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Every curriculum document mentions critical thinking, and there is universal

agreement about the need to make thoughtful judgments in virtually every
aspect of our lives - from who and what to believe to how and when to act.
Despite'long-standing -andwidespread recognition, the extent and manner of
teaching for critical thinking in schools is disheartening. As I have argued else-
where, the rhetoric greatly outstrips practice.' As Walter Parker puts it, the teach-
ing of thinking remains "rmore wish than practice."2
Although numerous factors contribute to this regrettable state of affairs,
three reasons are especially influential in relegating critical thirnking to a side-
show on the educational agenda:
Proliferation of thinking 'skills.> There is a plethora of so-called thinking
skills. For example, an ASCD publication identifies eight thinking processes
(including problem solving, decision making and.research) involving 21 core
thinking skills (including defining goals, setting goals, inferring, and predict-
ing)2As long as critical thinking.remains but one type among many forms of
thinkting, there wiLl never be adeeuate. time devoted to it.
*The ran-ing oftinkingskills. The'proliferation deficit is compounded by
the designation of critical thinking-as hetdhinki which presum-'
ably requires mastery of 'Iower order thinIfbefore it can be introduced to
students. In the Ontario curriculump,for exar ple. theplied courses intend-
ed for non-acadenic students are distingtished fr6m aailemic courses not by
the content addressed, bi'Qbythe level of tiinxpected,of students. As >.

one report noted, the applied curriculun-mwriters use "lower.order verbs,"

changing student expectations, from' "interprete to "describe" or from
'explore" to "record." Curriculum writers apparently-presume that"[a]pplied
students cannot think .. [and] are, therefore, relegated to simple tasks like
reading and repeating.f 4 Not only are niany thinking-skills vying for class, --
room attenton but critical thinking appears to be at the end of the lit ,
reserved for the best students,
* Separationof'skills' from content.The teachingofcriticalthinkingisgen- '"' ,
erilly divorced from the teaching ofsusbject matter. In many classrooms, espe-
cially in high schools, curriculum content is the priority. Thinking skills are
addressed after the subject matter has,been tauight Only at the end of a unit
are students invited to reflect on the ideas they have encountered. Because of
the heavy course load and the content focus of high stakes tests, many teach-
ers find themselves.with little time to iavolve students in thinrking about this
content. Even when critical thinking is addressedin classrooms, it is typically
separated from subject matter and taught as a generic skill that students are
expected (on their own) to apply to their schooling.and everyday life.
Our work with thousands of Canadian teachers through The Critical Think-
ing Consortium' (TC2) has convinced us that critical teaching can assume a
ritfuly central place on the main stage of dassroom activity. We start from
'the premise that it is a powerful method of teaching aUl other aspects of the cur-
riculum - both content and skill. We help teachers see how inviting students to
',hink critically about subject matter is effective at promoting both understand-
ing of the content and mastery of the sUlls. Students who passively receive infor-
mation are fia less likely to understand what they have heard or read about than
are students who have critically scrutinized, interpreted, applied or tested this
information. Rather than coqipete with the teaching of subject matter and
other thinking skills, critical thinking supports their development.
The two distinguishing features.of our conception are a curriculzm embedded
approach and an emphasis on teacbing the iintellecttial tools required for critical
thinking.6
CANADIAN EDUCATION 'ASSOCIATION I EDUCATIOU CANADA 45
 ER BREF La pensee critique n'est pas un ensemble generique d'aptitudes ou de
processus que l'on peut developper sans egard pour le contenu ou le contexte. Ce
A curriculum-embedded approach n'est pas non plus quelque chose que l'on peut enseigner dans un cours d'appoint au
Our approach to embedding critical thinking is to help programme d'etudes. Pour susciter avec efficacite cette pensee chez les enfants, il
teachers learn to present questions or tasks that challenge faut la concevoir comme une fagon d'enseigner le programme d'etudes. En effet, les
students to reflect critically about the curriculum content enseignants peuvent amener leurs eleves a faire preuve d'un esprit critique dans la
and skills. We dispute the view that critical thinking is a realisation de toute tache intellectuelle qui exige du jugement ou de choisir entre
generic set of skills or processes to be developed independ- plusieurs options. MWme une tache aussi anodine que celle de prendre des notes peut
ent of content and context. Nor do we believe that critical etre une occasion de reflechir d'une mani6re critique. On compte cinq types de
thinking can adequately be addressed as an add-on to the ressources intellectuelles qui appuient la pensee critique: la connaissance des faits,
curriculum. Rather, if it is to take a central place in the cur- les criteres de jugement, le vocabulaire de la pens6e critique, les strategies de reflex-
riculum, critical thinking must be seen as a way of teaching ion et les habitudes de l'esprit.
I
the curriculum. The traditional "content-process" division is
based upon a false dichotomy; in fact, thinking without
content is vacuous and content acquired without thought writers contrast critical thinking with a variety of other
is mindless and inert. As Richard Paul notes, "one gains "forms" of thinking, such as decision making or problem
knowledge only through thinking." 7 solving. According to this view, only certain tasks - those
Teachers can help students understand content, as typically referred to as "higher-order" operations - are the
opposed to merely recall it, by "problematizing" the subject domain of critical thinking. It is thought that if students
matter. As John Dewey wrote in How wve Think, only when a perform "higher-order" operations such as analyzing or
routine is disrupted by the intrusion of a difficult obstacle synthesizing, they are necessarily thinking critically, and if
or challenge are we forced to think about what to do. If a they perform so-called "lower-order" operations, such as
situation is not problematic (i.e., there is only one plausible comprehending or remembering, they cannot be thinking Not only are many
option or a correct answer is obvious) then it does not call critically. This tendency to equate critical thinking with thinking skills vying
for critical thinking. We use the term "critical challenge" to particular mental operations suggests, on one hand, that for classroom
describe a problematic situation that invites students to teachers are supporting critical thinking merely by asking attention but critical
think critically. Without altering the resources used or students to carry out tasks involving "higher-order" opera- thinking appears to
changing their classroom structure, teachers are encour- tions and, on the other hand, that there is no role for criti- be at the end of the
aged to challenge students. For example, instead of asking cal thinking in the so-called "lower-order" operations. list, reserved for the
students to locate information to answer the factual ques- Whether or not students are thinking cridcally depends best students.
tion, "What did the Inuit traditionally use to make tools?" more on the qualities that characterize their thinking than
the teacher might ask students to decide which animal -
the seal or the caribou - contributed more to traditional
Inuit life? Similarly, instead of writing a report on a famous
on the specific nature or type of mental operation. The
mere fact that students are analyzing does not mean they
are doing it critically. If they blindly accept dubious
_ ,.
scientist, students might assess whether da Vinci, Newton assumptions, leap to fallacious conclusions, and rely on
or Einstein, had the greatest scientific mind. Instead of inaccurate statements, we would be hard pressed to
simply picking a title that students would like for their describe their "analysis" as critical thinking. Conversely, so-
paragraph, students might decide which of several options called "lower-order" operations, such as comprehending or
was the most informative and engaging. remembering, can be occasions for critical thinking. Trying If it is to take a
In all these cases, students go beyond locating facts or to understand a difficult text or lecture may involve elabo- central place in
espousing a personal preference. They are not merely rate and thoughtful recourse to decoding strategies, habits the curriculum,
reporting what they know or like but are judging or assess- of mind, and background knowledge. So too, with remem- critical thinking
ing possible options. In making thoughtful assessments or bering; many of us with poor memories have expetimented must be seen as
reasoned judgments, we must inevitably resort to criteria - with various strategies - mnemonics, lists, mental notes, a way of teaching
some basis other than our own preferences and whims for repetition. If we assessed these strategies, however infor- the curriculum.
selecting one option over another. For example, in deciding mally, for their reliability, ease of use, and broad applica- The traditional
whether or not ice cream ought to be part of our diet, we tion, we would be thinking critically about remembering. "content-process"
would want to go beyond whether we personally liked the As these examples suggest, "higher order" operations can division Isbased
food and consider whether it was nutritious, affordable, be done in a rote and thoughtless way, and "lower order" upon a false
readily available, and easy to keep. This larger set of factors operations can be done in a critically thoughtfully manner. dichotomy; infact,
forms the criteria involved in making a reasoned judgment Teachers can engage students in thinring critically in thinking without
on the merits of including ice cream in our diet. any intellectual task involving judgment or choice among content is vacuous
The dose relationship between the term "critical" think- options. They can make even such a seemingly rote task as and content
ing and "criteriae is instructive. Mathew Lipman suggests note-taking become an occasion to thi-nk critically by intro- acquired without
that the word 'critical' should be seen as a synonym for 'cri- ducing students to the criteria for good notes and by sug- thought is mindless
terial' - to think critically is to think in light of or using cri- gesting various strategies - circling key words, webbing of and inert.
teria 8 In helping students think critically, we invite them to ideas, paraphrasing - and, perhaps also, by nurturing an
consider a reasonably complete and appropriate set of crite- intellectual works ethic - that is, a commitment to compe-
ria. Left on their own, they may use very narrow and dubi- tently carrying out relevant thinking tasks. In teaching the
ous criteria, such as whether a course of action is easy and in criteria for good note-taking, teachers might ask students
their immediate self-interest, neglecting criteria such as to imagine that a local politician has approached them to
long-term benefit, fairness to others, consistency with life prepare concise briefing notes on the day's front-page
goals, and safety. news. In one-half page, they should accurately summarize
As suggested above, many professional and academic all the important points, but only for those topics of use to

46 EDUCATION CANADA I CANADIAN EDUCATION ASSOCIATION

 the politician. Students are thinking critically about their lenge. Although other tools also refer to concepts, 'criti-
note taking as they judge whether or not their suggested cal thinking vocabulary' refers to concepts that expressly
entries are accurate, relevant, comprehensive and concise. address distinctions foundational to thinking critically -
As one elementary teacher who had begun working with for example, knowledge of the difference between 'con-
our approach remarked in her journal: "As I reflect on criti- clusion' and 'premise', 'cause' and 'correlation,' or 'cause'
cal thinking and what I am learning, I am realizing more and 'effect,' and knowledge ofvarious informal fallacies.
and more that critical thinking is a form of teaching, * Thinking strategies: knowledge of procedures, heuris-
embedded in every aspect of life in the classroom. It doesn't tics, organizing devices, algorithms and models that may
happen in isolation, or in specific subjects, but it permeates be useful when thinking through a challenge. Good crit-
the curriculum." Who would want their students to write ical thinkers draw upon a great variety of strategies to
an essay, paint a picture or, for that matter, take notes in a work their way through the challenges facing them. This
critically thoughtless way? Of course, success in the particu- category of tools is most closely aligned with what oth-
lar endeavor will depend on the possession of the tools of ers call skills, although we believe they are more respon-
good thinking. sibly viewed as strategies. Thinking strategies may be
very elaborate, such as following a comprehensive deci-
i Teaching the tools sion-making model, or they may be very focused,
We offer the notion of intellectual resources or "tools" to addressing a specific task, such as paraphrasing a state-
explain the development of good thinking Much of the ment to improve understanding. There are literally thou-
frustration teachers experience when attempting to engage sands of strategies that guide individuals in working
students in thinking critically stems froni the fact that stu- through the challenges they encounter.
Teachers can dents often lack the required concepts, attitudes, knowl- H
Habits ofmind: commitments to the range ofvalues and
engage students irI edge, criteria or strategies - in short, the tools needed to do principles of a careful and conscientious thinker.
thinking critically in a reasonably competent job. It is often assumed that mere Although more commonly described as dispositions, we
any intellectual tassk repetition will improve students' reflective competence. No prefer the term 'habits of mind' to refer to the intellectu-
involving judgmen I doubt some will improve by repeatedly trying to figure al ideals or virtues that orient and motivate thinkers in
or choice among things out for themselves, but most will be more successful ways that are conducive to good thinking, such as being
options. They can if they are taught the requisite tools for the task. open-minded, fair-minded, tolerant of ambiguity, self-
make even such a Although the specific tools depend on the nature of the reflective and attentive to detail.
seemingly rote tas k challenge facing the thinker, promoting critical thinking is It is significant that our five categories draw support
as note-taking largely a matter of helping students master an ever broad- from within the diverse body of literature on thinking.
become an occasii in ening repertoire of five types of intellectual resources: There are "schools" of thinking that focus on each of the
to think critically. * Background knowledge: knowledge of relevant informa- five tools we identify, suggesting that our categories repre-
tion about a topic that is required for thoughtftul reflec- sent a more complete synthesis of the range of critical
It is often assumedI tion. Although it should be obvious that we cannot thinking building blocks than is otherwise found in any
that mere repetitio n think critically about a topic if we know little or nothing single account.
will improve about it, many accounts of critical thinking are based on An important function of the tools approach is to help
students' reflectivei a presumption that thinking skills or operations are teachers identify what students need to be taught in order
competence. No independent of the content areas to which they are to be to undertake a given task in a critically thoughtful manner.
doubt some will applied. Properly understood, relevant background To illustrate the instructional value of our model, consider
improve by repeat- knowledge is not separate from any skill, but part of the following example of teaching primary students the
edly trying to figur a what is required to be skilled. For this reason, individu- tools needed to ask effective questions.
things out for themn- als need to acquire information relevant to the range of
selves, but most will topics that we want them to be able to think critically Developing powerful questions9
be more successfuII about. Presumably this range of topics is (or should be) As part of their social studies curriculum, Tami McDi-
if they are taught found in the subject matter of the curriculum. This armid's kindergarten to grade three class was to learn
the requisite tools point speaks strongly for embedding the teaching of crit- about the significance of Remembrance Day (November
for the task. ical thinking with the teaching of curricular content. 11). In fostering appreciation of this event, Tami invited her
* Criteria for judgment: knowledge of the appropriate cri- students to think of questions they might ask of a class-
teria or grounds for judging the reasonableness or mer- room guest who was to speak about his World War II expe-
its of the options presented by a thinking challenge. To riences. Left to their own devices, many students would
think critically is essentially to engage in deliberations likely have asked rather trivial or irrelevant questions. Tami
with the intention of making a reasoned judgment. And sought to support her students in thinking critically about
judgments inevitably are made on the basis of criteria. the questions they might ask by focusing their attention on
For this reason, an important category of tool is the four tools: critical thinking vocabulary, criteria for judg-
range of context-sensitive criteria spanning the diverse ment, a thinking strategy, and background knowledge.
intellectual tasks found in the curriculum, from what A few days prior to the visit, Tami re-introduced key
makes for a good argumentative essay, a soun-d solution vocabulary by reminding her students that they had previ-
to a business problem or a thoughtful question, to the ously talked about two kinds of questions: "weak" ques-
qualities of a reliable scientific experiment, an accom- tions and "powerful" questions. Armed with this distinc-
plished artistic performance, or effective lecture notes. tion, the dass discussed what powerful questions "look like
* Critical thinking vocabulary: knowledge of the concepts or sound like" - or, to use our terminology, they discussed
and distinctions that are needed to think about the chal- the criteria for judging powerful questions. Tami recorded

48 EDUCATION CANADA I CANADIAN EDUCATION ASSOCIATION

on chart paper the following student-generated criteria: them acquire, their understanding of the subject matter -
in this case the significance of Remembrance Day - was
Powerful questions ...
also enhanced by the experience.
*give you lots ofinformation;
As this example suggests, embedding critical thinking in
*are specific to the person or situation;
the teaching of subject matter and skills has a double-
*are open-ended - can't be answered by yes or no;
edged benefit: students are more likely to master the cur-
*may be unexpected;
riculum outcomes that we want them to learn, and critical
*are usually not easy to answer.
thinking will fnally occupy the prominent role in elemen-
Next, Tami made use of a thinking strategy - brain- tary and secondary classrooms that it deserves. n
storming - which her students had already learned to use.
Brainstorming is a useful strategy to help with the genera- ROLAND CASE is professor of curriculum and social studies
tion of ideas, although in itsef, it does not invoke critical inthe Faculty of Education at Simon Fraser University. He is
thinking. The critical thinking began in earnest when stu- currently on long-term leave from the university to directTC;
dents, working in pairs, began to assess the brainstormed -The Critical Thinking Consortium. Roland is co-editor of
questions. Using the agreed-upon criteria as their guide, the Critical Challenges Across the Curriculum-the award win-
students discussed whether or not their proposed questions ning series of teaching resources published by TCI. Informa-
were likely to elicit lots of information, were obvious or pre- tion about the Consortium and their publications is avail-
dictable, and so on. Some "weak" questions were rejected; able on their website, http://wvvw. sd38.bc.ca/TC2
others were modified to make them more powerful.
Tami had developed a fourth tool - relevant background Notes
knowledge - during the three weeks preceding the guest's 1 Roland Case and Ian Wright, "Taking Seriously the Teaching of Critical
Thinking," Canadian SocialStudies, 32,1 (1997):12-19.
visit by reading and discussing various children's stories
2 Walter Parker, "Achieving Thinking and Decision-making Objectives in
involving the war. Without the knowledge acquired from SQcial Studies"in HandbookofResearch on SociaStudiesTeachingandLearn-
these stories, many students would have been incapable of ing, ed.J. Shaver (Toronto: Collier Macmillan, 1991) 345-356.
asking a thoughtful question. 3 Rj. Marzano, RS. Brandt, C.S. Hlughes, B,F. Jones, B.Z. Pressisen, S.C.
Here is a sampling of the student-generated questions Rankin and C. Suhor, Dimensions of Thinking: A Framework for Curriculum
and Instruction (Alexandria, VA: Association forSupervisions and Curricu-
asked of the World War II veteran:
lum Development, 1988).
*Why did you fight in the war? 4 Fabrizio Antonelli, From Applied to Applause (Toronto: Ontario Secondary
-Do you remember some of your friends from the war? SchoolTeachers' Federation, November 2004) 33, 35.
5 TC' was founded in 1993 in British Columbia to provide long-term sus-
*Which countries did you fight over? tained support for critical thinking. Since that time,TC' worked with over
*Where did you live during the war? 25,000 educators and its institutional membership has grown to 42 school
*Were there any women in World War 1I? Ifso, what were their districts, faculties of education and other educational organizations in
jobs? Ontario, Manitoba, Alberta, and BC It supports an affliate network of
*What started the fighting? schools in India and has begun working with schools in the United States.
6 This conception was developed initially in collaboration with Jerrold
*Why was Canada involved? Coombs, LeRoi Daniels and Sharon Bailin. See S. Bailin, et al, A Concep-
*What was your.safe place? tion of Critical Thinkingfor Curriculum, Instruction and Assessment (Victoria,
BQ Examinations Branch, Ministry of Education, September1993) and S.
In this example, Tami systematically aided her primary Bailin, et al., "Conceptualizing Critical Thinking,"Journal of Curriculum
students in thoughtfully constructing questions by teach- Studies 31, no. 3 (1999): 285-302.
ing four tools. Notice, teaching the tools is not the same as 7 Richard Paul, "The logic of creative and critical thinking" in R.Paul, Criti-
giving students the answers or doing the thinking for cal thinking: How topreparestudentsfora mpidly changing world, (Santa Rosa,
CA: Foundation for CriticalThinking, 1993) 277.
them. Tami did not indicate to students the questions they
8 M. Lipman, "Critical Thinking: What Can it be?" Educational Leadership
might ask; rather she helped them develop the intellectual 45, (1988).
resources they needed to thoughtfullly complete the task 9 This example isbased on a lesson described inT. McDiarmid, R.Manzo
for themselves. Not only was these students' ability to pose and T. Musselle, Critical Challenges for Primary Students (Richmond, BC:
powerful questions aided by the tools their teacher helped The CriticalThinking Consortium, 1999) 57-59.

CANADIAN EDUCATION ASSOCIATION I EDUCATION CANADA 49

COPYRIGHT INFORMATION

TITLE: Bringing Critical Thinking to the Main Stage

SOURCE: Educ Can 45 no2 Spr 2005
WN: 0510503475012

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