local rules are adhered to, exposure will be restricted as
far as is reasonably achievable.
Arrangements for female employees
I–19. If there is a female employee in the operating organization, she would be

advised of the necessity and importance of informing her manager if she were to
become pregnant, and appropriate arrangements would be made for the radiation
protection of the foetus.
Dose investigation level
I–20. A dose investigation level of 2 mSv per year has been set by management.
Provided that all safety systems function properly and all procedures are adhered
to, the potential for exposure is small, and this investigation level will not be
exceeded. This value serves as a useful management tool and is included in the
local rules.
Training and qualifications
I–21. All staff are trained to a level appropriate to understand the nature of the
radiation hazards and the importance of following specified procedures. All staff
are informed that this is essential to minimize radiation doses and to prevent
incidents from occurring or to mitigate the consequences of incidents. All staff
are also informed to an appropriate level about national regulatory requirements.
The need for refresher training is kept under review by the radiation protection
officer. Records are kept of all training conducted. All radiographers have
nationally recognized qualifications in industrial radiography techniques and are
trained in radiation safety.
Individual dose assessment
I–22. There is a potential for radiography staff to receive high doses in the event
of a breach of procedures or an accident. Consequently, all radiography staff are
subject to individual radiation monitoring and are issued with thermoluminescent
85
dosimeters, which are changed every two weeks. Dosimeters are worn during all
periods of work and are stored away from radiation.
Health surveillance
I–23. Radiographers undergo annual health reviews with a doctor approved by

the regulatory body. Radiographers are entitled to see the results of their health
reviews.
Workplace monitoring
I–24. Routine workplace monitoring is carried out to verify the extent of the
controlled areas and to monitor the effectiveness of engineered safety systems.
Routine monitoring is carried out around controlled areas and supervised areas
once per week and on each occasion that a radioactive source is renewed. Special
monitoring is carried out if there are any changes in radiography techniques or
beam direction. Records of all monitoring are kept in accordance with regulatory
requirements.
I–25. In addition, a continuous indication of dose rate is provided by radiation

meters installed in the shielded enclosure.
I–26. The dose rate meters are tested annually by a test laboratory. Instrument test
certificates are retained by the radiation protection officer.
Accounting for radioactive sources
I–27. All radioactive sources are uniquely identifiable, and their locations are
checked and recorded every working day. Records are also kept of all changes of
radioactive sources, and all spent sources are returned to their original supplier.
Safety system evaluations
I–28. Restriction of exposures relies heavily on engineered safety systems as

control measures. The correct functioning of the safety systems is checked at the
start of each shift by the radiographers. Records are kept of these checks.
I–29. All safety systems are also maintained annually by a service contractor, and
records are kept.
86
Annex II
OVERVIEW OF INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES

AND EQUIPMENT
II–1. A wide range of exposure devices are commercially available for carrying
out industrial radiography. These devices include equipment for performing
gamma and X ray radiography. A summary of the general characteristics of this
equipment is provided here.
GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES AND EQUIPMENT
Sources
II–2. Iridium-192 is the radionuclide most commonly used for industrial

radiography. There are also others that can be used, the choice being dependent
on the characteristics of the test object material. Source assemblies are specific to
the exposure device and consist of a sealed capsule, wire or rod. Table II–1 lists
the radionuclides most commonly used and their characteristics.
II–3. Sealed sources are housed inside an exposure device that is appropriate for,
and compatible with, the source, source holder or source assembly.
TABLE II–1. RADIONUCLIDES MOST COMMONLY USED IN

INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
Thickness of steel
Source output at 1 m
Radionuclide Energy Half-life for which this is
(mSv·h–1 per 37 GBq)
typically used (mm)
Co-60 1.17 and 1.33 MeV 13.0 5.3 a 50–120
Ir-192 206–612 keV 4.8 74 d 12–70
Se-75 97–401 keV 2.03 120 d 8–30
Yb-169 63–308 keV 1.25 32 d 4–20
Tm-170 51–84 keV 0.25 128 d 2.5–12.5
87
Types of exposure device and equipment
General classification of exposure devices
II–4. Exposure devices are classified according to their mobility. Class P and
Class M exposure devices are, respectively, portable and mobile, whereas Class F
exposure devices are fixed:
(1) Class P: Portable exposure devices, designed to be carried by one or more

persons. The mass of a Class P exposure device does not exceed 50 kg.
(2) Class M: Mobile, but not portable, exposure devices designed to be moved
easily by a suitable means provided for the purpose, such as a trolley or cart.
(3) Class F: Fixed, installed exposure devices or ones with mobility restricted
to the confines of a defined working location, such as a shielded enclosure.
II–5. The three classes of exposure device are generally operated by exposing the
source in one of two ways, as described in the following.
Shutter type exposure devices
II–6. In shutter type exposure devices, the source remains inside the exposure
device at all times. It is exposed either by opening part of the shielding (the
‘shutter’) or by moving (e.g. rotating) an inner component in which the source is
mounted. The solid angle of the radiation beam is not usually more than 60o, and
additional collimation can be used to further limit the beam angle. Exposing the
source is done either directly by the use of a handle on the exposure device or by
a remote means.
Projection type exposure devices
II–7. In projection type exposure devices, a movable source assembly is

physically projected out of the device along a hollow guide tube by means of a
wind-out cable. The end of the guide tube is placed in a collimator, to locate the
source in the desired position and to limit the beam to the minimum size
necessary for the task.
II–8. So-called ‘S bend’ type exposure devices enable the radiographer to operate
the system and to expose the source at a safe distance. S bend type exposure
devices provide a higher degree of protection than shutter type devices. For high
activity sources, the use of projection type exposure devices is essential to ensure
that doses to radiographers are as low as reasonably achievable.
88
II–9. Some projection type exposure devices use compressed air rather than a
wind-out cable to expose the source. Such exposure devices are generally used
only as part of a purpose-built shielded enclosure. Systems that rely on air
pressure or gravity to return the source to the shielded position may not be
designed to fail-to-safe, and some regulatory bodies do not authorize their use.
II–10. Other types of specialized radiography equipment include pipe crawler

equipment and equipment used for underwater radiography.
Underwater radiography equipment
II–11. For radiography under water, exposure devices are provided with
additional safety features, including:
(a) A depth rating, stating the maximum depth at which the exposure device
can safely be used.
(b) Seals that prevent the entry of gas or water into parts of the equipment that
that are not designed to withstand them. Equipment that is designed to
withstand water and gas has seals that allow water and gas to escape during
the ascent to the surface.
(c) A mechanism for enabling equipment to be safely operated while the diver
is outside the controlled area.
Pipe crawler equipment
II–12. Pipe crawler equipment is used to radiograph welds on pipelines. The

machines carry either an X ray tube assembly or a gamma source on a mobile
carriage that crawls along inside the pipe. They are powered either by batteries on
the carriage, by an internal combustion engine or by cables trailing from a
generator. The crawler is activated and controlled by the radiographer from
outside the pipe by using a control source. This normally consists of a low
activity 137Cs sealed source mounted in a hand-held device and collimated.
Radiation from the control source is received by a detector on the crawler.
II–13. Typically, the control source is moved along the outside of the pipe to
prompt the crawler to move in the desired forward or reverse direction. The
control source is held against the outside of the pipe to make the crawler stop and
wait. An exposure begins automatically about 10 s after the control source is
removed from the pipe’s surface. Some X ray crawlers are fitted with a low
activity radioactive source, to help to identify the crawler’s position inside the
pipeline.
89
II–14. The radiography source does not leave the device during the exposure
within a pipeline pipe. Most such pipe crawler equipment is designed to fail-to-
safe such that, if power is lost, the source is automatically shielded.
II–15. Pipeline crawlers typically do not meet all of the requirements of

ISO 3999 [II–1]. Operating organizations will need to ensure that there are
appropriate additional safety precautions in place for their safe use.
REFERENCE TO ANNEX II
[II–1] INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION, Radiation
Protection — Apparatus for Industrial Gamma Radiography — Specifications for
Performance, Design and Tests, ISO 3999:2004, ISO, Geneva (2004).
90
Annex III
EXAMPLES OF ACCIDENTS IN INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
III–1. Throughout the history of industrial radiography, accidents have occurred

that have resulted in high radiation doses to workers and the public, causing
serious injuries to the exposed persons, sometimes necessitating amputation or
even resulting in death. Many other accidents did not result in serious injuries, but
had the potential to do so or gave rise to unnecessary radiation exposures.
III–2. An IAEA Safety Report [III–1] provides an overview of a number of

accidents involving industrial radiography sources that were reported by
regulatory bodies, professional associations and scientific journals. The Safety
Report describes the scenarios of accidents in industrial radiography, identifies
the primary causes and the lessons to be learned, and provides suggestions to the
persons and authorities responsible for protection and safety in industrial
radiography. A small number of accidents are described in the following to
illustrate the potential hazards associated with sources used in industrial
radiography if it is not carried out properly.
FAILURE TO CONNECT A SAFETY SYSTEM
III–3. An X ray unit was being replaced. At the time, the interlock on the
enclosure door was disconnected and it was never reconnected. One year later, a
radiographer turned on the X ray unit to allow it to warm up prior to making his
first exposure. He later entered the radiography enclosure to set his film and to
make final adjustments to the position of the item to be radiographed. This work
involved locating the beam centre with a plumb bob, which the radiographer held
in the beam port with his right thumb. There were no alarms inside the enclosure
to show that the X ray unit was activated.
III–4. The radiographer realized that he had been exposed when he returned to
the console to start the exposure and found that the beam was already turned on.
It is estimated that the radiographer’s right thumb was in the beam port for about
5 s, an exposure which resulted in an estimated dose of 3.4 Sv to his thumb and
29 mSv to the whole body. The exposure of the radiographer’s thumb resulted in
erythema (radiation burns) and blistering.
91
Initiating event
III–5. Reconnection of the interlock system was not ensured in the

commissioning of the new X ray unit.
Contributory factors and prevention
III–6. Procedures need to be put in place to ensure that all safety systems are
functional after repair or replacement. The radiographer had not performed daily
checks of the interlocks prior to use of the enclosure. Such a check would have
alerted the radiographer to the fact that the interlock system was not functioning.
A radiation survey during operation would have detected the radiation levels and
would have been able to prevent his exposure. The radiographer had ignored the
warning signal on the control panel.
DEFEAT OF SAFETY ALARMS
III–7. While performing radiography in a shielded enclosure, a radiographer

decided to prop open the enclosure door to allow air to circulate in the enclosure
as he changed films and set up for the next exposure. When he did this for the first
time, he switched the ‘door open’ alarm to the ‘off’ position. This switch also
defeated the enclosure radiation alarm.
III–8. In a subsequent exposure, the radiographer failed to retract the 3000 GBq
(81 Ci) 60Co source being used. The radiographer entered the enclosure without
using a survey meter and while the radiation alarm was defeated. He was not
wearing a personal dosimeter. A production worker working with the
radiographer also entered the enclosure; he also was not wearing a personal
dosimeter.
III–9. The radiographer changed the films, adjusted the source collimator and
left the enclosure, together with the production coordinator. When the
radiographer attempted to crank the source out to the exposed position, he
realized that the source had not been retracted following the previous exposure,
and that he and the production worker had been exposed.
III–10. Re-enactment of the incident demonstrated that the radiographer received

an estimated dose to his eyes of about 90 mSv and a dose to those portions of the
hand with which he had adjusted the source collimator that was in excess of
42.5 Sv. The production worker received an estimated dose to his eyes of 40 mSv.
92
Initiating event
III–11. The interlock and the radiation alarm for the enclosure were deliberately
defeated.
III–12. The alarm system needs to be designed so that defeating the door alarm
does not defeat the radiation alarm. Operational procedures to verify that the
source had been returned to the shielded position and that all the appropriate
dosimeters were being worn were not followed. If an alarm had been worn, the
radiographer would have been alerted to the high radiation levels. The nature of
the production worker’s involvement demonstrated the lack of safety culture
within the operating organization.
IMPROPER RESPONSE TO MALFUNCTIONING EQUIPMENT
III–13. In 1994, a radiographer was working at night with an exposure device

containing 780 GBq (21 Ci) of 192Ir, and he had difficulties in locking it. He saw
that his direct reading dosimeter was reading off-scale, but as his survey meter
was malfunctioning, no radiation was detected. He struck the locking assembly
with a hammer to achieve the locked position, and then left the exposure device
on the site unsupervised while returning to the facility to collect another survey
meter.
III–14. The radiographer then went back to the site but found that he had the
same problem with the locking assembly. His direct reading dosimeter was still
reading off-scale and the second survey meter was also not working properly. On
returning again to the facility for another survey meter, he inadvertently left his
personal thermoluminescent dosimeter behind, and so he continued working on
the site without it. The dosimeter showed an exposure of 8.5 mSv, which was
probably incurred while the radiographer was originally incorrectly manipulating
the locking assembly of the exposure device.
Initiating event
III–15. Difficulties were experienced in locking the exposure device.
93
III–16. The radiographer failed to follow operational safety procedures when the
equipment malfunctioned. Specifically, he:
— Attempted to repair the exposure device using unapproved procedures;

— Did not confirm the operability of the survey meter provided;
— Disregarded the off-scale reading of his dosimeter;
— Left the exposure device unattended at the client’s site;
— Did not wear a personal dosimeter.
If the radiographer had met any of these requirements, he could have minimized
his exposure.
EXPOSURE INSIDE A PIPELINE
III–17. A radiographer had a permit to carry out X ray radiography work on a

pipeline at a gas compressor station. A barrier clearly identified the extent of the
controlled area, and pre-exposure and exposure warning signals were given
before the work commenced.
III–18. Several exposures had already been made and the X ray tube was still
energized when the radiographer saw two men emerge from further along the
pipeline. Enquiries revealed that the two men also had a permit to work, that they
had been inspecting the pipeline internally and that they had crawled through the
X ray beam twice while performing their inspections.
III–19. Reconstruction of the incident revealed that the inspectors had each
received an estimated dose of 0.2 mSv.
Initiating event
III–20. The event was caused by a lack of coordination of the work to be

performed on the site.
III–21. The radiographer did not maintain the required control of the area,
resulting in the exposure of two individuals. The radiographer needs to obtain all
the necessary cooperation and information from the site manager prior to the start
94
of operations, so as to be able to maintain control during all radiography
operations. The required controls (barriers and warning signals) at the access
points to the controlled area were not adequately maintained.
DEATHS FROM RADIATION OVEREXPOSURE
III–22. A fatal radiation accident occurred in 1984 in which eight members of the
public died from the consequences of overexposure due to a radiography source.
An 1100 GBq (30 Ci) 192Ir source became disconnected from the drive cable and
was not properly returned to its exposure device.
III–23. Subsequently, the guide tube was disconnected from the exposure device
and the source eventually dropped to the ground. A passer-by picked up the small
metal cylinder and took it home. Although the exposure device was marked with
the radiation symbol (trefoil), the source itself bore no markings.
III–24. The source was lost from March to June 1984 and a total of eight persons,
including the person who took the source home, members of his family and
relatives, died; the clinical diagnosis was of lung haemorrhage. It was initially
thought that the cause of death was poisoning. Only after the last death was it
suspected that the deaths might have been caused by radiation.
Initiating event
III–25. The source assembly became disconnected from the drive cable, fell to
the ground and remained at the worksite.
III–26. No radiation surveys were performed to ensure that the source had been
returned to the fully shielded position. Had radiation surveys been carried out, the
problem would have been detected and the accident could have been prevented.
In addition, the passer-by who picked up the source did not recognize the health
hazard associated with it. The consequences of the incident might have been
mitigated if the source had had a warning label on it.
95
FAILURE OF A DEVICE LOCK AFTER IMPROPER MAINTENANCE
III–27. A radiography event was reported that involved an exposure device

locking mechanism that became detached from the exposure device. This allowed
the 3600 GBq (98 Ci) 192Ir source to be pulled from the exposure device. The
incident occurred after midnight, when two radiographers working in low light
were performing radiography work.
III–28. The films were taken for development and the radiographer removed his
film badge and placed it on his clipboard, thinking that his work had been
completed. However, several exposures had to be redone, and for these he forgot
to put his film badge back on.
III–29. To move the exposure device from the first to the second location for
repeating the exposure, the radiographer took hold of the crank cable in his left
hand and lifted the exposure device with his right hand. He took a few steps and
the drive cable fell from the exposure device to the ground. He placed the
exposure device on a truck tailgate, thinking that the source had also become
disconnected. The radiographer picked up the crank cable approximately 100 cm
from the end and moved his hand quickly towards the end of the connector. He
gripped what he thought was the cable connector and brought it to within 15 cm
of his face. When he realized it was actually the source, he dropped it, alerted the
other radiographer and ran from the area.
III–30. Re-enactment of the scenario and calculations of the radiation exposure

indicated that the radiographer had received an estimated whole body dose and
dose to the lenses of his eyes of 6 mSv. A worst case extremity exposure of the
fingers was estimated to be 19 Sv.
III–31. The lock insert of the exposure device used is held in place by two roll
pins. One pin was missing, and may have been missing for some time, while the
second pin was in the exposure device housing but not inside the lock insert. The
absence of both pins allowed the lock insert, the spring and the movable insert to
be pulled from the lock box. The drive cable was connected to the source
assembly. However, when the lock insert was pulled from the lock box, the drive
cable pulled the source assembly from the exposure device, thereby exposing the
source.
Initiating event
III–32. The roll pins that secure the lock insert were missing.
96
III–33. The radiographer made the assumption that he had a disconnected source.
He did not confirm the situation by using a radiation survey meter. Under a proper
inspection and maintenance programme, the missing roll pin would have been
detected and replaced. Daily inspections may have detected that the lock insert
was loose prior to radiography being performed. In addition, the removal of a
film badge before concluding radiography work and not using monitoring
equipment are violations of regulatory requirements and indicate a lack of safety
culture.
INADEQUATE MAINTENANCE CAUSING OVEREXPOSURE
III–34. A radiographer and his assistant were working with a 3000 GBq (80 Ci)
192
Ir source. When the exposures were completed, the assistant disassembled the
equipment, placed it on the truck and returned to base. Upon arrival, he carried
the exposure device from the truck to the storage facility. While placing the
exposure device on a shelf, he tilted it and the source assembly fell to the floor.
The radiation alarm in the storage facility alerted him to the hazard, and the
source was subsequently recovered and safely shielded.
Initiating event
III–35. Investigations showed that the exposure device had not been properly
maintained. The spring loaded latch designed to secure the source in the fully
shielded position was not working; the latch had become jammed in the unlocked
position by an accumulation of dirt. In addition, the radiographer had neither
turned the shutter control to the off position nor had he installed the dust cover
cap on the front of the exposure device. This combination of circumstances led to
the source falling to the floor.
III–36. The lock had become jammed in the unlocked position by an

accumulation of dirt. In addition to the lack of maintenance, which caused the
lock to fail, secondary securing requirements were not met. The shutter control
was not turned to the off position and the dust cover cap had not been installed on
the front of the exposure device. Had either of these steps been taken, the source
could not have dropped out of the exposure device.
97
REFERENCE TO ANNEX III
[III–1] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Lessons Learned from Accidents
in Industrial Radiography, Safety Reports Series No. 7, IAEA, Vienna (1998).
98
Einav, I. International Atomic Energy Agency
Friedrich, V. International Atomic Energy Agency
Hudson, A.P. Private consultant, United Kingdom
Irwin, R. Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission, Canada
Jankovitch, J. United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission,

United States of America
Paynter, R.A. Health Protection Agency, United Kingdom
Roughan, C. QSA Global Inc., United States of America
Sonsbeek, R. Van Applus RTD Group, Netherlands
Wheatley, J.S. International Atomic Energy Agency
99
.
An asterisk denotes a corresponding member. Corresponding members receive
drafts for comment and other documentation but they do not generally participate
in meetings. Two asterisks denote an alternate.
Argentina: González, A.J.; Australia: Loy, J.; Belgium: Samain, J.-P.; Brazil:
Vinhas, L.A.; Canada: Jammal, R.; China: Liu Hua; Egypt: Barakat, M.; Finland:
Laaksonen, J.; France: Lacoste, A.-C. (Chairperson); Germany: Majer, D.; India:
Sharma, S.K.; Israel: Levanon, I.; Japan: Fukushima, A.; Korea, Republic of:
Choul-Ho Yun; Lithuania: Maksimovas, G.; Pakistan: Rahman, M.S.; Russian
Federation: Adamchik, S.; South Africa: Magugumela, M.T.; Spain: Barceló
Vernet, J.; Sweden: Larsson, C.M.; Ukraine: Mykolaichuk, O.; United Kingdom:
Weightman, M.; United States of America: Virgilio, M.; Vietnam: Le-chi Dung;
IAEA: Delattre, D. (Coordinator); Advisory Group on Nuclear Security:
Hashmi, J.A.; European Commission: Faross, P.; International Nuclear Safety
Group: Meserve, R.; International Commission on Radiological Protection:
Holm, L.-E.; OECD Nuclear Energy Agency: Yoshimura, U.; Safety Standards
Committee Chairpersons: Brach, E.W. (TRANSSC); Magnusson, S. (RASSC);
Pather, T. (WASSC); Vaughan, G.J. (NUSSC).
Algeria: Merrouche, D.; Argentina: Waldman, R.; Australia: Le Cann, G.; Austria:
Sholly, S.; Belgium: De Boeck, B.; Brazil: Gromann, A.; *Bulgaria:
Gledachev, Y.; Canada: Rzentkowski, G.; China: Jingxi Li; Croatia: Valčić, I.;
*Cyprus: Demetriades, P.; Czech Republic: Šváb, M.; Egypt: Ibrahim, M.;
Finland: Järvinen, M.-L.; France: Feron, F.; Germany: Wassilew, C.; Ghana:
Emi-Reynolds, G.; *Greece: Camarinopoulos, L.; Hungary: Adorján, F.; India:
Vaze, K.; Indonesia: Antariksawan, A.; Iran, Islamic Republic of:
Asgharizadeh, F.; Israel: Hirshfeld, H.; Italy: Bava, G.; Japan: Kanda, T.; Korea,
Republic of: Hyun-Koon Kim; Libyan Arab Jamahiriya: Abuzid, O.; Lithuania:
Demčenko, M.; Malaysia: Azlina Mohammed Jais; Mexico: Carrera, A.; Morocco:
Soufi, I.; Netherlands: van der Wiel, L.; Pakistan: Habib, M.A.; Poland:
Jurkowski, M.; Romania: Biro, L.; Russian Federation: Baranaev, Y.; Slovakia:
Uhrik, P.; Slovenia: Vojnovič, D.; South Africa: Leotwane, W.; Spain:
Zarzuela, J.; Sweden: Hallman, A.; Switzerland: Flury, P.; Tunisia: Baccouche, S.;
101
Turkey: Bezdegumeli, U.; Ukraine: Shumkova, N.; United Kingdom:
Vaughan, G.J. (Chairperson); United States of America: Mayfield, M.; Uruguay:
Nader, A.; European Commission: Vigne, S.; FORATOM: Fourest, B.;
IAEA: Feige, G. (Coordinator); International Electrotechnical Commission:
Bouard, J.-P.; International Organization for Standardization: Sevestre, B.;
OECD Nuclear Energy Agency: Reig, J.; *World Nuclear Association:
Borysova, I.
*Algeria: Chelbani, S.; Argentina: Massera, G.; Australia: Melbourne, A.;

*Austria: Karg, V.; Belgium: van Bladel, L.; Brazil: Rodriguez Rochedo, E.R.;
*Bulgaria: Katzarska, L.; Canada: Clement, C.; China: Huating Yang; Croatia:
Kralik, I.; *Cuba: Betancourt Hernandez, L.; *Cyprus: Demetriades, P.; Czech
Republic: Petrova, K.; Denmark: Øhlenschlæger, M.; Egypt: Hassib, G.M.;
Estonia: Lust, M.; Finland: Markkanen, M.; France: Godet, J.-L.; Germany:
Helming, M.; Ghana: Amoako, J.; *Greece: Kamenopoulou, V.; Hungary:
Koblinger, L.; Iceland: Magnusson, S. (Chairperson); India: Sharma, D.N.;
Indonesia: Widodo, S.; Iran, Islamic Republic of: Kardan, M.R.; Ireland:
Colgan, T.; Israel: Koch, J.; Italy: Bologna, L.; Japan: Kiryu, Y.; Korea, Republic
of: Byung-Soo Lee; *Latvia: Salmins, A.; Libyan Arab Jamahiriya: Busitta, M.;
Lithuania: Mastauskas, A.; Malaysia: Hamrah, M.A.; Mexico: Delgado
Guardado, J.; Morocco: Tazi, S.; Netherlands: Zuur, C.; Norway: Saxebol, G.;
Pakistan: Ali, M.; Paraguay: Romero de Gonzalez, V.; Philippines: Valdezco, E.;
Poland: Merta, A.; Portugal: Dias de Oliveira, A.M.; Romania: Rodna, A.;
Russian Federation: Savkin, M.; Slovakia: Jurina, V.; Slovenia: Sutej, T.; South
Africa: Olivier, J.H.I.; Spain: Amor Calvo, I.; Sweden: Almen, A.; Switzerland:
Piller, G.; *Thailand: Suntarapai, P.; Tunisia: Chékir, Z.; Turkey: Okyar, H.B.;
Ukraine: Pavlenko, T.; United Kingdom: Robinson, I.; United States of America:
Lewis, R.; *Uruguay: Nader, A.; European Commission: Janssens, A.; Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Byron, D.; IAEA: Boal, T.
(Coordinator); International Commission on Radiological Protection: Valentin, J.;
International Electrotechnical Commission: Thompson, I.; International Labour
Office: Niu, S.; International Organization for Standardization: Rannou, A.;
International Source Suppliers and Producers Association: Fasten, W.; OECD
Nuclear Energy Agency: Lazo, T.E.; Pan American Health Organization:
Jiménez, P.; United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic
Radiation: Crick, M.; World Health Organization: Carr, Z.; World Nuclear
Association: Saint-Pierre, S.
102
Argentina: López Vietri, J.; **Capadona, N.M.; Australia: Sarkar, S.; Austria:
Kirchnawy, F.; Belgium: Cottens, E.; Brazil: Xavier, A.M.; Bulgaria:
Bakalova, A.; Canada: Régimbald, A.; China: Xiaoqing Li; Croatia:
Belamarić, N.; *Cuba: Quevedo Garcia, J.R.; *Cyprus: Demetriades, P.; Czech
Republic: Ducháček, V.; Denmark: Breddam, K.; Egypt: El-Shinawy, R.M.K.;
Finland: Lahkola, A.; France: Landier, D.; Germany: Rein, H.; *Nitsche, F.;
**Alter, U.; Ghana: Emi-Reynolds, G.; *Greece: Vogiatzi, S.; Hungary: Sáfár, J.;
India: Agarwal, S.P.; Indonesia: Wisnubroto, D.; Iran, Islamic Republic of:
Eshraghi, A.; *Emamjomeh, A.; Ireland: Duffy, J.; Israel: Koch, J.; Italy:
Trivelloni, S.; **Orsini, A.; Japan: Hanaki, I.; Korea, Republic of: Dae-Hyung
Cho; Libyan Arab Jamahiriya: Kekli, A.T.; Lithuania: Statkus, V.; Malaysia:
Sobari, M.P.M.; **Husain, Z.A.; Mexico: Bautista Arteaga, D.M.; **Delgado
Guardado, J.L.; *Morocco: Allach, A.; Netherlands: Ter Morshuizen, M.; *New
Zealand: Ardouin, C.; Norway: Hornkjøl, S.; Pakistan: Rashid, M.; *Paraguay:
More Torres, L.E.; Poland: Dziubiak, T.; Portugal: Buxo da Trindade, R.; Russian
Federation: Buchelnikov, A.E.; South Africa: Hinrichsen, P.; Spain: Zamora
Martin, F.; Sweden: Häggblom, E.; **Svahn, B.; Switzerland: Krietsch, T.;
Thailand: Jerachanchai, S.; Turkey: Ertürk, K.; Ukraine: Lopatin, S.; United
Kingdom: Sallit, G.; United States of America: Boyle, R.W.; Brach, E.W.
(Chairperson); Uruguay: Nader, A.; *Cabral, W.; European Commission: Binet, J.;
IAEA: Stewart, J.T. (Coordinator); International Air Transport Association:
Brennan, D.; International Civil Aviation Organization: Rooney, K.; International
Federation of Air Line Pilots’ Associations: Tisdall, A.; **Gessl, M.; International
Maritime Organization: Rahim, I.; International Organization for
Standardization: Malesys, P.; International Source Supplies and Producers
Association: Miller, J.J.; **Roughan, K.; United Nations Economic Commission
for Europe: Kervella, O.; Universal Postal Union: Bowers, D.G.; World Nuclear
Association: Gorlin, S.; World Nuclear Transport Institute: Green, L.
Algeria: Abdenacer, G.; Argentina: Biaggio, A.; Australia: Williams, G.; *Austria:
Fischer, H.; Belgium: Blommaert, W.; Brazil: Tostes, M.; *Bulgaria:
Simeonov, G.; Canada: Howard, D.; China: Zhimin Qu; Croatia: Trifunovic, D.;
Cuba: Fernandez, A.; Cyprus: Demetriades, P.; Czech Republic: Lietava, P.;
Denmark: Nielsen, C.; Egypt: Mohamed, Y.; Estonia: Lust, M.; Finland: Hutri, K.;
France: Rieu, J.; Germany: Götz, C.; Ghana: Faanu, A.; Greece: Tzika, F.;
Hungary: Czoch, I.; India: Rana, D.; Indonesia: Wisnubroto, D.; Iran, Islamic
103
Republic of: Assadi, M.; *Zarghami, R.; Iraq: Abbas, H.; Israel: Dody, A.; Italy:
Dionisi, M.; Japan: Matsuo, H.; Korea, Republic of: Won-Jae Park; *Latvia:
Salmins, A.; Libyan Arab Jamahiriya: Elfawares, A.; Lithuania: Paulikas, V.;
Malaysia: Sudin, M.; Mexico: Aguirre Gómez, J.; *Morocco: Barkouch, R.;
Netherlands: van der Shaaf, M.; Pakistan: Mannan, A.; *Paraguay: Idoyaga
Navarro, M.; Poland: Wlodarski, J.; Portugal: Flausino de Paiva, M.; Slovakia:
Homola, J.; Slovenia: Mele, I.; South Africa: Pather, T. (Chairperson); Spain: Sanz
Aludan, M.; Sweden: Frise, L.; Switzerland: Wanner, H.; *Thailand: Supaokit, P.;
Tunisia: Bousselmi, M.; Turkey: Özdemir, T.; Ukraine: Makarovska, O.; United
Kingdom: Chandler, S.; United States of America: Camper, L.; *Uruguay:
Nader, A.; European Commission: Necheva, C.; European Nuclear Installations
Safety Standards: Lorenz, B.; *European Nuclear Installations Safety Standards:
Zaiss, W.; IAEA: Siraky, G. (Coordinator); International Organization for
Standardization: Hutson, G.; International Source Suppliers and Producers
Association: Fasten, W.; OECD Nuclear Energy Agency: Riotte, H.; World
Nuclear Association: Saint-Pierre, S.
104
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10-28651
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ISBN 978–92–0–107210–8
ISSN 1020–525X
Government of Western Australia
Radiological Council
INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
ASSISTANTS TRAINING NOTES
Radiological Council
Locked Bag 2006 Nedlands WA 6009
Telephone (08) 9388 4999 Facsimile (08) 9382 0701
Email radiation.health@health.wa.gov.au
www.radiologicalcouncil.wa.gov.au
www.wa.gov.au
Revision 2.2 Date 13 July 2012

PREFACE
This manual is for persons wishing to take the Radiological

Council of Western Australia's examination for industrial
radiography assistants.
The manual was developed by officers of the Radiological

Council.
The radiation safety topics are simplified in comparison to

those normally presented for persons undergoing the
industrial radiographers licence course, but are an
acceptable compromise for assistants who are required to
work under the direction and immediate personal
supervision of licensed industrial radiographers. No person
may use radioactive substances or x-ray for industrial
radiography unless they are a licensee or an assistant
approved by the Radiological Council.
This training manual contains the information required to

pass the formal examination for industrial radiography
assistants. The syllabus for the examination is available
fro the Radiological Council separately.
 2012 Government of Western Australia
Revision 2.2 Date 13 July 2012

CONTENTS
Registration................................................................................................................3
Radiation Safety Officer .............................................................................................3
Conditions, Restrictions And Limitations ....................................................................4
Licensing....................................................................................................................4
Approved Assistant ....................................................................................................4
Responsibility.............................................................................................................5
Radiation Monitoring ..................................................................................................5
Availability Of Records ...............................................................................................6
Radiation Units...........................................................................................................7
Transport Of Radioactive Substances........................................................................8
Code Of Practice For The Safe Use Of Industrial Radiography Equipment (1989) ....9
Dose Limits ..............................................................................................................12
Variations From The Code .......................................................................................13
Safety Equipment.....................................................................................................13
Minimising Your Risk................................................................................................14
Environmental Radiation ..........................................................................................16
Radiation Safety Principles ......................................................................................17
Definitions ................................................................................................................20
Spectrum Of Acute Effects Of Whole Body External Radiation................................23
References ..............................................................................................................24
Page 2
RADIATION SAFETY ACT
The use of x-rays and radioactive substances for industrial radiography in Western
Australia is controlled under the Radiation Safety Act 1975, its Regulations and any
conditions or limitations imposed by the Radiological Council.
The Act provides for the approval of persons working with radiation through the
licensing of industrial radiographers, the approval of assistants by examination, and
the registration of the premises and equipment where radiation is used.
Registrations, licences and industrial assistant approvals are issued by the
Radiological Council, the statutory body created under the Act. Administration of the
Act is handled by the Radiation Health Branch, part of the Environmental Health
Directorate of the Department of Health, Western Australia.
The Radiological Council can be contacted at –
Locked Bag 2006, NEDLANDS WA 6009

227 Stubbs Terrace, SHENTON PARK WA 6008
Telephone (08) 9388 4999
Fax (08) 9382 0701
Emergency (After Hours) (08) 9346 3333
Email: radiation.health@health.wa.gov.au
Web: www.radiologicalcouncil.wa.gov.au
REGISTRATION
All x-ray equipment, radioactive substances and prescribed electronic devices must be
registered along with the premises where they are used. For industrial radiography,
the registrant may be the owners, managers or directors of the company.
The registrant is responsible for ensuring that use of the equipment complies with the
–
• Radiation Safety Act,

• Radiation Safety (General) Regulations,
• Any conditions imposed on the registration by the Radiological Council.
The Act provides penalties for failure to comply.
RADIATION SAFETY OFFICER
A Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) must be appointed in writing by the registrant

following approval of the appointment by the Radiological Council.
The registrant must appoint the RSO to perform the duties imposed on the registrant
by the Act and regulations. Amongst other things, the RSO is responsible for –
• Preparing working rules for safe operation of equipment
Page 3
• Ensuring safety devices, protective equipment, radiation monitoring and survey
devices are available, regularly tested, serviced, repaired or replaced as
necessary
• Maintaining all records required by the Act or the regulations
• Ensuring compliance with any conditions, restrictions or limitations imposed on

the registration
• Notifying the registrant of any suspected or known contravention of the

regulations
• Evaluating the cause of any radiation dose received by any person which
exceeds the statutory reporting limits
CONDITIONS, RESTRICTIONS AND LIMITATIONS
Registrations and licences may be subject to a number of conditions, restrictions and

limitations imposed under section 36 of the Act. Registration conditions must be
displayed in a location accessible to all users of the registered industrial radiography
equipment. The registrant is also required to provide a copy of the conditions to the
radiation safety officer, to each licensed radiographer and to each approved assistant
and assistant in training.
LICENSING
An industrial radiography licence cannot be granted until the Radiological Council is

satisfied as to the qualifications, experience and competence of the applicant. Before
a licence is issued, a person must –
• have acquired at least three months experience as an industrial radiography

assistant
• attend an approved radiation safety course and
• achieve at least 65% in the Council's radiation safety examination (a higher

standard examination than that for assistants)
There are separate licences for the use of radioactive substances and x-ray
equipment.
APPROVED ASSISTANT
Due to the hazardous nature of industrial radiography, there is a requirement for the
licensed radiographer to be assisted by another trained person. The assistant must
have a basic knowledge of radiation safety and be able to use the equipment safely.
However, because assistants are not licensed, they may only use the equipment under
the direction and immediate personal supervision of a licensee.
Page 4
Assistants must pass the Radiological Council's industrial radiography assistants
examination to gain approval to work as industrial radiography assistants.
RESPONSIBILITY
The licensee and the registrant (ie. the "owner" of the company) can be prosecuted if
assistants are not correctly trained and supervised. A person who acts as an assistant
without formal approval, or is an approved assistant but acts without the supervision of
a licensee, may also face prosecution. Any radioactive source or x-ray unit issued to a
licensee is the responsibility of that person until it is returned to the custodian at the
registered premises or transferred to another licensee.
RADIATION MONITORING
Because they are occupationally exposed to radiation, every licensed radiographer and
assistant must be issued with individual personal radiation monitoring devices, such as
Thermo Luminescent Dosimeters (TLD) or Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL)
dosimeters, and an audible radiation alarm (see Figures 1 and 2 below).
Figure 1. A type of TLD in common use. Figure 2. A type of integrating

electronic dosimeter
The TLD, the modern replacement of the film badge, records radiation dose in a
substance such as lithium fluoride, rather than electronically, and is changed every
month. After one month, TLDs are sent to the TLD service provider for processing and
from there, the results are sent to your employer. Your employer is required to tell you
all your monitoring results whether or not a dose has been recorded.
Regulations require that the TLD, or OSL, is to be worn only by the person to whom it
was issued, ie. It must not be shared. You also are required to wear your TLD, or
OSL, whenever your work involves the use of ionising radiation.
In addition, each team must have a calibrated radiation survey meter (Figure 3) in
good working order to measure the radiation dose rates at their work site. The proper
use of this meter can be a vital factor in your safety. The meter must also be used to
ensure the radioactive source returns to a fully shielded position.
Page 5
Figure 3. Examples of survey meters - they measure exposure rate.
The following operational checks should be carried out daily on your survey instrument.
General inspection Does the instrument look in a good state of repair?

Are there any cracks or dents which may interfere
with the operation of the instrument ?
Calibration Is there a sticker on the instrument indicating the
calibration is current ?
Battery Use the "battery check" indicator on instruments with
a meter movement, observe that the needle moves
freely and does not stick or hesitate at any part of the
scale. Replace the battery if there is any gradual drift
down from the "battery check" position.
Response Before carrying out a survey you should check that
the instrument responds to radiation. This should be
done with a known source so that a known response
can be expected. This is the ONLY way of testing the
instrument is functioning.
AVAILABILITY OF RECORDS
One disadvantage of TLDs, or OSLs (and previously with film badges), is that you do
not know your radiation dose immediately. There is a delay between receiving a dose
and the TLD, or OSL, assessment, which can make it difficult to investigate why and
when a high reading occurred. (That is a good reason for frequent use of the radiation
survey meter).
It is the responsibility of your employer to keep your records on file. Duplicate records
are also kept at the Radiation Health Section and by the TLD, or OSL, service
provider. If you change employers, a copy of your dose records must be forwarded to
your new employer.
Page 6
Note: A survey meter or Geiger counter does not measure your radiation dose. It
measures the radiation exposure rate from which you can estimate your dose. With a
TLD, OSL or an integrating electronic dosimeter your absorbed dose can be
measured.
RADIATION UNITS
The units used in radiation measurement are based on the S.I. (metric) system. Many
radiation survey meters have scales with outdated units. Familiarity with both systems
is thus required.
Because the SI units often involve large numbers, prefixes are used to shorten the
length of the numbers used in radiation measurements. Some prefixes are in common
daily use, for example, milli in millilitre and kilo in kilometre. The following table lists
prefixes encountered in radiation protection.
Prefixes for use with units
p Pico 10-12 a million-millionth of...

-9
n Nano 10 a thousand-millionth of...
µ Micro 10-6 a millionth of...
m Milli 10-3 a thousandth of...
3
k Kilo 10 a thousand times...
6
M Mega 10 a million times...
9
G Giga 10 a thousand-million times...
T Tera 1012 a million-million times...
P Peta 1015 a thousand-million-million times...
18
E Exa 10 a million-million-million times...
The prefixes are used with these meanings throughout scientific work.
Isotope Activity
New unit Old unit
Becquerel (Bq) curie (Ci)
37 GBq 1 Ci
1200 GBq 32.4 Ci
Dose or Dose Rate

New unit Old unit
microSievert (µSv) millirem(mrem)
25 µSv 2.5 mrem
25 µSv/h 2.5 mrem/h
Page 7
A 1 GBq 192Ir source gives a dose rate in air of 130 µSv/h at 1 metre.
The becquerel is a unit for measuring the activity (the quantity of radioactive material)
and is not measured by a survey meter.
Radiation survey meters may have scales marked in counts per second (c/sec),
Coulomb per kg per hour (a measure of exposure), mR/h or µSv/h.
TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
The Code of Practice for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material (2001), issued by
the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency, has been adopted by
WA Regulations under the Radiation Safety Act. Compliance with this Code is
mandatory whenever non-exempt radioactive substances are transported.
Figure 4. Basic requirements for transportation of sources.
There are two "types" of packages used in industrial radiography that are used for the
transport of radioactive substances.
• Type A Packages are used to contain the less active sources such as those
used for controlling x-ray crawlers.
• Type B Packages (which includes industrial radiography source containers)

contain the more active sources for which a greater assurance of safety is
required. Type B containers must be designed to withstand severe accidents in
all modes of transport without loss of containment or shielding. They must be
able to pass a comprehensive series of tests intended to produce the type of
damage that may be caused by accidents involving severe impacts, fires and
immersion in water. Package designs can be classified Type B only when a
certificate is issued by the regulatory authority in the country of origin.
The basic requirements for transport of these packages to field sites are –
Page 8
• Only licensed industrial radiographers and approved assistants may be present
in the vehicle during transport by road.
• The vehicle must display a transport label on the outside of each external lateral
wall and on the external rear wall of the vehicle. An example of a suitable
transport label is depicted in Figure 4 below.
• The radiation level to the driver or passenger must not exceed 20 microsieverts
per hour (µSv/h).
• The package must be securely stowed during transport so that it cannot move
about.
• Transport may also be undertaken by a person holding a licence for transport of
radioactive materials issued under the Radiation Safety Act.
Figure 4. Required transport placard to be placed

on each side of the vehicle and one on the rear.
CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE SAFE USE OF INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

EQUIPMENT (1989)
The Federal Government through the National Health & Medical Research Council
(NHMRC) has published a code of practice to promote the protection of users and the
public from radiation hazards associated with the use of industrial radiography
equipment. Compliance with this Code by the registrant, licensee and approved
assistant is required under the Radiation Safety Act.
Page 9
Figure 5. The dose rate at the barriers of a field site must not exceed 25 µSv/h.
Amongst other things, the Code of practice includes the requirements for –
• equipment safety features

• storage
• transport
• establishing and maintaining field sites (see Figures 5 & 6)
• responsibilities and duties
• radiation monitoring
• work procedures
Page 10
Figure 6. Boundaries in multistorey complexes require special considerations
A company holding a registration for industrial radiography is also required to have a

set of working rules and emergency procedures to ensure that workers do not receive
radiation doses which exceed the regulatory limits and that all exposures to radiation
are kept as low as reasonably achievable (see Figure 7).
Page 11
Figure 7. The registrant must have formulated emergency
procedures and working rules. A copy of which should be
available to all workers using industrial radiography equipment.
DOSE LIMITS
The annual effective radiation dose limits stipulated in the regulations are as follows –
• 20 000 µSv (20 mSv) per year for radiation workers averaged over 5 consecutive
years and not more than 50 000 µSv (50 mSv) in any one year.
• 1 000 µSv (1 mSv) per year for the general public. A higher value of 5 000 µSv
(5 mSv) in one single year is permitted provided the average over 5 years does
not exceed 1 000 µSv (1 mSv) per year.
The basic radiation protection principles should be utilised throughout your work with
radiation producing equipment such that the radiation exposure to you and the public is
kept to the minimum, ie minimal exposure time, maximum distance, maximised
shielding. When using good working practices, no one should receive doses
approaching the maximum dose limits.
Page 12
VARIATIONS FROM THE CODE
Although the Code (Section 3.1.7) requires that the radiation leakage from a gamma
camera shall not exceed 2 000 µSv/h, the Radiological Council has stipulated
1 000 µSv/h as a limit. The Code and the Regulations require the dose rate at
radiography site boundaries to be less than 25 µSv/h.
However, be aware that the following additional dose limits apply to members of the
public who may be in the vicinity during industrial radiography:
• 20 µSv in any 1 hour

• 250 µSv in any 7 consecutive days
• 5 000 µSv in one year *
* With the average over 5 years not to exceed 1 000 µSv per year.
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
Annexe VIII of the Code recommends the minimum emergency equipment that a
registrant should have available. Certain safety equipment must also be available at
each field site, especially if you are working in a remote location where the full range of
emergency equipment is not available.
Apart from the TLDs or OSLs, personal monitor, survey meter, and a collimator,
additional safety equipment for each field site should consist of:
• bags of lead shot

• a hacksaw or bolt cutters
• a pair of 1 metre handling tongs
In addition your company will have available a portable source container or "pig" for
transporting damaged sources from the field site back to the registered premises if
required.
Figure 8. Typical components of gamma equipment used for industrial radiography.

Note the collimator in place. Use of this device is essential in minimising your dose.
Page 13
MINIMISING YOUR RISK
Ionising Radiation is known to cause harmful biological effects. A number of serious

accidents involving industrial radiography sources have resulted in deaths and severe
injuries to industrial radiographers and members of the public in other countries.
Ionising radiation refers to radiation possessing sufficient energy to remove an electron

from a neutral atom when struck, thus causing the atom to become electrically charged
or "ionised". The presence of such ions in living tissues may disrupt normal
biochemical processes. The biological effects of ionising radiation begin with the
absorption of radiation in single living cells. The effects which occur depend on the
types of cells which absorb the radiation, the total radiation dose, the length of time
over which the exposure occurred, and whether the body is able to effect any repair of
the damage. Differences in biological effects are the result of differences in these
factors. A large dose administered over a short period may cause sufficient damage to
the cell or organism to result in severe injury or death.
Injuries or death from industrial radiography radiation sources are rare but are
inevitably the result of human error, predominantly a failure to use a functioning survey
meter. Of more significance is the increased risk of cancer.
The effects of low doses of radiation are not so apparent and the relationship between
small doses and possible radiation induced effects is uncertain.
The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), the acknowledged

authority on radiation safety, recommends that in the light of present knowledge it is
prudent to assume that a linear relationship for low doses of radiation exists and that
even small doses of radiation may be associated with a small risk of increased
incidence of disease.
-2
The ICRP estimates that the risk of fatal cancer to the whole population is 5 x 10
per Sv, from which an incidence of 5 fatal cancers for every 100 persons exposed to
1 Sievert can be derived.
The mean radiation dose to the Australian population of 17 500 000 from the medical
uses of ionising radiation (diagnostic x-rays and nuclear medicine) has been estimated
as perhaps 1 000 µSv per year. The number of fatal cancers in the population from
this average dose can then be estimated using the risk factor.
i.e. 5 fatal cancers in a population of 100 exposed to 1 Sv; or 50 fatal cancers in a

population of 1 000 000 exposed to 1 000 µSv; or 875 fatal cancers in a population of
17 500 000 exposed to 1 000 µSv.
Accepting the ICRP risk factor and the assumption that the risk exists regardless of the
dose, the implication is that the medical uses of ionising radiation in Australia may be
responsible for some 875 cancer deaths each year. For comparison, the average
annual effective dose per measurably exposed industrial radiographer in Australia was
around 1 520 µSv for the period 1985 - 1989 (UNSCEAR 1993).
A comparison of the risk for various causes of death is given in the following table.
Page 14
Comparative Risk
Cause of death Risk per year Data source
All natural causes (age 40) 1.2 in 1 000 1982 (Carruthers 1987)
Run over by vehicle 1 in 10 000 NSW 1985 (Carruthers

1987)
Theoretical fatal cancers 1 in 10 000 Based on the whole

arising from 2 mSv per population risk factor
year from background of 5 x 10-2 Sv-1
radiation ICRP 60 (1990)
Suicide 1.1 in 10 000 1983 (Carruthers 1987)
Homicide 1.9 in 100 000 1983 (Carruthers 1987)
Fire 4 in 100 000 NSW 1985 (Carruthers

1987)
Electric shock 4 in 1 000 000 VIC 1985 (Technica

1987b)
Struck by meteorite 1 in 1 000 000 000 Carruthers 1987
As well as the effects which may act on the individual exposed to ionising radiation,
there is the possibility of inducing hereditary effects. Hereditary (or genetic) effects are
those which may be passed on by parents to future generations.
The information necessary to produce a new individual is carried in chemically coded

form in a single sperm cell from the father and a single egg cell from the mother. The
information is stored in genes in the chromosomes in the nuclei of the cells.
An error in the coded information may give rise to a defect in the new individual. Such
defects occur naturally in the population and may be caused by a variety of agents in
the environment both of natural origin and man made.
A defect may be slight or lethal or somewhere in between. If not lethal, the error in the
coded information will be passed on to future generations. It will not necessarily
appear in the first generation, but may occur later.
Changes in genes are called mutations. They are difficult to study in humans because
of the long time between generations but a great deal of information on the subject of
hereditary effects following radiation exposure has been gained from studies using
insects and small animals.
Page 15
As an indication of the genetic risk to humans, the ICRP has stated that –
'Radiation has not been identified as a cause of such (hereditary) effects in

man, but experimental studies on plants and animals suggest that such
effects will occur and that the consequences may range from the
undetectably trivial, through gross malformations or loss of function, to
premature death.'
ICRP 60 (Publication 87)
To minimise the risk from radiation it is therefore essential that all procedures using
radiation be carried out with strict adherence to work practices which encompass
radiation safety principles.
While ensuring the dose limits are not exceeded is a regulatory requirement, it is
recommended that in practice, doses should be kept
AS
LOW
AS
REASONABLY
ACHIEVABLE
– the ALARA principle
ENVIRONMENTAL RADIATION
Ionising radiation is not a new feature of our environment but rather something that
has always existed since the formation of the earth. What is new is the additional
exposure that the population receives from man made sources.
Natural or background ionising radiation comes from cosmic radiation - the sun,
naturally occurring radioactive materials which can be found in the food we eat and the
ground we walk on.
Annual effective doses to adults from natural sources

Source of exposure Annual effective dose (mSv)
a
Typical Elevated
Cosmic rays 0.39 2.0
Terrestrial gamma rays 0.46 4.3
Radionuclides in the body (except radon) 0.23 0.6
Radon and its decay products 1.3 10
Total 2.4 -
Source: UNSCEAR 1993
a
Elevated values are representative of larger regions. Even higher values
occur locally.
The annual effective dose for a person living in the Perth metropolitan area is about 2
mSv per year.
Page 16
RADIATION SAFETY PRINCIPLES
The application of the following three principles of radiation protection is the basis for
ensuring that industrial radiography work is carried out safely.
• Minimise exposure time

• Maximise distance to the source
• Maximise shielding
Time
Effect of time in a constant radiation field to the total radiation dose received
Radiation survey meters give readings in exposure rate per hour. You need to be able
to calculate what the approximate dose will be after being exposed for some period of
time.
Dose = dose rate x time
Example calculations
1. You need to carry out 10 exposures. Suppose you will be standing in an area
where the dose rate will be 50 µSv/h. If each exposure is 4 minutes, what do you
expect your radiation dose to be following the 10 exposures?
4 min x 10 exposures = 40 mins total

50 µSv/h = 50 ÷ 60 µSv/min
= 0.83 µSv/min
40 min x 0.83 µSv/min = 33 µSv
Page 17
2. The annual dose limit for radiation workers is 20 mSv per year which, assuming
a 50 week working year, corresponds to 400 µSv per week. How many hours
could a worker spend each week in an area in which the dose rate is 15 µSv/h?
Dose = dose rate x time

400 µSv/week = 15 µSv/h x time
time = 400 µSv/week ÷ 15 µSv/h
= just under 27 hours in the area in one week
Distance and the Inverse Square Law
Like light rays, gamma and x-rays travel in straight lines and spread outwards from
their source as they travel. As they spread out, the intensity diminishes, falling off in
accordance with the inverse square law. The intensity of the radiation is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the source of radiation (see the
following example).
Old intensity x (Old distance)2 = New intensity x (new distance)2
Effect of distance to the dose rate from a 1200 GBq Iridium-192 source
1. You are standing 20 metres from a source where the dose rate is 25 µSv/h.
What would be the dose rate 1 metre from the source?
OI x (OD)2 = NI x (ND)2
25 µSv/h x (20 m)2 = NI x (1 m)2
NI = 25 µSv/h x 20 m x 20 m
1mx1m
New intensity = 10 000 µSv/h (= 10 mSv/h)
Page 18
2. If you picked up a source by the pigtail, what would be the dose rate (say 20 cm
from the source)?
OI x (OD)2 = NI x (ND)2
2 2
10 mSv/h x (100 cm) = NI x (20 cm)
NI = 10 mSv/h x 100 cm x 100 cm
20 cm x 20 cm
New intensity = 250 mSv/h (= 250 000 µSv/h)
Shielding and Transmission Factors
A range of materials can be used to provide shielding from radiation.
Shown is the HVL of different materials for Iridium-192.
Lead is a common shielding material used for x and gamma radiation but uranium is
more effective due to its higher atomic number and density. Hence, uranium is
commonly the material used for shielding in radiography source containers.
Note: As uranium is slightly radioactive, your survey meter may respond to

radiation from a gamma camera even when there is no radiography source
inside.
The transmission factor of a barrier (or shield) to radiation is described by the

following.
Intensity of beam tranmitted through barrier

T=
Intensity of beam without barrier
Page 19
The half thickness or half-value layer (HVL) for a particular shielding material is the
thickness required to reduce the intensity to one half its unshielded value.
1. If a radiation beam produces a dose rate of 20 mSv/h at a given point and this is
reduced to 1 mSv/h by inserting a sheet of lead between that point and the
source, what is the transmission factor of the sheet of lead?
T = 1/20 = 0.05 (5%)

192
2. If the half value layer of lead for Iridium-192 ( Ir - an isotope commonly used for
industrial radiography) is 6 mm, how many layers of 6 mm lead sheet should be
used to reduce the dose rate from 100 µSv/h to 25 µSv/h?
HVL Doserate (µSv/h)

0 100
1 50
2 25
i.e. 2 x 6 = 12 mm lead.
Half Life
Half life is used to describe the time taken for a quantity of a particular radioisotope to
decay to half the original activity. 192Ir has a half life of 74 days while Cobalt-60 (60Co)
has a half life close to 5 years.
Example calculation
60
Co has a nominal half life of 5 years. It is used in a source container for 15 years
after which time the activity is 20 GBq. What was the initial activity?
15 years divided by 5 years = 3 half lives
Half Lives Time Activity

0 Now 20 GBq
1 5 years ago 40 GBq
Therefore, the initial activity was approximately 160 GBq.
DEFINITIONS
Radiation Dose
All radiation output measurements should be recorded as absorbed dose or dose rate
in air. The unit for absorbed dose is the gray (Gy). Commonly used sub-multiples of
Page 20
this are milligray (mGy = 10 Gy) and microgray (µGy = 10 Gy). For X and γ
-3 -6
radiation, an exposure of 1 R = 8.73 mGy in air and 1 mR = 8.73 µGy in air.
The following table compares SI and non-SI units for radiation dose.
Quantity SI unit Old unit Conversion

-1 -1
Exposure C kg Roentgen (R) 1 C kg = 3876 R
Absorbed Dose gray (Gy) rad (rad) 1 Gy = 100 rad
Equivalent Dose sievert (Sv) rem (rem) 1 Sv = 100 rem
Effective Dose sievert (Sv) rem (rem) 1 Sv = 100 rem
Absorbed Dose (Gy)
Is the energy absorbed per unit mass in a nominated medium. Because the amount
of energy deposited in a material from a beam of radiation will depend on the material
being irradiated, it is common for the medium to be stated. For example, in air, in soft
tissue, etc. The unit of absorbed dose gray (Gy) is equal to deposition of energy of
1 joule in a mass of 1 kg of the nominated material.
Biologically, the amount of radiation is not the only important consideration but also the
type (eg. Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Neutrons). Equal doses of different types of radiation
do not necessarily have equal biological effects.
Equivalent Dose (Sv)
This quantity takes into consideration the type of radiation being measured. The unit of
equivalent dose is the sievert (Sv).
Equivalent Dose (Sv) = Σ (Absorbed Dose x W R)
where W R is the Radiation Weighting Factor and Absorbed Dose refers to the
average dose over a tissue or organ.
The Radiation Weighting Factor relates to the biological effects that result from the
various types of radiation. For x and γ-rays, the weighting factor equals 1 and thus an
absorbed dose of 1 gray (Gy) of x or γ radiation gives an equivalent dose of 1 sievert
(Sv).
Effective Dose (Sv)
The quantity of effective dose is perhaps the most meaningful quantity to be used in
radiation protection because it relates the equivalent dose against a Tissue Weighting
Factor to certain tissues or organs to a whole body dose of radiation.
Effective Dose = Σ (Equivalent Dose x W T)
where W T is the Tissue Weighting Factor.
Page 21
Gamma & X-rays
Gamma rays and x-rays are penetrating electromagnetic radiation with short
wavelengths. They can be considered as packets of energy which travel at the speed
of light and have no electric charge. While gamma and x-rays are produced in different
ways, their properties are the same.
Material through which gamma or x-rays pass does not become radioactive. There are
three other types of ionising radiation ; alpha particles, beta particles and neutrons.
These three forms of ionising radiation play no part in industrial radiography in this
State.
(Note: microwaves are also a form of electromagnetic radiation but, like radiowaves
and light, they are not ionising.)
Gamma constant
Radioactive materials which emit gamma radiation do so uniquely in respect of the

number and energy of the gamma ray photons. Calculations and measurements have
been undertaken of the gamma radiations to establish a gamma constant for each
radioactive isotope. These constants are expressed in terms of the absorbed dose
rate in air at 1 metre from an unshielded gamma source with a specified activity, eg.
130 µGy/h at 1 m from 1 GBq of Ir.
192
Page 22
SPECTRUM OF ACUTE EFFECTS OF WHOLE BODY EXTERNAL RADIATION
Dose (mSv) Effect

(x 1000 for µSv)
20 000 Small area -serious burns, ulcers, boils from infections
10 000 If in a short period to whole body – death
10 000 Finger tip - severe burns and loss of fingers
3 000 – 5 000 To the testis - permanent sterility
3 000 If received in a short period to whole body, 50% of people

may die
2 000 Sunburn effect, loss of hair. To the eye - cataracts
1 000 Symptoms of 'radiation sickness' appear, vomiting, diarrhoea
300 Temporary sterility
200 Changes in blood can be detected
156 Dose in 1 hour from a 1200 GBq 192Ir source at 1 m
150 Earliest acute exposure effects shown by chromosome

analysis
50 Maximum limit for radiation workers in any 1 year of a 5 year
period
20 Annual limit for radiation workers averaged over 5 years
5 Maximum limit for the public in any one year
2 Approximate annual background dose for persons in the

Perth area
1 Annual limit for the public (above background)
0.05 Effective dose per chest x-ray
Page 23
REFERENCES
1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection

Annals of the ICRP Publication 60 Vol 27 No 1-3
Pergamon Press 1991
Radiation Safety Act 1975

Western Australia
State Law Publisher
William Street Perth W A
Radiation Safety (General) Regulations 1983

Western Australia
State Law Publisher
William Street Perth W A
Recommendations for Limiting Exposure to Ionizing Radiation (1995)

National Health and Medical Research Council
Radiation Health Series No 39
June 1995
Australian Government Publishing Service
Code of practice for the safe use of industrial radiography equipment (1989)
National Health and Medical Research Council
Radiation Health Series No 31
December 1989
Australian Government Publishing Service
Sources and Effects of Ionising Radiation

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
UNSCEAR 1993 Report to the General Assembly
United Nations
New York 1993
Page 24
Approximate HVL for Various Materials when Radiation is from a Gamma Source

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