9IG Topic 4 Chemistry

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Chemistry O-Level IGCSE

(0620)
Topic 4: Stoichiometry

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 1


Names and formulae of Ionic Compounds

 Binary ionic compounds are compounds that contain only two elements, metal and

non-metal.

 Hydrogen and metals lose electrons and form positive ions. The ions have the same

name as the atoms.

 Non-metals gain electrons and form negative ions, with names ending in -ide.

 Elements in group 4 don’t usually form ions because they have to lose or gain large

number of electrons which is not possible.

 To name an ionic compound just put the positive and negative ions together with the

positive ion first. Ex: K+ and Cl- : potassium chloride,,, Ca2+ and N3- : calcium nitride

 Valency: is the number of electrons its atoms lose, gain or share to form a

compound.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 2


 To work out the formula of the compound follow the following steps:

Lithium fluoride magnesium chloride calcium oxide

Sodium sulphide beryllium phosphide aluminium bromide

 Transition elements:
+ 2+
 Some transition metals can form one type of ion ex. Ag and Zn

 Most transition metals can form more than one type of ion ex.:
Cu+ : copper (I) ion, Cu2O: copper (I) oxide

Cu2+ : copper (II) ion, CuO: copper(II) oxide

Fe2+ : iron (II) , FeS: iron (II) sulfide

Fe3+: iron (III), Fe2S3 : iron (III) sulfide

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 3


Ex: silver oxide copper(I) chloride iron(III) oxide

ZnS CuI2 FeO

 Polyatomic ions or compound ions or complex ions:


 A polyatomic ion is a charged ion composed of two or more atoms covalently bonded
that can be considered as a single ion.

 In the following table the most important compound ions.

1+ (monovalent) 1- (monovalent) 2- (divalent) 3- (trivalent)

NH4+ OH- SO42- PO43-


Ammonium ion Hydroxide ion Sulfate ion Phosphate ion

NO3- CO32- PO33-


Nitrate ion Carbonate ion Phosphite ion

HCO3- SO32-
Hydrogen carbonate ion Sulfite ion

NO2-
Nitrite ion

Give the name of the following ionic compounds:

1) Na2CO3 ____________________________________________________

2) NaOH _____________________________________________________

3) MgBr2 _____________________________________________________

4) KCl _______________________________________________________

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 4


5) FeCl2 ______________________________________________________

6) FeCl3 ______________________________________________________

7) Zn(OH)2 ___________________________________________________

8) BeSO4 ___________________________________________________

9) Al2S3 _____________________________________________________

10) PbO ______________________________________________________

11) Li3PO4 ____________________________________________________

12) Mg3P2 ____________________________________________________

13) Ag2SO3 ____________________________________________________

14) NH4OH ____________________________________________________

For the following compounds, give the formulas

15) sodium phosphide ___________________________________________

16) magnesium nitrate ___________________________________________

17) lead (II) sulfite ______________________________________________

18) calcium phosphate ___________________________________________

19) ammonium sulfate ___________________________________________

20) aluminum sulfide ____________________________________________

21) beryllium chloride ____________________________________________

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 5


22) iron (III) oxide _______________________________________________

23) iron (II) bromide _____________________________________________

24) calcium oxide _______________________________________________

25) aluminum sulfate ____________________________________________

26) copper (I) carbonate __________________________________________

27) barium oxide ________________________________________________

28) ammonium sulfite ____________________________________________

29) silver bromide _______________________________________________

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 6


Names and Formulas of Covalent Compounds

 In binary covalent compounds, both elements are non-metals.

 If one is hydrogen, then it’s named first.

 Otherwise the one with lower group number comes first and then the name of the

other non-metal, ending with -ide, for example: nitrogen dioxide, nitrogen is in Group V

so it comes before oxygen which is in Group VI.

 If both are in the same group, then the one further down the group comes first, for

example: sulfur dioxide, sulfur is lower than oxygen in Group VI so it comes first.

 Some compounds which have been known for long times are called by their common

names, example H2O is water, NH3 is ammonia.

 Roots of non-metal elements

element root+ide element root+ide element root+ide element root+ide


C Carbide N nitride O Oxide F Fluoride
P phosphide S Sulfide Cl Chloride
As arsenide Se selenide Br Bromide
I Iodide

 If you’re given picture of a molecule showing all atoms and bonds, we can easily work out

its formula. We do this simply by counting the number and type of each atom, we then

use the rules mentioned above.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 7


 Steps for writing the chemical formula:

 Write the symbol of elements (same way mentioned above).

 Write valency of each element below the symbol.

 Cross the valencies.

 Example: Phosphorous and chlorine  phosphorous trichloride (PCl3)

P Cl

1 3

 Steps for writing names of covalent compounds:

 Write the names of the elements in the order listed in the formula.

 Use prefixes to indicate the number of each kind of atom.

 End the name of the second element with the suffix -ide.

prefix mono- di- tri- tetra- penta- hexa- hepta- octa- nona- deca-

number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 8


Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 9
Chemical Equations

1. Word Equations
 We show chemical reactions by chemical equations. The simplest type of equation is a

word equation.

 The word equations shows names of the reactants on the left and the names of the

products on the right, the arrow shows that the reaction goes from left to right, from

reactants to products.

Example: magnesium oxygen  magnesium oxide

 Any conditions such as heating or adding a catalyst are written over the arrow because

they don’t appear as a reactant or product.

Heat + catalyst + pressure

Example: Nitrogen + hydrogen _______________________ ammonia

2. Symbol Equations
 A symbol equation is a shorthand way of describing a chemical reaction.

 In any chemical reaction, the bonds in the reactants are broken and the new bonds are

formed so the atoms combine differently.

 Atoms cannot be formed from nothing and cannot be destroyed, so there must be the

same number of each type of atom on both sides of the equation.

 In chemical reaction, the mass of the products always equals the mass of the

reactants.

 We can balance an equation by counting the number of each type of atom in the reactants

and products.

Example: Mg + O2  MgO (not balances)

2Mg + O2  2MgO (balanced)

 Hint 1: When balancing symbol equations you must not change any of the formulae.

Always balance by putting large numbers (coefficients) in front of the formulae. For

example, balancing CaO by making it into CaO2 is wrong. It should be 2CaO.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 10


 Hint 2 : Some gaseous elements are diatomic molecules ( hydrogen H2, nitrogen N2,

oxygen O2, fluorine F2, chlorine Cl2, bromine Br2, iodine I2 )

 Hint 3: When brackets are used, the small number at the bottom right of the

brackets multiplies through what is in the brackets. So Mg(NO3)2 has 1 “atom’ of

magnesium, (1x2) 2 atoms of nitrogen and (2x3) 6 atoms of oxygen. If we wrote

2Mg(NO3)2 , we should have twice as many of these atoms 2 Mg, 4 N, and 12 O.

Example 1: aluminium chloride + water  aluminium hydroxide + hydrogen chloride

Example 2: calcium hydroxide + nitric acid  calcium nitrate + water

Using state symbols


 We use special symbols in equations to show if a substance is a solid, liquid, gas or solute

dissolved in water (aqueous).

 They are (s) solid, (l) liquid, (g) gas, (aq) aqueous solution.

 State symbols are written after the formula of each reactant and product:

Zn(s) + HSO4(aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

 When water or other liquids are reactants or products they can be liquid or gas according

to the conditions used:

MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 11


CO(g) + H2O(g)  CO2(g) + H2(g)

 There are steps to follow when writing an equation:

1. Write the word equation .

2. Then write it using symbols and formulae.

3. Make sure all formulae are correct.

4. Check that the equation is balanced for each type of atom in turn (coefficients should

be simplified).

5. Add the state symbols.

 Checkpoint 1:

Write word equations for the reactions:

a. 2 Na + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2

____________________________________________________________________________________________

b. Mg + ZnSO4  Zn + MgSO4

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

c. CuO + H2SO4  CuSO4 + H2O

_______________________________________________________________

Write balanced symbol equations for the following reactions:

a. Zinc + hydrochloric acid  zinc chloride + hydrogen

_____________________________________________________________

b. Chlorine + potassium bromide  bromine + potassium chloride

____________________________________________________________

c. Copper(II) chloride + sodium hydroxide  copper(II) hydroxide + sodium chloride

_________________________________________________________________

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 12


Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 13
3. Ionic Equations
 When ionic compounds dissolve in water, the ions separate.

Example: MgCl2(aq)  Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

 The 2Cl- shows that there are two separate chloride ions in solution.

 Substances that forms ions are:

a. Compounds containing metal and non metal

b. Acids, such as HCl hydrochloric acid, H2SO4 sulfuric acid and HNO3 nitric acid

c. Ammonium compounds that contain ammonium ions NH4+

 An ionic equation is a special form of a symbol equation that shows only those ions

that react.

 In many ionic reactions, only some of the ions take part in the reaction, the ones that do

not are called spectator ions.

 How to write an ionic equation?

Step 1: Write down the balanced ionic equation with state symbols.

BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)  2NaCl(aq) + BaSO4(s)

Step 2: Write down all the ions present in the equation. Any reactant or product that is a

solid, a liquid or a gas is not split into ions.

Ba2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + SO2-4(aq)  2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + BaSO4(s)

Step 3: Cross out the ions that are the same on both sides of the equation. These are

the spectator ions.

Ba2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + SO2-4(aq)  2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + BaSO4(s)

Step 4: Write only the reactants and products that are left to get the ionic equation.

Ba2+(aq) + SO2-4(aq)  BaSO4(s)

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 14


Example 2:

An aqueous solution of chlorine reacts with an aqueous solution of sodium bromide to

form an aqueous solution of sodium chloride and an aqueous solution of bromine. Write an

ionic equation for this reaction.

 Hint: When writing ionic equations, first identify the reactants or products that are

not ionic, these will be solids, liquids or simple molecules like chlorine. It is only then

that you can separate the other compounds into ions.

 If two solutions are added together and a precipitate (solid) is formed you can simplify

the method. All you have to do write down the formula of the precipitate as a product

and the ions that go to make up precipitate as the reactants:

Symbol equation: FeCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq)  Fe(OH)3(s) + 3NaCl(aq)

Ionic equation: Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq)  Fe(OH)3(s)

 Checkpoint 2:
Write ionic equations for the following reactions:

a. AgNO3(aq) + KBr(aq)  AgBr(S) + KNO3(aq)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

b. CuCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)  Cu(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 15


c. Br2(aq) + 2KI(aq)  2KBr(aq) + I2(aq)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

d. Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(s) + H2(g)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

 Balance ionic equations:

Zn + Ag+(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + Ag(s)


1. Number of charges should be equal on both sides.

Zn + 2Ag+(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + Ag(s)


2. Balance number of particles.

Zn + 2Ag+(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 16


4.1: Relative atomic and molecular mass
Relative atomic mass
 Each element has its own relative atomic mass.

 Relative atomic mass is the average mass of its isotopes compared with the mass of

a standard atom of carbon-12.(found in the periodic table)

 The symbol for the relative atomic mass is (Ar)

Relative molecular or formula mass

 Relative molecular mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms

shown in the formula of a molecule.

 So all what we have to do is to add all relative atomic masses together.

 The symbol for the relative atomic mass is (Mr)

 We follow exactly the same way for ionic compounds, but these are not molecules, so we

use the term relative formula mass, which is more general and we can apply it to all

compounds.

 Relative formula mass has no units.

Examples:

 Relative formula mass of sodium chloride, NaCl


1 atom of Na 1x23 = 23
1 atom of Cl 1x35.5 = 35.5 +
= 58.5

 Relative formula mass of calcium chloride, CaCl2


1 atom of Ca 1x40 = 40
2 atoms of Cl 2x35.5 = 71 +
= 111

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 17


 Relative formula mass of zinc nitrate, Zn(NO3)2
1 atom of Zn 1x65 = 65
2 atoms of N 2X14 = 28
6 atoms of O 6X3X16 = 96 +
= 189

 Relative molecular mass of methane , CH4


1 atom of C 1X12 = 12
4 atoms of H 4X1 = 4 +
= 16

Checkpoint 1:

Calculate the relative formula masses of the following substances:

a. Oxygen; O2 __________________________________________

b. Octane; C8H18 __________________________________________

c. sulfuric acid; H2SO4 ______________________________________

d. copper(II) nitrate; Cu(NO3)2 ____________________________________________________

e. calcium hydroxide; Ca(OH)2 __________________________________

f. aluminium sulfate; Al2(SO4)3 ____________________________________________________

g. methanol; CH3OH _________________________________________

h. C4H10O ; _____________________________________

i. Sodium carbonate ; ___________________________________

j. ammonia; _______________________________

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 18


4.2:Calculating percentage composition of a compound
 We can use formulae and relative atomic masses to work out percentage by mass or

percent composition of a particular element present in a compound.

 It’s useful as it enables us to know the percentage of nitrogen in different fertilizers or

to work out how much metal we can obtain from metal ore.

 Percent Composition From Chemical Formula: To find the percentage by mass of an

element in a compound, we use the relative atomic mass of the element and the relative

formula mass of a compound.

% of an element by mass = Ar of the element x number of atoms X 100

Mr of the compound

Example:

 What is the percent of nitrogen in ammonium nitrate?

Mr of NH4NO3 = (2x14) + (4x1) + (3x16) = 80

% mass of nitrogen = 2x N x 100 = 28 x 100 = 35%


(2xN) + (4xH) + (3xO) 80

 Percent Composition From Mass Data: If you know the relative masses of each element

in a compound, you can calculate the percent composition of the compound. The percent

by mass of an element in a compound is the number of grams of the element divided by

the mass in grams of the compound, multiplied by 100%.

% by mass of an element = mass of an element x 100


mass of a compound

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 19


Example:
 When a 13.60-g sample of a compound containing only magnesium and oxygen is
decomposed, 5.40 g of oxygen is obtained. What is the percent composition of this
compound?
%Mg = 8.20 g x 100 = 60.3%
13.60 g
%O = 5.40 g x 100 = 39.7%
13.60 g

Checkpoint 2

1-Calculate the percentage by mass of nitrogen in the following fertilizers:


a. ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
b. ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
c. Urea CO(NH2)2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
d. Calcium cyanamide CaCN2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

e. Glycine CH2(NH2)COOH
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2-Calculate the percentage by mass of the elements in the following compounds:

a. Iron(III) oxide
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
b. Sodium carbonate
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 20


c. Copper(II) sulfate
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
d. Potassium manganate(VIII), KMnO4
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
e. A compound is formed when 9.03 g Mg combines completely with 3.48 g N. What is the
percent composition of this compound?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
f. When a 14.2-g sample of mercury(II) oxide is decomposed into its elements by heating,
13.2 g Hg is obtained. What is the percent composition of the compound?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
g. What is the percent composition of the compound formed when 2.72 g of potassium are
combined with 2.48 grams of chlorine to form 5.20 grams of potassium chloride?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
h. Find the mass of nitrogen in 50 g of NH4NO3 fertilizer.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
i. Find the mass of iron in 500 g of Fe2O3.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
j. Find the mass of oxygen in 200 g of water.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
k. Find the mass of water in 100 g of hydrated copper(II) sulfate (CuSO 4.5H2O)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 21


4.3: Mole concept
 Chemistry is a quantitative science. In your study of chemistry, you will analyze the

composition of samples of matter and perform chemical calculations that relate

quantities of the reactants in a chemical reaction to quantities of the products. To solve

these and other problems, you will have to be able to measure the amount of matter you

have.

 To measure matter is to count how many of something you have or to determine its

mass or volume.

 Counting objects as big as apples is a reasonable way to measure how much of the object

you have, if the particles are so small like atoms or molecules, counting by particles is not

reasonable.

 Chemists also use a unit that is a specified number of particles. The unit is called the

mole.

 Avogadro’s constant/number: (6.02 x 1023 ), it is the number of atoms ions or

molecules in one mole of a substance.

1 mol = 6.02 x 1023 of particles (L)

 One mole is 6.02 x 1023 particles (atoms, ions or molecules) of that substance OR

amount of substance that contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms, ions or molecules, we can use

(n) to represent the number of moles.

 nCO2 number of moles of carbon dioxide  amount of carbon dioxide. [Note: n

cannot be used to represent the number of particles/ions/molecules/atoms]

 Mole is the SI unit for measuring amount of substance, represented as (mol).

Example:

 1 mol of H2(g) contains 6.02 x 1023 of H2 molecules.

 1 mol of H2O(l) contains 6.02 x 1023 of H2O molecules

 1 mol of Fe(s) contains 6.02 x 1023 of Fe atoms


Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 22
 1 mol of MgO(s) contains 6.02 x 1023 of MgO formula units.

 Number of moles of a substance is related to the number of particles with the following
equation:
Number of moles= number of particles
6.02 x 1023( in mol-1)
Example:
 How many moles of water molecules are there in 3 x 10 24 molecules of H2O?
n = 3 x 1024 = 4.98 mol
23
6.02 x 10

Checkpoint 3:
a. How many molecules are there in 0.25 mol of carbon dioxide?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
b. Calculate the number of moles of particles in 2.4 x 10 23 atoms of hydrogen H?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
c. Calculate the number of particles in:
i. 3 moles of carbon atoms
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

ii. 1 mole of ammonia


……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………
iii. 20 moles of sodium chloride
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 Hint: To determine the number of atoms in a given number of moles of a compound, you

must first determine the number of particles (molecule or formula unit) then multiply by

the number of atoms in each molecule or formula unit.

d. How many molecules and atoms are present in 1 mole of hydrogen gas?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 23


Molar Mass (M)
 Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole present in a substance. It’s unit is g/mol or g mol-1.

 Molar mass of H2O = (2x1) + (1x16) = 18 g/mol

 Molar mass of NaCl = (1x23) + (1x35.5) = 58.5 g/mol

Checkpoint 4:

Calculate the molar mass of the following substances:

a. Carbon dioxide _____________________________________________

b. Nitrogen molecules ___________________________________________

c. Nitrogen atoms ______________________________________________

d. Coper(II) oxide _________________________________________________

e. Calcium carbonate ___________________________________________

f. Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate ; CuSO4.5H2O _______________________

 Number of moles of a substance is related to the molar mass with the following
equation:

number of moles (n) = mass (in g)


molar mass(in g/mol)

Example:

 Calculate the number of moles of carbon atoms in 12g of carbon.


n= 12/12 = 1 mol

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 24


Checkpoint 5:

1-Calculate the number of moles of each of the following substances:

a. 10 g of hydrogen gas
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
b. 40 g of water
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
c. 54 g of sulfur dioxide
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
d. 43 g of potassium manganate (VII) KMnO4
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2- Calculate the mass of the following substances:

a. 3 mol of oxygen gas


……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
b. 5 mol of nitrogen dioxide
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
c. 3.5 mol of silicon (IV) oxide
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
d. 5 mol of aluminium oxide
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3- Calculate the mass for each of the following substances:

a. 2.0 x 1026 atoms of helium


……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
b. 6.0 x 1025 sodium ions
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 25


c. 2.0 x 1026 iodine atoms
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
d. 2.0 x 1026 iodine molecules
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

4- Calculate the number of particles in each of the following substances:

a. 100 g of chlorine gas


……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

b. 150 g of lithium
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

c. 200 g of sulfuric acid


……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

d. 250 g of hydrogen chloride


……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 26


Molar Gas Volume
 Look at the two flasks in the figure, each has a volume of 1 dm 3.They are filled with a

different gas and the volume of the gas is measured accurately.

 Each flask contains the same number of moles, this means that the same volume of gas

has the same number of moles.

 Avogadro’s law states that: “ Equal volumes of gases under the same conditions of

temperature and pressure will contain the same number of particles (6.02 x 1023).”

 1 mole of any gas occupy 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure. Room

temperature is 200C and pressure is 1 atmosphere.

 Molar volume: volume of 1 mole of any gas at r.t.p and it’s equal to 24 dm3.

Example:

 100 cm3 of H2(g) contain the same number of particles


found in 100 cm3 of H2O(g).

Remember: 1 dm3= 1 litre = 1000 cm3

 Number of moles of a substance is related to the molar gas volume with this equation:

number of moles (n) = volume of gas in dm3


24 in dm3 mol-1
Example 1:
 Calculate the number of moles of 48dm3 of hydrogen gas.
n = 48 / 24 = 2 moles

Example 2:
 What volume does 11 g of CO2 occupy at r.t.p?
Mass of 1 mole of CO2 = 12 + 32 = 44 g
n = 11 / 44 = 0.25 moles
Volume of CO2 : 0.25 x 24 = 6 dm3
Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 27
Checkpoint 6:
1- Calculate the volume at r.t.p of the following:
a. 0.5 mol of hydrogen, H2
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
b. 1 mol of oxygen, O2.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
c. 3 mol of carbon monoxide.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2- Calculate the number of moles at r.t.p of the following:


a. 50 dm3 of carbon dioxide.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
b. 4000 cm3 of nitrogen, N2.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
c. 64000 cm3 of hydrogen chloride vapour.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

1- A sample of sulfur trioxide, SO3 has a volume of 6 dm3 at r.t.p:


a. Calculate the amount of sulfur trioxide molecules in the sample.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
b. Calculate the number of sulfur trioxide molecules in the sample.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
c. Calculate the mass of sulfur trioxide in the sample.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. A hot air balloon was filled with 100 g of gas X. This mass of gas would have occupied
600000 cm3 at r.t.p. if not contained within the hot air balloon. Determine the identity
of gas X.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 28
Mole and Solutions Concentrations
 When a solute is dissolved in a volume of a solvent, we can measure the concentration of

the solute in two ways, we can either measure its mas or its amount (number of moles).

 The concentration of a solution is the amount of a solute that is dissolved in 1 dm 3

of solution.

 Unit of concentration : mol/dm3 or g/ dm3

 Molar solution: A solution that contains one mole of solute per dm 3 of solution.

 Concentration can be calculated using this equation:

Concentration = number of moles


Volume in dm3

 There are two points to note about this equation:

 You may be given the amount of solute dissolved in grams, you need to convert

this into moles.

 You may be given the volume in cm3, (dm3= 1000 cm3)

Example:

 What is the concentration of an aqueous solution in mol/dm-3 of NaOH if 50.0 g of

NaOH pellets was dissolved in 1500 cm3 of water?

n = 50 / 40 =1.25 mol

NaOH = 1.25 / (1500/1000) = 0.833 mol/dm3

Checkpoint 8
1- Calculate the concentration of the following solutions, in mol dm -3 :
a. 40.0 g of Na2CO3 dissolved in 500 cm3 of water.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
b. 50.0 g 0f KOH dissolved in 1200 cm3 of water.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 29


c. 1000 cm3 of HCl bubbled (and completely dissolved) in 3000 cm3 of water.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2- Calculate the amount of sulfuric acid, H2SO4, in 1200 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 dilute
sulfuric acid.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3- Calculate the mass of Ca(OH)2 dissolved in 5000 cm3 of 0.05 mol dm-3 limewater.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4- How many grams of HNO3 will be contained in 25 cm3 of 0.10 mol/dm3 of HNO3 ?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 30


4.4 Calculations from equations

Mole Ratio:

The mole ratio is the stoichiometric ratio of reactants and products and is the ration of the
coefficients for reactants and products found in the balanced chemical equation.

 Example:
2Mg(s) + O2(g)  2MgO(s)
2 mol 1 mol 2 mol
mole ratio 2 : 1 : 2

Checkpoint :
1-This equation shows the formation of aluminum oxide, which is found on the surface of
aluminum objects exposed to the air.
4Al(s) + 3O2(g)  2Al2O3(s)
a. How many moles of aluminum are needed to form 3.7 mol Al 2O3?

b. How many moles of oxygen are required to react completely with 14.8 mol Al?

c. How many moles of Al2O3 are formed when 0.78 mol O2 reacts with aluminum?

Calculation from equations: Reacting masses:


 Not only do equations tell you what substances are reacting and being formed in a

chemical reaction, but they tell you the amounts of substances reacting.

 The total mass on the left-hand side of the equation is equal to the total mass on the

right hand side of the equation.

 Equations can be used to predict the amount of a substance that will be used up or made

in a reaction.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 31


 Example 1:
Calculate the mass of water produced during the complete combustion of 100g of
hydrogen gas.
Step 1: Write the balanced equation

Step 2: Work with whatever numbers you’re provided with to find the number of moles.

Step 3: Using the mole ration from the chemical equation, find the number of moles of
water produced.

Step 4: Calculate the mass of water produced.

 Example 2:
Hydrogen peroxide decomposes according to the following equation:
2H2O2  2H2O + O2
Calculate the volume of oxygen gas evolved at r.t.p. when 50 cm 3 of 0.1 mol/dm3
H2O2 is decomposed.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 32


 Checkpoint:

1. Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas produced at r.t.p. when 1.5g of zinc react
with excess sulphuric acid.

2. Copper(II) oxide reacts with ammonia according to the following equations:


3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g)  3Cu(s) + 3H2O(l) + N2(g)
In an experiment, 4.0g of copper(II) oxide was reacted completely with ammonia.
Calculate:

a. The amount of CuO that reacted.

b. The amount of ammonia that reacted.

c. The volume of ammonia that reacted.

d. The mass of water produced in the reaction.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 33


3. Lead (II) oxide reacted with hydrogen gas as the following equation:
PbO(s) + H2(g)  Pb(l) + H2O(g)
A steady steam of hydrogen ( measured at r.t.p.) was passed across 67g of heated
lead (II) oxide. Calculate:
a. The mass of lead produced.

b. The volume of hydrogen gas required to completely reduce all the lead (II) oxide.

4. 100g of sodium hydrogen carbonate was heated and decomposed according to the
following equation:
2NaHCO3(s)  NaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Calculate:

a. the mass of sodium carbonate produced.

b. The volume of carbon dioxide evolved (measured at r.t.p.).

5. Zinc reacts with silver ions according to the equation:


Zn(s) + 2Ag+(s)  Zn2+(aq.) + 2Ag(s)
Calculate the mass of silver produced when 0.4 mol of zinc is added to an aqueous
solution containing excess silver ions.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 34


6. Ammonia gas is produced when ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide are mixed
and heated. The equation for the reaction is:
2NH4Cl(s) + Ca(OH)2(s)  NH3(g) + CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l)
If 0.4g of ammonium chloride is used, calculate:
a. The minimum mass of calcium hydroxide required to completely react away all
ammonium chloride.

b. The maximum volume of ammonia produced at r.t.p.

7. Calculate the mass of silver produced when 0.48g of magnesium reacts completely
with an aqueous solution of silver nitrate.
Mg(s) + 2Ag+(s)  Mg2+ (aq.) + 2Ag(s)

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 35


Calculations from equations: Reacting volumes

 The volume of a gas in a reaction is proportional to the number of moles. This

applies only for gases.

 This means that the mole ratio of gaseous reactants and products as indicated by a

chemical equation is equivalent to the ratio of their volumes. ( Molar ratio = Volume ratio)

 Example:
N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)
1 mol 3 mol 2 mol

1 volume 3 volumes 2 volumes

 We cannot use volumes to determine product when the product or reactant is not in the
gaseous state.
2H2(g) + O(g) 
2H2O(l)
2 mol 1 mol 2 mol

2 volumes 1 volume but not 2 volumes

 Example 1:
The Haber process involves the synthesis of ammonia gas from nitrogen and hydrogen.
Calculate the volume of nitrogen required to react completely with 500 cm 3 of
hydrogen. Calculate the volume of ammonia produced.
Step 1: Write balanced chemical equation and notice they are all gases.

Step 2: Determine the mole ratio.

Step 3: Determine the number of moles of nitrogen and ammonia.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 36


Checkpoint:

1. What volume of sulfur dioxide reacts with 80 cm 3 of hydrogen sulfide at r.t.p.


according to the equation below.
2H2S(g) + SO2(g)  3S(s) + 2H2O(l)

2. Methane burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide and steam. If 10 dm 3 of methane


burns, calculate
a. The volume of oxygen required

b. The respective volumes of the products

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 37


4.5 Excess or limiting reagents

 Limiting reagent: The reactant in a chemical reaction that limits the amount of product

that can be formed. The reaction will stop when all of the limiting reactant is consumed.

 Excess reactant: The reactant in a chemical reaction that remains when a reaction stops

when the limiting reactant is completely consumed. The excess reactant remains because

there is nothing with which it can react.

 The number of moles of a product formed during a chemical reaction is determined by

the number of moles of the reactant which is not in excess. (limiting reagent)

2H2 + O2  2H2O

Molar ratio 2 : 1 : 2

Given 3 mol 2 mol

3/2 2/1

1.5 2 H2 is limiting

Checkpoint:

1. 20.0 cm3 of sulfuric acid, concentration 0.30 mol / dm3, was added to 40 cm3 of sodium

hydroxide, concentration 0.20 mol /dm3.

2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O

(i) How many moles of H2SO4 were added? ..............................

(ii) How many moles of NaOH were used? ..............................

(iii) Which reagent is in excess? Give a reason for your choice.

reagent in excess ...............................................................................................

reason .......................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 38


2. In the manufacture of calcium carbide:
CaO(s) + 3C(s)  CaC2(s) + CO(g)
Calculate the maximum mass of calcium carbide that can be obtained from 160g of
CaO and 180g of carbon.

3. One piece of marble, 0.3 g, was added to 5 cm3 of hydrochloric acid, concentration

1.00 mol / dm3. Which reagent is in excess? Give a reason for your choice.

mass of one mole of CaCO3 = 100 g

number of moles of CaCO3 =

number of moles of HCl =

reagent in excess is

reason __________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

(iii) Use your answer to (ii) to calculate the maximum volume of carbon dioxide

produced measured at r.t.p.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 39


 Example 2:
C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O(l)
1 : 5 : 3
20 cm3 : 100cm3 :
20cm3of propane reacts with 120cm3 oxygen (excess), calculate the volume of the
remaining gases

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 40


4.6 Calculating Percentage purity and Percentage yield
 In a real lab chemical reaction, the number of moles of product formed is almost never
the theoretical amount.
2Mg(s) + O2(g)  2MgO
Start with 2mol excess -

Theoretically - excess 2mol


you should get
But actually - excess < 2mol
you will get
 The actual yield is generally less than theoretical yield predicted from the equation.

There are several reasons for this:

 The reaction is incomplete.

 There are unwanted reactions in which unwanted substances are produced.

 Complete separation of the product from reaction mixture is impossible.

 Product is lost during transfers of chemicals during the preparation.

 The efficiency of the procedure can be quantified by the percentage yield.

 The yield is the amount of product you obtain from the reaction.

 In other words, the theoretical yield is the maximum (calculated) yield expected
from a balanced chemical equation.
% yield = Actual mass ( mass obtained/given) x 100
Theoretical mass ( mass expected/calculated)

Example:
Using 25.0 cm3 of aqueous sodium hydroxide, 2.24 mol / dm3, 3.86 g of crystals were obtained.
Calculate the percentage yield.

2NaOH + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + 2H2O


Na2SO4 + 10H2O  Na2SO4.10H2O

Number of moles of NaOH used = _________________________________________________

Maximum number of moles of Na2SO4.10H2O that could be formed =


____________________________________________________________________________

Mass of one mole of Na2SO4.10H2O = 322 g


Maximum yield of sodium sulphate-10-water = ________________________________________

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 41


Percentage yield = _____________________________________________________________

Checkpoint:

1. The following method is used to make crystals of hydrated nickel sulphate. An excess of
nickel carbonate, 12.0 g, was added to 40 cm3 of sulphuric acid, 2.0mol/dm3. The unreacted
nickel carbonate was filtered off and the filtrate evaporated to obtain the crystals.
NiCO3 + H2SO4  NiSO4 + CO2 + H2O
NiSO4 + 7H2O  NiSO4.7H2O
Mass of one mole of NiSO4.7H2O = 281 g
Mass of one mole of NiCO3 = 119 g

(i) Calculate the mass of unreacted nickel carbonate.


Number of moles of H2SO4 in 40 cm3 of 2.0 mol/dm3 acid = 0.08

Number of moles of NiCO3 reacted =

Mass of nickel carbonate reacted =

Mass of unreacted nickel carbonate =

(ii) The experiment produced 10.4 g of hydrated nickel sulphate. Calculate the percentage yield.
The maximum number of moles of NiSO4 .7H2O that could be formed =

The maximum mass of NiSO4 .7H2O that could be formed =

The percentage yield =

2. 100 g of calcium carbonate was reacted with excess dilute sulfuric acid to form

30 g of carbon dioxide. What is the percentage yield of carbon dioxide.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 42


3. Zinc reacts with sulfur according to the equation:
Zn(s) + S(s)  ZnS(s)
In an experiment, 6.5 g of zinc was reacted with sulfur to form zinc sulfide,
9.0 g of ZnS was obtained, Calculate the percentage yield.

Percentage Purity:
 When you make something in a chemical reaction and separate it from the final
mixture, it will not be pure. It will have impurities mixed with it, for example
small amounts of unreacted substances or another product. You can work out the %
purity of the product you obtained like this:

% Purity = Mass of the pure substance x100


Mass of impure substance

Example:
A 5.00 g sample of impure lead(II) nitrate was heated. The volume of oxygen formed was
0.16dm3 measured at r.t.p. The impurities did not decompose. Calculate the percentage of
lead(II) nitrate in the sample.
2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
Number of moles of O2 formed = .......................................

Number of moles of Pb(NO3)2 in the sample = .......................................

Mass of one mole of Pb(NO3)2 = 331 g


Mass of lead(II) nitrate in the sample = ....................................... g

Percentage of lead(II) nitrate in sample = .....................................

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 43


Checkpoint:

1. 100 g of calcium carbonate was reacted with excess dilute sulfuric acid to form 20
g of carbon dioxide. What is the percentage purity of the sample of calcium
carbonate used?

2. When 4.3 g of copper was heated in oxygen, 3.2 g of copper (II) oxide was
obtained. Calculate the percentage purity of copper.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 44


4.7 Avogadro’s Rule for Gases

Calculations from Equations: Reacting Volumes

 The volume of a gas in a reaction is proportional to the number of moles. This

applies only for gases.

 This means that the mole ratio of gaseous reactants and products as indicated by a

chemical equation is equivalent to the ratio of their volumes. ( Molar ratio = Volume ratio)

 Example:
N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)
1 mol 3 mol 2 mol

1 volume 3 volumes 2 volumes

 We cannot use volumes to determine product when the product or reactant is not in the
gaseous state.
2H2(g) + O(g) 
2H2O(l)
2 mol 1 mol 2 mol

2 volumes 1 volume but not 2 volumes

 Example 1:
The Haber process involves the synthesis of ammonia gas from nitrogen and hydrogen.
Calculate the volume of nitrogen required to react completely with 500 cm3 of
hydrogen. Calculate the volume of ammonia produced.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 45


Checkpoint:

3. What volume of sulfur dioxide reacts with 80 cm 3 of hydrogen sulfide at r.t.p.


according to the equation below.
2H2S(g) + SO2(g)  3S(s) + 2H2O(l)

4. Methane burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide and steam. If 10 dm 3 of methane


burns, calculate
c. The volume of oxygen required

d. The respective volumes of the products

 We can use the volume to find Formula using Molar Ratio.

CxHy(g) + O2(g)  CO2(g) + H2O(l)

20cm3 100cm3 60cm3

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 46


Example:

1. 20cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon was burned in 120cm3 of oxygen, which is in excess.

After cooling, the volume of the gases remaining was 90cm3. Aqueous sodium hydroxide was

added to remove carbon dioxide, 30 cm3 of oxygen remained. All volumes were measured at

r.t.p.

(i) Complete the following.

volume of gaseous hydrocarbon = ...............

volume of oxygen used = .............

volume of carbon dioxide formed = .............

(ii) Use the above volume ratio to find the mole ratio in the equation below and hence find

the formula of the hydrocarbon.

........CxHy(g) + ........O2(g) → ........CO2(g) + ........H2O(l)

hydrocarbon formula = ................................................

2. 20 cm3 of a hydrocarbon was burnt in 175 cm3 of oxygen. After cooling, the volume of

the remaining gases was 125 cm3. The addition of aqueous sodium hydroxide removed carbon

dioxide leaving 25 cm3 of unreacted oxygen.

(i) volume of oxygen used = ..........

(ii) volume of carbon dioxide formed = ..........

(iii) Deduce the formula of the hydrocarbon and the balanced equation for the reaction.

....................................................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................................................

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 47


4.7: Chemical Formulas

 The molecular formula (M.F) of a compound shows the actual number and kind of atoms

present ex. C6H6 if M.F for benzene.

 The empirical formula (E.F) of a compound shows the simplest whole number ratio

between elements in the compound ex. CH is the E.F of benzene.

 The structural formula of a compound shows how the atoms are bonded in a molecule.

 The empirical formula can be calculated using data from experiments.


Example:

C6H12O6 ___________ C8H16 ______________

N2H2 ______________ CO2 _______________

NaCl ______________ MgCl 2 _____________

 To find the formula, use given to find simplest Molar Ratio.

 The formula of any compound is the number of moles of each element in the

compound.

 Example:
1. 0.48 g of magnesium was burnt in oxygen to produce0.80 g of magnesium oxide.
Determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 48


2. A gaseous oxide of nitrogen contains 30.4% nitrogen and 69.6% oxygen by mass.

Determine its empirical formula.

Determine the empirical formula for the following:


a. A compound consisting of 24.0 g of carbon and 4.0 g of hydrogen.

b. A compound consisting of 3.5 g of nitrogen and 8.0 g of oxygen.

c. A 6.20 g sample of aluminium oxide, analysed and found to contain 3.28 g of aluminium.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 49


d. A compound with the composition of 43.4% sodium, 11.3% carbon and 45.3% oxygen by
mass.

e. 17.4 g of a compound of chlorine and oxygen, which contains 3.2 g of oxygen.

 The molecular formula can be derived from empirical formula if we are given either
i) molar mass, or ii) relative molecular mass of the compound.

Example:

1. A gaseous oxide of nitrogen contains 30.4% nitrogen and 69.6% oxygen by mass. The
molar mass of the oxide of nitrogen is 92.0 g/mol. Determine its molecular formula.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 50


2. A compound has 39% by mass of carbon, 9.7% by mass of hydrogen and 51.6% by mass
of oxygen. It’s relative molecular mass is 62.0. Determine its molecular formula.

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 51


4.8: Water of crystallization of hydrated salt
 Some salts combine with water molecules and form hydrated salts.

 The number of water molecules present in the formula of a salt is known as the water of

crystallization.

 Example: anhydrous copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4) combines with water molecules to form

hydrated copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4 . 5H2O), the water of crystallization here is 5.

Checkpoint:

1. A weighed sample of hydrated iron(II) sulfate (FeSO4 . xH2O) is strongly heated on

an evaporating dish to remove the water of crystallization. The experimental data is

shown below:

Mass of the evaporating dish = 28.85 g

Mass of the dish and the hydrated salts = 35.25 g

Mass of the dish and remaining solid = 32.35

Find the water of crystallization (the value of x)

Chemistry 0620, Topic 4 52

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