A

Seminar Report on

IMPROVISED PV TECHNOLOGY:
SOLAR TREES
Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of Degree of
Bachelor’s of Technology

(Electrical Engineering)

SUBMITTED TO : SUBMITTED BY:

Dr. R. R. Joshi AYUSHI KHANDELWAL
Professor & Head B.Tech. Final Year

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING

MAHARANA PRATAP UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY,

UDAIPUR

BATCH 2016-2020

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
CONTENT PAGE NO.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 1
ABSTRACT 2
LIST OF TABLE 3
LIST OF FIGURES 4
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 WHY RENEWABLE ENERGY
1.2 WHY SOLAR ENERGY
1.3 WHY SOLAR TREES
1.4 INNOVATIONS IN SOLAR TREES
CHAPTER 2:ENERGY SCENARIO
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY
2.2.1 Primary And Secondary Energy
2.2.2 Commercial And Non Commercial Energy
2.2.3 Renewable And Non Renewable Energy
2.2.4 Conventional And Non-Conventional Energy
2.3 ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND STANDARD OF LIVING
2.4 INDIAN ENERGY SCENARIO
2.4.1 Coal Supply
2.4.2 Oil Supply
2.4.3 Natural Gas Supply
2.4.4 Electrical Energy Supply
2.4.5 Nuclear Power Supply
2.4.6 Hydro Power Supply
2.5 ENERGY CONSERVATION AND ITS IMPORTANCE
2.5.1 Energy From The Sun
CHAPTER 3: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
3.1 WHAT IS RENEWABLE ENERGY?
3.2 WHY USE RENEWABLE ENERGY?
3.3 TYPES OF RENEWABLE SOURCES
3.3.1 Solar energy
3.3.2 Wind energy
3.3.3 Hydro energy
3.3.4 Tidal energy
3.3.5 Geothermal energy
3.3.6 Biomass Energy
3.4 SCENARIO OF RENEWABLE ENERGY IN INDIA
3..4.1 India's Renewable Resources
CHAPTER 4: SOLAR ENERGY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 ENERGY FROM THE SUN
4.3 SOLAR COLLECTORS

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4.4 NON CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS
4.4.1 Flat plate collector
4.5 CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS
4.6 BASED ON THE TEMPERATURE
4.6.1 Low temperature collector
4.6.2 Medium temperature collector:
4.6.3 High temperature collector
4.7 SYSTEM DESIGNS
4.8 CONCENTRATION RATIO
CHAPTER 5: SOLAR CELLS
5.1 PHOTOVALTAIC EFFECT
5.2 WORKING OF SOLAR CELL
5.3 TYPES OF SOLAR CELL
5.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR CELL
5.5 ARRAY DESIGN
5.6 SUN TRACKING
5.7 TYPES OF PV POWER SYSTEMS
5.7.1 Stand-Alone PV Systems
CHAPTER 6: SILICON NANO WIRE SOLAR CELLS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 ADVANTAGES OF NANO CELL
6.3 DEVICE STRUCTURE
6.4 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
6.5 APPLICATIONS
CHAPTER 7: SOLAR TREES
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 WHAT ARE SOLAR TREES?
7.2.1 Light Bubble:
7.2.2 Spiralling Phyllataxy
7.3 VARIOUS METHODS OF PRODUCTIONS ELECTRICAL
ENERGY FROM SOLAR ENERGY
7.4 COMPONENTS OF SOLAR TREE
7.5 WORKING OF SOLAR TREE
7.6 NEED OF SOLAR TREE
7.7 SOLUTION OF ENERGY PROBLEMS IN URBAN LOCATIONS
7.8 APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR TREE
7.9 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR TREE
CHAPTER 8: DESIGN OF SOLAR TREES
8.1 DIFFERENT DESIGN SOLUTIONS APPROACHES
8.2 SOLAR TREE-NANOWIRE BASED SOLAR CELL
8.3 FIBANACCI SEQUENCE SOLAR TREE
8.4 DIFFERENT ARTIFICIAL SOLAR TREE
8.4.1 Solar Botanic Trees
8.4.2 Nano Leaf
8.5 METHODOLOGY FOR DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS
8.6 SCOPE OF SOLAR TREES IN INDIA

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8.7 WORKING MODELS IN INDIA
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the possibility to
complete this report. A special gratitude I give to Dr. R.R. Joshi Professor & Head, Department of
Electrical Engineering, College of Technology & Engineering whose suggestions and encouragement
helped me to coordinate my project especially in writing this report on “IMPROVISED PV
TECHNOLOGY- SOLAR TREES”.

Furthermore I would like to express gratitude to Dr. Vinod Kumar Yadav Assistant Professor,
Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Technology & Engineering, Udaipur, for providing
valuable guidance. Without his kind co-operation and guide this task was tedious. A special thanks
goes to Dr. Jai Kumar Maherchandani , Dr. Naveen Jain and Dr. Vikramaditya Dave Assistant
Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, C.T.A.E, for his supervision and guidance.

Last but not least, many thanks go to , Mrs. Lokpriya Kumawat who have invested his full effort in
guiding us in achieving the goal. I have to appreciate the guidance given by friends especially in my
project presentation that has improved my presentation skills thanks to their comment and advices.

Date: AYUSHI KHANDELWAL

B. Tech. Final Year
Department of EE
CTAE, Udaipur.

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 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE TITLE PAGE NO.
1.1 Energy Consumption

1.2 Total Energy Consumption

2.1 Major Primary and Secondary sources

2.2 Renewable and Non Renewable

2.3 Energy from the Sun

3.1 Share of different Renewable

3.2 Renewable Energy Sources

3.3 Solar and Non Solar Target

3.4 Existing Renewable Energy Mix

4.1 Subsystems In Solar Thermal Energy Conversion

Plants

4.2 Flat Plate Collectors

4.3 Concentrating Collectors

5.1 Photovoltaic Effect

5.2 Solar Cell

5.3 Equivalent circuit of solar cell

5.4 I vs V characteristics of Solar Cell

5.5 Effect of Temperature

5.6 I vs V characteristics for different insulation levels

5.7 Elements of SPV system

5.8 Peak Power tracking

5.9 (a) Stand alone PV system (b)Hybrid system (c)

Grid Connected

5.10 No. of battery cycles and depth of discharge

5.11 PV standalone power system with battery

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5.12 Electrical Scheme of grid connected PV system

6.1 Silicon Nano Wire Solar Cells

6.2 Structure of Nano Cell

6.3 Device Structure

7.1 Components Of Solar tree

7.2 Photovoltaic Effect

7.3 Working Principle Of Solar Cell

7.4 World's Best Solar Gadget Charger

7.5 Making Plastic Bottles for light

7.6 Industrial supply, house supply and street lights

7.7 Schematic Illustration of system

8.1 Design Model of Solar Tree

8.2 Nanowire Solar cell

8.3 Fibanacci Sequence

8.4 Nano Leaf

8.5 Solar tree in India

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page No.
2.1 Demand for commercial energy

8.1 Difference between flat panel and Fibanacci Solar

Tree

8.2 Daily Energy Demand of small house

8.3 Monthly Average

8.4 Capacity of Components

8.5 Cost Of Components

8.6 Estimated sizing of proposed Solar Tree

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 ABSTARCT
Now a days with the growing population and energy demand we should take a renewable option
of energy source and also we should keep in mind that energy should not cause pollution and
other natural hazards.
In this case the solar energy is the best option for us. India is a highly populated country, so we
should take the advantage of such an energy which requires a very less space to produce energy
efficiently.
In this case SOLAR TREE could be the best one for us. We can also use the technique called
“SPIRALLING PHYLLATAXY” to improve the efficiency of the plant. It can be applied in
street lightening system, industrial power supply etc. It is much better than the traditional solar
PV system in area point of view and also more efficient. So this will be a very good option and
should be implemented.
It is a form of renewable energy resource that is some measure competitive with fossil fuels.
Hydro power is the force of energy of moving water. It provides about 96% of the renewable
energy in the United States. Hydroelectric power plants do not use any resources to create
electricity or they do not pollute the air. The sun is a hydrodynamic spherical body of extremely
hot ionized gases (plasma), generating energy by the process of the thermonuclear fusion. The
temperature of interior of sun is estimated at 8*10^6 k to 40*10^6 k, where energy is released by
fusion of hydrogen and helium.
Solar energy is available in abundance and considered as the easiest and cleanest means of
tapping the renewable energy. For direct conversion of solar radiation into usable form, the
routes are: solar thermal, solar photovoltaic and solar architecture. However the main problem
associated with tapping solar energy is the requirement to install large solar collectors requires a
very big space. To avoid this problem we can install a solar tree in spite of a no of solar panels
which require a very small space.
A new idea of a solar tree design in nano wire solar cell is presented. Nano wires possess high
physical light absorption properties which can be improved tremendously.
Hence we can say that it is a revolutionary urban lighting concept and these technologies lead to
the development of high efficiency solar energy.

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 WHY RENEWABLE ENERGY

The search for clean and renewable energy sources has become one of the greatest challenges for
our society, due to the rapid depletion of fossil fuels and increasing demand on energy supply.
With increasing concern of global warming and the depletion of fossil fuel reserves, many are
looking at sustainable energy solutions to preserve the earth for the future generations. Other
than hydro power, wind and photovoltaic energy holds the most potential to meet our energy
demands.

Fig. 1.1 Energy Consumption

As conventional energy sources are exhausted rapidly everyone looking towards non-
conventional Energy sources. But it is difficult to replace Conventional energy sources with
Non-conventional Energy sources. Because the Energy consumption in today’s world is in a
large quantity which is quite difficult to obtain such an amount of Energy from Non-
conventional Energy Sources. But, we can reach near to the quantity of required Energy by
increasing the efficiency of previously invented Non-conventional Energy equipment like solar
panel, wind mills. And the other way is that, we can invent a new equipment which has better
efficiency with better power generation rate.

1.2 WHY SOLAR ENERGY

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One of the most promising alternative energy sources is Solar energy, which is the best option
when we look for non-conventional energy source. Because it is clean, renewable, safe and
abundant and also it is very easy to trap the solar radiations and convert it into electrical energy
by using Photovoltaic (PV) cells. Now, it is also necessary to think about the environment by
reducing pollution. So solar Energy is the best option when we consider all the above mention
parameters Compared to inorganic semiconductors that are used in commercial solar modules,
organic solar cells have several advantages such as the low material cost, easy tenability of
material properties and compatibility with large-area and roll-to-roll manufacturing technologies.

Fig. 1.2 Total Energy Consumption

1.3 WHY SOLAR TREES

Solar energy is most advantageous for countries having very less space to produce energy
efficiently and having very large population like India. The only problem occurs when we use
solar energy is that a large space is required for an installation of big solar panels for higher
outputs so it can be solved by this new product known as “Solar Tree”.

The efficiency of the plant can be improved by using the technique known as “SPIRALLING
PHYLLATAXY”. This technique can also be used for system of street lighting, industrial power
supply etc. In area point of view, solar tree is more efficient and much better than the traditional
solar PV system. Therefore it should be implemented. Solar energy is available in very large
amount and also easily available. The solar radiation can be directly converted into solar
photovoltaic, solar thermal and solar architecture. The installation of large solar collectors
requires a very big space which is the main problem associated with tapping solar energy. This
problem can be avoided by installing a Solar Tree requiring less space instead of a no of solar

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panels. To satisfy pressing environmental and social demands for urban lighting solar tree opens
new prospects.

The amount of energy produced by this tree is more than that of normal flat array of solar cells. It
is much improved than the traditional solar PV framework in area point of view and also more
efficient. The working of a solar tree is much like that of a real one—leaf-like solar panels
connected through metal branches using sunlight to make energy.

Solar trees are complementary to rooftop solar systems, or other green building measures,
symbolizing these larger investments and their environmental benefit.

The Solar tree panels charge batteries during the day. At dusk, the tree automatically switches on
LED lights. It is programmed to regulate the amount of light it produces. Solar trees are flexible
and rotate to face the sun and produce maximum possible amount of energy using a technique
called “spiralling phyllataxy”. Its calculated rotations allow even the lowermost solar panels to
receive ample sunlight for electricity production. It can also be used in street lighting and
industrial power supply systems.

Solar tree is made of metal structure and have solar panels at the top instead of branches of real
tree. Main body of solar tree is a simple hollow tube closed at one end to enable the attachment
of the upper, smaller rod which should carry the upper panel. This panel is placed high above the
other panels at a vertical angle. The angle provides a constant area for the sunlight regardless of
the sun trajectory during the day. The height at where it is placed enables a greater panel area
which will not cover the lower placed panels.

1.4 INNOVATIONS IN SOLAR TREES

The innovation is suitable for use in off-the-grid remote areas or in places that need point-
sourced light like car parks and street lighting. Besides, with grid connectivity or battery store,
the solar tree can also supply electricity wherever needed.

Because the solar panels on the tree are positioned high off the ground, the developers say
they’re more efficient than traditional arrays and capable of gathering 10 to 15 percent more
energy than the ground-based alternative.

The tree is installed with a built-in battery backup system so it can continue providing energy for
up to two hours after the sun goes down, and is outfitted with a water sprinkler at the top for self-
cleaning the panels.

The plant’s design can vary according to different factors. In India, for instance, solar trees can
contribute to fulfilling energy demand while saving space. The technology can ensure continuous
supply of electricity in areas that do not have enough power supply and can benefit many who
are not connected to the grid. Solar energy is renewable and clean in nature and presents a better
alternative over other methods of electricity production.

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It uses multiple no of solar panels which forms the shape of a tree. The panels are arranged in a
tree fashion in a tall tower/pole.

TREE stands for

T= TREE GENERATING
R=RENEWABLE
E=ENERGY and
E=ELECTRICITY

Solar tree is a revolutionary urban lighting idea that represents to an impeccable beneficial
interaction between spearheading plan and front line eco-good innovation. Sun powered tree
opens up new prospects for urban lighting in that it fulfills today's most squeezing natural, social,
Cultural and stylish requests.

Solar tree draws motivation from the natural types of nature, reinterpreting the morphology of
the tree and presenting the erotic nature of the common world into the urban setting. This venture
unmistakably predicts that "it praises outline, nature and craftsmanship and speaks to the DNA of
our time". A crookedly exquisite tree with biologically clever 'organic products'- that is LED
rises that light during the evening controlled by daylight gathered amid the day by sunlight based
boards .the tasteful refinement of the plan is consequently coordinated with a greatly high
innovative substance.

A new idea of a solar tree design using nano wire solar cell is presented. Nano wires possess
high physical light absorption properties which can be improved tremendously and exhibit a
number of special properties relative to bulk material. A single Nanowire concentrates the
sunlight upto 15 times of the normal sunlight intensity. Surprising results have the potential for
developing a new kind of highly efficient solar cell. Nanowires possess some distinctive physical
light absorption properties. Because of these properties, the limit of how much energy from the
sun’s rays we can use is higher than previously thought. For many years it has been a high mark
for solar cells efficiency among researchers, but now there is possibility that it may be raised
higher. Hence it is a revolutionary urban lighting concept that not just trees but other objects can
also be decorated. These technologies eventually lead to the development of high efficiency solar
cells

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 CHAPTER 2: ENERGY SCENARIO

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Any physical activity in this world, whether carried out by human beings or by nature, is cause
due to flow of energy in one form or the other. The word ‘energy’ itself is derived from the
Greek word ‘en-ergon’, which means ‘in-work’ or ‘work content’. The work output depends on
the energy input. Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any
country. In the case of the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance
in view of the ever increasing energy needs requiring huge investments to meet them.

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY

Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:

• Primary and Secondary energy

• Commercial and Noncommercial energy

• Renewable and Non-Renewable energy

• Conventional and Non-conventional energy

2.2.1 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ENERGY

Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. Common primary
energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass
(such as wood). Other primary energy sources available
include nuclear energy from radioactive substances,
thermal energy stored in earth's interior, and potential
energy due to earth's gravity.

Primary energy sources are costly converted in industrial

utilities into secondary energy sources; for example coal,
oil or gas converted into steam and electricity. Primary
energy can also be used directly. Some energy sources
have non energy uses, for example coal or natural gas
can be used as a feedstock in fertilizer plants. Fig. 2.1 Major Primary and Secondary sources

2.2.2 COMMERCIAL AND NON COMMERCIAL

ENERGY

Commercial Energy

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The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as commercial
energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal and refined
petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and
commercial development in the modern world. In the industrialized countries, commercialized
fuels are predominant source not only for economic production, but also for many household
tasks of general population.

Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.

Non-Commercial Energy

The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified as
non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle
dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price used
especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is
often ignored in energy accounting.

Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating, electricity
generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport, threshing, lifting water
for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water and electricity generation

2.2.3 RENEWABLE AND NON RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible. Examples
of renewable resources include wind power hydroelectric power. The most important feature of
renewable energy is that it can be harnessed without the release of harmful pollutants.

Non-renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, which are likely
to deplete with time.

Fig. 2.2 Renewable and Non Renewable

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2.2.4 CONVENTIONAL AND NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY

Conventional Energy

Conventional energy resources which are being traditionally used for many decades and were in
common use around oil crisis of 1973 are called conventional energy resources, e.g., fossil fuel,
nuclear and hydro resources.

Non-conventional energy

Non-conventional energy resources which are considered for large-scale use after oil crisis of
1973, are called non-conventional energy resources, e.g. solar, wind, biomass, etc.

2.3 ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND STANDARD OF LIVING

The energy consumption of a nation can be broadly divided into the following areas or sectors
depending on energy-related activities. These can be further subdivided into subsectors

• Domestic sector (houses and offices including commercial buildings)

• Transportation sector

• Agriculture sector

• Industry sector

Consumption of a large amount of energy in a country indicates increased activities in these

sectors.

This may imply better comforts at home due to use of various appliances, better transport
facilities and more agricultural and industrial production. All of this amount to a better quality of
life. Therefore, the per capita energy consumption of a country is an index of the standard of
living or prosperity (i.e. income) of the people of the country.

2.4 INDIAN ENERGY SCENARIO

Coal dominates the energy mix in India, contributing to 55% of the total primary energy
production.

Over the years, there has been a marked increase in the share of natural gas in primary energy
production from 10% in 1994 to 13% in 1999. There has been a decline in the share of oil in
primary energy production from 20% to 17% during the same period.

2.4.1 Coal Supply

India has huge coal reserves, at least 84,396 million tons of proven recoverable reserves (at the
end of 2003). These amounts to almost 8.6% of the world reserves and it may last for about 230

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years at the current Reserve to Production (R/P) ratio. In contrast, the world's proven coal
reserves are expected to last only for 192 years at the current R/P ratio.

Reserves/Production (R/P) ratio- If the reserves remaining at the end of the year are divided by
the production in that year, the result is the length of time that the remaining reserves would last
if production were to continue at that level

India is the fourth largest producer of coal and lignite in the world. Coal production is
concentrated in these states (Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,

Maharashtra, Orissa, Jharkhand, and West Bengal).

2.4.2 Oil Supply

Oil accounts for about 36 % of India’s total energy consumption. India today is one of the top ten
oil-guzzling nations in the world and will soon overtake Korea as the third largest consumer of
oil in Asia after China and Japan. The country's annual crude oil production is peaked at about
32 million tonne as against the current oil consumption by end of 2007 is expected to reach 136
million tonne(MT), of which domestic production will be only 34 MT. India will have to pay an
oil bill of roughly $50 billion, assuming a weighted average price of $50 per barrel of crude. In
2003-04, against total export of $64 billion, oil imports accounted for $21 billion. India imports
70% of its crude needs mainly from gulf nations. The majority of India's roughly 5.4 billion
barrels in oil reserves are located in the

Bombay High, upper Assam, Cambay, Krishna-Godavari. In terms of sector wise petroleum
product consumption, transport accounts for 42% followed by domestic and industry with 24%
and 24% respectively. India spent more than Rs.1,10,000 crore on oil imports at the end of 2004.

2.4.3 Natural Gas Supply

Natural gas accounts for about 8.9 per cent of energy consumption in the country. The current
demand for natural gas is about 96 million cubic metres per day (mcmd) as against availability of
67 mcmd. By 2007, the demand is expected to be around 200 mcmd. Natural gas reserves are
estimated at 660 billion cubic meters.

2.4.4 Electrical Energy Supply

The all India installed capacity of electric power generating stations under utilities was 1,12,581
MW as on 31st May 2004, consisting of 28,860 MW- hydro, 77,931 MW- thermal and 2,720
MW- nuclear and 1,869 MW- wind (Ministry of Power).

2.4.5 Nuclear Power Supply

Nuclear Power contributes to about 2.4 per cent of electricity generated in India. India has ten
nuclear power reactors at five nuclear power stations producing electricity. More nuclear reactors
have also been approved for construction.

2.4.6 Hydro Power Supply

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India is endowed with a vast and viable hydro potential for power generation of which only 15%
has been harnessed so far. The share of hydropower in the country's total generated units has
steadily decreased and it presently stands at 25% as on 31st May 2004. It is assessed that
exploitable potential at 60% load factor is 84,000 MW.

Final Energy Consumption

Final energy consumption is the actual energy demand at the user end. This is the difference
between primary energy consumption and the losses that takes place in transport, transmission &
distribution and refinement.

Table 2.1 Demand for commercial energy

2.5 ENERGY CONSERVATION AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Coal and other fossil fuels, which have taken three million years to form, are likely to deplete
soon. In the last two hundred years, we have consumed 60% of all resources. For sustainable
development, we need to adopt energy efficiency measures.

Today, 85% of primary energy comes from non- renewable, and fossil sources (coal, oil, etc.).
These reserves are continually diminishing with increasing consumption and will not exist for
future generations.

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2.5.1 ENERGY FROM THE SUN:

The sun radiates about 3.8 x 1026 W of

power in all the directions. Out of this about
1.7 x 1017 W is received by earth. The
average solar radiation outside the earth’s
atmosphere is 1.35 kW/m2 varying from
1.43 kW/m2 (in January) to 1.33 kW/m2(in
July).

Solar thermal energy (STE) is a form of

energy and a technology for harnessing solar
energy to generate thermal energy or
electrical energy for use in industry, coupled
Fig 2.3 Energy from the Sun
thermosiphon and in the residential and commercial sectors.
The first installation of solar thermal energy equipment
occurred in the Sahara Desert approximately in 1910 when a steam engine was run on steam
produced by sunlight. Because liquid fuel engines were developed and found more convenient,
the Sahara project was abandoned, only to be revisited several decades late.

19
CHAPTER 3: RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

Renewable energy accounts for 13.5% of the world’s total energy supply, and 22% of the world's
electricity.

Renewable energy systems are a major topic when discussing the globe's energy future for two
main reason

1. Renewable energy systems provide energy from sources that will never deplete.

2. Renewable energy systems produce less greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuel energy
systems.

While renewable energy systems are better for the environment and produce less emissions than
conventional energy sources, many of these sources still face difficulties in being deployed at a
large scale including, but not limited to, technological barriers, high start-up capital costs, and
intermittency challenges.

It is important to note that the terms ‘renewable energy’, ‘green energy’ and ‘clean energy’ are
not interchangeable in all cases; for example, a ‘clean’ coal plant is simply a coal plant with
emissions reduction technology. The coal plant itself is still not a ‘renewable energy’ source.
‘Green energy’ is a subset of renewable energy, which boasts low or zero emissions and low
environmental impacts to systems such as land and water

3.1 WHAT IS RENEWABLE ENERGY?

Renewable energy is derived from natural processes

that are replenished constantly. In its various forms,
it derives directly from the sun, or from heat
generated deep within the earth. Included in the
definition is electricity and heat generated from
solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass,
geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen
derived from renewable resources.

Renewable energy resources and significant

opportunities for energy efficiency exist over wide Fig 3.1 Share of different Renewable
geographical areas, in contrast to other energy
sources, which are concentrated in a limited number
of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological
diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic
benefits. It would also reduce environmental pollution such as air pollution caused by burning of
fossil fuels and improve public health, reduce premature mortalities due to pollution and save
associated health costs that amount to several hundred billion dollars annually only in the United

20
States. Renewable energy sources, that derive their energy from the sun, either directly or
indirectly, such as hydro and wind, are expected to be capable of supplying humanity energy for
almost another 1 billion years, at which point the predicted increase in heat from the Sun is
expected to make the surface of the Earth too hot for liquid water to exist.

Renewable energy uses energy sources that are continually replenished by nature—the sun, the
wind, water, the Earth’s heat, and plants. Renewable energy technologies turn these fuels into
usable forms of energy—most often electricity, but also heat, chemicals, or mechanical power.

3.2 WHY USE RENEWABLE ENERGY?

Today we primarily use fossil fuels to heat and power our homes and fuel our cars. It’s
convenient to use coal, oil, and natural gas for meeting our energy needs, but we have a limited
supply of these fuels on the Earth. We’re using them much more rapidly than they are being
created. Eventually, they will run out. And because of safety concerns and waste disposal
problems, the United States will retire much of its nuclear capacity by 2020. In the meantime, the
nation’s energy needs are expected to grow by 33 percent during the next 20 years. Renewable
energy can help fill the gap. Even if we had an unlimited supply of fossil fuels, using renewable
energy is better for the environment. We often call renewable energy technologies “clean” or
“green” because they produce few if any pollutants. Burning fossil fuels, however, sends
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, trapping the sun’s heat and contributing to global
warming. Climate scientists generally agree that the Earth’s average temperature has risen in the
past century. If this trend continues, sea levels will rise, and scientists predict that floods, heat
waves, droughts, and other extreme weather conditions could occur more often. Other pollutants
are released into the air, soil, and water when fossil fuels are burned. These pollutants take a
dramatic toll on the environment—and on humans. Air pollution contributes to diseases like
asthma. Acid rain from sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides harms plants and fish. Nitrogen oxides
also contribute to smog

Renewable energy will also help us develop energy independence and security. The United
States imports more than 50 percent of its oil, up from 34 percent in 1973. Replacing some of our
petroleum with fuels made from plant matter, for example, could save money and strengthen our
energy security. Renewable energy is plentiful, and the technologies are improving all the time.
There are many ways to use renewable energy. Most of us already use renewable energy in our
daily lives.

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 3.3 TYPES OF RENEWABLE SOURCE
The most popular renewable energy sources currently are:

1. Solar energy

2. Wind energy

3. Hydro energy
Fig 3.2 Renewable Energy Sources
4. Tidal energy

5. Geothermal energy

6. Biomass energy

3.3.1 Solar energy

Sunlight is one of our planet’s most

abundant and freely available energy
resources. The amount of solar energy
that reaches the earth’s surface in one
hour is more than the planet’s total
energy requirements for a whole year.
Although it sounds like a perfect
renewable energy source, the amount of
solar energy we can use varies
according to the time of day and the
season of the year as well as Fig 3.3 Solar and Non Solar Target
geographical location. In the UK, solar
energy is an increasingly popular way
to supplement your energy usage. Find out if it’s right for you below by reading our guide to
solar power.

3.3.2 Wind energy

Wind is a plentiful source of clean energy. Wind farms are an increasingly familiar sight in the
UK with wind power making an ever-increasing contribution to the National Grid. To harness
electricity from wind energy, turbines are used to drive generators which then feed electricity
into the National Grid. Although domestic or ‘off-grid’ generation systems are available, not
every property is suitable for a domestic wind turbine. Find out more about wind energy
on our wind power page.

3.3.3 Hydro energy

As a renewable energy resource, hydro power is one of the most commercially developed. By
building a dam or barrier, a large reservoir can be used to create a controlled flow of water that
will drive a turbine, generating electricity. This energy source can often be more reliable than

22
solar or wind power (especially if it's tidal rather than river) and also allows electricity to be
stored for use when demand reaches a peak. Like wind energy, in certain situations hydro
can be more viable as a commercial energy source (dependant on type and compared to other
sources of energy) but depending very much on the type of property, it can be used for domestic,
‘off-grid’ generation. Find out more by visiting our hydro power page.

3.3.4 Tidal energy

This is another form of hydro energy that uses twice-daily tidal currents to drive turbine
generators. Although tidal flow unlike some other hydro energy sources isn’t constant, it is
highly predictable and can therefore compensate for the periods when the tide current is low.
Find out more by visiting our marine energy page.

3.3.5 Geothermal energy

By harnessing the natural heat below the earth’s surface, geothermal energy can be used to heat
homes directly or to generate electricity. Although it harnesses a power directly below our feet,
geothermal energy is of negligible importance in the UK compared to countries such as Iceland,
where geothermal heat is much more freely available.

3.3.6 Biomass Energy

This is the conversion of solid fuel made from plant materials into electricity. Although
fundamentally, biomass involves burning organic materials to produce electricity, this is not
burning wood, and nowadays this is a much cleaner, more energy-efficient process. By
converting agricultural, industrial and domestic waste into solid, liquid and gas fuel, biomass
generates power at a much lower economical and environmental cost.

3.4 SCENARIO OF RENEWABLE ENERGY IN INDIA

India is the third largest consumer of energy in the world after China and the United States. [1]
With a population of about 1.3 billion and high economic growth rate, India has huge demand for
energy and is currently importing around 33% of its total energy needs. Covering this energy
deficit - becoming an energy-independent nation - and at the same time, not comprising the
economic growth is a big challenge for India. Today, nearly 70% of India's power generation
capacity is based on coal. And despite that, about 240 million people in India do not have access
to electricity. The use of renewable energy resources, though a very small percentage of current
energy mix, presents a tremendous opportunity to overcome that challenge and achieve energy-
independence as much sustainably as possible.

3.4.1 INDIA'S RENEWABLE RESOURCES

23
 The Ministry of new and Renewable
Energy, India classifies renewable energy
sources into 4 primary categories: Wind,
Solar, small Hydro and Bio-energy. Bio-
energy is the umbrella term for Biomass
power, Bagasse Cogeneration and Waste
to Energy. Unlike fossil fuels, India's
renewable energy resources are
distributed much more evenly across the
country, though there are still some
strong regional variations - particularly
for hydropower.

As of December 2015, renewable energy

has reached a total installed capacity of
40 GW, with over 20% growth in just last
5 years. Wind energy has the highest
share in this capacity, producing close to
63% of installed capacity (25 GW),
followed by bio-power (5.6 GW), solar
power (5.2 GW) and small-hydro power
(4.2 GW). These four together contribute
Fig 3.4 Existing Renewable Energy Mix 13.6% of total installed capacity for
electricity. Also, India occupies the fourth
position in the world in wind power generation. Fig. shows India's current (2015) renewable
energy mix.

Studies estimate that India has renewable energy potential of ~900 GW from commercially
exploitable sources, with 102 GW Wind, 20 GW Small Hydro, 25 GW Bio-energy and 750 GW
solar power (assuming 3% wasteland is made available). The bio-energy (25 GW) constitutes of
~17.5 GW from biomass power, about 5 GW from bagasse cogeneration and ~2.5 GW from
waste to energy.

24
 CHAPTER 4: SOLAR ENERGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION:
Solar energy is an important, clean, cheap and abundantly available renewable energy. It is
received on Earth in cyclic, intermittent and dilute form with very low power density 0 to 1
kW/m2.Solar energy received on the ground level is affected by atmospheric clarity, degree of
latitude, etc. For design purpose, the variation of available solar power, the optimum tilt angle of
solar flat plate collectors, the location and orientation of the heliostats should be calculated.

Units of solar power and solar energy:

In SI units, energy is expressed in Joule. Other units are angley and Calorie where

1 angley = 1 Cal/cm2.day

1 Cal = 4.186 J

For solar energy calculations, the energy is measured as an hourly or monthly or yearly average
and is expressed in terms of kJ/m2/day or kJ/m2/hour. Solar power is expressed in terms of
W/m2 or kW/m2.

Essential subsystems in a solar energy plant:

1. Solar collector or concentrator: It receives solar rays and collects the energy. It may be of
following types:

a) Flat plate type without focusing

b) Parabolic trough type with line focusing

c) Paraboloid dish with central focusing

d) Fresnel lens with centre focusing

e) Heliostats with centre receiver focusing

2. Energy transport medium: Substances such as water/ steam, liquid metal or gas are used to
transport the thermal energy from the collector to the heat exchanger or thermal storage.

In solar PV systems energy transport occurs in electrical form.

3. Energy storage: Solar energy is not available continuously. So we need an energy storage
medium for maintaining power supply during nights or cloudy periods. There are three major
types of energy storage:

25
a) Thermal energy storage;

b) Battery storage;

c) Pumped storage hydro-electric plant.

4. Energy conversion plant: Thermal energy collected by solar collectors is used for producing
steam, hot water, etc. Solar energy converted to thermal energy is fed to steam thermal

5. Power conditioning, control and protection system: Load requirements of electrical energy
vary with time. The energy supply has certain specifications like voltage, current, frequency,
power etc. The power conditioning unit performs several functions such as control, regulation,
conditioning, protection, automation, etc. or gas-thermal power plant.

Fig 4.1 Subsystems In Solar Thermal Energy Conversion Plants

6. Alternative or standby power supply: The backup may be obtained as power from electrical
network or standby diesel generator.

4.2 ENERGY FROM THE SUN:

The sun radiates about 3.8 x 1026 W of power in all the directions. Out of this about 1.7 x 1017
W is received by earth. The average solar radiation outside the earth’s atmosphere is 1.35
kW/m2 varying from 1.43 kW/m2 (in January) to 1.33 kW/m2(in July).

Solar thermal energy (STE) is a form of energy and a technology for harnessing solar energy to
generate thermal energy or electrical energy for use in industry, energy equipment occurred in
the Sahara Desert approximately in 1910 when a steam engine was run on steam produced by
sunlight. Because liquid fuel engines were developed and found more convenient, the Sahara
project was abandoned, only to be revisited several decades late.

26
Solar thermal collectors are classified by the United States Energy Information Administration as
low-, medium-, or high-temperature collectors. Low-temperature collectors are flat plates
generally used to heat swimming pools. Medium-temperature collectors are also usually flat
plates but are used for heating water or air for residential and commercial use. High-temperature
collectors concentrate sunlight using mirrors or lenses and are generally used for fulfilling heat
requirements up to 300 deg C / 20 bar pressure in industries, and for electric power production.
However, there is a term that used for both the applications. Concentrated Solar Thermal (CST)
for fulfilling heat requirements in industries and Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) when the heat
collected is used for power generation. CST and CSP are not replaceable in terms of application.

A solar thermal collector system gathers the heat from the solar radiation and gives it to the heat
transport fluid. The heat-transport fluid receives the heat from the collector and delivers it to the
thermal storage tank, boiler steam generator, heat exchanger etc. Thermal storage system stores
heat for a few hours. The heat is released during cloudy hours and at night. Thermal-electric
conversion system receives thermal energy and drives steam turbine generator or gas turbine
generator. The electrical energy is supplied to the electrical load or to the AC grid. Applications
of solar thermal energy systems range from simple solar cooker of 1 kW rating to complex solar
central receiver thermal power plant of 200 MW rating.

4.3 SOLAR COLLECTORS

Solar thermal energy is the most readily available source of energy. The Solar energy is most
important kind of non-conventional source of energy which has been used since ancient times,
but in a most primitive manner. The abundant solar energy available is suitable for harnessing for
a number of applications. The application of solar thermal energy system ranges from solar
cooker of 1 kW to power plant of 200MW. These systems are grouped into low temperature
(<150oC), medium temperature (150-300oC) applications.

Solar collectors are used to collect the solar energy and convert the incident radiations into
thermal energy by absorbing them. This heat is extracted by flowing fluid (air or water or
mixture with antifreeze) in the tube of the collector for further utilization in different
applications. The collectors are classified as;

• Non concentrating collectors

• Concentrating (focusing) collectors

4.4 NON CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS

4.4.1 Flat plate collector:

Flat plate collector absorbs both beam and diffuse components of radiant energy. The absorber
plate is a specially treated blackened metal surface. Sun rays striking the absorber plate are
absorbed causing rise of temperature of transport fluid. Thermal insulation behind the absorber
plate and transparent cover sheets (glass or plastic) prevent loss of heat to surroundings.

27
Applications of flat plate collector:

1. Solar water heating systems for residence,

hotels, industry.

2. Desalination plant for obtaining drinking

water from sea water.

3. Solar cookers for domestic cooking.

4. Drying applications.
Fig 4.2 Flat Plate Collectors
5. Residence heating.

Losses in flat plate collector:

1. Shadow effect: Shadows of some of the neighbor panel fall on the surface of the collector
where the angle of elevation of the sun is less than 15o(sun-rise and sunset).

Shadow factor = Total surface of the collector/ surfaceof the collector recieving light

Shadow factor is less than 0.1 during morning and evening. The effective hours of solar
collectors are between 9AM and 5PM.

2. Cosine loss factor: For maximum power collection, the surface of collector should receive the
sun rays perpendicularly. If the angle between the perpendicular to the collector surface and the
direction of sun rays is θ, then the area of solar beam intercepted by the collector surface is
proportional to cosθ.

3. Reflective loss factor: The collector glass surface and the reflector surface collect dust, dirt,
moisture etc. The reflector surface gets rusted, deformed and loses the shine. Hence, the
efficiency of the collector is reduced significantly with passage of time.

Maintenance of flat plate collector:

1. Daily cleaning

2. Seasonal maintenance (cleaning, touch-up paint)

3. Yearly overhaul (change of seals, cleaning after dismantling)

In these collectors the area of collector to intercept the solar radiation is equal to then absorber
plate and has concentration ratio of 1. Flat Plate Collectors (Glaze Type) Flat plate collector is
most important part of any solar thermal energy system. It is simplest in design and both direct
and diffuse radiations are absorbed by collector and converted into useful heat. These collectors
are suitable for heating to temperature below 100oC.

28
The main advantages of flat plate collectors are:

• It utilizes the both the beam as well as diffuse radiation for heating.

• Requires less maintenance.

Disadvantages

• Large heat losses by conduction and radiation because of large area.

• No tracking of sun.

• Low water temperature is achieved.

4.5 CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS

Concentrating collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity of solar radiation
on the energy absorbing surface. Such collectors use optical system in the form of reflectors or
refractors.

These collectors are used for medium (100-300o

C) and high-temperature (above 300oC)
applications such as steam production for the
generation of electricity. The high temperature is
achieved at absorber because of reflecting
arrangement provided for concentrating the
radiation at required location using mirrors and
lenses.

These collectors are best suited to places having

more number of clear days in a year.

The area of the absorber is kept less than the

aperture through which the radiation passes, to concentrate the solar flux. These collectors
require tracking to follow the sun because of optical system. The tracking rate depends on the
degree of concentration ratio and needs frequent adjustment for system having high
concentration ratio. The efficiency of these collectors lies
between 50-70%. The collectors need more maintenance Fig 4.3 Concentrating Collectors
than FPC because of its optical system. The
concentrating collectors are classified on the basis of reflector used; concentration ratio and
tracking method adopted.

FPC with Reflectors

The mirrors are placed as reflecting surface to concentrate more radiations on FPC absorber. The
fluid temperature is higher by 30oC than achieved in FPC. These collections utilize direct and
diffuse radiation.

29
Lens Focusing Type

The fresnel lenses are used to concentrate the radiation at its focus. The lower side of lenses is
grooved so that radiation concentrates on a focus line.

Compound Parabolic Collectors

These collectors are line focusing type. The compound parabolic collectors have two parabolic
surfaces to concentrate the solar radiation to the absorber placed at bottom.

These collectors have high concentration ratio and concentrator is moving to track the sun.

Cylindrical Parabolic Collectors

The troughs concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube, placed along the focal line of the trough.
The temperature at the absorber tube is obtained at nearly 400o C. The absorber in these
collectors is moving to receive the reflected radiations by reflector, while the concentrators
(trough) remains fixed. Because of its parabolic shape, it can focus the sun at 30 to 100 times its
normal intensity (concentration ratio) on a receiver. The heat transfer medium carries the heat at
one central place for further utilization.

Parabolic Dish Collector

The collectors have mirror-like reflectors and an absorber at the focal point. These collectors are
point focusing type. The concentrating ratio of these collectors is 100 and temperature of the
receiver can reach up to 2000o C. These collectors have higher efficiency for converting solar
energy to electricity in the small-power plant. In some systems, a heat engine, such as a Stirling
engine, is connected to the receiver to generate electricity.

Advantages of concentrating collector over flat collector

• The size of the absorber can be reduced that gives high concentration ratio.

• Thermal losses are less than FPC. However small losses occur in the concentrating collector
because of its optical system as well as by reflection, absorption by mirrors and lenses.

• The efficiency increases at high temperatures.

• In these collectors the area intercepting the solar radiation is greater than the absorber area.

• These collectors are used for high-temperature applications.

• Reflectors can cost less per unit area than flat plate collectors.

• Focusing or concentrating systems can be used for electric power generation when not used for
heating or cooling

• Little or no anti-freeze is required to protect the absorber in a concentrator system whereas the
entire solar energy collection surface requires anti freeze protection in a flat plate collector

30
Disadvantages

• Out of the beam and diffuse solar radiation components, only beam component is collected in
case of focusing collectors because diffuse component cannot be reflected and is thus lost.

• In some stationary reflecting systems it is necessary to have a small absorber to track the sun
image; in others the reflector may have to be adjustable more than one position if year round
operation is desired; in other words costly orienting systems have to be used to track the sun.

• Additional requirements of maintenance particular to retain the quality of reflecting surface

against dirt, weather, oxidation etc.

• Non –uniform flux on the absorber whereas flux in flat-plate collectors in uniform.

• Additional optical losses such as reflectance loss and the intercept loss, so they introduce
additional factors in energy balances.

• High initial cost.

Parabolic trough collector:

Parabolic trough with line focusing reflecting surface provides concentration ratios from 30 to
50. Hence, temperature as high as 300 central line of the parabolic trough. The pipe located
along the centre line absorbs the heat and the working fluid is circulated trough the pipe.

Paraboloid dish collectors:

The beam radiation is reflected by paraboloid dish s with CR (above 1000) and temperatures
around 1000

4.6 BASED ON THE TEMPERATURE:

• Low temperature collector

• Medium temperature collector

• High temperature collector

4.6.1 Low temperature collector

Low-temperature collectors Glazed solar collectors are designed primarily for space heating.
They are building air through a solar air panel where the air is heated and then directed back into
the building. These solar space building and only perform when the air in the solar collector is
warmer than the building room temperature. Most glazed collectors are used in the residential
sector.

4.6.2 Medium temperature collector:

Solar drying

31
Solar thermal energy can be useful for drying wood for construction and wood fuels such as
wood chips for combustion. Solar is also used for food products such as fruits, grains, and fish.
Crop drying by solar means is environmentally friendly as well as cost effective while improving
the quality. The less money it takes to make a product, the less it can be sold for, pleasing both
the buyers and the sellers. Technologies in solar drying include ultra-low cost pumped transpired
plate air collectors based on black fabrics. Solar thermal energy is helpful in the process of
drying products such as wood chips and other forms of biomass by raising the temperature while
allowing air to pass through and get rid of the moisture.

Cooking

Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization. Solar cooking offsets fuel
costs, reduces demand for fuel or firewood, and improves air quality by reducing or removing a
source of smoke. The simplest type of solar cooker is the box cooker first built by Horace de
Saussure in 1767. A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid.
These cookers can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach
temperatures of 50–100 °C. Concentrating solar cookers use reflectors to concentrate solar
energy onto a cooking container. The most common reflector geometries are flat plate, disc and
parabolic trough type. These designs cook faster and at higher temperatures (up to 350 °C) but
require direct light to function properly. The Solar Kitchen in Auroville, India uses a unique
concentrating technology known as the solar bowl. Contrary to conventional tracking
reflector/fixed receiver systems, the solar bowl uses a fixed spherical reflector with a receiver
which tracks the focus of light as the Sun moves across the sky. The solar bowl's receiver
reaches temperature of 150 °C that is used to produce steam that helps cook 2,000 daily meals.

4.6.3 High temperature collector

Where temperatures below about 95 °C are sufficient, as for space heating, flat-plate collectors
of the non-concentrating type are generally used. Because of the relatively high heat losses
through the glazing, flat plate collectors will not reach temperatures much above 200 °C even
when the heat transfer fluid is stagnant. Such temperatures are too low for efficient conversion to
electricity.

As the temperature increases, different forms of conversion become practical. Up to 600 °C,
steam turbines, standard technology, have an efficiency up to 41%. Above 600 °C, gas turbines
can be more efficient. Higher temperatures are problematic because different materials and
techniques are needed. One proposal for very high temperatures is to use liquid fluoride salts
operating between 700 °C to 800 °C, using multi-stage turbine systems to achieve 50% or more
thermal efficiencies.[25] The higher operating temperatures permit the plant to use higher-
temperature dry heat exchangers for its thermal exhaust, reducing the plant's water use – critical
in the deserts where large solar plants are practical. High temperatures also make heat storage
more efficient, because more watt-hours are stored per unit of fluid.

Commercial concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) plants were first developed in the 1980s.
The world’s largest solar thermal power plants are now the 370 MW Ivanpah Solar

32
The principal advantage of CSP is the ability to efficiently add thermal storage, allowing the
dispatching of electricity over up to a 24-hour period. Since peak electricity demand typically
occurs at about 5 pm, many CSP power plants use 3 to 5 hours of thermal storage.[26]

CSP facilities utilize high electrical conductivity materials, such as power cables, grounding
networks, and in the main generator and high voltage

With reliability, unused desert, no pollution, and no fuel costs, the obstacles for large deployment
for CSP are cost, aesthetics, land use and similar factors for the necessary connecting high
tension lines. Although only a small percentage of the desert is necessary to meet global
electricity demand, still a large area must be covered with mirrors or lenses to obtain a
significant amount of energy. An important way to decrease cost is the use of a SIMPLE design.

When considering land use impacts associate through to transportation and conversion of
electrical power, utility-scale solar power compares as energy resources available.

4.7 SYSTEM DESIGNS

During the day the sun has different positions. For low concentration systems (and low
temperatures) tracking can be avoided (or limited to a few positions per year) if imaging optics
are used. For higher concentrations, however, if the mirrors or lenses do not move, then the focus
of the mirrors or lenses changes (but also in these cases imaging optics provides the widest

Therefore it seems unavoidable that there needs to be a tracking system that follows the position
of the sun (for solar system increases the cost and complexity. With this in mind, different
designs can be distinguished in how they concentrate the light and track the posi focused on the
receiver. However, seasonal changes in the in angle of sunlight trough does not require
adjustment of the mirrors, since the light is simply concentrated elsewhere on the receiver. Thus
the trough design does not

The receiver may be enclosed in a glass vacuum chamber. The vacuum significantly reduces
convective heat loss.

Parabolic trough designs

Parabolic trough power plants use a curved, mirrored trough

which reflects the direct solar radiation onto a glass tube
containing a fluid (also called a receiver, absorber or
collector) running the length of the trough, positioned at the
focal point of the reflectors. The trough is parabolic along
one axis and linear in the orthogonal axis. For change of the
daily position of the sun perpendicular to the receiver, the
trough tilts east to west

A fluid (also called heat transfer fluid) passes through the

Fig 4.4 Parabolic Trough Designs receiver and becomes very hot.

33
Common fluids are synthetic oil, molten salt and pressurized steam. The fluid containing the heat
is transported to a heat engine where about a third of the heat is converted to electricity.

Full-scale parabolic trough systems consist of many such troughs laid out in parallel over a large
area of land. Since 1985 a solar thermal system using this principle has been in full operation in
California in the United States. It is called the Solar Energy Generating Systems(SEGS)
system.[29] Other CSP designs lack this kind of long experience and therefore it can currently be
said that the parabolic trough design is the most thoroughly proven CSP technology.

Power tower designs

Power towers (also known as 'central tower' power plants or 'heliostat' power plants) capture and
focus the sun's thermal energy with thousands of tracking mirrors (called heliostats) in roughly a
two square mile field. A tower resides in the centre of the heliostat field. The heliostats focus
concentrated sunlight on a receiver which sits on top of the tower. Within the receiver the
concentrated sunlight heats molten salt to over 1,000°F (538°C). The heated molten salt then
flows into a thermal storage tank where it is stored, maintaining 98% thermal efficiency, and
eventually pumped to a steam generator. The steam drives a standard turbine to generate
electricity. This process, also known as the

"Rankine cycle" is similar to a standard coal-fired power plant, except it is fueled by clean and
free solar energy.

The advantage of this design above the parabolic trough design is the higher temperature.

Thermal energy at higher temperatures can be converted to electricity more efficiently and can
be more cheaply stored for later use. Furthermore, there is less need to flatten the ground area. In
principle a power tower can be built on the side of a hill. Mirrors can be flat and plumbing is
concentrated in the tower. The disadvantage is that each mirror must have its own dual-axis
control, while in the parabolic trough design single axis tracking can be shared for a large array
of mirrors.

4.8 CONCENTRATION RATIO (CR):

For flat plate collectors, CR = 1. Using heliostats with sun-tracking in two planes, we obtain CR
of the order of 1000. CR up to 100 can be achieved by using parabolic trough collectors with sun
tracking in one plane.

The performance of a collector is evaluated in terms of its collector efficiency which is given as
constant solar radiation (kW/m2), the collector efficiency decreases with the increasing
difference between the collector temperature and the outside temperature.

34
 CHAPTER 5: SOLAR CELLS

The growing market for renewable energy technologies has resulted in a rapid growth in the need
for power electronics. Most of the renewable energy technologies produce DC power, and hence
power electronics and control equipment are required to convert the DC into AC power.

Inverters are used to convert DC to AC. There are two types of inverters: standalone and grid-
connected. The two types have several similarities, but are different in terms of control functions.

A stand-alone inverter is used in off-grid applications with battery storage. With backup diesel
generators (such as PV–diesel hybrid power systems), the inverters may have additional control
functions such as operating in parallel with diesel generators and bidirectional operation (battery
charging and inverting). Grid-interactive inverters must follow the voltage and frequency
characteristics of the utility-generated power presented on the distribution line. For both types of
inverters, the conversion efficiency is a very important consideration. Details of stand-alone and
grid-connected inverters for PV and wind applications are discussed in this chapter.

5.1 PHOTOVALTAIC EFFECT

The density of power radiated from the sun
(referred to as the ‘‘solar energy constant’’) at
the outer atmosphere is 1.373kW/m2. Part of
this energy is absorbed and scattered by the
earth’s atmosphere. The final incident sunlight
on earth’s surface has a peak density of
1kW/m2 at noon in the tropics. The technology
of photovoltaic (PV) is essentially concerned
with the conversion of this energy into usable
electrical form. The basic element of a PV
system is the solar cell.

Solar cells can convert the energy of sunlight

directly into electricity. Consumer appliances Fig 5.1 Photovoltaic Effect
used to provide services such as lighting, water pumping,
refrigeration, telecommunications, and television can be run from photovoltaic electricity.

Solar cells rely on a quantum-mechanical process known as the ‘‘photovoltaic effect’’ to produce
electricity. A typical solar cell consists of a p n junction formed in a semiconductor material
similar to a diode. Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the cross section through a crystalline
solar cell. It consists of a 0.2–0.3mm thick monocrystalline or polycrystalline silicon wafer
having two layers with different electrical properties formed by ‘‘doping’’ it with other
impurities (e.g., boron and phosphorus).

35
An electric field is established at the junction between the negatively doped (using phosphorus
atoms) and the positively doped (using boron atoms) silicon layers. If light is incident on the
solar cell, the energy from the light (photons) creates free charge carriers, which are separated by
the electrical field. An electrical voltage is generated at the external contacts, so that current can
flow when a load is connected. The photocurrent (Iph), which is internally generated in the solar
cell, is proportional to the radiation intensity.

5.2 WORKING OF SOLAR CELL

A simplified equivalent circuit of a solar
cell consists of a current source in parallel
with a diode as shown in Fig. 2a. A
variable resistor is connected to the solar
cell generator as a load. When the
terminals are short-circuited, the output
voltage and also the voltage across the
diode are both zero. The entire Fig 5.2 Solar Cell
photocurrent (Iph) generated by the solar radiation then flows
to the output. The solar cell current has its maximum (Isc). If the load resistance is increased,
which results in an increasing voltage across the p n junction of the diode, a portion of the
current flows through the diode and the output current decreases by the same amount. When the
load resistor is open circuited, the output current is zero and the entire photocurrent flows
through the diode. The relationship between current and voltage may be determined from the
diode characteristic equation

where q is the electron charge, k is the

Boltzmann constant, Iph is photocurrent, I0 is
the reverse saturation current, Id is diode
current, and T is the solar cell operating
temperature (K). The current versus voltage (I-
V) of a solar cell is thus equivalent to an ’in
verted’ diode characteristics.
Fig 5.3 Equivalent circuit of solar cell

5.3 TYPES OF SOLAR CELL

A number of semiconductor materials are suitable for the manufacture of solar cells. The most
common types using silicon semiconductor material (Si) are:

• Monocrystalline Si cells

36
• Polycrystalline Si cells

• Amorphous Si cells

5.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR CELL

A solar cell can be operated at any point along its
characteristic current–voltage curve, as shown in Fig.
3. Two important points on this curve are the open
circuit voltage (Voc) and short-circuit current (Isc).
The open-circuit voltage is the maximum voltage at
zero current, whereas the short circuit current is the
maximum current at zero voltage. For a silicon solar
cell under standard test conditions, Voc is typically
0.6–0.7 V, and Isc is typically 20–40mA for every Fig 5.4 I vs V characteristics of Solar Cell
square centimeter of the cell area. To a good
approximation,

Isc is proportional to the illumination level, whereas Voc is proportional to the logarithm of the
illumination level.

A plot of power (P) against voltage (V) for this device (Fig. 3) shows that there is a unique point
on the I-V curve at which the solar cell will generate maximum power. This is known as the
maximum power point (Vmp, Imp). To maximize the power output, steps are usually taken
during fabrication to maximize the three basic cell parameters: open-circuit voltage, short-circuit
current, and fill factor (FF)—a term describing how ‘‘square’’ the I-V curve is, given by

For a silicon solar cell, FF is typically

0.6–0.8.

Because silicon solar cells typically

produce only about 0.5 V, a number of
cells are connected in series in a PV
module. A panel is a collection of
modules physically and electrically
grouped together on a support structure.
An array is a collection of panels.

The effect of temperature on the

performance of a silicon solar module is illustrated. Fig 5.5 Effect of Temperature

37
Note that Isc slightly increases linearly
with temperature, but Voc and the
maximum power Pm decrease with
temperature.

Figure 6 shows the variation of PV

current and voltages at different
insolation levels.

From Figs. 5 and 6, it can be seen that the

I V characteristics of solar cells at a
given insolation and temperature consist Fig 5.6 I vs V characteristics for different insulation levels
of a constant-voltage segment and a
constant-current segment. The current is limited, as the cell is short-circuited. The maximum
power condition occurs at the knee of the characteristic where the two segments meet.

5.5 ARRAY DESIGN

The major factors influencing the electrical design of the solar array are as follows:

• The sun intensity

• The sun angle

• The load matching for maximum

power

• The operating temperature

These factors are discussed in the following

Fig 5.7 Elements of SPV system
subsections.

SUN INTENSITY:

The magnitude of the photocurrent is maximum under a full bright sun (1.0 sun). On a partially
sunny day, the photocurrent diminishes in direct proportion to the sun intensity. At a lower sun
intensity, the I-V characteristic shifts downward as shown above. On a cloudy day, therefore, the
short-circuit current decreases significantly. The reduction in the open-circuit voltage, however,
is small. The photo conversion efficiency of the cell is insensitive to the solar radiation in the
practical working range. This means that the conversion efficiency is the same on a bright sunny
day as on a cloudy day.

SUN ANGLE:

The cell output current is given by I = Iocosθ, where Io is the current with normal sun
(reference), and θ is the angle of the sun line measured from the normal. This cosine law holds
well for sun angles ranging from 0 to about 50°.

38
Beyond 50°, the electrical output deviates significantly from the cosine law, and the cell
generates no power beyond 85°, although the mathematical cosine law predicts 7.5% power
generation.

SHADOW EFFECT:

The array may consist of many parallel strings of series-connected cells. Two such strings are
shown in Figure 9.13. A large array may get partially shadowed due to a structure interfering
with the sun line. If a cell in a long series string gets completely shadowed, it loses the photo-
voltage but still must carry the string current by virtue of its being in series with all other cells
operating in full sunlight. Without internally generated voltage, the shadowed cell cannot
produce power. Instead, it acts as a load, producing local I2R loss and heat. The remaining cells
in the string must work at higher voltage to make up the loss of the shadowed cell voltage.

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS:

With increasing temperature, the short-circuit current of the cell increases, whereas the open-
circuit voltage decreases. The effect of temperature on PV power is quantitatively evaluated by
examining the effects on the current and the voltage separately.

EFFECT OF CLIMATE:

On a partly cloudy day, the PV module can produce up to 80% of its full sun power. It can
produce about 30% power even with heavy clouds on an extremely overcast day. Snow does not
usually collect on the module, because it is angled to catch the sun. If snow does collect, it
quickly melts. Mechanically, the module is designed to withstand golf-ball-size hail.

ELECTRICAL LOAD MATCHING:

The operating point of any power system is the intersection of the source line and the load line. If
the PV source having the I-V and P-V characteristics shown in Figure is supplying power to a
resistive load R1, it will operate at point A1.If the load resistance increases to R2 or R3, the
operating point moves to A2 or A3, respectively. The maximum power is extracted from the
module when the load resistance is R2. Such a load that matches with the source is always
necessary for the maximum power extraction from a PV source.

5.6 SUN TRACKING:

More energy is collected by the end of the day if the PV module is installed on a tracker with an
actuator that follows the sun. There are two types of sun trackers:

39
• One-axis tracker, which follows the sun from east
to west during the day.

• Two-axis tracker, which follows the sun from east

to west during the day, and from north to south
during the seasons of the year.

5.7 TYPES OF PV POWER SYSTEMS

Fig 5.8 Peak Power tracking
Photovoltaic power systems can be classified as
follows:

• Stand-alone

• Hybrid

• Grid connected

Stand-alone PV systems are used in remote areas with

no access to a utility grid. Conventional power systems
used in remote areas often based on manually controlled
diesel generators operating continuously or for a few
hours.

Extended operation of diesel generators at low load

levels significantly increases maintenance costs and
reduces their useful life. Renewable energy sources such as PV can be added to remote area
power systems using diesel and other fossil fuel powered generators to provide 24-hour power
economically and efficiently. Such systems are called Fig 5.9 (a) Stand alone PV system
‘‘hybrid energy systems.’’ Figure 7a shows a schematic of (b)Hybrid system (c) Grid Connected
a PV–diesel hybrid system. In grid-connected PV systems,
as shown in Fig.7c, PV panels are connected to a grid through inverters without battery storage.
These systems can be classified as small systems, such as residential rooftop systems or large
gridconnected systems. The grid interactive inverters must be synchronized with the grid in
terms of voltage and frequency.

5.7.1 Stand-Alone PV Systems

The two main stand-alone PV applications are:

• Battery charging

• Solar water pumping

40
Battery charging

Battery manufacturers specify the nominal number of complete charge and discharge cycles as a
function of the depth-of-discharge (DOD), as shown in Fig. 23.8. Although this information can
be used reliably to predict the lifetime of lead-acid batteries in Conventional applications, such
as uninterruptable power supplies or electric vehicles, it usually results in an overestimation of
the useful life of the battery bank in renewable energy systems.

Two of the main factors that have been identified as

limiting criteria for the cycle life of batteries in
photovoltaic power systems are incomplete
charging and prolonged operation at a low state of
charge (SOC). The objective of improved battery
control strategies is to extend the lifetime of lead-
acid batteries to achieve the typical number of
cycles shown in

An optimum solution for the required storage Fig 5.10 No. of battery cycles and depth of discharge
capacity and the maximum depth-of-discharge of the
battery can be found by referring to the manufacturer’s information.

Increasing the capacity will reduce the typical depth-of discharge and therefore prolong the
battery lifetime. Conversely, it may be more economic to replace a smaller battery bank more
frequently.

The typical PV stand-alone system consists of a solar array and a battery connected as shown in
Figure. The PV array supplies power to the load and charges the battery when there is sunlight.
The battery powers the load otherwise. An inverter converts the DC power of the array and the
battery into 60 or 50 Hz power. Inverters are available in a wide range of power ratings with
efficiencies ranging from 85 to 95%. The array is segmented with isolation diodes for improving
reliability. In such a design, if one string of the solar array fails, it does not load or short the
remaining strings. Multiple inverters are preferred for reliability. For example, three inverters,
each with a 35% rating, are preferred to one with a 105% rating. If one such inverter fails, the
remaining two can continue supplying most loads until the failed one is repaired or replaced. The
same design approach also extends to using multiple batteries.

Most stand-alone PV systems are installed in developing countries to provide basic necessities
such as lighting and pumping water.

Fig 5.11 PV standalone power system with battery

41
Photovoltaic (PV) power systems have made a successful transition from small standalone sites
to large grid-connected systems. The utility interconnection brings a new dimension to the
renewable power economy by pooling the temporal excess or the shortfall in the renewable
power with the connecting grid that generates base-load power using conventional fuels. This
improves the overall economy and load availability of the renewable plant site — the two
important factors of any power system. The grid supplies power to the site loads when needed or
absorbs the excess power from the site when available. A kilowatthour meter is used to measure
the power delivered to the grid, and another is used to measure the power drawn from the grid.
The two meters are generally priced differently on a daily basis or on a yearly basis that allows
energy swapping and billing the net annual difference.

In the below figure is a typical circuit diagram of the grid-connected PV power system. It
interfaces with the local utility lines at the output side of the inverter as shown. A battery is often
added to meet short-term load peaks. In the U.S., the Environmental Protection

Agency sponsors grid-connected PV programs in urban areas where wind towers would be
impractical. In recent years, large building-integrated PV installations have made significant
advances by adding grid connections to the system design. For example,.

The system produces 18 kW power and is connected to the grid. In addition, it collects sufficient
research data using numerous instruments and computer data loggers. The vital data are sampled
every 10 sec, and are averaged and stored every 10 min. The incoming data includes information
about air temperature and wind speed. The performance parameters include direct current (DC)
voltage and current generated by the PV roof and the alternating current (AC) power at the
inverter output side.

Fig 5.12 Electrical Scheme of grid connected PV system

42
CHAPTER 6: SILICON NANO WIRE SOLAR CELLS

Over the past decade, silicon nanowire solar cells have been intensively explored as potential
platforms for the next-generation photovoltaic (PV) technologies with high power conversion
efficiency and low production cost. This chapter discusses the details of the silicon nanowire
solar cells in terms of their device structures, fabrication and characterization, electrical and
optical properties benefited from the nanowire geometry. These benefits are not only expected
to increase the power conversion efficiency, but also considered to reduce the requirement for
the material quantity and quality, allowing for potential efficiency improvements and
substantial cost reductions.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Over the past few decades, great effort has been expended to develop photovoltaic
technologies with high power conversion efficiency and low production cost. Today,
photovoltaics is the third most important renewable energy after hydro and wind power. In
2014, worldwide installation of photovoltaics has increased to supply 1% of global electricity
demands. In many countries, photovoltaic (PV) electricity has levelized its cost to “grid parity”
so that it can now compete with traditional electricity.

Fig 6.1 Silicon Nano Wire Solar Cells

In order to sustain the extremely fast growth of the PV industry and be more successful
competing against traditional energy, substantial further power conversion efficiency
improvement and production cost reduction are needed, both of which are key levers for the
entrance of the multi-terawatt electricity markets. Specifically, improving the solar cell
conversion efficiency is preferred, because high efficiency devices can not only help to reduce
the module price but also lower the price of balance of system (BOS) , especially in the cases
of expensive land or building roofs. In principle, for high efficiency devices, solar cells have to
be thick enough to absorb sunlight sufficiently while thin enough to separate and collect the
photo-generated carrier effectively. In traditional wafer based solar cells, light absorption can
be easily resolved by using a thick absorbing layer. However, the thick absorber deteriorates
the charge carrier separation and collection because the direction of the separation/collection

43
process and light absorption is the same. The simultaneous requirement of needing to be
optically thick and electrically thin is a paradox in the design of high conversion efficiency
solar cells. In thin film solar cells, which adopt an ultra-thin absorber, their ultra-thin thickness
assures the requirement of being electrically thin, but additional advanced light trapping
strategies are required to make them optically thick, which absolutely increase the production
cost and complexity.

Despite a great amount of progress that has been achieved to increase solar cell efficiency so
far, the efficiency of conventional solar cells has been limited to the Shockley Queisser limi t.
Recently, a number of unconventional strategies which may promise either significantly higher
efficiencies or extremely lower production cost have emerged. Of particular interest are the PV
technologies based on the nanostructures or nanomaterials, which may hold great promise for
third-generation photovoltaics and for powering Nano electronics. Semiconductor nanowire,
which is a structure with a diameter in the order of nanometers and a length upwards of a few
micrometers, is a prototypical example, from a broad number of novel photonic and electronic
device, primarily due to its unique electrical, optical, magnetic and mechanical properties.

For a solar cell, which is an optoelectronic device, the nanowire geometry provides advantages
because it allows strong light absorption owing to its nanoscale structure and efficient carrier
separation and collection due to the direct short path for charge transport. Indeed, one of the
most important key attributes of the nanowire solar cell is that, in some structures (i.e., radial
junction), it decouples the light absorption from the carrier collection, which means the light
absorption occurs in one direction while the carrier collection occurs in another direction.
Subsequently, a solar cell can be made optically thick and electrically thin simultaneously.

6.2 ADVANTAGES OF NANO CELL

In addition to the decoupling, the use of nanowires as the building blocks of solar cells present
other advantages:

(a) Nanowire solar cells lower the requirement for the material quality, and as a result, a wide
variety of materials including silicon, germanium, a-Si, μc-Si, copper zinc tin sulfide/selenide
(CZTS), Cu2S/CdS, cadmium telluride, cadmium selenide, copper oxide, and many polymers
can be used to make nanowire solar cells with the potential for high efficiency and low
production cost, helping to drive large-scale implementation with versatility.

(b) Nanowire solar cells are expected to favor the lattice strain relaxation, giving a great
degree of freedom to the design of solar cells with lattice-mismatched materials.

(c) The seamless integration of nanowire solar cells with electronic and photonic devices also
affirms them as power suppliers for these devices.

(d) The bottom-up and top-down designs allow the rational control of some PV parameters,
such as the dopant profile/composition, junction shape/size, and interface gradient.

44
 (e) The studies of solar cell properties in the
nanoscale geometries provide a platform for
exploring physical limits and novel device
concepts for solar cells.

Among different types of PV materials,

silicon (Si) is the most widely used, not only
because it is Earth-abundant and non-toxic,
but also due to the well-established Si Fig 6.2 Structure of Nano Cell
manufacturing technology in today’s semiconductor
industry. Furthermore, Si can be made with different forms such as amorphous,
nanocrystalline, microcrystalline, polycrystalline and single crystalline, providing a great
freedom for the electronic and photonic devices. An Si nanowire solar cell was initiated with
the theoretical demonstration of the benefit of such a configuration by Kayes, et al. in 2005.
However, it wasn’t until the year 2007 that a single coaxial Si nanowire solar cell was
demonstrated by Tian et al. with a power conversion efficiency of up to 3.4%. Almost in the
same year, the first attempt at a vertical Si nanowire array solar cell was reported by
Tsakalakos et al. using a conformal plasma–enhanced chemical vapor deposited n type
amorphous silicon (a-Si) and a p-core Si nanowire grown by means of a vapor-liquid-solid
(VLS) process on stainless steel foil. After that, Si nanowire solar cells with different
structures and different fabrication methods were widely reported. But, even with these efforts,
the resulting Si nanowire solar cells showed very low efficiency, primarily limited by their low
open-circuit voltage (V oc) and poor fill factor (FF). In the year 2010, nanowire solar cells with
an efficiency above 5% were realized by Garnett et al. using a process combining nanosphere
lithography, deep reactive ion etching and high temperature dopant diffusion. Ultra-high
density silicon nanowire arrays of 10.8% were fabricated by parallel electron lithography
afterwards. In addition to c-Si, a-Si nanowire solar cells were also demonstrated with the
silicon or ZnO acting as the cores, with an efficiency of around 6%.

Although a power conversion efficiency up to 11% can be achieved in Si solar cells with a
microwire radial junction structure and 13% in hybrid organic/silicon nanowire solar cells, the
conversion efficiencies of Si nanowire solar cells still are not able to compete with that of
planar Si solar cells.

6.3 DEVICE STRUCTURE

Device structure can be related to its geometrical and physical aspects. According to the
geometry, nanowire can be classified into three type of structures: radial junction, axial
junction and substrate junction, as shown in Fig. 1. Additionally, the junction can be made with
a homo-junction or hetero-junction, with p/n or p/i/n structures.

45
Schematic of optical and electrical
behavior in solar cells with (a) a
conventional planar structure; and (b) a
radial junction structure. L is the
thickness of semiconductor, L α is the
optical thickness equals to 1/α and L n is
the minority diffusion length. In
principle, L should be larger than L α to
fully absorb the light, while L n must be
longer than L to ensure the photo-
generated carrier can reach the junction
Fig 6.3 Device Structure
before recombination

6.4 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

In addition to good light absorption performance, a solar cell must separate and collect carriers
to generate power. As discussed above, the nanowire with a radial junction geometry is
especially beneficial for the charge separation and carrier collection, due to the fact that the
direction of light absorption and carrier collection are decoupled into orthogonal directions.
Therefore, in single nanowire radial junction solar cells, the efficiency shows an increase of
approximately a factor of five compared with the axial junction cells. In addition, in a previous
report, simulation using density functional theory has predicted that a spontaneous potential
gradient can be generated without doping in nanowires, primarily due to difference of degree
of quantum confinement along the wire. Varying strain along the nanowire can also be used to
separate charges in a similar manner. However, these carrier separation mechanisms have not
yet been proven experimentally.

In order to gain a quantitative understanding of the electrical performance, Kayes et al., has
developed a model to characterize carrier collection in a cylindrical coordinated system. The
junction is formed between the nanowire core and shell. The diffusion length occurs in the
radial direction, which is set equal to the nanowire length. Although the carrier collection is
independent on the nanowire length, it should be noted that the nanowire length has an impact
on the junction area, and as a result, the electrical performance is also dependent on the
nanowire length. In silicon nanowire solar cells, the depletion region recombination is one of
the most significant loss factors. In the radial p-n junction, the V oc decreases as the cell
thickness increases because the junction area increases, so the trap density near the core-shell
interface should be low enough that depletion region recombination does not dominate,
otherwise large V oc losses are expected. Simulation results also show that a silicon solar cell
with a radial junction has a high tolerance of the bulk defect so that when the minority carrier
diffusion length is reduced to the physical length, the efficiency degrades slightly with
decreasing lifetime, whereas planar junction solar cells shown severe degradation. In terms of
the photocurrent, J sc of nanowire solar cells is essentially independent of the trap density, in
striking contrast to the planar one. Kayes’ results indicated a guideline in designing high
performance nanowire solar cells

46
In order to overcome the large leakage current induced by the large high-aspect-ratios of
nanowire solar cells, surface passivation is a critical step. However, nanowire surface
passivation is a challenging task due to their small size and the fact that multiple facets are
exposed. In radial junction nanowire solar cells, surface passivation quality can be quantified
with the measurement of the surface recombination velocity S, which can be obtained by the
following equation:

where τ eff is the effective carrier lifetime,τ b is the carrier lifetime in bulk silicon with the same
impurity concentration, and D is the nanowire diameter.

A-Si is often used to make a heterojunction with crystalline silicon. It can provide good
passivation for the single crystalline nanowire cores. Experiment using near-field scanning
photocurrent microscopy reveals a ∼ 100-fold reduction in surface recombination using a thin
layer of amorphous silicon (a-Si) coated on a single-crystalline silicon nanowire. In addition to
a-Si, a-SiNx can further reduce the surface recombination velocity to 70 cm/s compared to a
value of 450 cm/s provided by a-Si. In recent years, organic such as PEDOT:PSS and organic-
inorganic perovskite were also used to make hybrid silicon nanowire solar cells, and an
efficiency as high as 13% was able to obtained in these types of solar cells partly due to the
excellent surface passivation .

The enhanced recombination in nanowire may also result from the metal catalyst used in
nanowire growth, especially those metals which can introduce mid-band gap trap state in
silicon. However, this possibility was excluded by using Al catalyst to replace the Au catalyst.
Totally removing the Au catalyst did not help to further improve the V oc. These results
affirmed that the quality of the core/multi-shell structure is the most important driver of good
electrical performance.

Because of the largely reduced requirement of the minority diffusion length, solar cell
materials with a low carrier diffusion length are preferable to be used in nanowire geometry.
For example, Zinc oxide and titanium oxide nanowire/nanotube are widely reported in dye-
sensitized solar cells. The nanowire/nanotube dye-sensitized solar cells often show higher
carrier collection efficiency and reduced surface recombination rates compared with the
nanoparticle case.

6.5 APPLICATIONS
Single nanowire solar cells are an ideal platform for the fundamental research of optical,
electrical and other aspects of the photovoltaic device. Individual and interconnected silicon
nanowire photovoltaic elements can serve as robust power sources to drive functional
nanoscale electronics, such as sensors, logic gates and other nanoelectronics . As similar to
planar solar cells, nanowire array solar cells of a large-scale can be used in generating
electrical power from light. For example, they can be used in large-scale territorial application,
providing their conversion efficiency can be competitive with commercial technology.

47
At present, although the nanowire geometry promises to lower the cost by relaxing the material
purification requirements, expanding the available materials, reducing the material usage, or
simplifying the fabrication process, nanowire solar cells are still far from practical applicati on
due to their low conversion efficiency and the complicated fabrication process involved, which
limits the commercialization of nanowire solar cells.

48
 CHAPTER 7: SOLAR TREES

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Solar energy is most advantageous for countries having very less space to produce energy
efficiently and having very large population like India. In all these solar tree could be the best
option. The efficiency of the plant can be improved by using the technique known as
“SPIRALLING PHYLLATAXY”. This technique can also be used for system of street lighting,
industrial power supply etc. In area point of view, solar tree is more efficient and much better
than the traditional solar PV system. Therefore it should be implemented.

Solar energy is available in very large amount and also easily available. The solar radiation can
be directly converted into solar photovoltaic, solar thermal and solar architecture. The
installation of large solar collectors requires a very big space which is the main problem
associated with tapping solar energy .This problem can be avoided by installing a Solar Tree
requiring less space instead of a no of solar panels. To satisfy pressing environmental and social
demands for urban lighting solar tree opens new prospects.

7.2 WHAT ARE SOLAR TREES?

A solar tree is a structure incorporating solar energy technology on a single pillar, like a tree
trunk. It may be a solar artwork or a functional power generator. Sola tree having a pole made up
of metal and solar panels are placed on different poles having an arrangement like branches of a
tree looks like as a artificial tree like a structure which generates electricity from sunlight by
using PV cells. We can also use nano solar wire for higher Efficiency.

It is a combination of artistic and technological effort which exists as a form of solar artwork.
This relatively new concept was conceived in an attempt to merge new technology relating to the
absorption and use of solar power. Since the angle of sun’s rays is not fixed, particularly during
the changes in seasons, the panels for homes are inefficient. Some residential solar systems are
designed to move and track the sun but these systems substantially increase the cost of solar
energy because they are expensive and require maintenance. So we designed a solar tree using an
array of solar panels of nanowire solar cells as leaves. The solar cells on the tree were able to
store enough electricity in spite of receiving no direct solar light for days at a time because of the
clouds. Solar trees were really a practical form of street lightning.

The amount of energy produced by solar tree is more than an array of solar cells. Solar Tree is
made of metal structure and have solar panels at the top instead of branches of real tree. Solar
energy is collected by Solar panel and converts it into electricity and uses it for batteries,
charging of mobile phones, portable computers and tablets. The panels and lighting use this
collected energy. No. of solar panels are used to give the shape of a tree and arranged in a tall
tower/pole.

TREE Stands For:

49
T - Tree generating
R - Renewable
E - Energy and
E - Electricity

Solar Trees are efficient for capturing energy from sunlight and wind for producing energy as
plants in nature.

Green stems constructed of steel pipes supporting a light bubble in which solar cells are
connected. In place of branches we use solar panel which has to produce voltage. The design
copied from the pattern of coconut tree as closely as possible. Battery is hidden at the ground
base which is closed with proper material. The branch of the solar tree was decorated with LED
lights at the tip.

7.2.1 LIGHT BUBBLE:

Alight bubble is a decorative device consisting of a liquid filled vial that is heated and lighted by
an incandescent light bulb. Because of the low liquid’s boiling point the modest heat generated
by the lamp causes the liquid to boil and bubble up from the vial’s base thus creating the bubble
light.

7.2.2 SPIRALLING PHYLLATAXY

Spiralling Phyllataxy technique is used in designing of Solar Tree. For tracking maximum power
from sun this Technique helps the lower panels from the shadow of upper ones. The efficiency of
the plant can also be improved by this technology.

7.3 VARIOUS METHODS OF PRODUCTIONS ELECTRICAL ENERGY

FROM SOLAR ENERGY
“Solar energy” is the energy produced from the sunlight.

The different ways to use solar energy are:

 Production of electricity using photovoltaic solar cells.

 Hydrogen production using photo electrochemical cells.
 Production of electricity using concentrated solar power.
 Production of electricity by heating air which rotates turbines in solar tower.
 Heating buildings directly through the construction of passive solar buildings.
 Heating food products using solar oven.
 Heating water or air for domestic hot water and space heating using solar thermal panels.
 Heating and cooling air using solar chimney.
 Small and middle size application uses Photovoltaic solar cells for power .Due to variable
source of energy, Solar
 Energy need alternate source which will take grid load when sunlight is limited.

50
7.4 COMPONENTS OF SOLAR TREE
The solar tree have following parts:

 Solar panels
 Long tower
 LEDs
 Batteries
 Stems for
connecting the
panels

It can also include:

 CCTV Cameras
 Led Street Lights
 Charger Points (Free
public charging)
 Wi-Fi
 Speaker (Radio,
Important
Announcements,
Bhajans)
 Fans (Circular fan)
 Tablet
(Applications:
Education, Health
and Fig 7.1 Components Of Solar tree
 Gaming for kids.)
 Sensors: temperature, humidity, air quality, air pressure, noise level.
 Digital Time
 Advertising Platform (OOH), Led TV, Banners
 Water Purifier

7.5 WORKING OF SOLAR TREE

51
In Photovoltaic conversion, solar radiation falls on
semiconductor devices called solar cells which
convert sunlight directly into electricity. When light
falls on the junction between two types of
semiconductor called p-type and N-type-type has an
excess of electrons and P-type has a shortage of
electrons. When a bright light shines on a cell,
energy from the light (photons) enables electrons to
break free from the junction between them. This is
called photoelectric effect. The flow of electrons
constitutes an electric current stored in batteries.
Fig 7.2 Photovoltaic Effect

Fig 7.3 Working Principle of solar cell

Major problems of Power system are the storage of Electric energy. Output fluctuations of solar
cell are eliminated by the day and night cycle or weather shifts. Solar tree panels can charge
batteries during the day time. Solar trees automatically switches on its LED. The internal control
can also regulate the amount of light produced. A sensor is used to measure the amount of light
in atmosphere and triggers the solar lamps to switch ON automatically at sunset and OFF at
sunset.

7.6 NEED OF SOLAR TREE

1. Due to less land requirement: It is the best option of energy generation because it requires
very less land as compare to the traditional PV system. Now a day’s land becomes the costliest
commodity for the human society because of high population growth.

Example – To generate 2 MW power from a PV module we requires 10 -12 Acres of land for
housing of panels only. But for the same amount of energy we require only 0.10- 0.12 acres of
land in case of solar tree. So we require such a plant which can generate maximum energy using
minimum land.

2. Efficient energy generation:

52
It can generate energy very efficiently as compare to traditional system.

Solar Tree is designed to function both autonomously and in synchronization with the public
grid. Electric grid, it uses the energy generated by the solar panels during the day to recharge the
batteries. Solar Tree is capable of functioning for three consecutive days of cloudy or overcast
weather.

When wired for coordinated functioning with the public lighting grid, it uses the energy
generated by the solar panels to recharge the batteries and activate/deactivate the LED sources in
synchrony with the grid, to which eventual surpluses of stored current can be relinquished. Major
problems of Power system are the storage of Electric energy.

Output fluctuations of solar cell are eliminated by the day and night cycle or weather shifts. Solar
tree panels can charge batteries during the day time. Solar trees automatically switches on its
LED. The internal control can also regulate the amount of light produced. A sensor is used to
measure the amount of light in atmosphere and triggers the solar lamps to switch ON
automatically at sunset and OFF at sunset.

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps
in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. When a light-emitting diode is
forward- biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the
device, releasing energy in the form of photons.

The technique called ― SPIRALLING PHYLLATAXY to improve the efficiency of the plant. It
can be applied in street lightening system, industrial power supply etc. It is much better than the
traditional solar PV system in area point of view and also more efficient. Though it is somehow
costly but as compare to all cost involve in traditional system it is more efficient.

3. It can collect energy from wind:

As the name suggest this is a device to generate energy from sun but it has some unique feature
to generate energy from wind. The stem are flexible so that they can rotate in any direction and
by shaking themselves they produce energy also from wind as in the case of a natural tree.

The unique technique is that flexible panels connected to the stem which can be rotated as our
desire. So that flexibility avoidance of wind pressure can be possible. Flexibility offers manual
rotating so that maximum power can be obtained.

7.7 SOLUTION OF ENERGY PROBLEMS IN URBAN LOCATIONS

In urban location having large population, the problem of energy supply becomes even more
difficult. Renewable energy source can solve such energy problems. Solar energy provides
feasible design solutions for urban environment. The Solar Tree can be used for:

 Uplifting the public opinion of citizens for renewable resources of energy.

 At locations where free wireless internet is available it enables the people for free access
of energy for charging their mobile and portable lap top devices.

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  Informations like important city locations, phone numbers, institutions and addresses
which could Be accessed by everyone can be provided by several interactive info panels.

7.8 APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR TREE

A. Solar Tree Product Applications

The Solar Tree is suitable for remote locations or where small foot print such as area lighting, car
parks and street lighting are required. With a grid connection or battery store, the Solar Tree is
the solution for energy requirements.

B. World’s Best Looking Solar Gadget Charger

The Concept of Solar Tree is Photosynthesis .To

soak up juice from the sun, Bonsai tree uses 54 mini
photovoltaic panels as leaves and able to charge the
gadgets.

Fig 7.4 World's Best Solar Gadget Charger

C. Making Light With Recycle Plastic Bottles

A normal PET-Bottle filled with water can be used as a light

bulb to bring light into underprivileged households during the
day.

Fig 7.5 Making Plastic Bottles for light

D. Applications Of Solar Trees For Industrial

Power Supply, House Supply, Street Light
Fig 7.6 Industrial Supply, street lights and House supply

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Solar tree can be applicable in following fields:

 In the field of Golf courses and resorts

 In Urban and Rural Areas
 Applicable in Recreational parks,
city parks and open spaces
 In Penthouses, overhangs, verandas,
Private patio nurseries
 Applicable on Airports
 In Mountainous areas
 On Coastlines
 Applicable on Highways Fig 7.7 Schematic Illustration of system
 In Deserts
 Material New lodging bequests
 In Crop Protection
 In De-forested ranges
 Armed force
 Instructive Campuses
 City squares
 Business parks
 Touristic offices
 Government grounds
 Shopping centers and retail focuses
 Delight and amusement park

7.9 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR TREE

The advantages of solar tree are:

 Both the role of Paying homage to photosynthesis and the Photosynthesis tree are
gracefully plays by solar tree.
 A positive environmental impact opposes to a negative one.
 On street lighting in the area, Power outages have no impact.
 In all locations Solar street lights can be easily erected.
 No air pollution energy sources.
 In poor country people would access electricity
 Land requirement is very less
 In all locations street light can be easily installed.
 A positive ecological effect contradicts to a negative one.
 On road lighting in the range, Power blackouts have no effect.
 No air contamination energy sources.

The disadvantages of solar tree are:

 Its initial cost is high.

 It is dangerous to the birds and insects.
 It is dangerous to eyesight from solar reflectors.

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 CHAPTER 8: SOLAR TREE DESIGN

Solar Tree having a tree like structure made of metal bars

and solar panels. Arranged in such a manner that shadow of
any solar panel is fall on other solar panels therefore spiral
fashion arrangement of solar panels are generally used.
Because of such structures it requires less space and it can
be installed beside the roads or in a garden. The only thing
that have to be care about that shadow of anything not fall
on the panels it may reduce the efficiency of solar Tree.

The typical wire diagram of solar tree, in which all solar

panels are connected with each other mounted on a single
pole and the electricity generated by them are stored in a Fig 8.1 Design Model of Solar Tree
battery which can be further used as per requirements.

8.1 DIFFERENT DESIGN SOLUTIONS APPROACHES

A. Approach For General Design

Design solutions can vary according to different factors. It is tried to establish a general design
for solar trees. Location regarding light conditions is given as:

 Potential location where the tree should be placed is that urban location is very specific
which influence light conditions around the tree.
 The potential location should be such that it enables optimum light conditions during the
day.
 Location regarding the final purpose.
 The majority of solar trees in urban location are dedicated for following purposes i.e.
Street lighting or powering different consumers e.g. battery chargers.
 According to the chosen aim of the tree, the final design is influenced.
 Available type and design of solar panels.
 Cost

Because panels are the most important part in a solar tree construction which influences the final
design. Mass, shape, number and arrangement of the panels effects the rigidity, center of gravity
i.e. which lead to the final look of the design. If the design of the tree and its look should be
preferred in regard to the purpose then this will causes more complexity throughout the whole
design process.

B. Approach For Power Consumers Solar Tree Design

The approach includes following consumers:

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  Charging devices and LCD monitors. In addition to that, an accumulation device should
be stored at the region where the flange attaches the construction to the ground. An extra
seat in circular shape is added around the main trunk for rest of passers. Also this seat
should cover with accumulation device to make whole design more attractive.
Simultaneously it should isolate the accumulation device from climate impacts such as
rain or snow.
 To simplify the design approach, calculation, maintenance and make the whole design
aesthetically acceptable, totally symmetric design with three axes of symmetry are
provided. Main body of solar tree is a simple hollow tube closed at one end to enable the
attachment of the upper, smaller rod which should carry the upper panel. This panel is
placed high above the other panels at a vertical angle. The angle provides a constant area
for the sunlight regardless of the sun trajectory during the day. The height at where it is
placed enables a greater panel area which will not cover the lower placed panels.
 Additional limbs can be added to increase the total amount of panel surface which powers
the final consumers but it should be ensured that absence of critical stress on several
places at the construction. The most critical places are the limbs connect to the main body
i.e. trunk. Limbs shouldn‟t be too long because of a possibly high bending moment.

C. Approach For Street Lightning

Solar tree designs for lightning purposes do not have to power such huge consumers in
comparison with light bulbs. Due to this no extra adds are needed in the case of an street
lightning solar tree. The basic three components in the design are: The pillar – trunk, solar panels
and light bulbs. Urban location causes the base of a serious construction material like concrete.
The design for lightning purposes looks beautiful, with lots of rare elements like branches are
standard elements set up just at a different pattern which start at different angles of array. Light
bulbs are attached to solar panels from the bottom side so they cover an area according to solar
panel calculations

8.2 SOLAR TREE-NANOWIRE BASED SOLAR CELL

A new idea to design a solar tree using nanowire solar cell is
being introduced. Nanoparticles exhibit a number of special
properties relative to bulk material. A single Nanowire
concentrates the sunlight upto 15 times of the normal sunlight
intensity. Surprising results have the potential for developing
a new kind of highly efficient solar cell. Nanowires possess
some distinctive physical light absorption properties. Because
Fig 8.2 Nanowire Solar cell
of these properties, the limit of how much energy from the
sun’s rays we can use is higher than previously thought. For
many years it has been a high mark for solar cells efficiency among researchers, but now there is
possibility that it may be raised higher. Hence it is a revolutionary urban lighting concept that not
just trees but other objects can also be decorated. These technologies eventually lead to the
development of high efficiency solar cells

Nanowires are made of semiconductor material Indium phosphide- Commonly used as substrate
for epitaxial InGaAs. Superior electron velocity, used in high-power and high-frequency

57
applications. It works like antenna thatabsorb sunlight and generate power. Nanowire crystal has
cylindrical structure with diameter of about 10,000 part of a human hair

8.3 FIBANACCI SEQUENCE SOLAR TREE

The Fibonacci Sequence Solar Tree is one of advanced solar
trees.

The plants follow a new growth pattern known as Fibanacci

Sequence. This pattern shows that in sequence the previous
numbers are added together to make the next number
(1+1=2,

2+1=3, 3+2=5, 5+3=8 etc.,) and in natural no. it

corresponding golden ratio .Tree” uses the same sequence Fig 8.3 Fibanacci Sequence
of leaves. In experiments it can be proved that amount of
energy collected by the tree is more than that of normal flat-panel model, when photovoltaic cells
are placed on an oak tree instead of leaves.

The comparison of flat plate solar tree and Fibonacci solar tree is shown as below:

Table 8.1 Difference between flat panel and Fibanacci Solar Tree

8.4 DIFFERENT ARTIFICIAL SOLAR TREE

The light of the sun is always available and it will never run out. There is a technique that
converts sunlight into fuel. This technique is called the artificial solar tree. The artificial solar

58
tree works like a real one. Just like the photosynthesis of a real tree, artificial one uses sunlight
for the generation of energy.

The aim is to store the energy is that it can be used wherever it is needed. This can be done by
making a liquid fuel that can be transport and used as we need. These challenges in the design of
Solar Tree are not only scientifically but costs, environmental are also considered.

8.4.1 Solar Botanic Trees

Artificial trees will be introduced by Solar Botanic which uses renewable energy from the sun
and wind and provide clean and environmentally sound means of collecting solar radiation and
wind energy.

Energy-generation technologies are mentioned below:

 Photovoltaic (PVs) are arrays of cells containing a material that converts solar radiation
into direct current electricity.
 Electric potential created by temperature difference referred by Thermoelectricity.
 Electric potential generated in response to applied mechanical stress is the ability of
Piezoelectricity.
 The power of the sun, integrate from all aspects of a tree from leaf, branch and twigs and
convert solar energy to electricity.
 Nano-photovoltaic, Nano-thermo voltaic and Nanopiezo generator converting light, heat
and wind energy into green electricity.

8.4.2 Nano Leaf

Solar Botanic's artificial leaf called the „Nano leaf‟ is

the essential element in this technology.

A very thin photovoltaic film on one side of „Nano

leaf” converts the light from the sun into energy.

On the other side of the Nano leaf thin thermo voltaic

film converts the heat from the solar energy into electricity. Fig 8.4 Nano Leaf

Small amounts of piezoelectric power are generated by

stalks connecting to a branch.

Nano leaf is thin like a natural leaf and the wind outside forces pushes the Nano leaf back and
forth, and in petiole, twig and branches mechanical stresses appears. When thousands of Nano
leaves flap back and forth due to wind millions of Pico watts are generated. Stronger the wind
and more energy is generated. A small part of the sunlight is reflected by Nano leaves that strikes
them. Rest of the spectrum and the green light is efficiently converted into electricity. Nano
leaves converts the visible light and invisible light, known as infrared light or radiation, which
can feel only. In Nano leaves has unique combination of photovoltaic and thermo voltaic and
converts thermal radiation into electricity.

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8.5 METHODOLOGY FOR DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS:
In this work, we have presented our thought that Solar Tree concept for domestic electrification
is big step to reduce electricity bills and dependence on grid power which is unreliable nowadays
in India. It also provides clean energy source to reduce the global warming. Energy demand
(load) of the small family is considered and taken for determining the capacity of proposed
system and system component sizes.

Load estimation:

The average load profiles are considered depending on daily usage duration in a day. Following
electrical appliances are for total load estimation.

Table 8.2 Daily Energy Demand of small house

Hence Total load or power requirement is approx. equal to 1.75kWh/day.

Selection of System Voltage:

Based on requirements of the system voltage is selected. Since total AC-load is less than 5kW,
the system voltage is selected as 24 Vdc.

Determination of PV Array Size:

Peak Watt Power:

By considering the efficiency of inverter /controller about 85% and battery bank and wire loss
about 3%. The energy requirement from PV module

= 1/ (ŋ battery x ŋ charge controller x ŋ wiring)…..(1)

= 1/ (0.85x0.85x 0.97)

= 1.42

≈ 1.40 approximately.

Hence energy needed from Module (PV array)

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Parray = ELx1.4…………. (2)

Where EL = Estimated average daily energy consumption in Wh /day.

Hence

P array = 1750 Whx1.4

= 2450 Wh.

= 2500 Wh approximately.

Since solar module are characterized for 1000 W/m2. We used monthly average daily solar
insolation data from MNRE website for Indian location. At Kolhapur, (Maharashtra) considering
average daily sun hours equal to 5.5 when a module is mounted horizontally and six hours for an
angle of latitude (16.760) or at an angle with summer and winter correction.

Table 8.3 Monthly Average

The peak watt rating of module for our system will be

Wpeak = P array / average daily sun hours on tilted surface at latitude angle………(3)

W peak = 2500/6

= 415 WP

Total Array Current:

The Total module current Idc is calculated by dividing above peak watt rating by system voltage
Vdc i.e.

Idc = Wpeak / Vdc ……………. (4)

= 415/ 24

= 17.29 A.

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We have selected solar modules manufactured by Vikram Solar India. The specifications of
ELDORA Micro series is as follows.

Array Size:

The number of modules in parallel Nmp

Nmp = Idc / Impp……………(5)

= 17.29/ 2.8

= 6.175

Approximately 6 modules will be in parallel

The number of modules to be connected in series Nms

Nms = Nominal system voltage (Vdc) /Vmpp….. (6)

= 24/ 17.89

= 1.34

Rounding above calculated value, the total number of modules in series = 2.

Total array size = 6 x 2

= 12.

Battery bank Size:

The total DC load requirement = Parray /System Voltage…(7)

= 2500/ 24

= 104.16 Ah

Considering battery autonomy for two days total requirement = 104.16 x 2

= 208.32 Ah

Considering battery efficiency and depth of discharge (DOD) equal to 80 %.

Battery Capacity = 208.32/ (0.8x0.8) =325 Ah.

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We can select one battery of 180 Ah and other of 150 Ah to meet our requirement. But current
handling capacities of both batteries are different, which causes an adverse effect on the life of
low rating battery. Hence selecting two 180 Ah batteries of 24 V DC rating with the parallel
connection to get required system voltage and energy demand. Though high ratings of batteries
lead to increase in cost, we can build a reliable system. Following are the recommended battery
specifications. Model-SU-KAMHPT180

Inverter Size:

The inverter size should generally 25-30 % bigger than total power requirement (W) of
appliances.

Size of inverter = 2500 W x1.25

= 3125 W

= 3.125 kW.

Hence the size of inverter equal to 3.125 kW or 3.125 kVA.

Charge Controller Capacity:

The standard practice of sizing the charge controller is to ensure that it can withstand the product
of the total short circuit current of the array (IscA= IscM X Npm) and a certain safe factor
(Fsafe). The safe factor is necessary in order to allow for a reasonable system expansion. Thus,
the desired charge controller current (Icc) is as given by equation (8).

Icc = IscM X Npm X Fsafe ………… (8)

Where, IscM = the short circuit current of the selected module.

Icc = 3.04 X 6.08 X 1.3

= 24.02 A.

≈ 24 A

System wiring sizing:

The design of a PV power system is incomplete until the correct size and type of cable are
selected for wiring the components together. The following cables links in the PV system must
be appropriately selected:

1. The dc cable from the PV array to the battery bank through the charge controller.

I rated = Nmp X Isc X Fsafe……… (9)

= 3.04 x 6.08 x 1.3

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 ≈ 24 A.

Referring standard wire gauge and its current carrying capacity for copper conductor wire we
used 4 sq.mm wire (cable).

2. The AC cable from the inverter to the distribution board (DB) of the residence.

Current Produced by Inverter Output is-

Ioi = P total / (Voi X p.f. )………….. (10)

= 3125/ (230 X 0.8)

= 17 A.

For 17 Amp current rating, we used 2.5 Sq.mm. wires (cable)

Results Obtained from the Sizing of the proposed Solar Tree System
Tabel 8.4 Capacity of Components

Table 8.5 Cost of Components

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 Table 8.6 Estimated sizing of proposed Solar Tree

Cost Estimate of System

The cost estimate of the systems components is summarized in Table 1.3.

TOTAL COST IN RUPEES @ 60, 000 /-

Payback Period

The payback period of proposed system is calculated by dividing the overall cost of the system to
average yearly electricity bill of average Indian family which is Rs.450 /- per month. Neglecting
maintenance cost.

Payback Period =Overall cost of system/Average yearly Electricity Bill

Payback Period = 60000/5500

= 10 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠

8.6 SCOPE OF SOLAR TREES IN INDIA

India requires a power plant which generates maximum energy and uses minimum land as it is a
developing and highly populated country. In India production of energy from sun by using solar
tree must be increased to increase per capita land and fulfill the energy demand of increasing
population.

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8.7 WORKING MODELS IN INDIA
Central Mechanical Engineering
Research Institute (CMERI), in West
Bengal’s Durgapur, has designed and
developed, a solar tree that takes up
only four square feet of space and
produces about three kilowatts of
power, enough to power about five
households. Conventional solar
photovoltaic systems occupy 400
square feet of space to produce the
same amount of electricity.

Their working model could be fit

onto rooftops and on highways due to
its minimal space requirement. Apart
from Durgapur, solar trees are also
installed in Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research, New Delhi and the Fig 8.5 Solar tree in India residential
campus of Minister of Science & Technology of India. The
solar tree installation was also used by the Durgapur Municipal Corporation at its Srijani
Auditorium. The tree has been designed and developed by Indian researchers. They claim that
there is no barrier in using solar trees in urban or rural areas.

The vertical solar plant makes it possible to harness 10 per cent more sunlight. They can be
rotated twice a day to be aligned to the movement of the sun. CMERI has licensed the solar tree
with M/s Vibes Solar Solution India, Kolkata and the process is underway to license the
technology to five more companies. Researchers at CMERI are working on bringing aesthetic
models to suit the need of public parks, gardens and market places.

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 CONCLUSION
The solar tree concept is very successful to fulfill the increasing energy demand of the people,
saving of land, and should be implemented in India to provide electricity without the problem of
power cut-off and reduce the dependence on grid power. Daily average energy requirement of the
small Indian family is calculated about 3.5kW. Such systems can be mounted on the terrace, in
front of the house or near the wall avoiding shading areas. The initial investment cost of the solar
tree is also equal to same capacity PV systems as other system components are similar.

The overall cost of the domestic solar tree can be reduced by using the available local material. To
reduce cost the design of tree structure should be simple and innovative. The performance (MPP)
of solar tree better than conventional rooftop mountings as manual or low-cost auto tracking
system can be easily incorporated. The initial investment cost is the major concern in PV system.
The payback period of proposed system seems to be high but due to continuous increase in the
cost of grid power and reduction in the cost of PV cell due to technological advancement long
payback period can be compensated.

To fulfill the increasing energy demand of the people, saving of land, the solar tree concept is very
successful one and should be implemented in India to provide electricity without the problem of
power cut and the extra energy can be provided to the grid. India as the 2nd largest country of the
world in the increasing demand of the energy and try to find a way from which efficient and
abundant source of energy can be available.

Solar botanic trees is a nonconventional source having many advantages of producing electricity
as compared to the other sources. It is therefore the responsibility on the shoulders of the
youngsters of the earth to think smartly and take the right decision. Everyone should starts as an
individual to co-operate with the government to make life favorable for mankind.

The solar tree’s compact package makes it an appealing option for urban areas and rural regions
with limited free space. It’s already completed successful trial runs in three locations in West
Bengal, India, as a pilot project. It could be a boon to a country where roughly 300 million people
don’t have access to electricity!

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