Expanding Opportunities For Diversity in Positive Psychology: An Examination of Gender, Race, and Ethnicity

Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne © 2015 Canadian Psychological Association
2015, Vol. 56, No. 3, 271–282 0708-5591/15/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cap0000036
Expanding Opportunities for Diversity in Positive Psychology:

An Examination of Gender, Race, and Ethnicity
Meghana A. Rao and Stewart I. Donaldson
Claremont Graduate University
Positive psychology has been criticized for ignoring issues relevant to disenfranchised populations. This
article presents the results of a 17-year review of the current state of theory and research in positive
psychology with respect to issues related to gender, race, and ethnicity, representing an effort to evaluate
the extent to which these criticisms are true and to explore how the field can be more inclusive in the
future. A systematic review of the literature in positive psychology since the inception of the field in 1998
through 2014 was conducted, and content analyses were used to assess how issues of gender, race, and
ethnicity have been examined. The findings reveal that although women are overrepresented as partic-
ipants in empirical studies, they are underrepresented as first authors, and discussions of issues relevant
to women and gender are relatively scarce. Further, empirical research studies conducted across the world
are based largely on White samples, and there is little research focused on race and ethnicity or
individuals at the intersections of gender, race, and ethnicity. More organized research is needed to
develop a diverse science of positive psychology. To conceptualize possible future directions for research
and explore opportunities for diversity, key definitions of positive psychology are revisited and lessons
are drawn from exemplary articles attending to issues of gender, race, and ethnicity. Four pathways for
conducting future research are recommended as ways to expand opportunities for engaging diversity in
positive psychology.
Keywords: well-being, optimal functioning, disenfranchised groups, underrepresented, literature review
In their seminal article introducing the field of positive psychol- to the positive aspects of the human condition has inspired the
ogy, Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) observed that the imaginations of scholars across a variety of disciplines, including
social sciences had been operating from a deficit-based perspective psychology, psychiatry, education, technology, public health, so-
in which researchers and practitioners had been primarily con- cial and human services, economics, political science, neurosci-
cerned with what goes wrong in human affairs and how to remedy ence, and organizational sciences, among others (Donaldson et al.,
problems and ameliorate dysfunction. They recommended a shift 2011). Consequently, the literature in the field, particularly in its
from the “preoccupation only with repairing the worst things in first decade, was heavily focused on conceptualizations of positive
life” to a more balanced perspective that includes improving psychology and its relevance in various subdisciplines and topics,
understanding of how to build “positive qualities” (Seligman & philosophical discussions of its value, and new theory develop-
Csikszentmihalyi, 2000, p. 5). It was hoped that a scientific focus ment (Donaldson, Dollwet, & Rao, 2015). Although such concep-
on thriving or optimal functioning would suggest “new ways to tual work on expanding the field continues to grow, the empirical
address some of the most pressing issues facing today’s societies” testing of theories and new construct development has increasingly
(Donaldson, 2011, p. 5). outpaced the conceptual literature in the last 7 years (Donaldson et
al., 2015). Although this organized focus on the positive was
Positive psychology, an organized area of inquiry that emerged
initiated in the United States by Seligman’s American Psycholog-
as an antidote to psychology’s dominant focus on pathology and
ical Association (APA) Presidential Address in 1998 (see Fowler,
problems, is a young field, having been in existence for only 17
Seligman, & Koocher, 1999), over the years it has engaged the
years. In its short history, its recognition of the value of attending
interest of scholars and practitioners across the world. Positive
psychology frameworks and principles are being studied, tested,
and applied in a range of social and cultural contexts, and knowl-
edge is being locally produced in over 46 countries (Donaldson et
Meghana A. Rao and Stewart I. Donaldson, Department of Psychology, al., 2015). Further, the positive lens (i.e., strengths-focused per-
Claremont Graduate University. spective) on human affairs is emerging as a dynamic framework to
Special thanks to Kathryn Doiron and Annelise Austill for assistance drive positive social change in dealing with a host of social issues
with coding and to Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Linda Perkins, Corinna
such as poverty alleviation, low-wage labor, health care, and
Wildner, Michael T. Warren, Susan Castagnetto, and Faye Crosby for
environmental sustainability, among others (Golden-Biddle &
feedback on earlier versions of this article.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Meghana Dutton, 2012).
A. Rao, Department of Psychology, Claremont Graduate University, 123 Despite these notable achievements, however, positive psy-
East Eighth Street, Claremont, CA 91711. E-mail: meghana.rao@cgu chology has attracted the ire of critics. In particular, just as
.edu proponents of gender, racial, and ethnic equity have expressed
271
272 RAO AND DONALDSON
concern about mainstream psychological research ignoring dis- culture and poverty and, instead, focusing on harnessing their
enfranchised groups, critics of positive psychology have been strength and resilience. This article examines the extent to which
concerned that it too marginalizes the voices of disenfranchised positive psychology scholars have addressed these issues in their
groups. Some have pointed out that positive psychology re- research and how they have reinterpreted them as opportunities for
search has not sufficiently explored issues faced by underrep- positive transformation. Accordingly, we have systematically re-
resented populations such as women (Matlin, 2010). Along viewed the literature linked to positive psychology and analyzed
similar lines, in his provocative comments on the special issue issues pertinent to gender, race, and ethnicity.
of the American Psychologist on positive psychology in 2000,
Bacigalupe (2001) accused positive psychology of being only
White psychology, referring to the lack of discussion in positive Gender
psychology about “the histories, courage, challenges, and suc-
Historically, gender experts have critiqued psychological re-
cess of people of color” (p. 83) and the lack of attention to
search that demonstrated a strong androcentric bias in particular
issues of social justice, such as disparities in wealth, power, and
privilege from a positive lens. Similarly, other critics have ways (Gannon et al., 1992; Yoder & Kahn, 1993). Their argu-
charged positive psychology with a myopic focus on Western ments were centered on three main concerns that were used as
European values to define and construct the standard for opti- guiding frameworks for the analysis of the positive psychology
mal human functioning (Constantine & Sue, 2006), ethnocen- literature.
trism and individualism (Christopher & Hickinbottom, 2008), Research design. The first concern was that historically, con-
and elitism on the basis of a considerable focus on investigating siderable research did not report gender characteristics of partici-
and enhancing the happiness of those fortunate to be surrounded pants, and when it did, studies were found to be based on male
by idyllic circumstances (Fineman, 2006). participants and to predominantly engage male voices. For in-
Now, 17 years after the inception of positive psychology, as it stance, Grady (1981) observed that men appeared as participants
continues to inspire conceptual innovations and empirical investi- twice as often as women and that substantial research was based on
gations, this article investigates the extent to which charges against single-sex designs with only men as participants. However, this
positive psychology concerning gender, race, and ethnicity are true trend has shifted dramatically over the last few decades. Littleford
and how the conceptual and empirical literatures in positive psy- et al. (2010) noted that a substantial number of psychological
chology fare in engaging issues of diversity. In conclusion, it studies have been based on data collected from college students
draws lessons from the current state of research to explore oppor- from psychology departments, and as women now earn about 78%
tunities for expansion of research that is more inclusive of gender, of the undergraduate degrees in psychology, women are often
race, and ethnicity. overrepresented in these studies. Consequently, the current study
aimed to evaluate the extent to which empirical research designs in
Gender, Race, and Ethnicity positive psychology have reported gender characteristics and en-
gaged female participants.
Historically, psychological research on issues of diversity Authorship. The second aspect that gender experts have his-
such as gender, race, and ethnicity grew from a recognition of torically expressed concern about is inadequate authorship by
a lack of attention to phenomena particular to disenfranchised women (Gannon et al., 1992). McSweeney and Parks (2002)
populations. For instance, proponents of research on social conducted a review of authorship, first authorship, and participa-
issues recognized that mainstream social psychological research tion on editorial boards by women in social, developmental, cog-
often focused on examining prejudice and discrimination but nitive, and general peer-reviewed psychology journals. They found
neglected to attend to victims of prejudice and discrimination,
that although the percentages of female authors and first authors
the study of their consequences, or the coping strategies of
were lower than those for male authors and first authors—partic-
victims (Swim & Stangor, 1998; Taylor & Moghaddam, 1994).
ularly in social, cognitive, and general psychology—the trends
Others noted that mainstream research did not include under-
showed an upward trajectory for authorship and first authorship by
represented populations in its conceptualization of studies or
women from 1978 to 1997. As the active presence of women
consider how key psychological phenomena played out outside
scholars across some disciplines has shifted over time, the current
of hegemonic contexts. For instance, psychologists studying
issues of gender have expressed concern that, historically, con- study sought to investigate the extent to which the literature in
siderable research has been based on male participants and positive psychology has had first authorship by women.
predominantly engaged male voices, has excluded topics fo- Research topic. Finally, the third concern expressed by critics
cused on issues relevant to women (Grady, 1981), and has of mainstream research is that, historically, there has been inade-
mostly been conducted and authored by men (Gannon, quate inquiry into issues relevant to women’s lives (Grady, 1981).
Luchetta, Rhodes, Pardie, & Segrist, 1992). To correct such They have noted that psychological research has suffered from
trends and develop a more rigorous psychological science, over the unexamined assumptions about the sexes, and that male partici-
last few decades, psychological research on social issues has pants have been used as the standard in conceptualization of
sought to examine questions of health, poverty, and access to hypotheses in the study of human behavior (Grady, 1981;
resources, particularly through gendered and raced lenses. Pedrotti McHugh, Koeske, & Frieze, 1986). Consequently, the current
and Edwards (2010) recommended application of a positive psy- study used in-depth content analysis to investigate the extent to
chological approach in attending to social issues by shifting away which issues relevant to women have been studied in positive
from a portrayal of disenfranchised groups as victims of their psychological research.
DIVERSITY AND POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 273
Race and Ethnicity1 search focused on issues of gender, race, and ethnicity. Further, we
draw from the findings of this review to explore opportunities to
As mentioned earlier, there have been criticisms against positive expand research attending to issues of diversity.
psychology for lack of attention to issues of race and ethnicity.
However, the inclusion of race and ethnicity has been a reason for
concern in psychological science for a long time (Helms, Jernigan,
Method
& Mascher, 2005).
Research design. Past reviews of mainstream psychological Procedure
literature revealed that empirical research has neglected to report
A systematic review of the literature in positive psychology was
racial and ethnic characteristics of participants and that, when it
conducted to analyze the knowledge produced in the field from its
has done so, it has failed to adequately include participants from
inception in 1998 until 2014. Past reviews of the field have defined
disenfranchised racial and ethnic groups (see Cauce, Ryan, &
the scope of positive psychological literature in various ways, and
Grove, 1998; Jones, 1983; McLoyd & Randolph, 1985). For in-
there seems to be a lack of consensus on the boundaries of positive
stance, Delgado-Romero, Galván, Maschino, and Rowland (2005),
psychology. For instance, Rusk and Waters (2013) identified
in their 10-year review of race and ethnicity in counseling psy-
18,000 documents linked to topics that are related to positive
chology research, found that only 57% of the empirical literature
psychology. However, many of these did not explicitly refer to
reported racial and ethnic characteristics of participants. Further,
positive psychology and were published by authors who may not
compared with the overall U.S. population, Whites and Asian
have known about, much less identified with, positive psychology.
Americans were overrepresented, and other racial and ethnic
Although this was useful in assessing the broadest scope of liter-
groups were underrepresented. Therefore, the current study aimed
ature that may include aspects that are positive, it did not provide
to examine the extent to which positive psychological literature
an evaluation of the research that shapes the core of positive
reported racial and ethnic characteristics of participants and in-
psychological science. The integrative review by Donaldson et al.
cluded participants from racial and ethnic minority groups.
(2015) used tighter inclusion criteria and examined literature that
Research topic. Sue (1999) noted that the quality and quantity
specifically identified with positive psychology or situated its
of research on ethnic minority groups has been inadequate in past
work in relation to it. Consequently, their inclusion criteria re-
scientific psychological literature. Similarly, Graham (1992) con-
stricted the scope to those peer-reviewed publications that inten-
ducted a content analysis of six mainstream APA journals in the
tionally contribute to the discussion of positive psychology.
publication period from 1970 to 1989 and found declining repre-
In line with Donaldson et al. (2015), the search term positive
sentation of empirical research on African Americans. Further, she
psychology (in quotation marks, with no Boolean operators) was
found that only 3.6% of the literature explicitly emphasized issues
used to extract a total of 1,628 English-language peer-reviewed
of or conducted separate analyses by race and ethnicity. Conse-
academic articles from the electronic databases Academic Search
quently, the current study sought to explore the extent of discus-
Premier, Business Source Premier, ERIC, PsycINFO, and
sion of racial and ethnic concerns in positive psychology.
PsycARTICLES to create a positive psychology literature data set
(henceforth referred to as the data set; for a detailed review of
Intersectionality similar methods, see Donaldson et al., 2015; Donaldson & Ko,
2010). The articles in the data set included theoretical, conceptual,
A critical element in the study of diversity is the examination of empirical, meta-analytic, and review articles published in peer-
issues from an intersectionality perspective—that is, unpacking the reviewed journals.
interdependent and interconnected nature of multiple social iden- All articles that emerged from this search were screened and
tities in shaping minority experience (Shields, 2008). For instance, coded by a team of seven well-trained graduate student raters.
Reid and Kelly (1994) argued that women of color are often
underrepresented in studies that focus on women’s issues because
1
women of color do not typify the “average” woman, making it The three frameworks that guided the analysis of gender were research
difficult for researchers to identify similarities common to all design, authorship, and research topic. For race and ethnicity, analysis only
included research design and research topic. Race and ethnicity of author-
women. Consequently, their unique experiences emerging from ship was not examined, because identifying and estimating the racial/ethnic
their multiple minority identities remain neglected in empirical identity of the authors was extremely problematic. One option considered
psychological research. The current study aimed to examine the was linguistic analysis of surnames. However, Fiscella and Fremont (2006)
extent to which empirical research in positive psychology has observed that linguistic analysis is less accurate for women and people of
higher socioeconomic status because of intermarriage, name changes, and
engaged issues emerging at the intersections of race, ethnicity, and adoption. Close to half of the authors in our data set were women, and
gender. given that most authors are academics, it would be reasonable to assume
that they were middle to high socioeconomic status, thereby compromising
accuracy through linguistic analysis. Further, surname analysis is not
Study Purpose accurate for identifying African Americans (Fiscella & Fremont, 2006). It
is also important to note that surname analysis would not be relevant for
The research in positive psychology has grown rapidly over the authors outside of the United States, Canada, and few other racially and
last 17 years; however, it has been criticized for its lack of ethnically diverse countries. In other contexts, the accuracy of surname
attention to issues of diversity. This study assessed the extent to analysis is strengthened by combining it with geocoding (Fiscella &
Fremont, 2006). However, we did not have access to geographical data of
which these criticisms hold true by evaluating the literature spe- the neighborhoods of residence for the authors considered in this study to
cifically linked to positive psychology, providing an in-depth conduct such an analysis. Given these practical difficulties, neither race nor
review of the conceptual and empirical positive psychology re- ethnicity of authors was investigated.
On screening, articles were excluded if they were (a) book The abstracts were reviewed to identify and code articles fo-
reviews, commentaries, or editorials; (b) not explicitly related cusing on women or gender, and only those that clearly put
to positive psychology in any of the content; (c) not available in women or gender issues at the center were included in the
full text despite several attempts at procurement; and (d) not in analysis. Inclusion was determined on the basis of the article
English. Further, any duplicates were excluded, resulting in a meeting at least one of the following criteria: (a) The title of the
data set of a total of 1,628 unique, English-language peer- article dealt with a women’s or gender issue, (b) the abstract
reviewed journal articles. Next, for all articles included in the clearly addressed a gender studies issue, (c) the abstract clearly
review, coders closely examined titles, abstracts, and keywords dealt with marginalization of women, (d) the abstract discussed
and used a systematic coding scheme to capture key informa- gender as an element of diversity, or (e) the abstract addressed
tion. Further, they conducted an in-depth content analysis of the gender or sex differences as its main objective. Finally, in-depth
hypotheses, methods, sample characteristics, analyses, results, analysis of this subset of articles was conducted to examine
and discussions of each empirical study. Primary codes were (a) types of women’s or gender topics and (b) positive psychol-
used for frequency analysis to analyze trends in the field. The
ogy constructs studied in the context of women’s or gender
coding process was iterative, with refinements made as ambi-
issues.
guities and concerns were addressed. An interrater reliability
Race and ethnicity. Next, we examined the data set with a
analysis was conducted on a sample of 36 empirical articles for
racial and ethnic lens. Two coders conducted a content analysis for
the most complex, ambiguous, and critically relevant catego-
race- and ethnicity-specific items, and the interrater reliability was
ries. Each article was assigned to two coders for independent
coding. Their interrater reliability was found to be 90.1%. This 100%. The specific content analyses conducted are described in
percentage of agreement provides a conservative estimate as it the following sections.
does not include categories that are likely to be 100% unani- Research design. The first aspect investigated was the racial
mous among all coders (e.g., author’s name, year of publica- and ethnic composition of the samples in the published empirical
tion, title of journal). articles. The racial and ethnic composition of samples was aggre-
gated across all empirical articles that reported racial and ethnic
characteristics of participants. This was done by calculating the
Analysis sum of all participants in all studies for each racial/ethnic group—
Gender. The data set of 1,628 articles was analyzed through a for example, the aggregate of all Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics.
gendered lens. Further, content analyses were conducted to inves- Further, this was used to calculate the relative proportion of
tigate specific concerns. The coding for content analyses for participants—that is, the sum of participants of a particular race or
gender-specific items was conducted by two coders, and interrater ethnicity relative to the total number of participants aggregated
reliability was 100%. across all empirical samples.
Research design. To find out how positive psychology fared Research topic. The second aspect of investigation involved
in engaging female participants in empirical studies, all articles content analysis of the research on issues related to race and
that reported sex composition were examined. The participant ethnicity. The titles and abstracts of all 1,628 articles were closely
samples across these archived articles were aggregated (i.e., examined to identify those that focused on issues of race and
sum of participants in all the empirical samples in the data set ethnicity. Only those articles in which race or ethnicity was central
that reported sex), and the proportion of women in the samples to the research question were included in the analysis. Articles
(i.e., proportion of sum of women in all samples to sum of were screened and included in content analysis if they met at least
participants in all samples) was calculated. For multistudy one of the following criteria: (a) The title of the article dealt with
articles, the participants from each of the study samples were a race or ethnicity issue, (b) the abstract clearly addressed a race or
included in the aggregate, and the proportion of women was ethnicity issue, (c) the abstract clearly dealt with marginalization
calculated.
of individuals on the basis of race or ethnicity, (d) the abstract
Authorship. The second aspect that was examined was au-
discussed race or ethnicity as an element of diversity, or (e) the
thorship by women. Past reviews of psychological research
abstract addressed race or ethnicity differences as its main objec-
have used analysis of first authorship as a reasonable estimate
tive. In-depth content analysis of whole articles was conducted for
to assess extent of authorship by women (see Gannon et al.,
those that met at least one of these criteria. These articles were also
1992). Using a similar process, authorship was assessed in the
positive psychology literature by coding for sex of the first coded for (a) topics related to race and ethnicity and (b) positive
author of all 1,628 articles in the data set. This information was psychology constructs studied in the context of racial and ethnic
extracted and coded on the basis of the self-identified sex of the issues. It is important to note that racial and ethnic issues are
authors from publicly available author biographies, author de- constructed differently across the world. Therefore, only those
scriptions, and faculty websites. Further, nationality of author- articles that were clearly framed as dealing with issues that
ship of articles on women’s and gender topics was also assessed were racially or ethnically relevant in their context were in-
on the basis of location of the author’s institutional affiliation. cluded in the analysis.
Research topic. The third aspect that was examined was the Intersectionality. Finally, another aspect of interest was the
discussion of gender and feminist topics in the theory and examination of topics studied at the intersections of race and
empirical research. The titles and abstracts of all articles in the ethnicity and gender. Accordingly, the literature that engaged
data set—1,628 in total—were systematically reviewed to iden- issues of race and ethnicity was closely examined for including
tify those that focused on gender studies and feminist issues. discussion of gender issues or analyses of sex differences.
Results that out of the total of 1,628 articles, of which 796 were empirical,
only 295 articles reported the racial and ethnic composition of the
participants. For those articles that had more than one study, at
Gender
least one of the studies reported race and ethnicity composition. A
The articles on positive psychology were analyzed to assess the total of 265 articles reported that their participants included
engagement of women in empirical samples and in first authorship. Whites; 186 articles included Blacks, 158 included Asians, 131
Further, discussion of issues relevant to women was analyzed. included Hispanics or Latinos, and 45 included indigenous groups.
Research design. Out of a total of 1,628 articles, 972 articles Next, the proportion of participants across races and ethnicities
were empirical, of which 796 articles reported the sex composition was assessed. An aggregation of participants along racial/ethnic
of the samples. Analysis revealed that, in aggregate, 60.2% of the lines across all studies that reported race and ethnicity revealed
total sample was female. Further analysis of sex distribution in that 56.6% were White, 12% were Black, 6.1% were Asian, 7%
each empirical article revealed that out of the 796 articles, 647 were Hispanic or Latino, 0.6% were from indigenous groups, and
reported having more than 50% female participants. Thus, 81.3% 17.8% were others. It is relevant to note that in case of articles that
of the empirical research that reported sex composition included had more than one study, samples from all the studies were
more female than male participants. Thus, the empirical literature included in the aggregate.
in positive psychology is overrepresented by female participants. Thus, 37.1% of the empirical articles reported race and ethnicity
Authorship. Next, all 1,628 articles were assessed for gender information, of which 89.8% reported having Whites in their
of the first author. Analysis revealed that a total of 710 articles samples, whereas 63% reported having Blacks, and fewer reported
(43.6%) of the published literature had a female first author. Thus, including other races. Further, over half of the research that re-
a little less than half of the literature had female first authors. ported race and ethnicity was based on White participants.
Further, for the articles on gender topics, the first authors of about Research topic. Next, we examined article titles and abstracts
43% of the articles indicated institutional affiliations located in the for inquiry into discussions on issues of race and ethnicity. Out of
United States; about 13% were from the United Kingdom, Aus- a total of 1,628 articles, 45 (2.8%) engaged in discussion of race
tralia, and Canada; and about 44% were from other countries. This and ethnicity. Some of the themes that emerged in positive psy-
indicates that about 56% of the literature in positive psychology chology topics studied in these contexts were well-being and life
that addressed gender issues was produced in English-speaking satisfaction (n ⫽ 6), hope (n ⫽ 5), resilience (n ⫽ 4), and positive
Western countries. emotions (n ⫽ 3). Some of the other topics studied included
Research topic. Out of 1,628 articles, 82 (5.04%) met at least character strengths, forgiveness, mental health, positive behavior
one of the inclusion criteria discussed earlier.2 Analysis revealed support, positive education, family strengths, coping, positive or-
that out of the 82 articles, only 37 (i.e., 2.3% of the positive ganizing, positive identity, positive perfectionism, positive youth
psychology data set) dealt with topics relevant to women’s issues, development, positive parenting, and stress-related growth.
and only 13 (⬍1%) had a feminist orientation—that is, dealt with Although some articles focused solely on examining the rele-
marginalization or oppression of women or addressed women’s vance of positive psychology constructs in the context of specific
position in society. Other articles, such as Wiley, Srinivasan, racial or ethnic groups, others engaged positive psychology con-
Finke, Firnhaber, and Shilinsky’s (2013) article on positive por- structs as interventions, mechanisms, or end goals in dealing with
trayals of feminist men, discussed feminism from a positive lens or particular racial and ethnic issues. Some of the racial and ethnic
engaged in an analysis of sex differences but did not deal with a issues addressed using a positive lens included education among
specific women’s issue. indigenous ethnic groups (n ⫽ 6), stress (n ⫽ 3), and racial and
In-depth content analysis indicated that articles dealt with three ethnic identity (n ⫽ 2). Another theme that emerged was compar-
main gender issues—reproductive, physical, and mental health ative studies between racial or ethnic groups (n ⫽ 4). Other articles
of women; issues related to parenthood; and the victimization of focused on discrimination, cultural trauma, social justice, and
women. However, the approach to confronting, preventing, or suicide risk.
coping with these issues was influenced by positive psychology.
As shown in Figure 1, the most popular positive psychology Intersectionality
constructs studied in the context of gender were well-being, cop-
Of the 1,628 articles in the data set, only seven addressed issues
ing, benefit finding or posttraumatic growth, and positive devel-
at the intersections of race and gender. These articles studied a
opment of young girls.
wide range of gender, racial, and ethnic issues from a positive lens:
culturally responsive positive feminist therapy for Chinese women
Race and Ethnicity (Tzou, Kim, & Waldheim, 2012); emotional disclosure, forgive-
ness, and racial discrimination among African American men
Next, the current study analyzed the positive psychology liter-
(Hammond, Banks, & Mattis, 2006); positive youth development
ature through a racial and ethnic lens. The analysis was conducted
programs for African American adolescent girls (Kuperminc,
to assess the racial and ethnic composition of participants in
Thomason, DiMeo, & Broomfield-Massey, 2011); the impact of
empirical research studies, research on topics relevant to issues of
control over work on health among African American husbands
race and ethnicity, and research conducted from an intersectional-
and wives (O’Neal, Wickrama, & Bryant, 2014); gender differ-
ity perspective (i.e., studies that examined questions at the inter-
sections of race, ethnicity, and gender).
Research design. With respect to the engagement of racial 2
A detailed list of the studies included in this review can be obtained by
and ethnic minorities as research participants, analysis revealed contacting Meghana A. Rao.
Figure 1. Positive psychology topics on women and gender.
ences in character strengths among women and men from the empirical studies overall. A total of 60.2% of the total sample was
Maasai ethnic group from Kenya and the Inighuit ethnic group female, and 81.3% of the articles included more female than male
from Greenland (Biswas-Diener, 2006); gender differences in eat- participants. Whereas past reviews have indicated a preponderance
ing disorders and perfectionism among Malaysian Chinese (Choo of male participants in sports psychology (Wann & Hamlet, 1995)
& Chan, 2013); and content analysis of research at the intersec- and organizational research (Jarema, Snycerski, Bagge, Austin, &
tions of sexual minorities, gender minorities, and racial/ethnic Poling, 1999), the positive psychology literature shows the oppo-
groups in positive psychology (Vaughan et al., 2014). site pattern. Inasmuch as authors have expressed concern that a
bias toward use of more male participants in sports and organiza-
Discussion tional research compromises the generalizability of findings, the
same criticism (though favoring women) might be leveled against
Over the last 17 years, the scholarship in positive psychology positive psychology. However, a bias toward using female partic-
has grown substantially, influencing research across a variety of ipants is not unique to positive psychology. Indeed, Henry’s
domains and subdisciplines. Despite its popularity, however, it has (2008) review found that over two thirds of the empirical studies
attracted many criticisms, particularly in relation to its neglect of
in top-ranked social psychology journals—Journal of Personality
issues relevant to disenfranchised populations. The current study
and Social Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology Bulle-
was the first of its kind in seeking to investigate these claims by
tin, and Journal of Experimental Social Psychology— used college
conducting a systematic review of the state of the field and
sophomores as participants. Further, Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava,
assessing the extent to which positive psychology has been inclu-
and John’s (2004) review of studies published in the Journal of
sive of gender, race, and ethnicity.
Personality and Social Psychology in 2004 revealed that women
accounted for over 70% of the participants in studies that used
Gender traditional college sophomore samples. Interestingly, in positive
Research design. The first concern investigated was the ex- psychological research, only 39% of the empirical studies used
tent to which sex composition was reported and the degree to college samples; 35% used nonstudent adults, 16% used children
which women have been included as participants in empirical and adolescents, and 10% failed to report the age of participants
research. The current review found that 81.9% of the published (Donaldson et al., 2015).
empirical articles reported sex composition, which is an improve- To summarize, contrary to trends in other areas of psychology,
ment over earlier reviews of the psychological literature. For the research in positive psychology shows a low reliance on
example, only 65% of the empirical articles published in four college samples yet has an overrepresentation of women as par-
educational psychology journals between 1985 and 1999 reported ticipants. Further post hoc examination of the data set revealed two
sex composition (Holverstott et al., 2002), and only 70% of the possible explanations for this phenomenon. One explanation is that
articles in 26 APA journals in 1990 reported the sex of the studies that use college samples tend to have larger samples than
participants (Ader & Johnson, 1994). Surprisingly, Gannon et al. those that use other sources for participants. Thus, although there
(1992) found that the reporting of sex of participants had declined are fewer studies that use college samples compared with trends in
over the years. Many authors have noted that these trends are other areas of psychology, the overrepresentation of women in these
problematic, because failure to report sex makes it difficult to may factor heavily in the overall calculation. Another explanation
determine whether research is relevant across sexes. Thus, al- may be that in the last few years, the use of Internet-based methods for
though trends in other areas have historically shown decline in recruitment such as use of social media and online advertisements as
reporting participants’ sex, the positive psychology research seems a way to recruit large samples has grown. Further, considerably more
to have fared relatively well in this regard. women than men tend to respond to these calls for participation based
For articles in which the sex of participants was reported, more on the study descriptions provided in the online advertisements. It is
female than male participants served in positive psychological unclear at this time whether this trend is consistent in other areas (for
reviews, see Cassese, Huddy, Hartman, Mason, & Weber, 2013; of psychological research. For instance, Cundiff (2012) conducted
Gosling et al., 2004). Regardless, given the relatively high report of a study examining the racial and ethnic composition of participants
sex composition, it is reasonable to conclude that the overrepresen- in research published in eight prominent journals in 2007, spread
tation of women is an accurate trend, indicating that representation across social psychology, developmental psychology, abnormal
of women as participants in positive psychology research is not an psychology, consulting and clinical psychology, and cognitive
area of concern. neuroscience. She found that 52.2% of the articles reported par-
Authorship. The findings from the current review reveal that ticipant race and ethnicity and that, in the U.S. context, Native
in positive psychology research, about 44% of first authors are Americans, Blacks, and Hispanics were underrepresented as com-
women. Historically, reviews have been concerned about the un- pared with the racial and ethnic composition of the population in
derrepresentation of women as first authors in psychological re- the United States. Similarly, in a review of 104 studies published
search. For example, McSweeney and Parks (2002) found that in between 1960 and 2010 on psychodynamic psychotherapy treat-
the period between 1993 and 1997, women were underrepresented ment research, Watkins (2012) found that 75% of the literature did
as first authors in four social psychology journals (32.75%), four not report race and ethnicity information, and of those that did
cognitive psychology journals (29.75%), and four general psychol- report such information, in aggregate, 75% of the participants were
ogy journals (22%). Similarly, in articles published in the Journal White, 21% were Black, and 4% were identified as other. Thus, the
of Organizational Behavior Management in 1997, 43% of first current analysis represents an improvement over other reviews but
authors were women (Jarema et al., 1999). However, the trends reflects the general trend that there is a low rate of reporting of race
were better in developmental psychology (55.2% from 1993 to and ethnicity information of participants and that, globally, the
1997; McSweeney & Parks, 2002) and educational psychology published research is predominantly on White participants.
(54% in 2008; Fong, Yoo, Jones, Torres, & Decker, 2009). Thus, Research topic. The findings indicate that specific literature
the representation of women as first authors in positive psychology focused on issues of race and ethnicity in positive psychology is
research seems to be at the mid-to-upper end of the range of what scant. Analysis revealed that 2.8% of the positive psychology
is normative in other areas of psychology. research focused on racial and ethnic issues. These findings, al-
Research topic. An in-depth content analysis of the types of though disappointing, are not unsurprising and mirror the trends in
topics studied in positive psychology research revealed that the other areas of psychology (Brown, Shriberg, & Wang, 2007;
focus on issues of gender is still underdeveloped. Only 5% of the Hartmann et al., 2013). The most popular positive psychology
literature engaged in any discussion of gender, issues of relevance constructs studied in these contexts were hope and resilience, often
to women, or analysis of sex differences. For those articles that as predictors and mechanisms, and well-being and life satisfaction
directly engaged issues relevant to women, the main themes that as outcomes. Further, some articles used interventions framed
emerged were health (reproductive, mental, and physical), victim- from a positive lens to address racial and ethnic issues around
ization of women, and parenthood. Further, there was a strong education among ethnic groups and racial and ethnic identity. This
focus on well-being and life satisfaction as the end goal of the treatment is similar to the treatment of issues of women and
research. Another common theme was coping with adversity, gender, in which positive psychology constructs are being used to
posttraumatic growth, and benefit finding in the context of hard- cope with adversity and develop interventions in the pursuit of
ships such as dealing with a history of childhood sexual abuse improved quality of life and increased well-being.
(Wright, Crawford, & Sebastian, 2007). Yet another topic that is
gaining popularity is the study of positive youth development of
Intersectionality
girls. Thus, the findings suggest a small but growing interest in
dealing with women’s issues of health, motherhood, and victim- The intentional conduct of research from an intersectionality
ization from a positive lens and facilitating positive development perspective was extremely scant in the positive psychology liter-
of young girls with the goal of increasing short- and long-term ature. Only one article in the data set intentionally pursued such an
well-being. However, more than half of these small bursts of objective (Vaughan et al., 2014). However, a few articles attended
interest seem to stem from English-speaking Western, industrial- to both the gender and racial or ethnic identities of their partici-
ized nations. Therefore, there is a need for more global attention to pants as part of their research agenda. Along lines similar to other
the conduct of positive psychology research on issues relevant to areas of psychology, the intersectionality perspective in positive
women. psychology research remains a largely unexplored area.
Race and Ethnicity Summary

Research design. Another area of analysis was the assessment The findings reveal that women are underrepresented as first
of the extent to which the empirical research was inclusive of authors, disenfranchised racial and ethnic groups are underrepre-
racial and ethnic diversity in terms of study participants. Findings sented as participants, and deep engagement and organized inquiry
revealed that 37.1% of the empirical studies reported race and from a positive psychological lens into concerns of women and
ethnicity of participants, which is lower than what has been found disenfranchised races and ethnicities are still scarce. The current
in other reviews of psychological research conducted in the United review also supports other reviews (see Rao, Donaldson, & Doi-
States. Further, in aggregate, about 57% of the participants were ron, 2015) indicating that investigations situated in non-
White, 12% were Black, 6% were Asian, 7% were Hispanic or Westernized contexts are particularly sparse. Thus, the positive
Latino, 0.6% were from indigenous groups, and 17.8% were psychology research largely mimics trends in other areas of psy-
identified as others, which is an improvement over other reviews chology. This is unsurprising given that the field has been devel-
oped mostly by academics whose broader professional identities concepts but were not linked with the positive psychology move-
are as personality, clinical, developmental, or social psychologists ment and, therefore, may not have tapped into the unique re-
engaged in basic research who, consequently, may carry over sources, perspectives, and approaches offered by the research in
common practices from their subareas of psychology into positive positive psychology.
psychology research (Peterson, 2006). Another set of limitations is related to the methodological chal-
On the brighter side, women were overrepresented as partici- lenges in specific items of analysis. The examination of gender of
pants, despite a relatively low reliance on college samples and first authorship was based on coding of publicly available infor-
possibly due to an interest in responding to web-based calls for mation and, as such, may have been subject to error. Accuracy of
participation in studies on positive psychology topics. This has the analysis of race and ethnicity of participants was also limited as a
potential to open up new opportunities for further exploration. result of variability across cultures. Many articles published in
Further, Donaldson et al. (2015) found that the topics most studied countries with more racially and ethnically homogenous popula-
in positive psychology are well-being, life satisfaction, happiness, tions, such as those emerging from Asian countries, did not report
resilience, and growth, among others. This suggests that a signif- participant race and ethnicity. Further, the particular issues around
icant portion of the research in positive psychology that involves race and ethnicity can be varied and complex in different countries.
the study of constructs that are inherently enabling, empowering, Therefore, it is difficult to comment on research topics on race and
and focused on improving quality of life also has a strong basis in ethnicity without in-depth knowledge of the well-being of disen-
the voices of women as research participants. Therefore, positive franchised groups in each country’s particular cultural context.
psychology frameworks carry a strong potential to inform research Despite these limitations, however, this review provides a fairly
that can be empowering and of relevance to women. In addition, reliable overview of the organized research on gender, race, and
although the number of articles that explored issues of gender, ethnicity that situates itself within the positive psychology litera-
race, and ethnicity was small, of those that did, most focused on ture. In the following section, we draw from the findings of the
enhancing well-being despite adverse circumstances. Further, current review to explore opportunities and propose future direc-
there was a growing interest in the application of positive psychol- tions for how more organized research on issues of diversity can
ogy constructs in dealing with issues of victimization and oppres- enrich the science of positive psychology.
sion. This indicates that, in response to the charges of critics, some
researchers are viewing the positive psychological lens as a tool to
Future Directions
enhance the well-being of not only those who are fortunate to
afford a good life, but also those who are coping with adversity and Over the years, the field has developed in a variety of ways, and
thriving despite it. Similarly, there have been initial contributions scholars have constructed the scope of positive psychology re-
on studying collectivistic values from a positive lens. More inclu- search using various definitions. Now, to conceptualize possible
sion of underrepresented groups and organized lines of inquiry into future directions, we revisit some of the key definitions and con-
specific issues relevant to these groups have the potential to structions, review and draw lessons from a few exemplary articles
uncover new pathways for improving group members’ quality of that have broken new ground in conducting positive psychology
life. research from a gendered and raced perspective, and propose
pathways to expand opportunities for future diversity research in
positive psychology.
Strengths and Limitations
The purpose of this review was to survey the English-language
Positive Aspects of the Minority Experience
peer-reviewed literature linked to positive psychology that was
inclusive of gender, race, and ethnicity. This is the first review of Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi’s (2000) seminal article on pos-
its kind to examine the extent and characteristics of such research itive psychology recommended a shift from the prevailing deficit-
in positive psychology. Further, this systematic review was con- based perspective of the social sciences to the systematic study of
ducted by extracting relevant literature from very large electronic the positive aspects of the human experience. Emerging from this
databases. Therefore, it is expected that the findings provide a perspective, one potential path for positive diversity research,
fairly reliable estimate of the state of research in the discipline. therefore, is to engage organized inquiry into the uncovering of the
However, it is important to view the present findings in light of the positive aspects of the minority experience. For instance, Riggle,
study’s limitations. The search involved the use of specific Whitman, Olson, Rostosky and Strong’s (2008) inquiry into the
terms—namely, positive psychology. There may be considerable positive aspects of having a gay or lesbian identity revealed key
psychological literature focused on positive outcomes or topics factors such as creation of families of choice, opportunity to serve
that are also studied in positive psychology that was not captured as positive role models, deep personal insight and sense of self,
by this restricted search. However, as the purpose of the current freedom from gender-bound roles, and involvement in social jus-
systematic review was to identify the scholarship that is explicitly tice and activism, among others. The investigation of unique
linked to the positive psychology movement, only literature that strengths that emerge at the intersections of gender, race, and other
self-identified as being associated with positive psychology or that minority categories such as sexual orientation (see Wilder, Rao, &
situated itself in relation to the positive psychology movement was Donaldson, in press) and the examination of positive lived expe-
included in the review. A search for positive constructs such as riences unique to these disenfranchised groups would help to
well-being, happiness, resilience, and strengths would have un- identify experiences worth protecting, preserving, and nurturing.
doubtedly produced more hits. When this possibility was tested, For instance, connectedness and awareness of connectedness have
however, in most cases the articles returned engaged with similar emerged as culturally based protective factors among Native
Americans (Mohatt, Fok, Burket, Henry, & Allen, 2011) that it Along similar lines, feminists such as Hartsock (1983) have
would be useful to preserve and foster. A critical aspect of con- suggested that patriarchal institutional structures are marked by a
ducting such organized research is that it avoids the problem of the valuing of and preoccupation with power through causing or
“add-[diversity]-and-stir” approach to including diversity issues in preventing death. In contrast, some of the prominent theoretical
mainstream research. Rather than just adding samples of minority and empirical contributions in positive organizational scholarship
groups to mainstream empirical research, it engenders the use of a have focused on what is life giving and generative in institutions and
positive lens at the grassroots level to pay focused attention to have found that these approaches and lenses are associated with a
identifying and drawing out strengths embedded in disenfran- range of positive organizational outcomes (Cameron, Dutton, &
chised communities and contexts. Quinn, 2003; Carmeli, Brueller, & Dutton, 2009; Donaldson & Ko,
2010; Dutton & Heaphy, 2003; Stephens, Heaphy, Carmeli, Spre-
Positive Constructs in Disenfranchised Populations itzer, & Dutton, 2013). These theories have the potential to be
extended to uncover and reinforce what is energizing and life
Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) conceptualized positive
giving in broader societal contexts.
psychology as research organized around three main pillars—
Thus, the positive psychology perspective is uniquely posi-
positive experiences and states of being, positive traits of individ-
tioned to take on the task of drawing out historically marginalized
uals, and positive enabling institutions. Using this frame, diversity
and devalued constructs and using rigorous scientific research to
research can involve further study of these topics in the context of
unpack their value, benefits, and strengths. Further systematic
disenfranchised groups, such as developing resiliency among ad-
research can provide empirical grounding and supportive interven-
olescent girls (Johnson, 2003), the effect of cognitive reappraisal
tions to enable disenfranchised populations to own, develop, and
on psychological functioning of Latinos in the context of multiple
harness their assets, rather than underplay them, so as to achieve
oppressions (Soto et al., 2012), coping strategies for women who
positive outcomes. Further, in valuing what has been previously
experience violence (Oosthuizen & Wissing, 2005), and stress-
marginalized without necessarily taking away from others (i.e.,
related growth among racial and ethnic minority adolescents
moving away from a win–lose model to a win–win model), there
(Vaughn, Roesch, & Aldridge, 2009), among others. Further,
is the potential to engage the powerful as much as the powerless in
research focusing on identifying strengths that emerge among
shifting the power imbalance toward creating more socially just
disenfranchised groups, such as cultural factors that affect well-
environments.
being among African American students (Wilson, Moore, Boyd, &
Easley, 2008) or the impact of spiritual well-being on long-term
psychological and behavioral outcomes among homeless women Reenvisioning Diversity Studies From a Positive Lens
(Douglas, Jimenez, Lin, & Frisman, 2008), can help to identify
Positive psychology has been described as a science that uses a
new resources and opportunities to enable disenfranchised groups
unique interpretive lens to find out “what works, what is right, and
to thrive.
what is improving” (Sheldon & King, 2001, p. 216; see also
Reinterpreting Marginalized Constructs From a Donaldson et al., 2011; Linley, Joseph, Harrington, & Wood,
2006). Using this framework, positive psychological research and
Positive Lens
strengths-driven evaluation (see Rao, Donaldson, & Porter, 2014)
Some constructs that have been devalued and pushed to the of empowerment practices—such as gender-equity initiatives, af-
periphery because of socialization may have a chance to reemerge firmative action policies, minority mentoring programs, advocacy
as valuable when viewed through a positive lens. Many of the efforts, and the like— can potentially provide fresh perspectives on
popular areas studied by positive psychology scholars—including the strengths of these programs and insights into the underlying
quality of life, emotions, relationships, and similar other topics— mechanisms that promote success.
are those that have been historically viewed by a patriarchal culture as Moreover, many areas of diversity research—including gender
the domain of women or as “feminine” topics (Rosenkrantz, Vogel, studies, race studies, queer studies, multicultural studies, and so
Bee, Broverman, & Broverman, 1968). Similarly, many emotional on—investigate concepts that are aligned with a positive lens. For
and interpersonal constructs—such as kindness, love, nurturance, instance, constructs such as empowerment, positive social change,
compassion, forgiveness, mercy, humility, modesty, social intelli- valuing differences, fostering positive intergroup relations, affir-
gence, and prudence—that are typically viewed as feminine or mative cultural socialization, interconnectedness, and multiple
“soft” constructs are considered to be character strengths in the ways of knowing inherently engage a positive lens (Harrell, 2014).
VIA Institute on Character’s (2013) character strengths frame- An organized program of interdisciplinary research bridging pos-
work. Although cross-cultural analyses of the VIA character itive psychology and diversity studies has the potential to encour-
strengths have found cultural and gender differences in how they age sharing of advances in theoretical and conceptual frameworks
are valued and expressed (Biswas-Diener, 2006; van Eeden, that can foster deeper understanding, more holistic development,
Wissing, Dreyer, Park, & Peterson, 2008), research based on the and enhanced application of knowledge pertinent to disenfran-
VIA strengths highlights that these constructs are desirable by chised populations.
indicating that their presence is likely to be predictive of well- As Peterson (2006) noted, well-being and suffering are not
being, life satisfaction, and growth (Donaldson et al., 2015). This disconnected; deliberate interventions that promote happiness also
suggests that positive psychological research has the potential to alleviate suffering. Likewise, using a positive lens to view issues
investigate, validate, and bring back into focus topics that have of diversity may aid in the development of interventions that
historically been marginalized or considered inferior to more encourage flourishing and optimal functioning, and as a byproduct
“masculine” topics such as aggression, dominance, and power. it may simultaneously ameliorate problems.
Conclusion rature, couvrant 17 ans, sur l’état actuel de la théorie et de la

recherche en psychologie positive en ce qui a trait aux questions
Positive psychology as a field branches away from mainstream relatives au genre, à la race et à l’ethnicité, en vue d’évaluer la
psychological research and foci in its examination of positive
mesure dans laquelle les critiques sont justifiées et d’explorer de
aspects of the human condition and strengths and assets of indi-
quelle façon le domaine pourrait être plus inclusif. Une revue
viduals and groups rather than the traditional focus on pathology.
systématique de la littérature de la psychologie positive depuis sa
This has the potential to provide unique perspectives to research on
création, en 1998, jusqu’en 2014, a été réalisée. Des analyses de
social issues, including those related to disenfranchised groups.
contenu ont été effectuées en vue de déterminer comment y ont été
However, critics have charged the field with neglect of disenfran-
examinés le genre, la race et l’ethnicité. Les résultats ont révélé
chised populations and, particularly, a lack of inclusiveness of
que, si les femmes sont surreprésentées comme participantes aux
gender, race, and ethnicity. The current review was the first of its
études empiriques, elles sont sous-représentées en tant qu’auteurs
kind in systematically conducting a 17-year review of the positive
principaux, et que la discussion sur les dossiers concernant les
psychology literature in terms of how it has dealt with inclusion of
femmes et le genre est relativement rare. De plus, les recherches
gender, race, and ethnicity. The findings from this systematic
review reveal that, thus far, the explorations of gender, race, and empiriques réalisées à l’échelle internationale sont en grande partie
ethnicity in positive psychology have been mostly tentative, and basées sur des échantillons de sujets de race blanche, et très peu
the concerns raised by the critics are largely supported by the d’études ont porté sur la race et l’ethnicité ou encore sur les
literature. This, however, follows a trajectory similar to that found recoupements entre le genre, la race et l’ethnicité. Il faudra
in other areas of psychology. Further, some of the current schol- d’autres recherches formelles en vue de diversifier la science de la
arship shows promise for engaging positive frameworks in the psychologie positive. En vue de conceptualiser les éventuelles
future to contribute to critical concerns facing today’s societies. orientations des recherches futures et d’explorer les possibilités de
In the spirit of fueling this area of investigation, we recommend diversification, on a revu certaines définitions de base de la psy-
that future theory and research focus on the development of a chologie positive et tiré des leçons d’articles exemplaires portant
broader definition of positive psychology that is committed to sur les questions concernant le genre, la race et l’ethnicité. Quatre
being more inclusive. Such a construction of positive psychology voies sont ainsi recommandées pour les recherches futures en tant
could provide criteria that define the field in a way that gives scope que façons d’élargir les possibilités de diversité en psychologie
for and stimulates research on issues of relevance to disenfran- positive.
chised populations. Some of the seeds for such a renewed focus
have been planted by seminal scholarship described in this article Mots-clés : bien-être, fonctionnement optimal, populations vul-
and in volumes and publications such as Positive Psychology as nérables, sous-représentation, revue de la littérature.
Social Change (Biswas-Diener, 2011) and Using a Positive Lens to
Explore Social Change and Organizations: Building a Theoretical
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Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne © 2015 Canadian Psychological Association

2015, Vol. 56, No. 3, 271–282 0708-5591/15/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cap0000036

Expanding Opportunities for Diversity in Positive Psychology:

Keywords: well-being, optimal functioning, disenfranchised groups, underrepresented, literature review

Figure 1. Positive psychology topics on women and gender.

Race and Ethnicity Summary

Conclusion rature, couvrant 17 ans, sur l’état actuel de la théorie et de la

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