UNIT 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF REMOTE SENSING

CONTENTS

1.1 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITION OF REMOTE

SENSING
1.2 METHODS OF DATA ACQUISITIONS
1.3 AN IDEAL REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF REAL REMOTE
SENSING SYSTEM
1.5 APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING
1.6 SUMMARY

Introduction

This unit introduces about the concepts,

definitions, methods of data acquisitions, and
characteristics of ideal and real remote
sensing system. Besides, it enables you to
know areas of application of remote sensing.
In general, it gives you background information
about remote sensing. You are expected to
make active participation in class and take
additional readings in order to make maximum
benefit from this unit.
Objectives
After you have learned this unit, you will be
able to:
Define remote sensing
Explain the main concepts related to
remote sensing
State methods of spatial data acquisition
Identify the similarities and difference
between ideal and real remote sensing
Describe the different applications of
remote sensing

Resources

1.1 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITION OF REMOTE

SENSING

To complete this unit, you need to refer to the

book and materials written by:
Campbell (2002)
Lillesand et. al (2004)
Canada Centre for Remote Sensing on
 the internet at
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/

"Remote sensing is thescience and to some

extent,art ofacquiring information about an
object, area or phenomenon through the
analysis of data acquired by a device that is
not in contact with the object, area or
phenomenon under investigation .This is done
by sensing and recording reflected or emitted
energy and processing, analyzing, and applying
that information."

The human visual system is an example of a

remote sensing system in the general sense.
The sensors in this example are the two types
of photosensitive cells, known as the cones
and the rods, at the retina of the eyes. The
cones are responsible for colour vision. There
are three types of cones, each being sensitive
to one of the red, green, and blue regions of the
visible spectrum. The cones are insensitive
under low light illumination condition, when
their jobs are taken over by the rods. The rods
are sensitive only to the total light intensity.
Hence, everything appears in shades of grey
when there is insufficient light.

As the objects/events being observed are

located far away from the eyes, the
information needs a carrier to travel from the
object to the eyes. In this case, the information
carrier is the visible light, a part of the
electromagnetic spectrum . The objects
reflect/scatter the ambient light falling onto
them. Part of the scattered light is intercepted
by the eyes, forming an image on the retina
after passing through the optical system of the
eyes. The signals generated at the retina are
carried via the nerve fibers to the brain, the
central processing unit (CPU) of the visual
system. These signals are processed and
interpreted at the brain, with the aid of previous
experiences (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1 Human Visual System

As you read this module, you are employing

remote sensing. Your eyes are acting as
sensors that respond to the light reflected
from this page. The “data” your eyes acquire
are impulses corresponding to the amount of
light reflected from the dark and light areas on
the page. These data are analyzed and
interpreted in your mental computer to enable
you to explain the dark areas on the page as a
collection of letters forming words. Beyond
this, you recognize that the words form
sentences and you interpreted the information
that the sentences convey.

Certainly, in much of remote sensing, the

process involves an interaction between
incident radiation and the targets of interest.
This is exemplified by the use of imaging
systems where the following seven elements
are involved (Figure 1.2). Note, however that
remote sensing also involves the sensing of
emitted energy and the use of non-imaging
sensors.
Figure 1.2: Elements of the remote sensing
process

1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) the first

requirement for remote sensing is to have an
energy source which illuminates or provides
electromagnetic energy to the target of
interest.

2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) as the

energy travels from its source to the target, it
will come in contact with and interact with the
atmosphere it passes through. This interaction
may take place a second time as the energy
travels from the target to the sensor.

3. Interaction with the Target (C) once the

energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target
depending on the properties of both the target
and the radiation.

4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after

the energy has been scattered by, or emitted
from the target, we require a sensor (remote -
not in contact with the target) to collect and
record the electromagnetic radiation.

5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E)

- the energy recorded by the sensor has to be
transmitted, often in electronic form, to a
receiving and processing station where the
data are processed into an image (hardcopy
and/or digital).

6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the

processed image is interpreted, visually and/or
digitally or electronically, to extract information
about the target which was illuminated.

7. Application (G) - the final element of the

remote sensing process is achieved when we
apply the information we have been able to
extract from the imagery about the target in
order to better understand it, reveal some new
information, or assist in solving a particular
problem.

These seven elements comprise the remote

sensing process from beginning to end. We
will cover all of these in sequential order
throughout the five units of this module,
building upon the information learned as we
go.

To sum up, remote sensing refers to the

activities of recording/observing/perceiving
(sensing) objects or events at far away
(remote) places. In remote sensing, the
sensors are not in direct contact with the
objects or events being observed. The
information needs a physical carrier to travel
from the objects/events to the sensors
through an intervening medium. The
electromagnetic radiation is normally used
as an information carrier in remote sensing.
The output of a remote sensing system is
usually an image representing the scene
being observed. A further step of image
analysis and interpretation is required in
order to extract useful information from the
image. The human visual system is an
example of a remote sensing system in this
general sense.

1.2 METHODS OF DATA ACQUISITIONS

In principle, there are two main categories of

spatial data acquisition:

Ground-based methods such as making field

observations, takingin situ measurements and
performing land surveying. Using
ground-based methods, you operate in the real
world environment (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3: The principle of a ground-based

method: measurements and observations are
performed in the real world.

Remote sensing methods, which are based

on the use of image data acquired by a sensor
such as aerial cameras, scanners or a radar.
Taking a remote sensing approach means that
information is derived from the image data,
which form a (limited) representation of the
real world (Figure 1.4). However, that the
increasingly remote sensing devices are used
in the field that can acquire data in a fashion
similar to air or spaceborne sensors. Thus, the
strict division between ground based and
remote sensing methods is blurring.

Figure 1.4: The principle of a remote sensing

based method: measurement and analysis are
performed on image data.

This module introduces an overview and some

first concepts of the remote sensing process.

1.3 AN IDEAL REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM

Having introduced some basic concepts, we

now have the elements necessary to
conceptualize an ideal remote sensing system.
In doing so, we can begin to appreciate some
of the problems encountered in the design and
application of the various real sensing systems
examined in subsequent units.

The basic components of anideal remote

sensing system are shown in Figure 1.5. These
include the following:

1. A uniform energy source: this source would

provide energy over all wavelengths, at a
constant, known, high level of output,
irrespective of time and place.

2. A noninterfering atmosphere: this would be

an atmosphere that would not modify the
energy from the source in any manner, whether
that energy were on its way to the earths
surface or coming from it. Again, ideally, this
would hold irrespective of wavelength, time,
place, and sensing altitude involved.

3. A series of unique energy—matter

interactions at the earths surface: these
interactions would generate reflected and/or
emitted signals that not only are selective with
respect to wavelength, but also are known,
invariant, and unique to each and every earth
surface feature type and subtype of interest.

4. A supersensor: this would be a sensor,

highly sensitive to all wavelengths, yielding
spatially detailed data on the absolute
brightness (or radiance) from a scene as a
function of wavelength, throughout the
spectrum. This supersensor would be simple
and reliable, require virtually no power or
space, and be accurate and economical to
operate.

Figure 1.5 Components of an ideal remote

sensing system
5. A real-time data processing and supply
system: in this system, the instant the
radiance-versus-wavelength response over a
terrain element was generated, it would be
transmitted to the ground, geometrically and
radiometrically corrected as necessary, and
processed into a readily interpretable format.
Each data observation would be recognized as
being unique to the particular terrain element
from which it came. This processing would be
performed nearly instantaneously (“real time”),
providing timely information. Because of the
consistent nature of the energy—matter
interactions, there would be no need for
reference data in the analysis procedure. The
derived data would provide insight into the
physical—chemical—biological state of each
feature of interest.

6. Multiple data users: these people would

have knowledge of great depth, both of their
respective disciplines and of remote sensing
data acquisition and analysis techniques. The
same set of “data” would become various
forms of “information” for different users,
because of their wealth of knowledge about
the particular earth resources being sensed.
This information would be available to them
faster, at less expense, and over larger areas
than information collected in another manner.
With this information, the various users would
make profound, wise decisions about how best
to manage the earth resources under scrutiny,
and these management decisions would be
implemented—to everyones delight.

Unfortunately, an ideal remote sensing system

as described above does not exist. Real
remote sensing systems fall far short of the
ideal at virtually every point in the sequence
outlined.

1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF REAL REMOTE

SENSING SYSTEMS

Let us consider some of the basic

shortcomings common to all real remote
sensing systems in order to better understand
their general operation and utility. Regarding
the elements of the ideal system we have
developed, the following general shortcomings
of real systems should be recognized:

1. The energy source: all passive remote

sensing systems rely on energy that is
reflected and/or emitted from earth surface
features. As already discussed, the spectral
distribution of reflected sunlight and
self-emitted energy is far from uniform. Solar
energy levels obviously vary with respect to
time and location, and different earth surface
materials emit energy with varying degrees of
efficiency. While we have some control over
the nature of sources of energy for active
systems, the sources of energy used in most
real systems are generally nonuniform with
respect to wavelength, and their properties
vary with time and location. Consequently, we
normally must calibrate for source
characteristics on a mission-by-mission basis
or deal withrelative energy units sensed at any
given time and location.

2. The atmosphere: the atmosphere normally

compounds the problems introduced by energy
source variation. To some extent, the
atmosphere always modifies the strength and
spectral distribution of the energy received by
a sensor. It restricts “where we can look”
spectrally, and its effects vary with wavelength,
time, and place. The importance of these
effects, like source variation effects, is a
function of the wavelengths involved, the
sensor used, and the sensing application at
hand. Elimination of, or compensation for,
atmospheric effects via some form of
calibration is particularly important in those
applications where repetitive observations of
the same geographic area are involved.

3. The energy—matter interactions at the

earths surface: remote sensing would be
simple if every material reflected and/or
emitted energy in a unique, known way.
Although spectral response patterns
(signatures) play a central role in detecting,
identifying, and analyzing earth surface
materials, the spectral world is full of
ambiguity. Radically different material types
can have great spectral similarity, making
differentiation difficult. Furthermore, the
general understanding of the energy—matter
interactions for earth surface features are at
an elementary level for some materials and
virtually nonexistent for others.

4. The sensor: at this point, it should come as

no surprise that an ideal “supersensor” does
not exist. No single sensor is sensitive to all
wavelengths. All real sensors have fixed limits
ofspectral sensitivity. They also have a limit
on how small an object on the earths surface
can be and still be “seen” by a sensor as being
separate from its surroundings. This limit,
called thespatial resolution of a sensor, is an
indication of how well a sensor can record
spatial detail.

Figure 1.6 illustrates, in the context of a digital

image, the interplay between the spatial
resolution of a sensor and the spatial
variability present in a ground scene. In(a), a
single pixel covers only a small area of the
ground (on the order of the width of the rows
of the crop shown). In(b), a coarser ground
resolution is depicted and a single pixel
integrates the radiance from both the crop
rows and the soil between them. In(c), an even
coarser resolution results in a pixel measuring
the average radiance over portions of the two
fields. Thus, depending on the spatial
resolution of the sensor and the spatial
structure of the ground area being sensed,
digital images comprise a range of “pure” and
“mixed” pixels. In general, the larger the
percentage of mixed pixels, the more limited is
the ability to record and extract spatial detail in
an image.

Figure 1.6: Ground Resolution cell size effect:

(a) small, (b) intermediate, and (c) large ground
resolution cell size

The choice of a sensor for any given task

always involves tradeoffs. For example,
photographic systems generally have very
good spatial resolution characteristics, but
they lack the broad spectral sensitivity
obtainable with nonphotographic systems
which usually have poorer spatial resolution
characteristics. Similarly, many
nonphotographic systems (and some
photographic systems) are quite complex
optically, mechanically, and/or electronically.
They may have restrictive power, space, and
stability requirements. These requirements
often dictate the type ofplatform, or vehicle,
from which a sensor can be operated.
Platforms can vary from stepladders to
satellites. Depending on the sensor—platform
combination needed in a particular application,
the acquisition of remote sensing data can be
a very expensive endeavor.

5. The data processing and supply system: the

capability of current remote sensors to
generate data far exceeds the capacity to
handle these data. This is generally true
whether we consider “manual” image
interpretation procedures or digital analyses.
Processing sensor data into an interpretable
format can be—and often is—an effort entailing
considerable thought, hardware, time,
experience, and reference data. Also, many
data users would like to receive their data
immediately after acquisition by the sensor in
order to make the timely decisions required in
certain applications (e.g., agricultural crop
management, disaster assessment).
Regrettably, many sources of remote sensing
data are unable to supply data over the exact
areas and time spans that might be desired by
the data user.

6. The multiple data users: central to the

successful application of any remote sensing
system is the person (or persons) using the
remote sensor data from that system. The
“data” generated by remote sensing
procedures become “information” only if and
when someone understands their generation,
knows how to interpret them, and knows how
best to use them.A thorough understanding of
the problem at hand is paramount to the
productive application of any remote sensing
methodology. Also, no single combination of
data acquisition and analysis procedures will
satisfy the needs of all data users.

Whereas the interpretation of aerial

photography has been used as a practical
resource management tool for nearly a
century, other forms of remote sensing are
relatively new, technical, and “unconventional”
means of acquiring information. These newer
forms of remote sensing have had relatively
few satisfied users until recently. However, as
new applications continue to be developed and
implemented, increasing numbers of users are
becoming aware of the potentials,as well as
the limitations, of remote sensing techniques.
As a result, remote sensing has become an
essential tool in many aspects of science,
government, and business alike.

1.5 APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING

There are many ways in which remote sensing
is used:
Cartography and mapping
Natural resource management
 Environmental monitoring
Agriculture and forestry
Geology and Mineral exploration
Disaster management-fire, earthquakes,
etc.
Geostationary weather monitoring
Sea ice, oil spill, sea surface temperature
monitoring
Atmospheric (water vapor, ozone, etc.)
monitoring
Data for Geographic Information Systems
(GIS), etc

Each sensor was designed with a specific

purpose. With optical sensors, the design
focuses on the spectral bands to be collected.
With radar imaging, the incidence angle and
microwave band used plays an important role
in defining which applications the sensor is
best suited for.

Each application itself has specific demands,

for spectral resolution, spatial resolution, and
temporal resolution.
For a brief, spectral resolution refers to the
width or range of each spectral band being
recorded. As an example, panchromatic
imagery (sensing a broad range of all visible
wavelengths) will not be as sensitive to
vegetation stress as a narrow band in the red
wavelengths, where chlorophyll strongly
absorbs electromagnetic energy.

Spatial resolution refers to the discernible

detail in the image. Detailed mapping of
wetlands requires far finer spatial resolution
than does the regional mapping of
physiographic areas.

Temporal resolution refers to the time interval

between images. There are applications
requiring data repeatedly and often, such as oil
spill, forest fire, and sea ice motion monitoring.
Some applications only require seasonal
imaging (crop identification, forest insect
infestation, and wetland monitoring), and some
need imaging only once (geology structural
mapping). Obviously, the most time-critical
applications also demand fast turnaround for
image processing and delivery - getting useful
imagery quickly into the user's hands.

Let us consider an application of remote

sensing in the forest inventory.Forest
inventory is a broad application area covering
the gathering of information on the species
distribution, age, height, density and site
quality.

For species identification, we could use

imaging systems or aerial photos.
For the age and height of the trees, radar could
be used in combination with the species
information assessed at a first stage. Density
is achieved mainly by an optical interpretation
of aerial photos and/or high-resolution
panchromatic images.

Site quality is one of the more difficult things

to assess. It is based on topological position,
soil type and drainage and moisture regime.
The topological position can be estimated
using laser or radar. However, the soil type and
drainage and moisture regime could be more
profitably collected using ground data.

Remote sensing also allows us to more easily

monitor and map the geographic extent and
severity of natural disasters. Asian Tsunami
disaster of 2004 is a typical example.

1.6 SUMMARY

In this introduction part the fundamental

concept of remote sensing was discussed. A
remote sensing approach is usually
complimented by ground-based methods and
the use of numerical models. Remote sensing
methods rely on the measurement of
electromagnetic energy from a distance
(aerospace).

For the appropriate choice of relevant remote

sensing data acquisition you have to define the
information requirements of your application.
The unit gave an overview of how remote
sensing can obtain different types of
information about the ground surface. Besides,
the unit showed the shortcomings of real
remote sensing systems by comparing it with
the ideal remote sensing system.